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1400 | Anno Domini | {{short description|Modern calendar era}}
{{Other uses}}
{{redirect-multi|2|AD|Christian era}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|dateNovember 2024 | cs1-dates ll}}
, Austria]]
The terms {{lang|la| anno Domini}} (AD) and before Christ (BC) are used when designating years in the Gregorian and Julian calendars. The term {{Lang|la-x-medieval|anno Domini}} is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord"<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anno%20Domini |titleanno Domini |encyclopediaMerriam Webster Online Dictionary |quoteEtymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord |access-date9 May 2024 }}</ref> but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord",<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termAnno+Domini |title Anno Domini |websiteOnline Etymology Dictionary |access-date4 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|2003|p=782}} "since AD stands for {{lang|la|anno Domini}}, 'in the year of (Our) Lord{{'"}}</ref> taken from the full original phrase "{{lang|la|anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi}}", which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ". The form "BC" is specific to English, and equivalent abbreviations are used in other languages: the Latin form, rarely used in English, is {{lang|la|ante Christum natum}} (ACN) or {{lang|la|ante Christum}} (AC).
This calendar era takes as its epoch the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus. Years AD are counted forward since that epoch and years BC are counted backward from the epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme; thus the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus but was not widely used until the 9th century.<ref name"Teresi1997">{{cite journal |url https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/97jul/zero.htm |author-linkDick Teresi |firstDick |lastTeresi |titleZero |journalThe Atlantic |dateJuly 1997 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220605092148/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1997/07/zero/376900/ |archive-date 5 June 2022 }}</ref>{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|2003|pp778–79}} (Modern scholars believe that the actual date of birth of Jesus was about 5 BC.<ref name"carson54">D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo & Leon Morris. (1992). An Introduction to the New Testament, 54, 56. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.</ref><ref>{{cite book | authorlinkMichael Grant (author) | firstMichael | lastGrant | titleJesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels | publisherScribner's | year1977 | page71}}</ref><ref>Ben Witherington III, "Primary Sources," Christian History 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleJesus - Jewish Palestine, Messiah, Nazareth {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/Jewish-Palestine-at-the-time-of-Jesus |access-date6 January 2024 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref>)
Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 do not use words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years (but not for BC years since the astronomical year 0 is 1 BC).
Usage
Traditionally, English follows Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number, though it is also found after the year.<ref>Chicago Manual of Style 2010, pp. 476–7; Goldstein 2007, p. 6.</ref> In contrast, "BC" is always placed after the year number (for example: 70&nbsp;BC but AD&nbsp;70), which preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation "AD" is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions).<ref>Chicago Manual of Style, 1993, p. 304.</ref> Since "BC" is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death (i.e., after the death of Jesus), which would mean that the approximately 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would be included in neither the BC nor the AD time scales.{{sfn |Ryan |2000 |p 15}} History
{{see also|Date of birth of Jesus|Nativity of Jesus#Date of birth|Chronology of Jesus#Year of Jesus' birth}}
The anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in older Easter tables, as he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|2003|p767}} The last year of the old table, Diocletian Anno Martyrium 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, anno Domini 532. When Dionysius devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year— Dionysius himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161226031734/http://hbar.phys.msu.ru/gorm/chrono/paschata.htm Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius] Introduction and First Argumentum.</ref> Thus, Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date."{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|2003|p778}}
Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|2003|pp=778–79}}
* In modern times, incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity.
* The civil or consular year began on 1 January, but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year).
* There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls.
* There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years.
It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. One major theory is that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table.<ref>{{cite journal|lastTeres|firstGustav|dateOctober 1984|titleTime computations and Dionysius Exiguus|journalJournal for the History of Astronomy|volume15|issue3|pages177–88|bibcode1984JHA....15..177T |bibcode-accessfree |doi10.1177/002182868401500302|s2cid117094612}}</ref><ref>Tøndering, Claus, "[http://www.tondering.dk/claus/cal/years.php The Calendar FAQ: Counting years]". {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210924142100/https://www.tondering.dk/claus/cal/years.php |date24 September 2021 }}.</ref><ref nameMoss>{{cite book |url https://books.google.com/books?id0umDqPOf2L8C&pgPA347 |publisherOxford University Press |lastMosshammer|firstAlden A|titleThe Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era|locationOxford|year2009|pages254, 270, 328, 333, 345–47|isbn978-0191562365}}</ref> This method was probably the one used by ancient historians such as Tertullian, Eusebius or Epiphanius, all of whom agree that Jesus was born in 2 BC,<ref name":12">{{Cite book |lastBeyer |firstDavid |titleChronos, Kairos, Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, and Religious Studies in Memory of Ray Summers |date1998 |publisherMercer University Press |isbn978-0-86554-582-3 |editor-lastVardaman |editor-firstJerry |pages85–96 |chapterJosephus Reexamined: Unraveling the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmWnYvI5RdLMC&pgPA93}}</ref> probably following this statement of Jesus' age (i.e. subtracting thirty years from AD 29).<ref>{{Cite book |lastFinegan |firstJack |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtUzSEAAAQBAJ&pgPA345 |titleThe Handbook of Biblical Chronology |date2015 |publisherHendrickson Publishers |isbn978-1-61970-641-5 |pages345 |language}}</ref> Alternatively, Dionysius may have used an earlier unknown source. The Chronograph of 354 states that Jesus was born during the consulship of Caesar and Paullus (AD 1), but the logic behind this is also unknown.<ref name":2">{{cite book |lastMosshammer |firstAlden A |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0umDqPOf2L8C&pgPA347 |publisherOxford University Press |titleThe Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era |year2009 |isbn978-0191562365 |locationOxford |pages=319–56}}</ref>
It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq<ref name":0">Declercq, Georges(2000). "Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era" Turnhout, Belgium, {{page needed|dateMarch 2021}}</ref> that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the resurrection of the dead and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world.<ref>Wallraff, Martin: Julius Africanus und die Christliche Weltchronik. Walter de Gruyter, 2006</ref><ref nameMoss/> Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the end of the world<ref name":0" /> but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius.
The "Historia Brittonum" attributed to Nennius written in the 9th century makes extensive use of the Anno Passionis (AP) dating system which was in common use as well as the newer AD dating system. The AP dating system took its start from 'The Year of The Passion'. It is generally accepted by experts there is a 27-year difference between AP and AD reference.<ref>Halsall, Guy (2013). Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of The Dark Ages. Oxford University Press, pp 194 - 200</ref>
The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC.<ref name"JDG324">{{Cite book |lastDunn |firstJames DG |urlhttps://archive.org/details/jesusrememberedc00jame |titleJesus Remembered |publisherEerdmans Publishing |year2003 |page[https://archive.org/details/jesusrememberedc00jame/page/n342 324] |url-accesslimited}}</ref> The historical evidence is too fragmentary to allow a definitive dating,<ref>Doggett 1992, p579: "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".</ref> but the date is estimated through two different approaches—one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.<ref name"ChronosPaul">Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 {{ISBN|0-931464-50-1}} pp. 113–29</ref><ref name"Niswonger121">New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 {{ISBN|0-310-31201-9}} pp. 121–24</ref> Popularization The Anglo-Saxon historian Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which he completed in AD 731. In the History he also used the Latin phrase ante [...] incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in the sixtieth year before the time of the Lord's incarnation"), which is equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era.<ref>Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence.</ref> Both Dionysius and Bede regarded anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus Christ, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i. e., the Annunciation on March 25" ("Annunciation style" dating).{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|2003|p881}}
by Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the anno Domini epoch throughout the Carolingian Empire.]]
On the continent of Europe, anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries.<ref nameCathEncy>Patrick, 1908</ref> In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius.<ref name"CathEncy-Chron">
{{cite book
|chapter-url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm
|chapter=General Chronology
|title=New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia
|year=1908
|volume=III
|publisherRobert Appleton Company |locationNew York
|access-date=25 October 2011 }}
</ref> Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Although anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede used the expression "anno [...] ante incarnationem Dominicam" (in the year before the incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno ante Christi nativitatem" (in the year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk.{{efn|Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (1474) used Anno ante xpi nativitatem (in the year before the birth of Christ) for all years between creation and Jesus. "xpi" comes from the Greek χρ (chr) in visually Latin letters, together with the Latin ending -i, thus abbreviating Christi ("of Christ"). This phrase appears upside down in the centre of recto folios (right hand pages). From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno Christi or its abbreviated form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Anno mundi alongside all of these terms for all years.}} In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum, popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD.<ref>
{{cite book
|url https://books.google.com/books?idfsni_qV-FJoC&q1627&pgPA111
|title=Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar
|firstDuncan |lastSteel |author-link=Duncan Steel
|page=114
|access-date=1 June 2010
|isbn=978-0-471-29827-4
|year=2000
|publisher=Wiley
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|url https://books.google.com/books?idA6nrL1XxpGYC&qpetau%20%22ante%20Christum%22&pgPA33
|title=Measuring time, making history
|firstLynn Avery |lastHunt
|year=2008
|page=33
|publisher=Central European University Press
|access-date=1 June 2010
|isbn=978-963-9776-14-2
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|url https://books.google.com/books?idRRv0_NEpl-oC&qante%20Christum&pgPA46
|title=search for "ante Christum" in a 1748 reprint of a 1633 abridgement entitled Rationarium temporum by Denis Petau
|access-date=1 June 2010
|lastPetau |first Denis
|year=1758
}}</ref>
New year
{{Further|New Year}}
When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:<ref>C. R. Cheney, [http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/99027383.pdf A Handbook of Dates, for students of British history] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151205104025/http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/99027383.pdf |date5 December 2015 }}, Cambridge University Press, 1945–2000, pp. 8–14.</ref>
* From 25 March 753 AUC (1 BC), i.e., notionally from the incarnation of Jesus. That first "Annunciation style" appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonly used and was called calculus pisanus since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there until 1750.
* From 25 December 753 AUC (1 BC), i.e., notionally from the birth of Jesus. It was called "Nativity style" and had been spread by Bede together with the anno Domini in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) until the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style) and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century.
* From 25 March 754 AUC (AD 1). That second "Annunciation style" may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century, but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition to that of Pisa, so it got the name of calculus florentinus. It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1752.
* From Easter. That mos gallicanus (French custom) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (r. 1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.
With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101.
Other Christian and European eras
{{further|Calendar era}}
During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.
Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through to Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first of January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years.<ref>Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/11125 Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717092648/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/11125 |date17 July 2011 }}, Leiden, Brill, 2004.{{page needed|date=November 2023}}</ref> Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.
Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were exclusively used and are still used in Ethiopia. This accounts for the seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars.
Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami).<ref>Alfred von Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, F. Ruehl, Leipzig, 1889, p.&nbsp;433.</ref>
Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Spanish Era (also called Era of the Caesars), which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the anno Domini system.<ref name=CathEncy/>
The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still officially used by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts.
CE and BCE
{{Main|Common Era}}
Alternative names for the anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin),<ref name="VulgarisAerae1">
{{cite book
|quote=anno aerae nostrae vulgaris
|author=Johannes Kepler
|title=Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: ex epistolis doctissimorum aliquot virorum & suis mutuis, quibus examinantur tempora nobilissima: 1. Herodis Herodiadumque, 2. baptismi & ministerii Christi annorum non plus 2 1/4, 3. passionis, mortis et resurrectionis Dn. N. Iesu Christi, anno aerae nostrae vulgaris 31. non, ut vulgo 33., 4. belli Iudaici, quo funerata fuit cum Ierosolymis & Templo Synagoga Iudaica, sublatumque Vetus Testamentum. Inter alia & commentarius in locum Epiphanii obscurissimum de cyclo veteri Iudaeorum.
|publisher=Francofurti : Tampach
|language = la
|year=1615
|oclc 62188677|author-link Johannes Kepler}}</ref>
"Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635),<ref name=1635VulgarinEnglish>
{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idprP9cQAACAAJ&q=vulgar+era
|author1=Kepler, Johann
|author2=Vlacq, Adriaan
|year=1635
|title=Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633...
|access-date=18 May 2011
}}</ref>{{efn|The word vulgar originally meant "of the ordinary people", distinguishing it from the regnal date (years since the coronation of the monarch).}}
"Christian Era" (in English, in 1652),<ref>
{{cite book |url http://www.google.com/products?qEphemeris+year+Christian+era+1652 |title=A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester
|last Sliter |first Robert
|year=1652
|publisher=Printed for the Company of Stationers
|location=London
}}</ref>
"Common Era" (in English, 1708),<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish>
{{cite book |url https://books.google.com/books?idD_wvAAAAYAAJ&q%22common+era%22 |publisherPrinted for H. Rhodes |titleThe History of the Works of the Learned |volume10 |page513 |locationLondon |year1708 |access-date 18 May 2011 }}</ref>
and "Current Era".<ref name=CurrentEra>
{{cite web |url http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/history/history_1.shtml#section_2 |titleHistory of Judaism 63BCE–1086CE |quoteYear 1: CE – What is nowadays called the 'Current Era' traditionally begins with the birth of a Jewish teacher called Jesus. His followers came to believe he was the promised Messiah and later split away from Judaism to found Christianity |date8 February 2005 |workBBC Team |publisherBBC |access-date18 May 2011 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110513215113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/history/history_1.shtml |archive-date13 May 2011 |url-status live }}
</ref>
Since 1856,<ref>
{{cite book
|url = https://archive.org/details/postbiblicalhis05raphgoog
|quote = CE BCE.
|title=Post-Biblical History of The Jews
|publisher=Moss & Brother
|last Raphall |first Morris Jacob
|year=1856
|access-date=18 May 2011
}}
The term common era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era [lowercase] does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly.
</ref> the alternative abbreviations CE and BCE (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC.
The "Common/Current Era" ("CE") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references but still uses the same epoch as the anno Domini notation.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce_info1.htm |lastRobinson |first B.A.|titleJustification of the use of "CE" & "BCE" to identify dates. Trends |website ReligiousTolerance.org |date20 April 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110511090102/http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce_info1.htm |archive-date11 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/17/magazine/bc-ad-or-bce-ce.html |first William |last Safire |title On Language: B.C./A.D. or B.C.E./C.E.? |magazineThe New York Times Magazine |date17 August 1997 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130612195845/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/17/magazine/bc-ad-or-bce-ce.html |archive-date=12 June 2013}}</ref>
For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. […] do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D."<ref nameCunningham2004>{{cite book |editor-lastCunningham |editor-first Philip A. |titlePondering the Passion : what's at stake for Christians and Jews? |year2004 |publisherRowman & Littlefield |locationLanham, Md. [u.a.] |isbn978-0742532182 |page193 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIN5VAAAAYAAJ&q%22not+presuppose+faith+in+Christ%22 }}</ref> Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was {{linktext|langzh|西|元}} ({{zh|labelsno|pxī yuán |lWestern Era}}). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted {{linktext|langzh|公元}} ({{zh|labelsno|pgōngyuán |lCommon Era}}) for all purposes domestic and foreign.
No year zero: start and end of a century
{{Further|Year zero|Astronomical year numbering|Millennium|Century|Decade}}
In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is immediately preceded by 1 BC, with nothing in between them (there was no year zero). There are debates as to whether a new decade, century, or millennium begins on a year ending in zero or one.<ref name="Teresi1997" />
For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 year 1, 1 BC year 0, 2 BC year −1, etc.{{efn|To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign (unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from the context that the year is after the year 0).<ref>Doggett, 1992, p. 579</ref>}} In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD. See also
* Before Present
* Holocene calendar
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| title = Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus
| editor-last = Abate
| editor-first = Frank R.
| version = American
| location = New York
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1997
| isbn = 0-19-513097-9
}}
* Bede. (731). [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede1.shtml Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201109215631/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede1.shtml |date9 November 2020 }}. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
* {{cite book | year 1993 | title Chicago Manual of Style | edition 2nd | publisher University of Chicago | isbn 0-226-10389-7 | url https://archive.org/details/chicagomanualofs00chic }}
* {{cite book | year 2010 | title Chicago Manual of Style | edition 16th | publisher University of Chicago | isbn = 978-0-226-10420-1}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Blackburn
| first1 = Bonnie
| author1-link = Bonnie J. Blackburn
| first2 = Leofranc
| last2 = Holford-Strevens
| author2-link = Leofranc Holford-Strevens
| title = The Oxford Companion to the Year: an exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Oxford
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-19-214231-3
| url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00blac
}} Corrected reprinting of original 1999 edition.
* {{cite book
| author = Cunningham, Philip A.
| author2 = Starr, Arthur F.
| year = 1998
| title = Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews
| publisher = Paulist Press
| isbn = 0-8091-3835-2
}}
* {{cite book
| last Declercq | first Georges
| title = Anno Domini: the origins of the Christian era
| location = Turnhout
| publisher = Brepols
| year = 2000
| isbn = 2-503-51050-7
}} (despite beginning with 2, it is English)
* Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of Anno Domini.
* Doggett. (1992). [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html "Calendars"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191208132404/https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html |date8 December 2019 }} (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. {{ISBN|0-935702-68-7}}.
* {{cite book
|title = Associated Press Style Book
|publisher = Basic Books
|location = New York
|editor1-first = Norm
|editor1-last = Goldstein
|year = 2007
|isbn = 978-0-465-00489-8
}}
* Patrick, J. (1908). [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm "General Chronology"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210125003503/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm |date25 January 2021 }}. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-07-16 from New Advent: [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: General Chronology] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210125003503/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm |date25 January 2021 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Richards
| first = E. G.
| title = Mapping Time
| url = https://archive.org/details/mappingtimecalen00rich
| url-access = registration
| location = Oxford
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2000
| isbn = 0-19-286205-7
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Riggs
| first = John
| date = January 2003
| url = http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/janfeb03/whatever-happened-to-bc-and.html
| title = Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?
| publisher = United Church News
| access-date = 19 December 2005
| archive-date = 28 February 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140228195410/http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/janfeb03/whatever-happened-to-bc-and.html
| url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Ryan
|first=Donald P.
|year=2000
|title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Biblical Mysteries
|publisher=Alpha Books
|url=https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00ryan
|url-access=registration
|quote=must mean after death not so.
|page=[https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00ryan/page/15 15]
|isbn=0-02-863831-X
}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Wiktionary|AD|Anno Domini}}
* [https://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/calendar/ Calendar Converter]
{{Clear}}
{{Calendars}}
{{Chronology}}
{{Interwiki conflict}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:6th-century Christianity
Category:Calendar eras
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Chronology
Category:Latin religious words and phrases
Category:Timelines of Christianity | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.223930 |
1404 | AV | AV, Av or A.V. may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
The abbreviation of audiovisual, possessing both a sound and a visual component
A.V. (film), a 2005 Hong Kong film directed by Pang Ho-Cheung
Adult video, an alternative name/synonym of a pornographic film
AV The Hunt, a 2020 Turkish thriller film directed by Emre Akay
Businesses and organizations
America Votes, an American 501(c)4 organization that promotes progressive causes
Ambulance Victoria, an ambulance service operated in the Australian state of Victoria
Anonymous for the Voiceless, a grassroots animal rights organization specializing in street activism
Aston Villa F.C., an English professional football club
AV Akademikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG an imprint of the German group VDM Publishing (now OmniScriptum)
Avaya, a technology company formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange with symbol "AV"
Avianca (IATA airline code AV)
Aviva, British insurance company, listed on the New York Stock Exchange and London Stock Exchange as "AV"
AeroVironment, manufacturer of unmanned military aircraft and systems
Amusement Vision, the former name of Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio
People
Av or Avrum Gross (1936–2018), American lawyer and Attorney General of Alaska
Av or Avrom Isaacs (1926–2016), Canadian art dealer
Av Westin (1929–2022), American television producer
Arun Vijay (born 1977), Indian actor
Places
Anguilla (FIPS country code and obsolete NATO diagram AV)
Antelope Valley, a valley in Southern California
Province of Avellino, a province of Italy
Science and technology
Anatomy and medicine
Aerobic vaginitis, vaginal infection associated with overgrowth of aerobic bacteria
Arteriovenous (disambiguation)
Atrioventricular (disambiguation)
Electronics and computing
Access violation, a computer software error
Age verification, system for checking a user's age
Antivirus software, used to prevent, detect and remove malicious software
Audio and video connector, a cable between two devices
Analog video
AV Linux, a Linux-based operating system
Fluid dynamics
Annular velocity, speed of the drilling fluid's movement in a column called an annulus in oil wells
Apparent viscosity, shear stress divided by shear rate
Vehicles
AV (cyclecar), a British cyclecar manufactured between 1919 and 1924
Bavarian A V, an 1853 steam locomotive model
A US Navy hull classification symbol: Seaplane tender (AV)
Autonomous vehicles
Other uses in science and technology
A-type main-sequence star, in astronomy, abbreviated A V
Aperture value mode, setting on photo cameras that allows to choose a specific aperture value
Other uses
Alternative vote, an electoral system used to elect a single winner from a field of more than two candidates
Approval voting, a non-ranking vote system
Authorised Version of the Bible (also known as King James Version)
Av (month), a month in the Hebrew calendar
av, the Avar language's ISO 639-1 code
Av. or Ave, an abbreviation for Avenue (landscape)
or AV from Latin aurum (avrvm), a numismatic abbreviation for "gold"
A.V., the putative mark of ébéniste Adam Weisweiler
Aviation, abbreviated Av in military use
Andhra Vidyalaya College, aka A. V. College, a school in Hyderabad, India
See also
2023 AV, an asteroid that passed closed to the Earth in 2023
A5 (disambiguation)
α5 (disambiguation)
AV idol, a type of Japanese porn star
Category:Masculine given names
Category:Hypocorisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AV | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.230584 |
1408 | Alcuin | {{Short description|8th-century Northumbrian scholar, clergyman, poet, and teacher}}
{{About|the scholar Alcuin of York||Alcuin (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox academic
| name = Alcuin of York
| image = Raban-Maur Alcuin Otgar.jpg
| occupation = Deacon of the Catholic Church
| birth_place = York, Northumbria
| death_place = Tours, Francia
| notable_works = {{plainlist|
* Propositiones ad Acuendos Juvenes
* Quaestiones in Genesim
}}
| caption = A Carolingian manuscript, {{circa|831}}. Rabanus Maurus (left), with Alcuin (middle), dedicating his work to Archbishop Otgar of Mainz (right)
| era = {{plainlist|
* Medieval philosophy
* Carolingian Renaissance
}}
| main_interests = {{plainlist|
* Mathematics
* Philosophy
* Christian theology
* Poetry
}}
| birth_date = {{circa|735}}
| death_date = 19 May 804 (aged around 69)
| influences = Ecgbert of York
}}
Alcuin of York ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|k|w|ɪ|n}};<!-- Editorial note: Lexico uses /a/ for the sound more accurately transcribed in IPA as /æ/ --><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.lexico.com/definition/alcuin|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200131084858/https://www.lexico.com/definition/alcuin|url-statusdead |archive-date31 January 2020 |titleAlcuin |websiteLexico |access-date13 September 2020}}</ref> {{langx|la|Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus}}; {{circa}} 735 – 19 May 804) – also called Ealhwine, Alhwin, or Alchoin – was a scholar, clergyman, poet, and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student of Archbishop Ecgbert at York. At the invitation of Charlemagne, he became a leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian court, where he remained a figure in the 780s and 790s. Before that, he was also a court chancellor in Aachen. "The most learned man anywhere to be found", according to Einhard's Life of Charlemagne{{sfn|Einhard|1960|p54}} ({{circa|817}}–833), he is considered among the most important intellectual architects of the Carolingian Renaissance. Among his pupils were many of the dominant intellectuals of the Carolingian era.
Alcuin wrote many theological and dogmatic treatises, as well as a few grammatical works and a number of poems. In 796, he was made abbot of Marmoutier Abbey, in Tours, where he worked on perfecting the Carolingian minuscule script. He remained there until his death.
Biography
Background
Alcuin was born in Northumbria, presumably sometime in the 730s. Virtually nothing is known of his parents, family background, or origin.{{sfn|Bullough|2004|p164}} In common hagiographical fashion, the Vita Alcuini asserts that Alcuin was of "noble English stock", and this statement has usually been accepted by scholars. Alcuin's own work only mentions such collateral kinsmen as Wilgils of Ripon, father of the missionary saint Willibrord; and Beornrad (also spelled Beornred), abbot of Echternach and bishop of Sens.{{sfn|Bullough|2004|pp146-147, 165}} Willibrord, Alcuin and Beornrad were all related by blood.{{sfn|Mayr-Harting|2016|page212}}{{sfn|Stenton|2001|page219}}
In his Life of St Willibrord, Alcuin writes that Wilgils called a Pater familias, had founded an oratory and church at the mouth of the Humber, which had fallen into Alcuin's possession by inheritance. Because in early Anglo-Latin writing paterfamilias ("head of a family, householder") usually referred to a {{lang|ang|ceorl}} ("churl"), Donald A. Bullough suggests that Alcuin's family was of {{lang|ang|cierlisc}} ("churlish") status: i.e., free but subordinate to a noble lord, and that Alcuin and other members of his family rose to prominence through beneficial connections with the aristocracy.{{sfn|Bullough|2004|pp146-147, 165}} If so, Alcuin's origins may lie in the southern part of what was formerly known as Deira.{{sfn|Bullough|2004|p165}}
York
The young Alcuin came to the cathedral church of York during the golden age of Archbishop Ecgbert and his brother, the Northumbrian King Eadberht. Ecgbert had been a disciple of the Venerable Bede, who urged him to raise York to an archbishopric. King Eadberht and Archbishop Ecgbert oversaw the re-energising and reorganisation of the English church, with an emphasis on reforming the clergy and on the tradition of learning that Bede had begun. Ecgbert was devoted to Alcuin, who thrived under his tutelage.<ref>Mayr-Harting "Ecgberht" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</ref>
The York school was renowned as a centre of learning in the liberal arts, literature, and science, as well as in religious matters.{{sfn|Hutchison|2006}} From here, Alcuin drew inspiration for the school he would lead at the Frankish court. He revived the school with the trivium and quadrivium disciplines,{{sfn|Burns|1907}} writing a codex on the trivium, while his student Hrabanus wrote one on the quadrivium.
Alcuin graduated to become a teacher during the 750s. His ascendancy to the headship of the York school, the ancestor of St Peter's School, began after Æthelbert of York became Archbishop of York in 767. Around the same time, Alcuin became a deacon in the church. He was never ordained a priest. Though no real evidence shows that he took monastic vows, he lived as if he had.
In 781, King Ælfwald I of Northumbria sent Alcuin to Rome to petition the Pope for official confirmation of York's status as an archbishopric and to confirm the election of the new archbishop, Eanbald I. On his way home, he met Charlemagne (whom he had met once before), this time in the Italian city of Parma.{{efn|{{harvnb|Mayr-Harting|2016|page207}} asserts Charlemagne met Alcuin – for the second time – at Parma in 781. {{harvnb|Story|2005|p137}} reports that Alcuin had previously been sent to Charlemagne by Ethelbert.}}
Charlemagne
{{Main|Scholasticism}}
Alcuin's intellectual curiosity allowed him to be reluctantly persuaded to join Charlemagne's court. He joined an illustrious group of scholars whom Charlemagne had gathered around him, the mainsprings of the Carolingian Renaissance: Peter of Pisa, Paulinus II of Aquileia, Rado, and Abbot Saint Fulrad. Alcuin would later write, "the Lord was calling me to the service of King Charles".
Alcuin became master of the Palace School of Charlemagne in Aachen ({{lang|la|Urbs Regale}}) in 782.{{sfn|Burns|1907}} It had been founded by the king's ancestors as a place for the education of the royal children (mostly in manners and the ways of the court). However, Charlemagne wanted to include the liberal arts, and most importantly, the study of religion. From 782 to 790, Alcuin taught Charlemagne himself, his sons Pepin and Louis, as well as young men sent to be educated at court, and the young clerics attached to the palace chapel. Bringing with him from York his assistants Pyttel, Sigewulf, and Joseph, Alcuin revolutionised the educational standards of the Palace School, introducing Charlemagne to the liberal arts and creating a personalised atmosphere of scholarship and learning, to the extent that the institution came to be known as the "school of Master Albinus".
In this role as adviser, he took issue with the emperor's policy of forcing pagans to be baptised on pain of death, arguing, "Faith is a free act of the will, not a forced act. We must appeal to the conscience, not compel it by violence. You can force people to be baptised, but you cannot force them to believe". His arguments seem to have prevailed – Charlemagne abolished the death penalty for paganism in 797.{{sfn|Needham|2000|p=52}}
Charlemagne gathered the best men of every land in his court and became far more than just the king at the centre. It seems that he made many of these men his closest friends and counsellors. They referred to him as "David", a reference to the Biblical king David. Alcuin soon found himself on intimate terms with Charlemagne and the other men at court, where pupils and masters were known by affectionate and jesting nicknames.{{sfn|Wilmot-Buxton|1922|p93}} Alcuin himself was known as 'Albinus' or 'Flaccus'. While at Aachen, Alcuin bestowed pet names upon his pupils – derived mainly from Virgil's Eclogues.{{sfn|Jaeger|1999|p38}} According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, "He loved Charlemagne and enjoyed the king's esteem, but his letters reveal that his fear of him was as great as his love."<ref name=EB/>
After the death of Pope Adrian I, Alcuin was commissioned by Charlemagne to compose an epitaph for Adrian. The epitaph was inscribed on black stone quarried at Aachen and carried to Rome where it was set over Adrian's tomb in the south transept of St. Peter's Basilica just before Charlemagne's coronation in the basilica on Christmas Day 800.<ref>{{Cite book |lastStory |firstJoanna |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhMq8EAAAQBAJ |titleCharlemagne and Rome: Alcuin and the Epitaph of Pope Hadrian I |date2023 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-920634-6 |languageen}}</ref> Return to Northumbria and back to Francia
In 790, Alcuin returned from the court of Charlemagne to England, to which he had remained attached. He dwelt there for some time, but Charlemagne then invited him back to help in the fight against the Adoptionist heresy, which was at that time making great progress in Toledo, the old capital of the Visigoths and still a major city for the Christians under Islamic rule in Spain. He is believed to have had contacts with Beatus of Liébana, from the Kingdom of Asturias, who fought against Adoptionism. At the Council of Frankfurt in 794, Alcuin upheld the orthodox doctrine against the views expressed by Felix of Urgel, an heresiarch according to the Catholic Encyclopedia.{{sfn|Burns|1907}} Having failed during his stay in Northumbria to influence King Æthelred I in the conduct of his reign, Alcuin never returned home.
He was back at Charlemagne's court by at least mid-792, writing a series of letters to Æthelred, to Hygbald, Bishop of Lindisfarne, and to Æthelhard, Archbishop of Canterbury in the succeeding months, dealing with the Viking attack on Lindisfarne in July 793. These letters and Alcuin's poem on the subject, {{Lang|la|"De clade Lindisfarnensis monasterii"}}, provide the only significant contemporary account of these events. In his description of the Viking attack, he wrote: "Never before has such terror appeared in Britain. Behold the church of St Cuthbert, splattered with the blood of God's priests, robbed of its ornaments."<ref>{{Cite book |lastCrossley-Holland |firstKevin |titleThe Anglo-Saxon World: An Anthology |date24 June 1999 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0192835475 |page186}}</ref> Tours and death In 796, Alcuin was in his 60s. He hoped to be free from court duties and upon the death of Abbot Itherius of Saint Martin at Tours, Charlemagne put Marmoutier Abbey into Alcuin's care, with the understanding that he should be available if the king ever needed his counsel. There, he encouraged the work of the monks on the beautiful Carolingian minuscule script, ancestor of modern Roman typefaces using a mixture of upper- and lower-case letters.<ref nameEB>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alcuin |titleAlcuin - Anglo-Saxon scholar |websiteEncyclopædia Britannica |date12 February 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Colish|1999|p67}} Latin paleography in the 8th century leaves little room for a single origin of the script, and sources contradict his importance as no proof has been found of his direct involvement in the creation of the script.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Dales |first1Douglas |titleAlcuin II: Theology and Thought |date2013 |publisherISD LLC |isbn978-0-227-90087-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYNDYDwAAQBAJ&qCarolingian+minuscule+alcuin&pgPP143 |languageen}}</ref> Carolingian minuscule was already in use before Alcuin arrived in Francia.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Mckitterick |first1Rosamond |titleThe Frankish Kingdoms Under the Carolingians 751–987 |date2018 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-317-87247-4 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN_6rDwAAQBAJ&qCarolingian+minuscule+alcuin&pgPT167 |languageen}}</ref> Most likely he was responsible for copying and preserving the script<ref>{{Cite book |last1Bowen |first1James |titleHist West Educ: Civil Europe V2 |date2018 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-136-50096-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGHl0DwAAQBAJ&qCarolingian+minuscule+alcuin&pgPT35 |languageen}}</ref> while at the same time restoring the purity of the form.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Morison |first1Stanley |titleSelected Essays On the History of Letter-forms in Manuscript and Print |date2009 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-18316-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-G2tQVnPiCAC&qCarolingian+minuscule+alcuin&pgPA255 |language=en}}</ref>
Alcuin died on 19 May 804, some 10 years before the emperor, and was buried at St. Martin's Church under an epitaph that partly read:{{sfn|Duckett|1951|p=305}}
{{poemquote|Dust, worms, and ashes now ...
Alcuin my name, wisdom I always loved,
Pray, reader, for my soul.}}
The majority of details on Alcuin's life come from his letters and poems. Also, autobiographical sections are in Alcuin's poem on York and in the Vita Alcuini, a hagiography written for him at Ferrières in the 820s, possibly based in part on the memories of Sigwulf, one of Alcuin's pupils.
Carolingian Renaissance figure and legacy
Mathematician
{{Main|Propositiones ad acuendos juvenes}}
The collection of mathematical and logical word problems entitled Propositiones ad acuendos juvenes ("Problems to Sharpen Youths"){{sfn|Alcuin|n.d.}} is sometimes attributed to Alcuin.<ref name"Peterson-2005">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.maa.org/mathland/mathtrek_11_21_05.html |titleIvars Peterson's MathTrek 21 November 2005}}</ref>{{sfn|Atkinson|2005|pp354-362}} In a 799 letter to Charlemagne, the scholar claimed to have sent "certain figures of arithmetic for the joy of cleverness",<ref>Epistola 172, MGH Epistolae 4.2: 285: "aliquas figuras arithmeticae subtilitatis laetitiae causa"</ref> which some scholars have identified with the Propositiones.{{sfn|Jullien|1994|p482-483}}{{efn|A more skeptical attitude toward Alcuin's authorship of this text and others is taken by {{harvnb|Gorman|2002|pp101-130}} }}
The text contains about 53 mathematical word problems (with solutions), in no particular pedagogical order. Among the most famous of these problems are: four that involve river crossings, including the problem of three anxious brothers, each of whom has an unmarried sister whom he cannot leave alone with either of the other men lest she be defiled<ref name"3-brothers">{{Cite web |urlhttp://logica.ugent.be/albrecht/alcuin.pdf |titleLatin title and English text of the problem}}</ref> (Problem 17); the problem of the wolf, goat, and cabbage (Problem 18); and the problem of "the two adults and two children where the children weigh half as much as the adults" (Problem 19). Alcuin's sequence is the solution to one of the problems of that book. Literary influence
Alcuin made the abbey school into a model of excellence and many students flocked to it. He had many manuscripts copied using outstandingly beautiful calligraphy, the Carolingian minuscule based on round and legible uncial letters. He wrote many letters to his English friends, to Arno, bishop of Salzburg and above all to Charlemagne. These letters (of which 311 are extant) are filled mainly with pious meditations, but they form an important source of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time and are the most reliable authority for the history of humanism during the Carolingian age. Alcuin trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety, and in the midst of these pursuits, he died.
Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the Carolingian Renaissance, in which three main periods have been distinguished: in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the Italians occupy a central place; in the second, Alcuin and the English are dominant; in the third (from 804), the influence of Theodulf of Orléans is preponderant.
Alcuin also developed manuals used in his educational work – a grammar and works on rhetoric and dialectics. These are written in the form of a dialogue, and in two of them the interlocutors are Charlemagne and Alcuin. He wrote several theological treatises: a De fide Trinitatis, and commentaries on the Bible.{{sfn|Page|1909|p15}} Alcuin is credited with inventing the first known question mark, though it did not resemble the modern symbol.{{sfn|Truss|2003|p76}}
Alcuin transmitted to the Franks the knowledge of Latin culture, which had existed in Anglo-Saxon England. A number of his works still exist. Besides some graceful epistles in the style of Venantius Fortunatus, he wrote some long poems, and notably he is the author of a history (in verse) of the church at York, Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae. At the same time, he is noted for making one of the only explicit comments on Old English poetry surviving from the early Middle Ages, in a letter to one Speratus, the bishop of an unnamed English see (possibly Unwona of Leicester): {{lang|la|"verba Dei legantur in sacerdotali convivio: ibi decet lectorem audiri, non citharistam; sermones patrum, non carmina gentilium. Quid Hinieldus cum Christo?"}} ("Let God's words be read at the episcopal dinner-table. It is right that a reader should be heard, not a harpist, patristic discourse, not pagan song. What has Ingeld to do with Christ?").<ref>Donald A. Bullough, "What has Ingeld to do with Lindisfarne?", Anglo-Saxon England, 22 (1993), 93-125 (p. 93 for the Latin [quoted from Epistolae Karolini Aevi II, ed. by E. Dummler, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Epistula 4 (Berlin, 1895), p. 183 (no. 12)]; p. 124 for the translation); {{doi|10.1017/S0263675100004336}}.</ref>
Legacy
Alcuin is honoured in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 20 May the first available day after the day of his death (as Dunstan is celebrated on 19 May).<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.churchintouraine.org/?page_id2|titleWhy Alcuin – Church in Touraine |websitechurchintouraine.org |languageen |access-date29 November 2017 |archive-date30 March 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220330082808/http://www.churchintouraine.org/?page_id2 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbEq7DwAAQBAJ |titleLesser Feasts and Fasts 2018 |date17 December 2019 |publisherChurch Publishing |isbn978-1-64065-235-4 |language=en}}</ref>
Alcuin is also venerated as a Saint by Eastern Orthodox Christians in the British Isles and Ireland. The Orthodox Fellowship of John the Baptist publishes a liturgical calendar that is widely used in that region, and this calendar includes a feast for St Alcuin.
Alcuin College, one of the colleges of the University of York, is named after him.<ref>{{Cite web |lastYork |firstUniversity of |titleAlcuin - University of York |urlhttps://www.york.ac.uk/colleges/alcuin/ |access-date13 April 2022 |websiteUniversity of York |languageen}}</ref> In January 2020, Alcuin was the subject of the BBC Radio 4 programme In Our Time.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m000dqy8 |titleBBC Radio 4 - In Our Time, Alcuin |websiteBBC}}</ref> In December 2024, Alcuin was prominently featured in a Part 2 of a 3-part podcast series on Charlemagne in The Rest Is History (podcast).<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://podcasts.apple.com/hu/podcast/charlemagne-pagan-killer-part-2/id1537788786?i1000679734307 |titleCharlemagne: Pagan Killer (Part 2) |websiteThe Rest Is History}}</ref>
Selected works
For a complete census of Alcuin's works, see Marie-Hélène Jullien and Françoise Perelman, eds., Clavis scriptorum latinorum medii aevi: Auctores Galliae 735–987, Tomus II – Alcuinus, Turnhout, Brepols, 1999.
Poetry
* Carmina, ed. Ernst Dümmler, MGH Poetae Latini aevi Carolini I, Berlin, Weidmann, 1881, 160–351.
** Godman, Peter, trad., Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance, Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1985, 118–149.
** Stella, Francesco, trad., comm., La poesia carolingia, Firenze: Le Lettere, 1995, pp. 94–96, 152–161, 266–267, 302–307, 364–371, 399–404, 455–457, 474–477, 503–507.
** Isbell, Harold, trad.; The Last Poets of Imperial Rome, Baltimore, Penguin, 1971.
* Poem on York, Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Euboricensis ecclesiae, ed. and trad. Peter Godman, The Bishops, Kings, and Saints of York, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1982.
* De clade Lindisfarnensis monasterii, "On the destruction of the monastery of Lindisfarne" (Carmen 9, ed. Dümmler, pp. 229–235).
Letters
Of Alcuin's letters, over 310 have survived:
* Epistolae, ed. Ernst Dümmler, MGH, Epistolae, IV.2, Berlin, Weidmann, 1895, 1–493;
* Jaffé, Philipp, Ernst Dümmler, and W. Wattenbach, eds. Monumenta Alcuiniana, Berlin, Weidmann, 1873, 132–897;
* Chase, Colin, ed. Two Alcuin Letter-books, Toronto, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1975;
* Allott, Stephen, trad. Alcuin of York, c. AD 732 to 804 – His life and letters, York, William Sessions, 1974;
* Sturgeon, Thomas G., trad. The Letters of Alcuin – Part One, the Aachen Period (762–796). Harvard University PhD thesis, 1953.
Didactic works
* Ars grammatica. PL 101, 854–902;
* De orthographia, ed. H. Keil, Grammatici Latini VII, 1880, 295–312; ed. Sandra Bruni, Alcuino de orthographia, Florence, SISMEL, 1997;
* De dialectica, PL 101, 950–976;
* Disputatio regalis et nobilissimi juvenis Pippini cum Albino scholastico, "Dialogue of Pepin, the Most Noble and Royal Youth, with the Teacher Albinus", ed. L. W. Daly and W. Suchier, Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti Philosophi, Urbana, IL, University of Illinois Press, 1939, 134–146; ed. Wilhelm Wilmanns, "Disputatio regalis et nobilissimi juvenis Pippini cum Albino scholastic", Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum, 14 (1869), 530–555, 562.
* Disputatio de rhetorica et de virtutibus sapientissimi regis Carli et Albini magistri, ed. and trad. Wilbur Samuel Howell, The Rhetoric of Alcuin and Charlemagne, New York, Russell and Russell, 1965 (1941); ed. C. Halm, Rhetorici Latini Minores, Leipzig, Teubner, 1863, 523–550;
* De virtutibus et vitiis (moral treatise dedicated to Count Wido of Brittany, 799–800), PL 101, 613–638 ([http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_0735-0804__Alcuinus__De_Virtutibus_Et_Vitiis_Liber_Ad_Widonem_Comitem__MLT.pdf.html transcript available online]). A new critical edition is being prepared for the Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis;
* De animae ratione (ad Eulaliam virginem) (written for Gundrada, Charlemagne's cousin), PL 101, 639–650;
* De Cursu et Saltu Lunae ac Bissexto, astronomical treatise, PL 101, 979–1002;
* (?) Propositiones ad acuendos iuvenes, ed. Menso Folkerts, "Die alteste mathematische Aufgabensammlung in lateinischer Sprache, Die Alkuin zugeschriebenen Propositiones ad acuendos iuvenes; Überlieferung, Inhalt, Kritische Edition", in idem, Essays on Early Medieval Mathematics: The Latin Tradition, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2003.
Theology
* Compendium in Canticum Canticorum: Alcuino, Commento al Cantico dei cantici – con i commenti anonimi Vox ecclesie e Vox antique ecclesie, ed. Rossana Guglielmetti, Firenze, SISMEL 2004;
* Quaestiones in Genesim, PL 100, 515–566;
* De Fide Sanctae Trinitatis et de Incarnatione Christi; Quaestiones de Sancta Trinitate, ed. E. Knibbs and E. Ann Matter (Corpus Christianorum – Continuatio Mediaevalis 249, Brepols, 2012).
Hagiography
* Vita II Vedastis episcopi Atrebatensis, Revision of the earlier Vita Vedastis by Jonas of Bobbio, Patrologia Latina, 101, 663–682;
* Vita Richarii confessoris Centulensis, Revision of an earlier anonymous life, MGH Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum, 4, 381–401;
* Vita Willibrordi archiepiscopi Traiectensis, ed. W. Levison, Passiones vitaeque sanctorum aevi Merovingici, MGH Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum, 7, 81–141.
Notes and references
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
See also
{{Portal|Saints}}
* Propositiones ad Acuendos Juvenes
* Carolingian art
* Carolingian Empire
* Category: Carolingian period
* Correctory
* Codex Vindobonensis 795
Bibliography
* {{Cite book |urlhttp://www.intratext.com/X/LAT0602.HTM |titlePropositiones Alcuini Doctoris Caroli Magni Imperatoris ad Acuendes Juvenes |languagela |trans-titlePropositions of Alcuin, A Teacher of Emperor Charlemagne, for Sharpening Youths |daten.d. |authorAlcuin}}
* Allott, Stephen; Alcuin of York, his life and letters {{ISBN|0-900657-21-9}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Atkinson |first1Leigh |titleWhen the Pope was a Mathematician |journalThe College Mathematics Journal |volume36 |issue5 |year2005 |pages354-362 |issn0746-8342 |doi10.1080/07468342.2005.11922149 |s2cid=121602358}}
* {{Cite book |lastBoswell |firstJohn |titleChristianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality - Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3kzgCgAAQBAJ&pgPA254 |year2015 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-34536-9}}
* {{Cite book |lastBromell |firstDavid |titleWho's Who in Gay and Lesbian History - From Antiquity to World War II |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzLWTqBmifh0C&pgPA16 |year2002 |publisherPsychology Press |isbn978-0-415-15983-8 |chapterAlcuin}}
* {{Cite book |lastBrowne |firstG.F. |year1908 |titleAlcuin of York |publisherSociety for Promoting Christian Knowledge |publication-date1908 |locationLondon |urlhttps://archive.org/details/alcuinyorklectu01browgoog}}
* {{Cite book |lastBullough |firstDonald A. |titleAlcuin – Achievement and Reputation |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY5F0AAAAIAAJ |seriesBeing Part of the Ford Lectures Delivered in Oxford in Hilary Term 1980 |year2004 |publisherBrill |isbn=978-90-04-12865-1}}
* {{cite ODNB |lastBullough |firstDonald |date2010 |orig-year2004 |titleAlcuin (c. 740–804) |id298}}
* {{Cite CE1913 |lastBurns |first James Aloysius |volume1 |wstitleAlcuin}}
* {{Cite book |lastClark |firstDavid |titleBetween Medieval Men - Male Friendship and Desire in Early Medieval English Literature |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm19Gbl6VKQUC&pgPA79 |year2009 |publisherOUP |locationOxford |isbn978-0-19-156788-9}}
* {{Cite book |last1Colish |first1Marcia L. |titleMedieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400 |seriesThe Yale Intellectual History of the West |publisherYale University Press |year1999 |page67 |isbn9780300078527}}
* {{Cite book |lastCoon |firstLynda L. |titleDark Age Bodies - Gender and Monastic Practice in the Early Medieval West |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmndRCyKkWt0C&pgPA18 |year2011 |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0491-9}}
* Dales, Douglas J.; "Accessing Alcuin – A Master Bibliography", The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge, 2013 {{ISBN|978-0227901977}}
* {{cite book |lastDales |firstDouglas |titleAlcuin - His Life and Legacy |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV5kABAAAQBAJ&pgPA91 |year2012 |publisherThe Lutterworth Press |isbn=978-0-227-17346-6}}
* {{Cite book |last1Dales |first1Douglas |last2Williams |first2Rowan |titleAlcuin - Theology and Thought |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgpsABAAAQBAJ&pgPA228 |year2013 |publisherThe Lutterworth Press |isbn978-0-227-17394-7 |chapter24}}
* Diem, Albrecht; "The Emergence of Monastic Schools – The Role of Alcuin", in: Luuk A. J. R. Houwen and Alasdair A. McDonald (eds.), Alcuin of York – Scholar at the Carolingian Court, Groningen 1998 (Germania Latina, vol. 3), pp. 27–44.
* {{Cite book |lastDuckett |firstEleanor Shipley |titleAlcuin, Friend of Charlemagne - His World and His Work |year1951 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfWWcAAAAMAAJ |publisherMacmillan |isbn978-0-208-00070-5}}
* Duckett, Eleanor Shipley; Carolingian Portraits, (1962)
* {{Cite book |authorEinhard |titleThe Life of Charlemagne |publisherUniversity of Michigan Press |seriesAnn Arbor paperbacks |year1960 |isbn978-0-472-06035-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idixFni5sydQMC&pgPA54 |access-date18 November 2021}}
* {{Cite book |lastEllsberg |firstRobert |titleBlessed Among Us - Day by Day with Saintly Witnesses |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idosC5DAAAQBAJ&pgPA286 |year2016 |publisherLiturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-4745-5}}
* {{Cite book |lastFrantzen |firstAllen J. |titleBefore the Closet - Same-Sex Love from "Beowulf" to "Angels in America" |urlhttps://archive.org/details/beforeclosetsame00fran |url-accessregistration |page[https://archive.org/details/beforeclosetsame00fran/page/198 198] |year1998 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-26092-1}}
* Ganshof, F.L.; The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy {{ISBN|0-582-48227-5}}
* {{Cite book |lastGaskoin |firstCharles Jacinth Bellairs |titleAlcuin - His Life and His Work |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsTM9AAAAIAAJ&pgPA133 |year1966 |publisherCambridge University Press |id=GGKEY:9CL47HJX2L5}}
* Godman, Peter; Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance {{ISBN|0-7156-1768-0}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Gorman |first1Michael |titleAlcuin before Migne |journalRevue Bénédictine |volume112 |issue1–2 |year2002 |pages101-130 |issn0035-0893 |doi10.1484/J.RB.5.100616}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Hadley |first1John |last2Singmaster |first2David |titleProblems to Sharpen the Young |journalThe Mathematical Gazette |volume76 |issue475 |year1992 |pages102-126 |doi10.2307/3620384 |jstor3620384 |s2cid=125835186}}
* {{Cite web |firstFred |lastHutchison |date1 June 2006 |titleA cure for the educational crisis - Learn from the extraordinary educational heritage of the West |workRenew America Movement |urlhttp://www.renewamerica.us/analyses/060601hutchison.htm |access-date2 June 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060602171225/http://www.renewamerica.us/analyses/060601hutchison.htm |archive-date2 June 2006 |url-statusdead}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Jaeger |first1C. Stephen |titleL'Amour des rois - Structure sociale d'une forme de sensibilité aristocratique |journalAnnales - Histoire, Sciences sociales |volume46 |issue3 |year1991 |pages547-571 |issn0395-2649 |doi10.3406/ahess.1991.278964 |s2cid=161706219}}
* {{Cite book |lastJaeger |firstC. Stephen |titleEnnobling Love: In Search of a Lost Sensibility |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVC9vLpHlYY4C&pgPR9 |year1999 |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=0-8122-1691-1}}
* {{Cite book |firstMarie-Hélène |lastJullien |titleClavis scriptorum Latinorum Medii Aevi - auctores Galliae, 735–987 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoDQEoQEACAAJ |year1994 |publisherBrepols |locationTurnhout |oclc610811296 |languagela |editor-firstFrançoise |editor-lastPerelman |volume=Tomus II - Alcuinus}}
* {{Cite book |lastLiersch |firstKarl |urlhttp://www.mgh.de/bibliothek/opac/?wa72ci_url/cgi-bin/mgh/regsrchindex.pl?wert%3Dgedichte+theodulfs,+bischofs+von+orleans&recnums195542&index1&dbopac |titleDie Gedichte Theodulfs, Bischofs von Orleans |languagede |locationHalle |date=1880}}
* Lorenz, Frederick; [https://archive.org/details/lifeofalcuin00lorerich The life of Alcuin], (Thomas Hurst, 1837).
* {{Cite book |lastMayr-Harting |firstHenry |chapterAlcuin, Charlemagne and the problem of sanctions |titleEarly Medieval Studies in Memory of Patrick Wormald |publisherRoutledge |year2016 |isbn978-0754663317 |editor-given1Stephen |editor-surname1Baxter |editor-given2Catherine |editor-surname2Karkov |editor-given3Janet L. |editor-surname3Nelson |editor-given4David |editor-surname4=Pelteret}}
* McGuire, Brian P.; Friendship and Community – The Monastic Experience {{ISBN|0-87907-895-2}}
* Murphy, Richard E.; Alcuin of York – De Virtutibus et Vitiis, Virtues and Vices {{ISBN|978-0-9966967-0-8}}
* {{Cite book |lastNeedham |firstN. R. |title2000 Years of Christ's Power |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSYP8SAAACAAJ |volumePart Two - The Middle Ages |year2000 |publisherGrace Publications Trust |isbn=978-0-946462-56-8}}
* {{Cite book |lastPage |firstRolph Barlow |urlhttps://archive.org/details/lettersofalcuin00pagerich |titleThe Letters of Alcuin |locationNew York |publisherForest Press |date=1909}}
* Stehling, Thomas; Medieval Latin Love Poems of Male Love and Friendship.
* Stella, Francesco; "Alkuins Dichtung" in Alkuin von York und die geistige Grundlegung Europas , Sankt Gallen, Verlag am Klosterhof, 2010, pp. 107–128.
* {{Cite book |last1Stenton |first1Frank M. |titleAnglo-Saxon England |date2001 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0192801395 |edition=3}}
* {{Cite book |titleCharlemagne - Empire and Society |firstJoanna |lastStory |publisherManchester University Press |year2005 |isbn978-0719070891 |page137 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvTbvq_8HFPUC&pgPA137}}
* Throop, Priscilla; trans. Alcuin – His Life; On Virtues and Vices; Dialogue with Pepin (Charlotte, VT: MedievalMS, 2011)
* {{Cite book |lastTruss |firstLynne |titleEats, Shoots and Leaves - The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation |urlhttps://archive.org/details/eatsshootsleav00trus |url-accessregistration |year2003 |publisherProfile Books |isbn978-1-86197-612-3}}
* Andrew Fleming West [https://archive.org/details/alcuinriseofchri00westiala Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools] (C. Scribner's Sons, 1912) {{ISBN|0-8371-1635-X}}
* {{Cite book |lastWilmot-Buxton |firstE. M. |titleAlcuin |year1922 |publisherP.J. Kenedy & Sons |locationNew York |url=https://archive.org/stream/alcuin__00wilm#page/92/mode/2up}}
* {{wikisource-inline|list** {{cite EB1911|wstitleAlcuin|volume1|shortx|noicon=x}}
** {{cite CE1913|wstitleAlcuin|volume1|shortx|noiconx}}
** {{cite NSRW|wstitleAlcuin|volume1|shortx|noiconx}}
** {{cite SBDEL|wstitleAlcuin or Ealhwine|shortx|noicon=x}}
** {{cite DNB|wstitleAlcuin|volume1|shortx|noiconx}}
}}
External links
{{wikisource-author}}
{{Wikisourcelang|la|Scriptor:Alcuinus|Alcuinus}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
* {{PASE|1142|Alcuin 1}}
* [http://logica.ugent.be/albrecht/alcuin.pdf Alcuin's book, Problems for the Quickening of the Minds of the Young]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081205163439/http://www.bu.edu/english/levine/alcend.htm Introduction to Alcuin's writings by Robert Levine and Whitney Bolton]
* [http://www.alcuinsociety.com/ The Alcuin Society]
* [http://www.historyofyork.org.uk/timeline/anglo-saxon Anglo-Saxon York on History of York site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081118194921/http://www.corpuschristianorum.org/series/cccm_preparation.html Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis – new critical editions in preparation]
* [https://archive.today/20121204163129/http://kaali.linguist.jussieu.fr/CGL/index.jsp Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum – complete texts and full bibliography]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130502224321/http://cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/ALCUIN/Alcuin-Door.html The Life of Alcuin by Frederick Lorenz]
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Alcuin}}
* {{Librivox author|id=1121}}
* {{DNB-Portal|118502026}}
* {{DDB|Person|118502026}}
* {{Geschichtsquellen Person|118502026}}
* {{Hl-Lex|b|Alkuin.htm}}
{{Catholic philosophy footer}}
{{Medieval Philosophy}}
{{History of Catholic theology}}
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Category:730s births
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Category:804 deaths
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Category:8th-century English writers
Category:8th-century Frankish writers
Category:8th-century writers in Latin
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Category:9th-century English clergy
Category:9th-century philosophers
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Category:Yorkshire saints | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.257066 |
1409 | Angilbert | {{Short description|8th- and 9th-century Frankish poet, diplomat and saint}}
{{For|the author of "Verses on the Battle that was Fought at Fontenoy"|Angelbert}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = Saint
|name=Angilbert
|birth_date{{c.|lkno|760}}
|birth_place|death_date18 February 814
|death_place=Centule, Austrasia, Francia
|feast_day=18 February
|venerated_in=Catholic Church<br>Eastern Orthodox Church
|image|imagesize
|caption|titlesAbbot of the Monastery of St Richarius<br/>Count of Ponthieu
|beatified_date=Pre-Congregation
|beatified_place|beatified_by
|canonized_date=1100
|canonized_place|canonized_byPope Urban II
|attributes|patronage
|major_shrine|suppressed_date
|issues|prayer
|prayer_attrib=
}}
Angilbert, Count of Ponthieu ({{c.|lkno|760}}&nbsp;– 18 February 814){{sfnp|CE|1913}}<!-- sometimes known as Saint Angilbert or Angilberk or Engelbert,--> was a noble Frankish poet who was educated under Alcuin and served Charlemagne as a secretary, diplomat, and son-in-law. He is venerated as a pre-Congregation saint and is still honored on the day of his death, 18 February.Life, copied between 795 and 800, and probably given by Charlemagne to Angilbert when the king visited Saint-Riquier for Easter 800<ref nameMH2001a>Michel Huglo, "The Cantatorium, from Charlemagne to the Fourteenth Century", in Peter Jeffery (ed.), The Study of Medieval Chant: Paths and Bridges, East and West (Boydell Press, 2001), pp. 89–104, at 89–92.</ref>]]
Angilbert seems to have been brought up at the court of Charlemagne at the palace school in Aquae Granni (Aachen). He was educated there as the pupil and then-friend of the great English scholar Alcuin. When Charlemagne sent his young son Pepin to Italy as King of the Lombards, Angilbert went along as primicerius palatii, a high administrator of the satellite court.{{sfnp|CE|1913}} As the friend and adviser of Pepin, he assisted for a while in the government of Italy. Angilbert delivered the document on Iconoclasm from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to Pope Adrian I, and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794, and 796.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} At one time, he served an officer of the maritime provinces.{{sfnp|CITD|1998}} He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800{{sfnp|EB|1878}} and was one of the witnesses to his will in 811.{{sfnp|EB|1911}}
There are various traditions concerning Angilbert's relationship with Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne. One holds that they were married,{{sfnp|EB|1878}} another that they were not.{{sfnp|CITD|1998}} They had, however, at least one daughter and two sons, one of whom, Nithard, became a notable figure in the mid-9th century,{{sfnp|EB|1911}} while their daughter Bertha went on to marry Helgaud II, Count of Ponthieu. Control of marriage and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the Middle Ages. Bertha and Angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices. On the other hand, some historians have speculated that Charlemagne opposed formal marriages for his daughters out of concern for political rivalries from their potential husbands; none of Charlemagne's daughters were married, despite political offers of arranged marriages.
In 790, Angilbert retired to the abbey of Centulum, the "Monastery of St Richarius" ({{lang|la|Sancti Richarii monasterium}}) at present-day Saint-Riquier in Picardy.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} Elected abbot in 794,{{sfnp|EB|1878}} he rebuilt the monastery and endowed it with a library of 200 volumes.{{sfnp|CE|1913}} It was not uncommon for the Merovingian, Carolingian, or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries; the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation. Angilbert, in contrast, spent a great deal rebuilding Saint-Riquier; when he completed it, Charlemagne spent Easter of the year 800 there. In keeping with Carolingian policies, Angilbert established a school at Saint-Riquier to educate the local boys.{{sfnp|EBE|2003}}
Poetry
Angilbert's Latin poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} Charlemagne and the other men at court were known by affectionate and jesting nicknames. Charlemagne was referred to as "David", a reference to the Biblical king David.{{sfnp|Wilmot-Buxton|1922|p=93}} Angilbert was nicknamed "Homer" because he wrote poetry,{{sfnp|CITD|1998}} and was the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Venantius Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius.{{sfnp|EB|1911}} Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an epistle to David (i.e., Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.{{sfnp|EB|1911}}
The poem De conversione Saxonum has been attributed to Angilbert.{{sfn|Rabe|1995|p=54}}
Angilbert's poems were published by Ernst Dümmler in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. For criticisms of this edition, see Ludwig Traube in Max Roediger's Schriften für germanische Philologie (1888).{{sfnp|EB|1911}}
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
* {{citation|contributionSt. Angilbert |contribution-urlhttp://www.christdesert.org/cgi-bin/martyrology.dynamic.5.cgi?nameangilbert |titleMartyrology |urlhttp://www.christdesert.org/public_texts/martyrology/ |publisherMonastery of Christ in the Desert |date1998 |locationAbiquiú, New Mexico |ref{{harvid|CITD|1998}} |url-statusdead |archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150611021417/http://christdesert.org/public_texts/martyrology/ |archivedate11 June 2015 }}.
* {{cite EB9 |modecs2 |wstitleSt Angilbert |volume2 |ref{{harvid|EB|1878}} |page=29 }}
* {{citation |lastFrassetto |firstMichael |contributionSt. Angilbert (c.&nbsp;740–814) |contribution-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyW-GfElbafQC&pgPA32 |titleEncyclopedia of Barbarian Europe |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyW-GfElbafQC |locationSanta Barbara, California |publisherABC-CLIO |date2003 |isbn978-1576072639 |ref{{harvid|EBE|2003}} |page=32 }}
*{{cite book |firstSusan A. |lastRabe |titleFaith, Art, and Politics at Saint-Riquier: The Symbolic Vision of Angilbert |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |year1995 |isbn978-0-8122-3208-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/faithartpolitics0000rabe}}
* {{cite CE1913 |modecs2 |lastThurston |firstHerbert |wstitleSt. Angilbert |ref={{harvid|CE|1913}} }}.
* {{citation |lastWilmot-Buxton |firstE.M. |titleAlcuin |date1922 |publisherP.J. Kennedy & Sons |locationNew York |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/alcuin__00wilm }}Attribution* {{EB1911 |modecs2 |wstitleAngilbert |volume2 |ref{{harvid|EB|1911}} |page9 }}
Further reading
* A. Molinier, ''Les Sources de l'histoire de France''.
{{Authority control}}
Category:8th-century births
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:814 deaths
Category:Medieval Latin-language poets
Category:Saints from the Carolingian Empire
Category:8th-century writers in Latin
Category:8th-century Frankish writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angilbert | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.263479 |
1412 | Amine | {{Short description|Chemical compounds and groups containing nitrogen with a lone pair (:N)}}
{{Other uses}}
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{{Distinguish|Amin (disambiguation){{!}}Amin|Anime}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
In chemistry, amines ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|m|i:|n|,_|ˈ|æ|m|i:|n}},<ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|amine}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |urlhttp://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/amine |titleAmine definition and meaning |dictionaryCollins English Dictionary |access-date2017-03-28 |archive-date23 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150223133401/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/amine |url-statuslive }}</ref> {{small|UK also}} {{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|m|iː|n}}<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/amine |titleamine – definition of amine in English |publisherOxford Dictionaries |access-date2017-03-28 |archive-date23 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150223133030/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/amine |url-statusdead }}</ref>) are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Formally, amines are derivatives of ammonia ({{chem2|NH3}}(in which the bond angle between the nitrogen and hydrogen is 107°), wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group<ref>{{McMurray3rd}}</ref> (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as monochloramine ({{chem2|NClH2}}).<ref name="Ullmann" />
The substituent {{chem2|\sNH2}} is called an amino group.<ref name"OChemSmith3E">{{cite book |last1Smith |first1=Janice Gorzynski <!--
|editor1-lastHodge |editor1-firstTami |editor2-lastNemmers |editor2-firstDonna |editor3-lastKlein |editor3-firstJayne
--> |titleOrganic chemistry |date2011 |publisherMcGraw-Hill |locationNew York, NY |isbn978-0-07-337562-5 |pages949–993 |edition3rd |chapter-urlhttp://highered.mheducation.com/sites/007340277x/student_view0/index.html |languageen |chapter-formatBook |chapterChapter 25 Amines |access-date26 June 2018 |archive-date28 June 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180628152511/http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/007340277x/student_view0/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The chemical notation for amines contains the letter "R", where "R" is not an element, but an "R-group", which in amines could be a single hydrogen or carbon atom, or could be a hydrocarbon chain.
Compounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure {{chem2|R\sC(\dO)\sNR′R″}}, are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines.
Classification of amines
Amines can be classified according to the nature and number of substituents on nitrogen. Aliphatic amines contain only H and alkyl substituents. Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring.
<!-- primary amine redirects to this section -->
{| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto 1em auto 1em; float:right; text-align:center;"
|- id="amino_group_connectivity_table"
! Primary (1°) amine !! Secondary (2°) amine !! Tertiary (3°) amine
|-
|
|
|
|}Amines, alkyl and aryl alike, are organized into three subcategories <small>(see table)</small> based on the number of carbon atoms adjacent to the nitrogen (how many hydrogen atoms of the ammonia molecule are replaced by hydrocarbon groups):<ref nameOChemSmith3E/><ref>{{Cite web|date2015-09-28|title3.11 Basic properties of amines|urlhttps://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Middle_Georgia_State_University/MGA_CHEM_1152K_Survey_of_Chemistry_II/Chapters/Unit_3%3A_More_Reactions_and_Properties/3.11_Basic_properties_of_amines|access-date2021-05-23|websiteChemistry LibreTexts|languageen|archive-date23 May 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210523170747/https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Middle_Georgia_State_University/MGA_CHEM_1152K_Survey_of_Chemistry_II/Chapters/Unit_3:_More_Reactions_and_Properties/3.11_Basic_properties_of_amines|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*Primary (1°) amines—Primary amines arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aromatic group. Important primary alkyl amines include methylamine, most amino acids, and the buffering agent tris, while primary aromatic amines include aniline.
*Secondary (2°) amines—Secondary amines have two organic substituents (alkyl, aryl or both) bound to the nitrogen together with one hydrogen. Important representatives include dimethylamine, while an example of an aromatic amine would be diphenylamine.
*Tertiary (3°) amines—In tertiary amines, nitrogen has three organic substituents. Examples include trimethylamine, which has a distinctively fishy smell, and EDTA.
A fourth subcategory is determined by the connectivity of the substituents attached to the nitrogen:
*Cyclic amines—Cyclic amines are either secondary or tertiary amines. Examples of cyclic amines include the 3-membered ring aziridine and the six-membered ring piperidine. N-methylpiperidine and N-phenylpiperidine are examples of cyclic tertiary amines.
It is also possible to have four organic substituents on the nitrogen. These species are not amines but are quaternary ammonium cations and have a charged nitrogen center. Quaternary ammonium salts exist with many kinds of anions.
Naming conventions
Amines are named in several ways. Typically, the compound is given the prefix "amino-" or the suffix "-amine". The prefix "N-" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom. An organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a diamine, triamine, tetraamine and so forth.
Lower amines are named with the suffix -amine.
]]
Higher amines have the prefix amino as a functional group. IUPAC however does not recommend this convention,<ref>{{Cite web |last1Hellwich |first1K.-H. |last2Hartshorn |first2R. M. |last3Yerin |first3A. |last4Damhus |first4T. |last5Hutton |first5A. T. |dateJune 2021 |titleBrief Guide to the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry |urlhttps://iupac.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Organic-Brief-Guide-brochure_v1.1_June2021.pdf |access-date2024-03-07 |website=The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)}}</ref> but prefers the alkanamine form, e.g. butan-2-amine.
(or butan-2-amine)]]
Physical properties
Hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines. For example, methyl and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions, whereas the corresponding methyl and ethyl alcohols are liquids. Amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive "fishy" and foul smell.
The nitrogen atom features a lone electron pair that can bind H<sup>+</sup> to form an ammonium ion R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>. The lone electron pair is represented in this article by two dots above or next to the N. The water solubility of simple amines is enhanced by hydrogen bonding involving these lone electron pairs. Typically salts of ammonium compounds exhibit the following order of solubility in water: primary ammonium ({{chem|RNH|3|+}}) > secondary ammonium ({{chem|R|2|NH|2|+}}) > tertiary ammonium (R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>). Small aliphatic amines display significant solubility in many solvents, whereas those with large substituents are lipophilic. Aromatic amines, such as aniline, have their lone pair electrons conjugated into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished. Their boiling points are high and their solubility in water is low.
Spectroscopic identification
Typically the presence of an amine functional group is deduced by a combination of techniques, including mass spectrometry as well as NMR and IR spectroscopies. <sup>1</sup>H NMR signals for amines disappear upon treatment of the sample with D<sub>2</sub>O. In their infrared spectrum primary amines exhibit two N-H bands, whereas secondary amines exhibit only one.<ref nameOChemSmith3E /> In their IR spectra, primary and secondary amines exhibit distinctive N-H stretching bands near 3300&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>. Somewhat less distinctive are the bands appearing below 1600&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>, which are weaker and overlap with C-C and C-H modes. For the case of propyl amine, the H-N-H scissor mode appears near 1600&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>, the C-N stretch near 1000&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>, and the R<sub>2</sub>N-H bend near 810&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Smith |first1Brian |titleOrganic Nitrogen Compounds II: Primary Amines |urlhttps://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/organic-nitrogen-compounds-ii-primary-amines |websiteSpectroscopy |seriesSpectroscopy-03-01-2019 |dateMarch 2019 |volume34 |pages22–25 |access-date12 February 2024}}</ref>StructureAlkyl amines
on the nitrogen atom.]]
Alkyl amines characteristically feature tetrahedral nitrogen centers. C-N-C and C-N-H angles approach the idealized angle of 109°. C-N distances are slightly shorter than C-C distances. The energy barrier for the nitrogen inversion of the stereocenter is about 7&nbsp;kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella into a strong wind.
Amines of the type NHRR' and NRR′R″ are chiral: the nitrogen center bears four substituents counting the lone pair. Because of the low barrier to inversion, amines of the type NHRR' cannot be obtained in optical purity. For chiral tertiary amines, NRR′R″ can only be resolved when the R, R', and R″ groups are constrained in cyclic structures such as N-substituted aziridines (quaternary ammonium salts are resolvable).
Aromatic amines
In aromatic amines ("anilines"), nitrogen is often nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter. In aniline, the C-N distance is the same as the C-C distances.<ref>G. M. Wójcik "Structural Chemistry of Anilines" in Anilines (Patai's Chemistry of Functional Groups), S. Patai, Ed. 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/9780470682531.pat0385}}</ref>
Basicity
Like ammonia, amines are bases.<ref>{{cite book|chapterBasicity and complex formation|title Patai's Chemistry of Functional Groups|pages161–204|editorS. Patai|year1968|authorJ. W. Smith|doi10.1002/9780470771082.ch4|isbn 9780470771082}}</ref> Compared to alkali metal hydroxides, amines are weaker.
{| class"wikitable" style"float:center; margin:0 1em;"
|-
!Alkylamine<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 Hall | first1 H. K. | title Correlation of the Base Strengths of Amines | doi 10.1021/ja01577a030 | journal Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume 79 | issue 20 | pages 5441–5444 | year 1957 | bibcode 1957JAChS..79.5441H }}</ref> or aniline<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 Kaljurand | first1 I. | last2 Kütt | first2 A. | last3 Sooväli | first3 L. | last4 Rodima | first4 T. | last5 Mäemets | first5 V. | last6 Leito | first6 I. | last7 Koppel | first7 I. A. | doi 10.1021/jo048252w | title Extension of the Self-Consistent Spectrophotometric Basicity Scale in Acetonitrile to a Full Span of 28 pKa Units: Unification of Different Basicity Scales | journal The Journal of Organic Chemistry | volume 70 | issue 3 | pages 1019–1028 | year 2005 | pmid 15675863}}</ref>
! pK<sub>a</sub> of <br />protonated amine
! K<sub>b</sub>{{Clarify|date=April 2022}}
|-
| Methylamine (MeNH<sub>2</sub>)
| 10.62
| {{val|4.17e-4}}
|-
| Dimethylamine (Me<sub>2</sub>NH)
| 10.64
| {{val|4.37e-4}}
|-
| Trimethylamine (Me<sub>3</sub>N)
| {{pad|0.3em}}9.76
| {{val|5.75e-5}}
|-
| Ethylamine (EtNH<sub>2</sub>)
| 10.63
| {{val|4.27e-4}}
|-
| Aniline (PhNH<sub>2</sub>)
| {{pad|0.3em}}4.62
| {{val|4.17e-10}}
|-
| 4-Methoxyaniline (4-MeOC<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>)
| {{pad|0.3em}}5.36
| {{val|2.29e-9}}
|-
| N,N-Dimethylaniline (PhNMe<sub>2</sub>)
| {{pad|0.3em}}5.07
| {{val|1.17e-9}}
|-
| 3-Nitroaniline (3-NO<sub>2</sub>-C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>)
| {{pad|0.3em}}2.46
| {{val|2.88e-12}}
|-
| 4-Nitroaniline (4-NO<sub>2</sub>-C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>)
| {{pad|0.3em}}1.00
| {{val|1.00e-13}}
|-
| 4-Trifluoromethylaniline (CF<sub>3</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>)
| {{pad|0.3em}}2.75
| {{val|5.62e-12}}
|}
The basicity of amines depends on:
# The electronic properties of the substituents (alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it).
# The degree of solvation of the protonated amine, which includes steric hindrance by the groups on nitrogen.
Electronic effects
Owing to inductive effects, the basicity of an amine might be expected to increase with the number of alkyl groups on the amine. Correlations are complicated owing to the effects of solvation which are opposite the trends for inductive effects. Solvation effects also dominate the basicity of aromatic amines (anilines). For anilines, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen delocalizes into the ring, resulting in decreased basicity. Substituents on the aromatic ring, and their positions relative to the amino group, also affect basicity as seen in the table.
Solvation effects
Solvation significantly affects the basicity of amines. N-H groups strongly interact with water, especially in ammonium ions. Consequently, the basicity of ammonia is enhanced by 10<sup>11</sup> by solvation. The intrinsic basicity of amines, i.e. the situation where solvation is unimportant, has been evaluated in the gas phase. In the gas phase, amines exhibit the basicities predicted from the electron-releasing effects of the organic substituents. Thus tertiary amines are more basic than secondary amines, which are more basic than primary amines, and finally ammonia is least basic. The order of pK<sub>b</sub>'s (basicities in water) does not follow this order. Similarly aniline is more basic than ammonia in the gas phase, but ten thousand times less so in aqueous solution.<ref>{{March6th}}</ref>
In aprotic polar solvents such as DMSO, DMF, and acetonitrile the energy of solvation is not as high as in protic polar solvents like water and methanol. For this reason, the basicity of amines in these aprotic solvents is almost solely governed by the electronic effects.
Synthesis
<!-- This section is linked from Organic reaction -->
From alcohols
Industrially significant alkyl amines are prepared from ammonia by alkylation with alcohols:<ref name=Ullmann/>
:<chem>ROH + NH3 -> RNH2 + H2O</chem>
From alkyl and aryl halides
Unlike the reaction of amines with alcohols the reaction of amines and ammonia with alkyl halides is used for synthesis in the laboratory:
:<chem>RX + 2 R'NH2 -> RR'NH + [RR'NH2]X</chem>
In such reactions, which are more useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, the degree of alkylation is difficult to control such that one obtains mixtures of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, as well as quaternary ammonium salts.<ref nameUllmann>{{Ullmann|doi10.1002/14356007.a02_001|titleAmines, Aliphatic|year2000|last1Eller|first1Karsten|last2Henkes|first2Erhard|last3Rossbacher|first3Roland|last4Höke|first4Hartmut|isbn=3527306730}}</ref>
Selectivity can be improved via the Delépine reaction, although this is rarely employed on an industrial scale. Selectivity is also assured in the Gabriel synthesis, which involves organohalide reacting with potassium phthalimide.
Aryl halides are much less reactive toward amines and for that reason are more controllable. A popular way to prepare aryl amines is the Buchwald-Hartwig reaction.
From alkenes
Disubstituted alkenes react with HCN in the presence of strong acids to give formamides, which can be decarbonylated. This method, the Ritter reaction, is used industrially to produce tertiary amines such as tert-octylamine.<ref name=Ullmann/>
Hydroamination of alkenes is also widely practiced. The reaction is catalyzed by zeolite-based solid acids.<ref nameUllmann/>Reductive routes
Via the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated N-containing functional groups are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst. Suitable groups include nitriles, azides, imines including oximes, amides, and nitro. In the case of nitriles, reactions are sensitive to acidic or alkaline conditions, which can cause hydrolysis of the {{chem2|\sCN}} group. {{chem2|LiAlH4}} is more commonly employed for the reduction of these same groups on the laboratory scale.
Many amines are produced from aldehydes and ketones via reductive amination, which can either proceed catalytically or stoichiometrically.
Aniline ({{chem2|C6H5NH2}}) and its derivatives are prepared by reduction of the nitroaromatics. In industry, hydrogen is the preferred reductant, whereas, in the laboratory, tin and iron are often employed.
Specialized methods
Many methods exist for the preparation of amines, many of these methods being rather specialized.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"background:white; float:center; margin:0 1em;"
|-
! style"width:200px;"|Reaction name !! Substrate !! class"unsortable" | Comment
|-
|valign=top| Staudinger reduction
|Organic azide
| This reaction also takes place with a reducing agent such as lithium aluminium hydride.
|-
|valign=top| Schmidt reaction
|valign=top|Carboxylic acid
|
|-
|valign=top| Aza-Baylis–Hillman reaction
|valign=top|Imine
| Synthesis of allylic amines
|-
|valign=top| Birch reduction
|valign=top| Imine
| Useful for reactions that trap unstable imine intermediates, such as Grignard reactions with nitriles.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Weiberth|first1Franz J.|last2Hall|first2Stan S.|titleTandem alkylation-reduction of nitriles. Synthesis of branched primary amines|journalJournal of Organic Chemistry|date1986|volume51|issue26|pages5338–5341|doi=10.1021/jo00376a053}}</ref>
|-
|valign=top| Hofmann degradation
|valign=top|Amide
| This reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only. Gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines.
|-
|valign=top| Hofmann elimination
|valign=top| Quaternary ammonium salt
|Upon treatment with strong base
|-
|valign=top| Leuckart reaction
|valign=top| Ketones and aldehydes
| Reductive amination with formic acid and ammonia via an imine intermediate
|-
|valign=top| Hofmann–Löffler reaction
|valign=top| Haloamine
|
|-
|valign=top| Eschweiler–Clarke reaction
|valign=top| Amine
| Reductive amination with formic acid and formaldehyde via an imine intermediate
|}
Reactions
Alkylation, acylation, and sulfonation, etc.
Aside from their basicity, the dominant reactivity of amines is their nucleophilicity.<ref>{{March4th}}</ref> Most primary amines are good ligands for metal ions to give coordination complexes. Amines are alkylated by alkyl halides. Acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with primary and secondary amines to form amides (the "Schotten–Baumann reaction").
Similarly, with sulfonyl chlorides, one obtains sulfonamides. This transformation, known as the Hinsberg reaction, is a chemical test for the presence of amines.
Because amines are basic, they neutralize acids to form the corresponding ammonium salts {{chem2|R3NH+}}. When formed from carboxylic acids and primary and secondary amines, these salts thermally dehydrate to form the corresponding amides.
:<math chem"" title"Amine reaction with carboxylic acids">
{
\underbrace\ce{H-\!\!\overset{\displaystyle R1 \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle R2}N}\!\!\!\!:}_\text{amine} +
\underbrace\ce{R3-\overset{\displaystyle O \atop \|}C-OH}_\text{carboxylic acid} ->
}\
\underbrace\ce{{H-\overset{\displaystyle R1 \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle R2}{N+}}-H} + R3-COO^-}
_{\text{substituted-ammonium} \atop \text{carboxylate salt}}
\ce{->[\text{heat}][\text{dehydration}]}{
\underbrace\ce{\overset{\displaystyle R1 \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle R2}N}\!\!-\overset{\displaystyle O \atop \|}C-R3}_\text{amide} +
\underbrace\ce{H2O}_\text{water}
}</math>
Amines undergo sulfamation upon treatment with sulfur trioxide or sources thereof:
:<chem>R2NH + SO3 -> R2NSO3H</chem>
Diazotization
Amines reacts with nitrous acid to give diazonium salts. The alkyl diazonium salts are of little importance because they are too unstable. The most important members are derivatives of aromatic amines such as aniline ("phenylamine") (A = aryl or naphthyl):
:<chem>ANH2 + HNO2 + HX -> AN2+ + X- + 2 H2O</chem>
Anilines and naphthylamines form more stable diazonium salts, which can be isolated in the crystalline form.<ref>{{OrgSynth | title β-Naphthylmercuric chloride | author A. N. Nesmajanow | collvol 2 | collvolpages 432 | year 1943 | prep cv2p0432}}</ref> Diazonium salts undergo a variety of useful transformations involving replacement of the {{chem2|N2}} group with anions. For example, cuprous cyanide gives the corresponding nitriles:
:<chem>AN2+ + Y- -> AY + N2</chem>
Aryldiazoniums couple with electron-rich aromatic compounds such as a phenol to form azo compounds. Such reactions are widely applied to the production of dyes.<ref>{{Cite book|doi10.1002/14356007.a03_245|chapterAzo Dyes|titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year2000|last1Hunger|first1Klaus|last2Mischke|first2Peter|last3Rieper|first3Wolfgang|last4Raue|first4Roderich|last5Kunde|first5Klaus|last6Engel|first6Aloys|isbn3527306730}}</ref>Conversion to iminesImine formation is an important reaction. Primary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form imines. In the case of formaldehyde (R'&nbsp;{{}}&nbsp;H), these products typically exist as cyclic trimers: <chem displayblock>RNH2 + R'_2CO -> R'_2CNR + H2O</chem> Reduction of these imines gives secondary amines: <chem displayblock>R'_2C=NR + H2 -> R'_2CH-NHR</chem>
Similarly, secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form enamines: <chem displayblock> R2NH + R'(RCH2)CO -> RCH=C(NR2)R' + H2O</chem>
Mercuric ions reversibly oxidize tertiary amines with an &alpha; hydrogen to iminium ions:<ref>{{cite book|titleNitrosation|firstD.&nbsp;L.&nbsp;H.|lastWilliams|publisherCambridge University|locationCambridge, UK|year1988|isbn0-521-26796-X|urlhttps://archive.org/details/nitrosation0000will|url-accessregistration|page195}}</ref> <chem displayblock>Hg^2+ + R2NCH2R' <> Hg + [R2NCHR']+ + H+</chem>Overview
An overview of the reactions of amines is given below:
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"background:white; float:center; margin:0 1em;"
|-
! style"width:200px;"|Reaction name !! Reaction product !! class"unsortable" | Comment
|-
|valign=top | Amine alkylation
|valign=top|Amines
| Degree of substitution increases
|-
|valign=top | Schotten–Baumann reaction
|valign=top|Amide
| Reagents: acyl chlorides, acid anhydrides
|-
|valign=top | Hinsberg reaction
|valign=top|Sulfonamides
| Reagents: sulfonyl chlorides
|-
|valign=top | Amine–carbonyl condensation
|valign=top|Imines
|-
|valign=top | Organic oxidation
|valign=top|Nitroso compounds
| Reagent: peroxymonosulfuric acid
|-
|valign=top | Organic oxidation
|valign=top| Diazonium salt
| Reagent: nitrous acid
|-
|valign=top| Zincke reaction
|Zincke aldehyde
| Reagent: pyridinium salts, with primary and secondary amines
|-
|valign=top| Emde degradation
|valign=top|Tertiary amine
| Reduction of quaternary ammonium cations
|-
|valign=top| Hofmann–Martius rearrangement
|valign=top|Aryl-substituted anilines
|-
|valign=top| von Braun reaction
|valign=top| Organic cyanamide
|By cleavage (tertiary amines only) with cyanogen bromide
|-
|valign=top| Hofmann elimination
|valign=top| Alkene
|Proceeds by β-elimination of less hindered carbon
|-
|valign=top| Cope reaction
|valign=top| Alkene
|Similar to Hofmann elimination
|-
|valign=top| Carbylamine reaction
|valign=top| Isonitrile
|Primary amines only
|-
|valign=top| Hofmann's mustard oil test
|valign=top| Isothiocyanate
|Carbon disulfide {{chem2|CS2}} and mercury(II) chloride {{chem2|HgCl2}} are used. Thiocyanate smells like mustard.
|}
Biological activity
Amines are ubiquitous in biology. The breakdown of amino acids releases amines, famously in the case of decaying fish which smell of trimethylamine. Many neurotransmitters are amines, including epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine. Protonated amino groups ({{chem|–NH|3|+}}) are the most common positively charged moieties in proteins, specifically in the amino acid lysine.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi10.1006/jmbi.1997.1498|titleAdaptation of protein surfaces to subcellular location|year1998|last1Andrade|first1Miguel A.|last2O'Donoghue|first2Seán I.|last3Rost|first3Burkhard|journalJournal of Molecular Biology|volume276|issue2|pages517–25|pmid9512720|citeseerx10.1.1.32.3499}}</ref> The anionic polymer DNA is typically bound to various amine-rich proteins.<ref>{{Cite book|last1 Nelson|first1D. L.|last2 Cox|first2M. M.|title Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry|edition3rd|publisher Worth Publishing|locationNew York|year 2000|isbn1-57259-153-6|url-access registration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lehningerprincip01lehn}}</ref> Additionally, the terminal charged primary ammonium on lysine forms salt bridges with carboxylate groups of other amino acids in polypeptides, which is one of the primary influences on the three-dimensional structures of proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi10.1021/bi00483a001|titleDominant forces in protein folding|year1990|last1Dill|first1Ken A.|journalBiochemistry|volume29|issue31|pages7133–55|pmid2207096|s2cid30690389 }}</ref>
Amine hormones
Hormones derived from the modification of amino acids are referred to as amine hormones. Typically, the original structure of the amino acid is modified such that a –COOH, or carboxyl, group is removed, whereas the {{chem|–NH|3|+}}, or amine, group remains. Amine hormones are synthesized from the amino acids tryptophan or tyrosine.<ref name"Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution">{{CC-notice|ccby4|urlhttps://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/17-2-hormones}} {{cite book|last1Betts|first1J Gordon|last2Desaix|first2Peter|last3Johnson|first3Eddie|last4Johnson|first4Jody E|last5Korol|first5Oksana|last6Kruse|first6Dean|last7Poe|first7Brandon|last8Wise|first8James|last9Womble|first9Mark D|last10Young|first10Kelly A|titleAnatomy & Physiology|locationHouston|publisherOpenStax CNX|isbn978-1-947172-04-3|dateJuly 26, 2023|at17.2 Hormones}}</ref>Application of aminesDyes
Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of azo dyes. It reacts with nitrous acid to form diazonium salt, which can undergo coupling reaction to form an azo compound. As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as:
* Methyl orange
* Direct brown 138
* Sunset yellow FCF
* Ponceau
Drugs
Most drugs and drug candidates contain amine functional groups:<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1021/jm200187y|titleThe Medicinal Chemist's Toolbox: An Analysis of Reactions Used in the Pursuit of Drug Candidates|year2011|last1Roughley|first1Stephen D.|last2Jordan|first2Allan M.|journalJournal of Medicinal Chemistry|volume54|issue10|pages3451–3479|pmid21504168}}</ref>
* Chlorpheniramine is an antihistamine that helps to relieve allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings.
* Chlorpromazine is a tranquilizer that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder.
* Ephedrine and phenylephrine, as amine hydrochlorides, are used as decongestants.
* Amphetamine, methamphetamine, and methcathinone are psychostimulant amines that are listed as controlled substances by the US DEA.
* Thioridazine, an antipsychotic drug, is an amine which is believed to exhibit its antipsychotic effects, in part, due to its effects on other amines.<ref>American Society of Health System Pharmacists; AHFS Drug Information 2010. Bethesda, MD. (2010), p. 2510</ref>
* Amitriptyline, imipramine, lofepramine and clomipramine are tricyclic antidepressants and tertiary amines.
* Nortriptyline, desipramine, and amoxapine are tricyclic antidepressants and secondary amines. (The tricyclics are grouped by the nature of the final amino group on the side chain.)
* Substituted tryptamines and phenethylamines are key basic structures for a large variety of psychedelic drugs.
* Opiate analgesics such as morphine, codeine, and heroin are tertiary amines.
Gas treatment
Aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA), diglycolamine (DGA), diethanolamine (DEA), diisopropanolamine (DIPA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) are widely used industrially for removing carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) and hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) from natural gas and refinery process streams. They may also be used to remove CO<sub>2</sub> from combustion gases and flue gases and may have potential for abatement of greenhouse gases. Related processes are known as sweetening.<ref>{{Cite book|doi10.1002/14356007.a17_073|chapterNatural Gas|titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year2000|last1Hammer|first1Georg|last2Lübcke|first2Torsten|last3Kettner|first3Roland|last4Davis|first4Robert N.|last5Recknagel|first5Herta|last6Commichau|first6Axel|last7Neumann|first7Hans-Joachim|last8Paczynska-Lahme|first8Barbara|isbn3527306730}}</ref>Epoxy resin curing agentsAmines are often used as epoxy resin curing agents.<ref>{{Cite web |titleamine curing agent: Topics by Science.gov |urlhttps://www.science.gov/topicpages/a/amine+curing+agent |access-date2022-03-01 |websitescience.gov |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|lastHowarth|firstGraham|titleThe use of water-based epoxies for anti-corrosive primers|journalPigment & Resin Technology|volume24|issue6|pages3–6|date1995-01-01|doi10.1108/eb043156|issn0369-9420}}</ref> These include dimethylethylamine, cyclohexylamine, and a variety of diamines such as 4,4-diaminodicyclohexylmethane.<ref nameUllmann/> Multifunctional amines such as tetraethylenepentamine and triethylenetetramine are also widely used in this capacity.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | vauthors Eller K, Henkes E, Rossbacher R, Höke H | chapter Amines, Aliphatic | encyclopedia Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry | year 2005 | publisher Wiley-VCH | location Weinheim | doi 10.1002/14356007.a02_001 |isbn3527306730 }}</ref> The reaction proceeds by the lone pair of electrons on the amine nitrogen attacking the outermost carbon on the oxirane ring of the epoxy resin. This relieves ring strain on the epoxide and is the driving force of the reaction.<ref>Howarth G.A "Synthesis of a legislation compliant corrosion protection coating system based on urethane, oxazolidine and waterborne epoxy technology" pages 12, Chapter 1.3.1 Master of Science Thesis April 1997 Imperial College London</ref> Molecules with tertiary amine functionality are often used to accelerate the epoxy-amine curing reaction and include substances such as 2,4,6-Tris(dimethylaminomethyl)phenol. It has been stated that this is the most widely used room temperature accelerator for two-component epoxy resin systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Seo |first1Jiae |last2Yui |first2Nobuhiko |last3Seo |first3Ji-Hun |dateJanuary 2019 |titleDevelopment of a supramolecular accelerator simultaneously to increase the cross-linking density and ductility of an epoxy resin |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.09.020 |journalChemical Engineering Journal |volume356 |pages303–311 |doi10.1016/j.cej.2018.09.020 |bibcode2019ChEnJ.356..303S |issn1385-8947}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Chen |first1Fengjun |last2Liu |first2Fan |last3Du |first3Xiaogang |date2023-01-10 |titleMolecular dynamics simulation of crosslinking process and mechanical properties of epoxy under the accelerator |urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.53302 |journalJournal of Applied Polymer Science |languageen |volume140 |issue2 |doi10.1002/app.53302 |issn0021-8995}}</ref>SafetyLow molecular weight simple amines, such as ethylamine, are toxic with {{LD50}} between 100 and 1000&nbsp;mg/kg. They are skin irritants, especially as some are easily absorbed through the skin.<ref nameUllmann/> Amines are a broad class of compounds, and more complex members of the class can be extremely bioactive, for example strychnine.
See also
* Acid–base extraction
* Amine value
* Amine gas treating
* Ammine
* Biogenic amine
* Ligand isomerism
* Official naming rules for amines as determined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{Cite web|titleAmines {{!}} Introduction to Chemistry|urlhttps://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/amines/#:~:textThe%20amine%20functional%20group%20contains,by%20a%20carbon-containing%20substituent.&textAmine%20groups%20bonded%20to%20an,are%20known%20as%20aromatic%20amines.|access-date2021-07-22|websitecourses.lumenlearning.com}}
* {{Cite book|lastFlick|firstErnest W.|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/915134542|titleEpoxy Resins, Curing Agents, Compounds, and Modifiers: An Industrial Guide |publisherNoyes Publications |date1993|isbn978-0-8155-1708-5|locationPark Ridge, NJ|oclc915134542}}External links
{{wikiquote}}
* [https://www.organic-chemistry.org/synthesis/C1N/amines/primaryamines.shtm Synthesis of amines]
* [http://www.millhousemedical.co.nz/files/docs/factsheet_7_amines_in_foods.pdf Factsheet, amines in food] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180219074057/http://www.millhousemedical.co.nz/files/docs/factsheet_7_amines_in_foods.pdf |date19 February 2018 }}
{{Functional group}}
{{nitrogen compounds}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Functional groups | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.295382 |
1416 | April 29 | {{pp-move}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 801 &ndash; An earthquake in the Central Apennines hits Rome and Spoleto, damaging the basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura.<ref>{{cite web |first1E. |last1Guidoboni |first2G. |last2Ferrari |first3D. |last3Mariotti |first4A. |last4Comastri |first5G. |last5Tarabusi |first6G. |last6Sgattoni |first7G. |last7Valensise |title801 04 29, 20:00 Roma (Italy) |websiteCatalogo dei Forti Terremoti in Italia (461 a.C.–1997) e nell'area Mediterranea (760 a.C.–1500) |publisherIstituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia |year2018 |url=http://storing.ingv.it/cfti/cfti5/}}</ref>
*1091 &ndash; Battle of Levounion: The Pechenegs are defeated by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos.<ref>{{Citation |lastNeville |firstLeonora |titleLevounion, Battle of |date2010 |urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195334036.001.0001/acref-9780195334036-e-0544 |encyclopediaThe Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology |publisherOxford University Press |languageen |doi10.1093/acref/9780195334036.001.0001 |isbn978-0-19-533403-6 |access-date26 June 2022 |viaOxford Reference}}</ref>
*1429 &ndash; Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orléans.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitleJoan of Arc|last1Shotwell|first1James Thomson|author1-linkJames T. Shotwell|last2Chisholm|first2Hugh|author2-linkHugh Chisholm|volume15|page=420}}</ref>
*1483 &ndash; Gran Canaria, the main island of the Canary Islands, is conquered by the Kingdom of Castile.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Martínez Usó |first1María José |last2Marco Castillo |first2Francisco J. |titleThe total eclipse of the sun of July 29, AD1478, in contemporary Spanish documents |journalJournal for the History of Astronomy |dateMay 2023 |volume54 |issue2 |pages153–170 |doi10.1177/00218286231167157|bibcode2023JHA....54..153M |hdl10234/203020 |s2cid258548316 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
*1521 &ndash; Swedish War of Liberation: Swedish troops defeat a Danish force in the Battle of Västerås.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.smb.nu/index.php/krig-1521-1611/befrielsekriget-1521-1523 |titleBefrielsekriget 1521-1523 |accessdate2011-11-20 |lastSundberg |firstUlf |year1998 |workSvenskt Militärhistoriskt Bibliotek |languageSwedish |url-statusdead |archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110916191718/http://www.smb.nu/index.php/krig-1521-1611/befrielsekriget-1521-1523 |archivedate2011-09-16 }}</ref>1601–1900*1760 &ndash; French forces commence the siege of Quebec which is held by the British.<ref>{{cite book |last1Snow |first1Dan |titleDeath Or Victory: The Battle for Quebec and the Birth of Empire |date2009|pages416–17 |publisherHarper Collins UK |isbn9780007286201}}</ref>
*1770 &ndash; James Cook arrives in Australia at Botany Bay, which he names.<ref>{{cite news |last1Higgins |first1Isabella |last2Collard |first2Sarah |titleCaptain James Cook's landing and the Indigenous first words contested by Aboriginal leaders |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-29/captain-cook-landing-indigenous-people-first-words-contested/12195148 |access-date29 November 2021 |workABC News |date=28 April 2020}}</ref>
*1781 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: British and French ships clash in the Battle of Fort Royal off the coast of Martinique.<ref>{{cite book |last1Clowes |first1William Laird |last2Markham |first2Clements |last3Mahan |first3Alfred Thayer |last4Wilson |first4Herbert Wrigley |last5Roosevelt |first5Theodore |last6Laughton |first6Carr |author1-linkWilliam Laird Clowes |author2-linkClements Markham |author3-linkAlfred Thayer Mahan |author4-linkHerbert Wrigley Wilson |author5-linkTheodore Roosevelt |titleThe Royal Navy: A History from the Earliest Times to the Present |date1898 |page483 |volume3 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/royalnavyhistor03clow/page/482/mode/2up |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>
*1826 &ndash; The galaxy Centaurus A or NGC 5128 is discovered by James Dunlop.<ref>{{cite journal |first1Peter |last1Robertson |first2Glen |last2Cozens |first3Wayne |last3Orchiston |first4Bruce |last4Slee |first5Harry |last5Wendt |titleEarly Australian Optical and Radio Observations of Centaurus A|journalPublications of the Astronomical Society of Australia|volume27 |issue4 |date1 January 2010 |pages402–430 |issn1323-3580 |doi10.1071/AS09071 |arxiv 1012.5137 |bibcode 2010PASA...27..402R |s2cid54580482 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Dunlop |first1James |titleA catalogue of nebulæ and clusters of stars in the southern hemisphere, observed at Paramatta in New South Wales, … |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date1828 |volume118 |pages113–151 |doi10.1098/rstl.1828.0010 |urlhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstl.1828.0010}} Centaurus A is listed on p. 138 as entry number 482. A sketch of Centaurus A appears as Fig. 20 on the plate between pages 114 and 115.</ref>
*1861 &ndash; Maryland in the American Civil War: Maryland's House of Delegates votes not to secede from the Union.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastMitchell |editor1-firstCharles W. |titleMaryland Voices of the Civil War |dateJuly 2007 |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |isbn9780801886218 |page=87}}</ref>
*1862 &ndash; American Civil War: The Capture of New Orleans by Union forces under David Farragut.<ref>{{Cite book |lastHearn|firstChester G. |titleWhen the Devil Came Down to Dixie: Ben Butler in New Orleans |publisherLouisiana State University |year1997 |isbn9780807121801|locationBaton Rouge |pages243–245}}</ref>
*1864 &ndash; Theta Xi fraternity is founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the only fraternity to be founded during the American Civil War.<ref>{{cite book|titleBaird's Manual of American College Fraternities|locationMenasha, Wisc.|publisherG. Banta Co.|date1977|oclc1519027|page346|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastWatts|firstMichelle Taylor|chapterFraternities and Sororities|titleThe SAGE Encyclopedia of Economics and Society|editor-last1Wherry|editor-first1Frederick F.|editor-last2Schor|editor-first2Juliet|locationLos Angeles|publisherSAGE|date2016|isbn9781452226439|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idByWDCwAAQBAJ|page739 |viaGoogle Books}}</ref>1901–present*1903 &ndash; A landslide kills 70 people in Frank, in the District of Alberta, Canada.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://frankslide.ca/sites/frankslide/files/editor_files/Frank_Slide_Facts%20(1).pdf |titleFrank Slide facts |publisherGovernment of Alberta |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>
*1910 &ndash; The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the People's Budget, the first budget in British history with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the British public.<ref>{{cite book |titleMr. Lloyd George |lastRaymond |firstE. T. |author-link E. T. Raymond|year1922 |publisherGeorge H. Doran company |page118 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/mrlloydgeorge0000raym/page/118 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
*1911 &ndash; Tsinghua University, one of mainland China's leading universities, is founded.<ref>{{cite book|editor-lastBartlett|editor-firstNancy|titleThe University of Michigan and China: 1845–2006|locationAnn Arbor, Mich.|publisherBentley Historical Library, University of Michigan|date2006|oclc69652031|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkvXhAAAAMAAJ|page6}}</ref>
*1916 &ndash; World War I: The UK's 6th Indian Division surrenders to Ottoman Forces at the Siege of Kut in one of the largest surrenders of British forces up to that point.<ref>{{cite book |last1Barber |first1Charles H. |titleBesieged In Kut And After |date1917 |publisherWilliam Blackwood and Sons |locationEdinburgh and London |page239 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208480/page/n265/mode/2up |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>
* 1916 &ndash; Easter Rising: After six days of fighting, Irish rebel leaders surrender to British forces in Dublin, bringing the Easter Rising to an end.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Donoghue |first1Denis |titleEASTER 1916 |journalYeats Annual |date2018 |issue21 |pages39–61 |jstor90020738 |issn=0278-7687}} {{open access}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; World War II: The Surrender of Caserta is signed by the commander of German forces in Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |titleUnconditional Surrender of German and Italian Forces at Caserta |journalAmerican Journal of International Law |dateJuly 1945 |volume39 |issueS3 |pages168–169 |doi10.2307/2213918|jstor2213918 |s2cid=246011529 }}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: Airdrops of food begin over German-occupied regions of the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Willingham |first1Frank |last2Dando-Collins |first2Stephen |titleReview of Operation Chowhound: The Most Risky, Most Glorious U.S. Bomber Mission of WWII, Dando-CollinsStephen |journalAir Power History |date2015 |volume62 |issue4 |page53 |jstor26276674 |issn1044-016X}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: Adolf Hitler marries his longtime partner Eva Braun in a Berlin bunker<ref>{{cite journal |last1Evans |first1Richard J. |titleAdolf & Eva |journalThe National Interest |date2011 |issue115 |pages76–86 |jstor42896406 |issn0884-9382}}</ref> and designates Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Venkov |first1Igor N. |titleHow the Berlin Garrison Surrendered 2 May 1945 |journalArmy History |date1990 |issue17 |pages20–25 |jstor26302914 |issn1546-5330}} {{open access}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; Dachau concentration camp is liberated by United States troops.<ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/12/holocaust-remembrance-lessons-america/671893/ |titleMonuments to the Unthinkable |first1Clint |last1Smith |dateDecember 2022|access-date23 November 2022 |magazineThe Atlantic |page40 |url-accesssubscription |volume330 |issue=5}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; The International Military Tribunal for the Far East convenes and indicts former Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tojo and 28 former Japanese leaders for war crimes.<ref>{{cite book |last1Williams |first1Carrington |editor1-lastCarey |editor1-firstJohn |editor2-lastPritchard |editor2-firstR. John |editor3-lastDunlap |editor3-firstWilliam |titleInternational Humanitarian Law: Origins |date2003 |publisherTransnational Publishers |isbn9789047442820 |page105 |chapterThe Tokyo War Crimes Trial Before The International Military Tribunal For The Far East}}</ref>
*1952 &ndash; Pan Am Flight 202 crashes into the Amazon basin near Carolina, Maranhão, Brazil, killing 50 people.<ref name"ASN">{{cite web |titleAccident description: Boeing 377 Stratocruiser 10-26 |urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19520429-1 |access-dateMay 3, 2018 |workAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1953 &ndash; The first U.S. experimental 3D television broadcast shows an episode of Space Patrol on Los Angeles ABC affiliate KECA-TV.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Akar |first1Gozde B. |last2Tekalp |first2A. Murat |last3Fehn |first3Christoph |last4Civanlar |first4M. Reha |titleTransport Methods in 3DTV—A Survey |journalIEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology |dateNovember 2007 |volume17 |issue11 |pages1622–1630 |doi10.1109/TCSVT.2007.905365|s2cid17019171 }}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; After refusing induction into the United States Army the previous day, Muhammad Ali is stripped of his boxing title.<ref>{{cite news |last1Lipsyte |first1Robert |titleClay Refuses Army Oath; Stripped of Boxing Crown |urlhttps://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/10/25/specials/ali-army.html |access-date18 September 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=29 April 1967}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Vietnam War: United States and South Vietnamese forces invade Cambodia to hunt Viet Cong.<ref>{{cite book|lastRoot|firstJohn D.|chapterCambodian Incursion (April 29—July 22, 1970)|titleVietnam War: The Essential Reference Guide|editor-lastWillbanks|editor-firstJames H.|locationSanta Barbara, California |publisherABC-CLIO |date2013 |isbn9781610691031 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSCNXJkZirLUC |page25 |viaGoogle Books}}</ref>
*1974 &ndash; Watergate scandal: United States President Richard Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of White House tape recordings relating to the scandal.<ref>{{cite news|lastHerbers|firstJohn|titleNixon Will Give Edited Tape Transcripts on Watergate to House and the Public|workThe New York Times|dateApril 30, 1974|pages1, 32}}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Vietnam War: Operation Frequent Wind: The U.S. begins to evacuate U.S. citizens from Saigon before an expected North Vietnamese takeover. U.S. involvement in the war comes to an end.<ref>{{cite book |last1Tobin |first1Thomas G. |last2Laehr |first2Arthur E. |last3Hilgenberg |first3John F. |editor1-lastLavalle |editor1-firstA. J. C. |titleLast Flight from Saigon |date1978 |publisherU.S. Government Printing Office |pagevii |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjmt5xxGOtb4C |access-date18 September 2023 |viaGoogle Books}}</ref>
* 1975 &ndash; Vietnam War: The North Vietnamese army completes its capture of all parts of South Vietnam-held Trường Sa Islands.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Yow |first1Cheun Hoe. |titleResources for China-ASEAN Relations, April to November 2003: Chronology of Events |journalChina: An International Journal |date2004 |volume2 |issue1 |pages171–184 |doi10.1353/chn.2004.0008|s2cid153394064 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; A fire at the Central library of the Los Angeles Public Library damages or destroys 400,000 books and other items.<ref>{{cite news |last1Hughes |first1Kathryn |titleThe Library Book by Susan Orlean – what LA lost when its library burned down |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/feb/16/the-library-book-review-by-susan-orlean |access-date20 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=16 February 2019}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; The United States Navy aircraft carrier {{USS|Enterprise|CVN-65|6}} becomes the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier to transit the Suez Canal, navigating from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to relieve the {{USS|Coral Sea|CV-43|6}}.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/e/enterprise-cvan-65-viii-1986-1990.html|title Enterprise VIII (CVAN-65)1986-1990|author<!--Not stated--> |date 12 September 2005|websiteNaval History and Heritage Command |publisher official U.S. Navy web site|access-date27 Apr 2021 |quote"Beginning at 0300 on 29 April 1986, Enterprise became the first nuclear powered carrier to transit the Suez Canal. ... At 0402, Enterprise entered the canal, exiting at 1514 when she entered the Med for the first time in almost 22 years."}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; An assembly of Sikhs, known as a Sarbat Khalsa, officially declared independence for a state of Khalistan.<ref>{{Cite web|titleSarbat Khalsa and Gurmata|urlhttp://www.sikhnet.com/news/sarbat-khalsa-and-gurmata|lastSingh|firstI.|websiteSikhNet|date10 July 2012|access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; A cyclone strikes the Chittagong district of southeastern Bangladesh with winds of around {{convert|155|mph|kph}}, killing at least 138,000 people and leaving as many as ten million homeless.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Khalil |first1Gazi Md. |titleThe catastrophic cyclone of April 1991: Its Impact on the economy of Bangladesh |journalNatural Hazards |dateNovember 1993 |volume8 |issue3 |pages263–281 |doi10.1007/BF00690911|bibcode1993NatHa...8..263K |s2cid=129021230 }}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; The 7.0 {{M|w}} Racha earthquake affects Georgia with a maximum MSK intensity of IX (Destructive), killing 270 people.<ref>{{cite journal |lastJibson|firstR.W.|author2Prentice C.S.|author3Borissoff B.A.|author4Rogozhin E.A.|author5Langer C.J.|name-list-styleamp |year1994|titleSome Observations of Landslides Triggered by the 29 April 1991 Racha Earthquake, Republic of Georgia|journalBulletin of the Seismological Society of America|volume84|issue4|urlhttp://profile.usgs.gov/myscience/upload_folder/ci2009Apr221601094273745-Racha%20landslides,%20BSSA.pdf|accessdate10 August 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100531195424/http://profile.usgs.gov/myscience/upload_folder/ci2009Apr221601094273745-Racha%20landslides,%20BSSA.pdf|archive-date31 May 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Riots in Los Angeles begin, following the acquittal of police officers charged with excessive force in the beating of Rodney King. Over the next three days 63 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed.<ref>{{cite news |last1Serrano |first1Richard A. |titleAll 4 Acquitted in King Beating Verdict Stirs Outrage; Bradley Calls It Senseless Trial: Ventura County jury rejects charges of excessive force in episode captured on videotape. A mistrial is declared on one count against Officer Powell. |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-30-mn-1942-story.html |access-date29 November 2021 |workLos Angeles Times |date30 April 1992 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100501174513/https://articles.latimes.com/1992-04-30/news/mn-1942_1_ventura-county-jury |archive-date1 May 2010}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 enters into force, outlawing the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons by its signatories.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Herby |first1Peter |titleChemical Weapons Convention enters into force |journalInternational Review of the Red Cross |date30 April 1997 |volume37 |issue317 |pages208–209 |doi10.1017/S0020860400085156 |urlhttps://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/57jnja.htm |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; The final Oldsmobile is built in Lansing, Michigan, ending 107 years of vehicle production.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-end-of-the-road-for-oldsmobile|titleThe end of the road for Oldsmobile}}</ref>
*2011 &ndash; The Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton takes place at Westminster Abbey in London.<ref>{{cite news |titleRoyal Wedding date chosen by Prince William and Kate |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11818049 |workBBC News |access-date29 November 2021 |date=23 November 2010}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; A powerful explosion occurs in an office building in Prague, believed to have been caused by natural gas, and injures 43 people.<ref>{{cite news |agencyAssociated Press |titlePrague explosion possibly caused by gas injures dozens |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/29/explosion-prague-injures-dozens |access-date29 November 2021 |workThe Guardian |date29 April 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; National Airlines Flight 102, a Boeing 747-400 freighter aircraft, crashes during takeoff from Bagram Airfield in Parwan Province, Afghanistan, killing all seven people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20130429-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 747-428BCF N949CA Bagram Air Base (BPM)|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-07-13}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; A baseball game between the Baltimore Orioles and the Chicago White Sox sets the all-time low attendance mark for Major League Baseball. Zero fans were in attendance for the game, as the stadium was officially closed to the public due to the 2015 Baltimore protests.<ref>{{cite web |titleWhite Sox-Orioles game will be played Wednesday, closed to public |urlhttps://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/12781465/baltimore-orioles-chicago-white-sox-series-finale-played-wednesday-closed-public |websiteESPN |access-date29 November 2021 |date=28 April 2015}}</ref>
<!-- PLEASE do not add video game release dates. They will be removed on sight -->
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list. -->
Pre-1600
*1469 &ndash; William II, Landgrave of Hesse (d. 1509)<ref>{{cite web |last1Franz |first1Eckhart G. |titleHessen, Wilhelm II. Landgraf von |urlhttps://www.lagis-hessen.de/pnd/133272605 |websiteHessische Biografie |publisherHessisches Institut für Landesgeschichte |access-date18 September 2023 |languagede}}</ref>
*1587 &ndash; Sophie of Saxony, Duchess of Pomerania (d. 1635)<ref>{{cite web |last1Essegern |first1Ute |titleBiografie von Sophia von Sachsen (1587-1635) |urlhttps://saebi.isgv.de/biografie/23432 |websiteSächsische Biografie |publisherInstitut für Sächsische Geschichte und Volkskunde |access-date18 September 2023 |languagede}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1636 &ndash; Esaias Reusner, German lute player and composer (d. 1679)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Buelow |first1George J. |titleReusner [Reussner], Esaias (ii) |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.23273}}</ref>
*1665 &ndash; James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, Irish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1745)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Handley |first1Stuart |titleButler, James, second duke of Ormond (1665–1745), army officer, politician, and Jacobite conspirator |date25 May 2006 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4193}}</ref>
*1667 &ndash; John Arbuthnot, Scottish-English physician and polymath (d. 1735)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Ross |first1Angus |titleArbuthnot [Arbuthnott], John (bap. 1667, d. 1735), physician and satirist |date2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/610}}</ref>
*1727 &ndash; Jean-Georges Noverre, French actor and dancer (d. 1810)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Hansell |first1Kathleen Kuzmick |titleNoverre, Jean-Georges |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20148}}</ref>
*1745 &ndash; Oliver Ellsworth, American lawyer and politician, 3rd Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1807)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Casto |first1William R. |titleEllsworth, Oliver (1745-1807), chief justice of the United States |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0200120}}</ref>
*1758 &ndash; Georg Carl von Döbeln, Swedish general (d. 1820)<ref>{{cite book |lastBohman |firstNils |urlhttps://runeberg.org/smok/2/0332.html |titleSvenska män och kvinnor |date1955 |publisherBonnier |pages294 |languagesv |oclc312499086 |access-date20 April 2023}}</ref>
*1762 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, French general and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1833)<ref>{{cite book |titleMerriam Webster's Biographical Dictionary |date1995 |publisherMerriam-Webster, Inc. |isbn9780877797432 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1681155752/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid59e18b13 |access-date20 April 2023 |chapterJean-Baptiste Jourdan |via=Gale}}</ref>
*1780 &ndash; Charles Nodier, French librarian and author (d. 1844)<ref>{{cite book |titleMerriam Webster's Biographical Dictionary |date1995 |publisherMerriam-Webster, Inc. |isbn9780877797432 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1680098300/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xida5076a57 |access-date20 April 2023 |chapter(Jean) Charles (Emmanuel) Nodier |via=Gale}}</ref>
*1783 &ndash; David Cox, English landscape painter (d. 1859)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Wildman |first1Stephen |titleCox, David (1783–1859), landscape painter |date3 October 2013 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/6520}}</ref>
*1784 &ndash; Samuel Turell Armstrong, American publisher and politician, 14th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1850)<ref>{{cite book |titleThe New England Historical and Genealogical Register |date1890 |publisherNew England Historic Genealogical Society |page137 |volume=44}}</ref>
*1810 &ndash; Thomas Adolphus Trollope, English journalist and author (d. 1892)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Neville-Sington |first1Pamela |titleTrollope, Thomas Adolphus [Tom] (1810–1892), historian and writer |date27 May 2010 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/27755}}</ref>
*1818 &ndash; Alexander II of Russia (d. 1881)<ref>{{cite book |last1Newton |first1Michael |titleFamous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia |date2014 |publisherABC-CLIO |locationSanta Barbara, California |isbn9781610692861 |pages12–13 |volume=1}}</ref>
*1837 &ndash; Georges Ernest Boulanger, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1891)<ref>{{cite book |titleLes parlementaires de la Seine sous la Troisième République |languagefr |year2001| volume1 |publisherUniversity of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne |first1Jean-Marie |last1Mayeur|first2Arlette |last2Schweitz |page97 |isbn9782859444327 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=BR2MUSf6OhIC}}</ref>
*1842 &ndash; Carl Millöcker, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1899)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Lamb |first1Andrew |titleMillöcker, Carl |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.18701}}</ref>
*1847 &ndash; Joachim Andersen, Danish flautist, composer and conductor (d. 1907)<ref>{{cite journal |titleObituary: Joachim Andersen |journalThe Musical Times |date1909 |volume50 |issue797 |page456 |jstor907558 |issn0027-4666}}</ref>
*1848 &ndash; Raja Ravi Varma, Indian painter and academic (d. 1906)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Kumar |first1R. Siva |titleVarma, (Raja) Ravi |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T087983|isbn=9781884446054 }}</ref>
*1854 &ndash; Henri Poincaré, French mathematician, physicist and engineer (d. 1912)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Jourdain |first1Philip E. B. |titleHENRI POINCARÉ: OBITUARY |journalThe Monist |date1912 |volume22 |issue4 |pages611–615 |doi10.5840/monist191222422 |jstor27900399 |issn=0026-9662}}</ref>
*1863 &ndash; Constantine P. Cavafy, Egyptian-Greek journalist and poet (d. 1933)<ref>{{cite book |last1Liddell |first1Robert |titleCavafy: A Critical Biography |date1974 |publisherDuckworth |locationLondon |isbn0715607294 |page23}}</ref>
* 1863 &ndash; William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and politician, founded the Hearst Corporation (d. 1951)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Leonard |first1Thomas C. |titleHearst, William Randolph (1863-1951), publisher |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1600738}}</ref>
* 1863 &ndash; Maria Teresia Ledóchowska, Austrian nun and missionary (d. 1922)<ref>{{cite book |last1Attwater |first1Donald |titleA New Dictionary of Saints |date1994 |publisherLiturgical Press |isbn0814623247 |page=218}}</ref>
*1872 &ndash; Harry Payne Whitney, American businessman and lawyer (d. 1930)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Hamburger |first1Susan |titleWhitney, Harry Payne (1872-1930), financier and sportsman |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1900236}}</ref>
* 1872 &ndash; Forest Ray Moulton, American astronomer and academic (d. 1952)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Osterbrock |first1Donald E. |titleMoulton, Forest Ray (1872-1952), theoretical astronomer and mathematician |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1301191}}</ref>
*1875 &ndash; Rafael Sabatini, Italian-English novelist and short story writer (d. 1950)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1MacDonald Fraser |first1George |titleSabatini, Rafael (1875–1950), novelist |date6 January 2011 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/37926}}</ref>
*1879 &ndash; Thomas Beecham, English conductor (d. 1961)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Crichton |first1Ronald |last2Lucas |first2John |titleBeecham, Sir Thomas |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.02507}}</ref>
*1880 &ndash; Adolf Chybiński, Polish historian, musicologist and academic (d. 1952)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Szweykowski |first1Zygmunt M. |titleChybiński, Adolf (Eustachy) |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.05743}}</ref>
*1882 &ndash; Auguste Herbin, French painter (d. 1960)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Costa |first1Vanina |titleHerbin, Auguste |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T037714}}</ref>
* 1882 &ndash; Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman, Dutch printer, typographer, and Nazi resister (d. 1945)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Steen |first1John |titleWerkman, Hendrik Nicolaas |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T091177}}</ref>
*1885 &ndash; Egon Erwin Kisch, Czech journalist and author (d. 1948)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Slater |first1Ken |titleEgon Kisch: A Biographical Outline |journalLabour History |date1979 |issue36 |pages94–103 |doi10.2307/27508355 |jstor=27508355}}</ref>
*1887 &ndash; Robert Cushman Murphy, American ornithologist (d. 1973)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Amadon |first1Dean |titleIn Memoriam: Robert Cushman Murphy April 29, 1887-March 20, 1973 |journalThe Auk |dateJanuary 1974 |volume91 |issue1 |pages1–9 |doi10.2307/4084656 |jstor4084656|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*1888 &ndash; Michael Heidelberger, American immunologist (d. 1991)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Stacey |first1Maurice |titleMichael Heidelberger, 29 April 1888 - 25 June 1991 |journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |dateFebruary 1994 |volume39 |pages177–197 |doi10.1098/rsbm.1994.0011|pmid11639904 |s2cid46518538 }}</ref>
*1891 &ndash; Edward Wilfred Taylor, British businessman (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Payne |first1B. O. |titleEdward Wilfred Taylor, 29 April 1891 - 1 November 1980 |journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |dateNovember 1981 |volume27 |pages562–577 |doi10.1098/rsbm.1981.0022|s2cid=57734028 }}</ref>
*1893 &ndash; Harold Urey, American chemist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Costa |first1Albert B. |titleUrey, Harold Clayton (1893-1981), physical chemist and planetary scientist |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1302119}}</ref>
*1894 &ndash; Marietta Blau, Austrian physicist and academic (d. 1970)<ref>{{cite book|firstLeopold E.|lastHalpen|chapterMarietta Blau|editor-first1Marelene F.|editor-last1Rayner-Canham|editor-first2Geoffrey|editor-last2Rayner-Canham|titleA Devotion to Their Science: Pioneer Women of Radioactivity|locationMontréal|publisherMcGill-Queen's University Press|year1997|isbn9780773516427|page=196}}</ref>
*1895 &ndash; Vladimir Propp, Russian scholar and critic (d. 1970)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Levin |first1Isidor |titleVladimir Propp: An Evaluation on His Seventieth Birthday |journalJournal of the Folklore Institute |dateJune 1967 |volume4 |issue1 |pages32–49 |doi10.2307/3813911 |jstor3813911}}</ref>
* 1895 &ndash; Malcolm Sargent, English organist, composer and conductor (d. 1967)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Crichton |first1Ronald |titleSargent, Sir (Harold) Malcolm |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24590}}</ref>
*1898 &ndash; E. J. Bowen, British physical chemist (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Bell |first1Ronald Percy |titleEdmund John Bowen, 29 April 1898 - 19 November 1980 |journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |dateNovember 1981 |volume27 |pages83–101 |doi10.1098/rsbm.1981.0004|s2cid=72246851 }}</ref>
*1899 &ndash; Duke Ellington, American pianist, composer and bandleader (d. 1974)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Collier |first1James Lincoln |titleEllington, Duke (1899-1974), jazz musician and composer |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1800355}}</ref>
* 1899 &ndash; Mary Petty, American illustrator (d. 1976)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Wepman |first1Dennis |titlePetty, Mary (1899-1976), cartoonist and illustrator |dateApril 2008 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1701972}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Amelia Best, Australian politician (d. 1979)<ref>{{cite Tas Parliament |idbesta521 |titleAmelia Martha Best |access-date25 August 2022}}</ref>1901–present*1901 &ndash; Hirohito, Japanese emperor (d. 1989)<ref>{{cite news |titleHirohito Dies, Ending 62 Years as Japan's Ruler |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-01-08-mn-196-story.html |access-date20 March 2023 |workLos Angeles Times |agencyAssociated Press |date=8 January 1989}}</ref>
*1907 &ndash; Fred Zinnemann, Austrian-American director and producer (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Collins |first1Thomas W. |titleZinnemann, Fred (1907-1997), film director |dateJune 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1803512}}</ref>
*1908 &ndash; Jack Williamson, American author and academic (d. 2006)<ref>{{cite news |last1Fox |first1Margalit |titleJack Williamson, 98, an Author Revered in Science Fiction Field, Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/14/obituaries/14williamson.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=14 November 2006}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Tom Ewell, American actor (d. 1994)<ref>{{cite news |last1Shipman |first1David |titleObituary: Tom Ewell |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-tom-ewell-1448689.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Independent |date13 September 1994 |languageen}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; Richard Carlson, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1977)<ref>{{cite news |last1Shannon |first1Ed |titleRichard Carlson: Albert Lea's other film and television star |urlhttps://www.albertleatribune.com/2016/12/richard-carlson-albert-leas-other-film-and-television-star/ |access-date19 March 2023 |workAlbert Lea Tribune |date24 December 2016 |languageen}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; Henry H. Barschall, German-American physicist and academic (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Haeberli |first1Willy |last2DeLuca |first2Paul M. |last3Davis |first3Jay C. |titleHenry Herman Barschall |journalPhysics Today |dateJune 1997 |volume50 |issue6 |pages106–108 |doi10.1063/1.881755|doi-accessfree }}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; Maya Deren, Ukrainian-American director, poet, and photographer (d. 1961)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Barker |first1Jennifer M. |titleDeren, Maya (1917-1961), avant-garde filmmaker |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1800304}}</ref>
* 1917 &ndash; Celeste Holm, American actress and singer (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleCeleste Holm obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jul/15/celeste-holm |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=15 July 2012}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; George Allen, American football player and coach (d. 1990)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Thackeray |first1Frank W. |titleAllen, George Herbert (1918-1990), college and professional football coach |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1900673}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Gérard Oury, French actor, director and screenwriter (d. 2006)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleGérard Oury |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/jul/29/guardianobituaries.france |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=28 July 2006}}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; Edward Blishen, English author and radio host (d. 1996)<ref>{{cite news |last1Tucker |first1Nicholas |titleOBITUARY : Edward Blishen |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-edward-blishen-1314845.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Independent |date16 December 1996 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1920 &ndash; Harold Shapero, American composer (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news |last1Tommasini |first1Anthony |titleHarold Shapero, American Neo-Classical Composer, Dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/22/arts/music/harold-shapero-93-american-neo-classical-composer-dies.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=22 May 2013}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Parren Mitchell, American politician (d. 2007)<ref>{{CongBio |idM000826 |nameMITCHELL, Parren James |inline=YES}}</ref>
* 1922 &ndash; Toots Thielemans, Belgian guitarist and harmonica player (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite news |last1Fordham |first1John |titleToots Thielemans obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/aug/23/toots-thielemans-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=23 August 2016}}</ref>
*1923 &ndash; Irvin Kershner, American actor, director and producer (d. 2010)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleIrvin Kershner obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/nov/29/irvin-kershner-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=29 November 2010}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Zizi Jeanmaire, French ballerina and actress (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite news |last1Cruickshank |first1Judith |titleZizi Jeanmaire obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2020/jul/17/zizi-jeanmaire-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; John Compton, Saint Lucian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Saint Lucia (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Black Biography |date2008 |publisherGale |issn1058-1316 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1606003894/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid9a0a769b |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJohn Compton |volume65}}</ref>
* 1925 &ndash; Iwao Takamoto, American animator, director, and producer (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite news |last1Wells |first1Paul |titleIwao Takamoto |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/jan/29/guardianobituaries.obituaries |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=29 January 2007}}</ref>
*1926 &ndash; Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite news |last1Weber |first1Bruce |titleElmer Kelton, Novelist of the Changing West, Dies at 83 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/03/books/03kelton.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=2 September 2009}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Dorothy Manley, English sprinter (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news |titleDorothy Manley, sprinter who won silver behind the 'Flying Housewife' Fanny Blankers-Koen at the 1948 Olympic Games – obituary |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/obituaries/2021/11/19/dorothy-manley-sprinter-won-silver-behind-flying-housewife-fanny/ |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Telegraph |date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
* 1927 &ndash; Bill Slater, English footballer (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page780 |editionFirst}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Carl Gardner, American singer (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite news |last1Laing |first1Dave |titleCarl Gardner obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2011/jun/13/carl-gardner-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=13 June 2011}}</ref>
* 1928 &ndash; Heinz Wolff, German-English physiologist, engineer, and academic (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Radford |first1Tim |titleHeinz Wolff obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/dec/17/heinz-wolff-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=17 December 2017}}</ref>
*1929 &ndash; Walter Kempowski, German author and academic (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite news |last1Vat |first1Dan van der |titleWalter Kempowski |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/nov/06/guardianobituaries.secondworldwar |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=6 November 2007}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Peter Sculthorpe, Australian composer and conductor (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Matthews |first1David |titlePeter Sculthorpe obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/aug/13/peter-sculthorpe |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=13 August 2014}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; April Stevens, American singer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/26/arts/music/april-stevens-dead.html |titleApril Stevens Dies at 93; Her 'Deep Purple' Became a Surprise Hit |lastSlotnik |firstDaniel E. |workThe New York Times |date27 April 2023 |access-date=27 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Maurice Strong, Canadian businessman and diplomat (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |last1Roberts |first1Sam |titleMaurice Strong, Environmental Champion, Dies at 86 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/02/world/americas/maurice-strong-environmental-champion-dies-at-86.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=2 December 2015}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Jeremy Thorpe, English lawyer and politician (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Howard |first1Anthony |last2Steel |first2David |titleJeremy Thorpe obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/dec/04/jeremy-thorpe |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=4 December 2014}}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; Jean Rochefort, French actor and director (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleJean Rochefort obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/oct/09/jean-rochefort-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=9 October 2017}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; Frank Auerbach, German-British painter<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Artists |date2001 |publisherGale |isbn9781558624078 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1636000872/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid0647a911 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterFrank Auerbach}}</ref> (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news |lastGrimes |firstWilliam |dateNovember 12, 2024 |titleFrank Auerbach, a Celebrated and Tireless Painter, Dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/12/arts/frank-auerbach-dead.html |access-dateNovember 13, 2024 |workThe New York Times}}</ref>
* 1931 &ndash; Lonnie Donegan, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)<ref>{{cite news |last1Denselow |first1Robin |titleLonnie Donegan |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/nov/05/guardianobituaries.arts |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=5 November 2002}}</ref>
* 1931 &ndash; Chris Pearson, Canadian politician, 1st Premier of Yukon (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Padgham |first1Massey |last2Butler |first2Jim |titleTories laud Pearson for advancing gov't |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/whitehorse-daily-star-tories-laud-pearso/123670562/ |access-date28 April 2023 |workWhitehorse Daily Star |date17 October 1984 |page5 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; David Tindle, English painter and educator<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Artists |date2001 |publisherGale |isbn9781558624078 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1636001577/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid0fdb4206 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=David Tindle}}</ref>
* 1932 &ndash; Dmitry Zaikin, Soviet pilot and cosmonaut instructor (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite book |last1Burgess |first1Colin |last2Hall |first2Rex |titleThe First Soviet Cosmonaut Team: Their Lives, Legacy, and Historical Impact |date2009 |publisherSpringer |locationBerlin |isbn9780387848235 |page74 |lccn=2008935694}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Ed Charles, American baseball player and coach (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite news |last1Vecsey |first1George |titleEd Charles, Infield Sage of the Miracle Mets, Is Dead at 84 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/15/obituaries/ed-charles-a-mainstay-of-the-miracle-mets-dies-at-84.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=15 March 2018}}</ref>
* 1933 &ndash; Rod McKuen, American singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |last1Carlson |first1Michael |titleRod McKuen obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/feb/01/rod-mckuen |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=1 February 2015}}</ref>
* 1933 &ndash; Willie Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer and actor<ref>{{cite news |last1Millburg |first1Steve |titleCountry's Outlaw Earns Respect |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/tampa-bay-times-countrys-outlaw-earns-r/123669776/ |access-date28 April 2023 |workSt. Petersburg Times |date12 May 1989 |page21 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; Luis Aparicio, Venezuelan-American baseball player<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Hispanic Biography |date1996 |publisherGale |isbn9780810383029 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1611000022/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid8354eaa9 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Luis Ernesto Aparicio, Jr.}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Pedro Pires, Cape Verdean politician, 3rd President of Cape Verde<ref>{{cite book |titleWorldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations |date2004 |publisherThomson, Gale |locationDetroit |isbn9780787677732 |volume6 |edition11th |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K2303600386/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid1a20a0a7 |access-date21 March 2023 |chapter=Pedro Verona Rodrigues Pires, President of Cape Verde}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; Otis Rush, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite news |last1Russell |first1Tony |titleOtis Rush obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/oct/03/otis-rush-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=3 October 2018}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Zubin Mehta, Indian conductor<ref>{{cite news |titleZubin Mehta {{!}} Biography, Conductor, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Zubin-Mehta |access-date29 April 2024 |workBritannica.com |date=25 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Adolfo Nicolás, Spanish priest, 13th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Schmidt |first1Edward W. |titleFormer Jesuit superior general Adolfo Nicolás has died in Tokyo |urlhttps://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2020/05/20/former-jesuit-superior-general-adolfo-nicolas-has-died-tokyo |access-date19 March 2023 |magazineAmerica |date20 May 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Alejandra Pizarnik, Argentine poet (d. 1972)<ref>{{cite news |last1Centenera |first1Mar |titleAlejandra Pizarnik: 'I write against fear' |urlhttps://english.elpais.com/culture/2022-09-27/i-write-against-fear.html |access-date14 April 2024 |workEL PAÍS English |date27 September 2022 |languageen-us}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, English banker and philanthropist (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bevan |first1Judi |titleInside the Rothschild outsider |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/sunday-telegraph-inside-the-rothschild-o/123669863/ |access-date28 April 2023 |workThe Sunday Telegraph |date23 January 1994 |page30 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; Jill Paton Walsh, English author (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite news |last1Eccleshare |first1Julia |titleJill Paton Walsh obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/oct/26/jill-paton-walsh-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=26 October 2020}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Steven Bach, American writer, businessman and educator (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleSteven Bach |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2009/apr/01/obituary-steven-bach |access-date18 September 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=31 March 2009}}</ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Bernie Madoff, American businessman, financier and convicted felon (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news |last1Henriques |first1Diana B. |titleBernard Madoff, Architect of Largest Ponzi Scheme in History, Is Dead at 82 |newspaperThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/14/business/bernie-madoff-dead.html |access-date15 April 2021 |date=14 April 2021}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; Klaus Rinke, German contemporary artist<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Artists |date2001 |publisherGale |isbn9781558624078 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1636001458/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid2b24ea0a |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Klaus Rinke}}</ref>
*1940 &ndash; George Adams, American musician (d. 1992)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Priestley |first1Brian |last2Kernfeld |first2Barry |titleAdams, George |date2003 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.J002300}}</ref>
* 1940 &ndash; Peter Diamond, American economist<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2010 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650007280/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidd19a068a |access-date18 September 2023 |formatCollection |chapterPeter Arthur Diamond }}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; Hanne Darboven, German painter (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Artists |date2001 |publisherGale |isbn9781558624078 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1636001014/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid0f064b4f |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterHanne Darboven |volume49}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Dick Chrysler, American politician<ref>{{CongBio |idC000385 |nameCHRYSLER, Dick |inline=YES}}</ref>
* 1942 &ndash; Rennie Fritchie, Baroness Fritchie, English civil servant and academic<ref>{{cite journal |titleFritchie, Baroness, (Irene Tordoff Fritchie) (born 29 April 1942) |journalUK Who's Who |date1 December 2022 |doi10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U16506}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Duane Allen, American country singer<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Westerfield |first1David |titleDuane Allen: A good old Oak Ridge Boy |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-odessa-american-duane-allen-a-good/123670012/ |access-date28 April 2023 |magazineTexas Weekly |date17 November 1985 |page5 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Brenda Dean, Baroness Dean of Thornton-le-Fylde, English union leader and politician (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite news |last1Langdon |first1Julia |titleLady Dean of Thornton-le-Fylde obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/mar/18/lady-dean-of-thornton-le-fylde-obituary |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=18 March 2018}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Ruth Deech, Baroness Deech, English lawyer and academic<ref>{{cite journal |titleDeech, Baroness, (Ruth Lynn Deech) (born 29 April 1943) |journalUK Who's Who |date1 December 2019 |doi10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U13364}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; Francis Lee, English footballer and businessman (d. 2023)<ref namep500>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page500 |edition=First}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; Hugh Hopper, English bass guitarist (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite news |last1Sweeting |first1Adam |titleHugh Hopper |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/jun/10/obituary-hugh-hopper |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=9 June 2009}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; Catherine Lara, French singer-songwriter and violinist<ref>{{cite web |titleLara, Catherine |urlhttps://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w62j6m6c |publisherSocial Networks and Archival Context |access-date28 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; Tammi Terrell, American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1970)<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Musicians |date2004 |publisherGale |issn1044-2197 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1608004195/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid4faeb32e |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterTammi Terrell |volume49}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Rodney Frelinghuysen, American politician and lobbyist<ref>{{CongBio |idF000372 |nameFRELINGHUYSEN, Rodney P. |inline=YES}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Tommy James, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer<ref>{{cite book |titleBaker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians |date2001 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K2420005622/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid43161ebb |access-date21 March 2023 |chapter=Tommy James}}</ref>
* 1947 &ndash; Johnny Miller, American golfer and sportscaster<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date18 April 2002 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000170350/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid12794a63 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=John (Laurence) Miller }}</ref>
* 1947 &ndash; Jim Ryun, American runner and politician<ref>{{CongBio |idR000566 |nameRYUN, Jim |inline=YES}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Edith Brown Clement, American judge<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2005 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650004971/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidf90b7790 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterEdith Brown Clement }}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Paul Holmes, New Zealand journalist (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news |titleSir Paul Holmes 1950-2013 |urlhttps://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/broadcaster-sir-paul-holmes-dies-at-62/MSC37V5XOVHEZ4IWMH4VXMTDDE/ |access-date20 March 2023 |workThe New Zealand Herald |agencyAssociated Press |date1 February 2013 |language=en-NZ}}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; Phillip Noyce, Australian director and producer<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date12 August 2010 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000170350/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid12794a63 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Phillip Noyce }}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; Debbie Stabenow, American social worker and politician<ref>{{CongBio |idS000770 |nameSTABENOW, Deborah Ann |inline=YES}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Dale Earnhardt, American race car driver (d. 2001)<ref>{{cite book |chapterDale Earnhardt |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1618003367/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid42ee0947 |titleNewsmakers |publisherGale |access-date3 June 2010 |date12 March 2021 |issn0899-0417}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; Jon Stanhope, Australian politician<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2016 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650010484/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid293b93ac |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJon Stanhope }}</ref>
*1952 &ndash; Geraldine Doogue, Australian journalist and television host<ref>{{cite news |titleBirths |urlhttps://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/49029046 |access-date28 September 2020 |workWest Australian |date30 April 1952 |locationPerth, WA |page=20}}</ref>
* 1952 &ndash; Nora Dunn, American actress and comedian<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2009 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609025677/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid4b2bbcc4 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterNora Dunn |volume93}}</ref>
* 1952 &ndash; Bob McClure, American baseball player and coach<ref>{{cite news |last1Barkowitz |first1Ed |titleThe Newcomers: Bob McClure |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/philadelphia-daily-news-the-newcomers-b/123670433/ |access-date28 April 2023 |workPhiladelphia Daily News |date19 February 2014 |page56 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
* 1952 &ndash; Dave Valentin, American flautist (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Roberts |first1Sam |titleDave Valentin, a Grammy Award-Winning Latin Jazz Flutist, Dies at 64 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/arts/music/dave-valentin-dead-latin-jazz-flutist.html |access-date21 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=8 March 2017}}</ref>
* 1953 &ndash; Bill Drummond, British musician<ref>{{LibraryOfMu|tlnews|mu-id388|lastMcKerron|firstIan|titleDuo Burn £1M in Midnight Madness|workDaily Express|date1 October 1994|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160916115543/http://www.libraryofmu.net/display-resource.php?id388|archive-date16 September 2016}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; Mo Brooks, American attorney and politician<ref>{{CongBio |idB001274 |nameBROOKS, Mo |inline=YES}}</ref>
* 1954 &ndash; Jerry Seinfeld, American comedian, actor and producer<ref>{{cite book |chapterJerry Seinfeld |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1618001131/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid5d8006fc |titleNewsmakers |publisherGale |access-date25 October 2021 |date12 March 2021 |issn0899-0417}}</ref>
*1955 &ndash; Leslie Jordan, American actor, comedian, writer and singer (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite news |last1Carlson |first1Michael |titleLeslie Jordan obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2022/nov/07/leslie-jordan-obituary |access-date21 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=7 November 2022}}</ref>
* 1955 &ndash; Kate Mulgrew, American actress<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date29 May 2019 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000317399/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidbbe49015 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Kate Mulgrew }}</ref>
*1957 &ndash; Daniel Day-Lewis, British actor<ref>{{cite book |chapterDaniel Day-Lewis |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1618000493/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid5e75b610 |titleNewsmakers |publisherGale |access-date21 March 2023 |date29 March 2017 |issn0899-0417}}</ref>
* 1957 &ndash; Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa, Samoan politician, 7th Prime Minister of Samoa<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2021 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650012422/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid21becfe2 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterFiame Naomi Mata'afa }}</ref>
* 1957 &ndash; Joseph Morelle, American politician<ref>{{CongBio |idM001206 |nameMORELLE, Joseph |inline=YES}}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; Kevin Moore, English footballer (d. 2013)<ref namemoore>{{cite news |last1Ponting |first1Ivan |titleKevin Moore: Defensive stalwart for Southampton |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/kevin-moore-defensive-stalwart-for-southampton-8608344.html |access-date19 March 2023 |workThe Independent |date8 May 2013 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1958 &ndash; Michelle Pfeiffer, American actress<ref>{{cite book |chapterMichelle Pfeiffer |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1618001676/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid1cbf709b |titleNewsmakers |publisherGale |access-date21 March 2023 |date12 March 2021 |issn0899-0417}}</ref>
* 1958 &ndash; Eve Plumb, American actress<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2002 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609013273/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid4adee5b0 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterEve Plumb |volume38}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; Robert J. Sawyer, Canadian author and academic<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date2022 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000117445/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid9759b27a |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Robert J. Sawyer }}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Polly Samson, English novelist, lyricist and journalist<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date15 December 2016 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000204936/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid84712a09 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Polly Samson }}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; Mike Babcock, Canadian ice hockey player and coach<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date20 November 2014 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000309854/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid28965ded |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Mike Babcock }}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Federico Castelluccio, Italian-American actor, director, producer and screenwriter<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2009 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609024779/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidba6090bd |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterFederico Castelluccio |volume89}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Lúðvík Bergvinsson, Icelandic politician<ref>{{cite web |titleÞingmenn: Alþingismannatal - Æviágrip þingmanna frá 1845 - Lúðvík Bergvinsson |urlhttps://www.althingi.is/altext/cv/is/?nfaerslunr407 |publisherAlthing |access-date7 November 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231014163613/https://www.althingi.is/altext/cv/is/?nfaerslunr407 |archive-date14 October 2023 |locationReykjavík, Iceland |languageis}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Michel Bussi, French geographer, author, and academic<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date29 March 2017 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000322256/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid457d384a |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Michel Bussi }}</ref>
* 1965 &ndash; Amy Krouse Rosenthal, American author (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Roberts |first1Sam |titleAmy Krouse Rosenthal, Children's Author and Filmmaker, Dies at 51 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/13/style/amy-krouse-rosenthal-dies-modern-love.html |access-date21 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=13 March 2017}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Christian Tetzlaff, German violinist<ref>{{cite book |titleBaker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians |date2001 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K2420011853/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid40aedd0e |access-date21 March 2023 |chapter=Christian Tetzlaff}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, Croatian politician and diplomat, 4th President of Croatia<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date1 February 2016 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650009707/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid2203172a |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterKolinda Grabar-Kitarovic }}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; Paul Adelstein, American actor and writer<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2011 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609029659/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidb1f7a72f |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterPaul Adelstein |volume113}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Andre Agassi, American tennis player<ref>{{cite book |last1Parsons |first1John |titleThe Ultimate Encyclopedia of Tennis: The Definitive Illustrated Guide to World Tennis |date2006 |publisherCarlton Books Ltd |locationLondon |isbn9781844421572 |page73}}</ref>
* 1970 &ndash; Uma Thurman, American actress<ref>{{cite book |chapterUma Thurman |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1618002413/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid61ef3d5a |titleNewsmakers |publisherGale |access-date21 March 2023 |date20 April 2015 |issn0899-0417}}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Garrison Starr, American singer-songwriter and producer<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Musicians |date2013 |publisherGale |issn1044-2197 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1608006079/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid8bac5f2c |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterGarrison Starr |volume76}}</ref>
* 1975 &ndash; April Telek, Canadian actress<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2012 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609031222/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid7d8f76a7 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterApril Telek |volume120}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Micol Ostow, American author, editor and educator<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date12 August 2015 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000166125/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid557593eb |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Micol Ostow }}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; God Shammgod, American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite book |titleWho's Who Among African Americans |date2021 |publisherGale |issn1081-1400 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1645517884/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid70fcdd35 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=God Shammgod }}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Zuzana Hejdová, Czech tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleTennis Abstract: Zuzana Hejdova Match Results, Splits, and Analysis |urlhttp://www.tennisabstract.com/cgi-bin/player.cgi?pZuzanaHejdova |access-date2022-10-21 |websitewww.tennisabstract.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleZuzana Hejdova {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/80312/zuzana-hejdova |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref>
* 1977 &ndash; Claus Jensen, Danish international footballer and manager<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page442 |editionFirst}}</ref>
* 1977 &ndash; David Sullivan, American film and television actor<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2011 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609030082/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidc40f9b10 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterDavid Sullivan |volume114}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Bob Bryan, American tennis player<ref namebnm>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date25 September 2008 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650004340/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid3eb012b0 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Bob and Mike Bryan }}</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Mike Bryan, American tennis player<ref name=bnm />
* 1978 &ndash; Javier Colon, American singer-songwriter and musician<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2012 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650008092/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xida7d4db62 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJavier Colon }}</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Tyler Labine, Canadian actor and comedian<ref>{{cite news |last1Crook |first1John |titleCelebrity Scoop: Tyler Labine |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-news-tribune-celebrity-scoop-tyler/123670372/ |access-date28 April 2023 |workThe News Tribune |date6 March 2011 |page3 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Lee Dong-gook, South Korean footballer<ref name=p500 />
* 1979 &ndash; Jo O'Meara, English pop singer<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2007 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609022423/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xida6871978 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJo O'Meara |volume77}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Mathieu Biron, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{Cite web |titleMathieu Biron |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/mathieu-biron-8467345 |access-date11 April 2024 |publisherNational Hockey League}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Bre Blair, Canadian actress<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2010 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609026441/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid7576b017 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterBre Blair |volume97}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; George McCartney, Northern Irish footballer<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page531 |editionFirst}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Megan Boone, American actress<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2014 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650009346/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidcb79be71 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterMegan Boone }}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Jay Cutler, American football player<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date7 August 2020 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650006660/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid14679d74 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJay Cutler }}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Sam Jones III, American actor<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Theatre, Film and Television |date2008 |publisherGale |issn0749-064X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1609024012/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid10623b6d |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterSam Jones, III |volume85}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; Kirby Cote, Canadian swimmer<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2005 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650004456/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidb2eb7124 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterKirby Côté }}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Lina Krasnoroutskaya, Russian tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleLina Krasnoroutskaya {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/110489/lina-krasnoroutskaya |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Byun Yo-han, South Korean actor<ref>{{cite web |titleByun Yo-han (변요한, Korean actor) |urlhttps://www.hancinema.net/korean_Byun_Yo-han.php |websiteHanCinema |access-date29 April 2019}}</ref>
* 1986 &ndash; Lee Chae-young, South Korean actress<ref>{{cite web|script-titleko:이채영, sidusHQ와 전속계약..장혁·김우빈과 한솥밥[공식입장]|urlhttp://osen.mt.co.kr/article/G1110975893|publisherOSEN|access-date29 April 2019|languageko|date27 August 2018}}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Rob Atkinson, English footballer<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page42 |editionFirst}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Sara Errani, Italian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleSara Errani {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/310761/sara-errani |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Andre Russell, Jamaican cricketer<ref>{{Cite web|titleAndre Russell profile and biography, stats, records, averages, photos and videos|urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/player/andre-russell-276298|access-date2021-04-29|websiteESPNcricinfo|language=en}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Alfred Hui, Hong Kong singer<ref>{{cite web |title【入行十年】明年三月紅館開處男騷 許廷鏗告別舊我 {{!}} 2018-11-28 {{!}} 壹週刊 {{!}} 蘋果日報 |urlhttps://hk.lifestyle.appledaily.com/nextplus/magazine/article/20181128/2_640484_0/ |websiteApple Daily 蘋果日報 |access-date29 April 2019 }}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Taoufik Makhloufi, Algerian athlete<ref>{{cite web |titleTaoufik Makhloufi|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/taoufik-makhloufi|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date5 March 2020}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Jonathan Toews, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date25 September 2015 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650007131/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidf060bb79 |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJonathan Toews }}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Younha, South Korean singer-songwriter and record producer<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://entertain.naver.com/read?oid001&aid0001115387|title신예 윤하 정규 1집도 오리콘 톱10 진입|lastLee|firstEun-jeong|workYonhap News|access-date29 April 2019|language=ko}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Candace Owens, American political commentator and activist<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Black Biography |date2019 |publisherGale |issn1058-1316 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1606008538/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidfb6e232a |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterCandace Owens |volume151}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; James Faulkner, Australian cricketer<ref>{{cite web|titleJames Faulkner {{!}} Stats, Bio, Facts and Career Info|urlhttps://www.cricket.com.au/players/james-faulkner/QTk_fFQkQ0GI94lCEj3n-w|access-date2021-04-29|websitewww.cricket.com.au|language=en}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Chris Johnson, American basketball player<ref>{{cite basketball-reference |idj/johnsch04 |nameChris Johnson |access-date=20 March 2023}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Adam Smith, English footballer<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page782 |editionFirst}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Jung Hye-sung, South Korean actress<ref>{{cite web |titleJung Hye-sung (정혜성, Korean actress) |urlhttps://www.hancinema.net/korean_Jung_Hye-sung.php |websiteHanCinema |access-date29 April 2019}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Misaki Doi, Japanese tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleMisaki Doi {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/314237/misaki-doi |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Alina Rosenberg, German paralympic equestrian<ref>{{cite web |titleAlina Rosenberg - Team Deutschland Paralympics |urlhttps://www.teamdeutschland-paralympics.de/de/athleten/detail/a_action/show/a_athletes/alina-rosenberg-220.html |websitewww.teamdeutschland-paralympics.de |access-date9 March 2020 |languagede |archive-date26 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726090635/https://www.teamdeutschland-paralympics.de/de/athleten/detail/a_action/show/a_athletes/alina-rosenberg-220.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Christina Shakovets, German tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleChristina Shakovets {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/318714/christina-shakovets |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleChristina Shakovets - Player Profile - Tennis |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/tennis/christina-shakovets_prs385971/person.shtml |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteEurosport UK |languageen}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Katherine Langford, Australian actress<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2020 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650011891/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidbaccb1ab |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterKatherine Langford }}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Kimberly Birrell, Australian tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleKimberly Birrell {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/320728/kimberly-birrell |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Mallory Pugh, American soccer player<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Biography Online Collection |date2016 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1650010266/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid09d2859d |access-date21 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterMallory Pugh }}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Sinja Kraus, Austrian tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleSinja Kraus {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/327061/sinja-kraus |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleSinja Kraus - Player Profile - Tennis |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/tennis/sinja-kraus_prs609595/person.shtml |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteEurosport UK |languageen}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Infanta Sofía of Spain, Spanish princess<ref>{{cite web |titleSu Alteza Real la Infanta Doña Sofía |urlhttp://www.casareal.es/ES/FamiliaReal/InfantaSofia/Paginas/subhome.aspx |workCasa de Su Majestad el Rey de España |access-date29 April 2019 |languagees |authorFelipe VI |author-linkFelipe VI}}</ref>DeathsPre-1600*1109 &ndash; Hugh of Cluny, French abbot (b. 1024)<ref>{{cite book |last1Walsh |first1Michael J. |titleA New Dictionary of Saints: East and West |date2007 |publisherBurns and Oats |locationLondon |isbn978-0860123422 |page=270}}</ref>
*1380 &ndash; Catherine of Siena, Italian mystic, philosopher and saint (b. 1347)<ref>{{cite journal |journalEncyclopedia of World Biography Online |date1998 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1631001212/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid1db0f8be |access-date20 April 2023 |formatCollection |titleCatherine of Siena, St.}}</ref>
*1594 &ndash; Thomas Cooper, English bishop, lexicographer, and theologian (b. 1517)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Bowker |first1Margaret |titleCooper, Thomas (c. 1517–1594), theologian and bishop of Winchester |date3 January 2008 |doi10.1093/ref:odnb/6229}}</ref>1601–1900*1630 &ndash; Agrippa d'Aubigné, French soldier and poet (b. 1552)<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitleAubigné, Théodore Agrippa d' |volume2 |pages890-891}}</ref>
*1658 &ndash; John Cleveland, English poet and author (b. 1613)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Cousins |first1A. D. |titleCleveland, John (bap. 1613, d. 1658), poet |date2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/5635}}</ref>
*1676 &ndash; Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (b. 1607)<ref>{{cite book |titleMerriam Webster's Biographical Dictionary |date1995 |publisherMerriam-Webster, Inc. |isbn9780877797432 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1681159041/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid8ad542c8 |access-date22 March 2023 |chapterMichiel Adriaanszoon de Ruyter |via=Gale}}</ref>
*1707 &ndash; George Farquhar, Irish-English actor and playwright (b. 1678)<ref>{{cite book |titleAlmanac of Famous People |date2011 |publisherGale |issn1040-127X |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1601040308/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidadaa2f48 |access-date22 March 2023 |chapterGeorge Farquhar}}</ref>
*1768 &ndash; Georg Brandt, Swedish chemist and mineralogist (b. 1694)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Gusenius |first1Edwin M. |titleBeginnings of Greatness in Swedish Chemistry: Georg Brandt, (1694-1768) |journalTransactions of the Kansas Academy of Science |dateWinter 1967 |volume70 |issue4 |pages413–425 |doi10.2307/3627593 |jstor3627593}}</ref>
*1776 &ndash; Edward Wortley Montagu, English explorer and author (b. 1713)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Grundy |first1Isobel |titleMontagu, Edward Wortley (1713–1776), traveller and criminal |date3 January 2008 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/19013}}</ref>
*1833 &ndash; William Babington, Anglo-Irish physician and mineralogist (b. 1756)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Payne |first1J. F. |last2Thackray |first2John C. |titleBabington, William (1756–1833), physician and mineralogist |date8 April 2021 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/977}}</ref>
*1848 &ndash; Chester Ashley, American politician (b. 1790)<ref>{{CongBio |idA000311 |nameASHLEY, Chester |inline=YES}}</ref>
*1854 &ndash; Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1768)<ref>{{cite ODNB |titlePaget [formerly Bayly], Henry William, first marquess of Anglesey (1768–1854), army officer and politician |date3 January 2008 |doi10.1093/ref:odnb/21112}}</ref>1901–present*1903 &ndash; Godfrey Carter, Australian businessman and politician, 39th Mayor of Melbourne (b. 1830)<ref>{{cite AuDB |firstHenry |lastRosenbloom |titleCarter, Godfrey Downes (1830–1902) |volume3 |year1969 |id2carter-godfrey-downes-3174 |access-date20 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1903 &ndash; Paul Du Chaillu, French-American anthropologist and zoologist (b. 1835)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ravenstein |first1E. G. |titleObituary: Paul Belloni du Chaillu |journalThe Geographical Journal |date1903 |volume21 |issue6 |pages680–681 |jstor1775671 |issn0016-7398}}</ref>
*1905 &ndash; Ignacio Cervantes, Cuban pianist and composer (b. 1847)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1de la Vega |first1Aurelio |titleCervantes (Kawanag), Ignacio |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.05311}}</ref>
*1916 &ndash; Jørgen Pedersen Gram, Danish mathematician and academic (b. 1850)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Nielsen |first1Niels |titleDr. J. P. Gram: 27. Juni 1850—29. April 1916 |journalNyt Tidsskrift for Matematik |date1916 |volume27 |pages48–53 |jstor24538026 |languageda |issn0909-3524}}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; Florence Farr, British actress, composer and director (b. 1860)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Hyde |first1Virginia Crosswhite |titleFarr [married name Emery], Florence Beatrice [performing name Mary Lester] (1860–1917), author and mystic |date23 September 2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/53081}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Richard Croker, Irish American political boss (b. 1843)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Teaford |first1Jon C. |titleCroker, Richard (1843-1922), New York City political leader |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0500160}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Ernest Fox Nichols, American educator and physicist (b. 1869)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Brashear |first1Ronald |titleNichols, Ernest Fox (1869-1924), physicist and university president |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1302306}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; Ralph Delahaye Paine, American journalist and author (b. 1871)<ref>{{cite book |titleDictionary of American Biography |date1936 |publisherCharles Scribner's Sons |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/BT2310006223/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidc209221c |access-date18 September 2023 |chapter=Ralph Delahaye Paine}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Clay Stone Briggs, American politician (b. 1876)<ref>{{CongBio |idB000826 |nameBRIGGS, Clay Stone |inline=YES}}</ref>
* 1933 &ndash; Constantine P. Cavafy, Greek poet and journalist (b. 1863)<ref>{{cite book |last1Liddell |first1Robert |titleCavafy: A Critical Biography |date1974 |publisherDuckworth |locationLondon |isbn0715607294 |page206}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; Leroy Carr, American singer, songwriter and pianist (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Black Biography |date2005 |publisherGale |issn1058-1316 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1606003016/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xidfd3621bd |access-date18 September 2023 |formatCollection |chapterLeroy Carr |volume49}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; William Gillette, American actor and playwright (b. 1853)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Bordman |first1Gerald |titleGillette, William Hooker (1853-1937), actor and playwright |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1602031}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Joseph Achron, Russian composer and violinist (b. 1886)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Glanville-Hicks |first1Peggy |titleAchron, Joseph |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.00121}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Ricardo Viñes, Spanish pianist (b. 1875)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Timbrell |first1Charles |last2Berrocal |first2Esperanza |titleViñes, Ricardo |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.29430}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; Billy Bitzer, American cinematographer (b. 1872)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Silet |first1Charles L. P. |titleBitzer, Billy (1872-1944), motion picture cameraman |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1800111}}</ref>
* 1944 &ndash; Pyotr Stolyarsky, Soviet violinist (b. 1871)<ref>{{cite book |titleBaker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians |date2001 |publisherGale |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K2420011475/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid04b6fe94 |access-date18 September 2023 |chapter=Piotr Solomonovich Stoliarsky}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Irving Fisher, American economist and statistician (b. 1867)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Porter |first1Theodore M. |titleFisher, Irving (1867-1947), economist |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1400190}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian-English philosopher and academic (b. 1889)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Hacker |first1P. M. S. |titleWittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann (1889–1951), philosopher |date25 September 2014 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/36986}}</ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, German field marshal (b. 1876)<ref>{{cite news |titleRITTER VON LEEB, A FIELD MARSHALL; Commander in Drive Through Maginot Line Dies--Ousted for Failure at Leningrad Lost Hitler's Trust Stopped by Defense |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1956/05/01/archives/ritter-von-leeb-a-field-marshall-commander-in-drive-through-maginot.html |access-date18 September 2023 |workThe New York Times |agencyAssociated Press |date1 May 1956}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Kenneth Anderson, English soldier and Governor of Gibraltar (b. 1891)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Kennedy |first1J. N. |last2Stearn |first2Roger T. |titleAnderson, Sir Kenneth Arthur Noel (1891–1959), army officer |date6 January 2011 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/30410}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; William Eccles, English physicist and engineer (b. 1875)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Ratcliffe |first1J. A. |last2Procter |first2Tim |titleEccles, William Henry (1875–1966), physicist and engineer |date6 January 2011 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/32965}}</ref>
* 1966 &ndash; Paula Strasberg, American actress and acting coach (b. 1909)<ref>{{cite news |titlePAULA STRASBERG, DRAMA COACH, DIES; Director's Wife, Ex-Actress, Taught Marilyn Monroe |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1966/05/01/archives/paula-strasberg-drama-coach-dies-directors-wife-exactress-taught.html |access-date20 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=1 May 1966}}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; J. B. Lenoir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite book |titleContemporary Black Biography |date2014 |publisherGale |issn1058-1316 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1606006468/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid2e0f3bbb |access-date22 March 2023 |formatCollection |chapterJ. B. Lenoir |volume117}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Aasa Helgesen, Norwegian midwife (b. 1877)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleAasa Helgesen |firstÅnund |lastHaugland |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date4 January 2024 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Aasa_Helgesen |languageno|access-date16 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1968 &ndash; Lin Zhao, Chinese dissident (b. 1932)<ref>{{cite book |last1Lian |first1Xi |titleBlood letters: The Untold Story of Lin Zhao, a martyr in Mao's China |date2018 |publisherBasic Books |locationNew York |isbn9781541644229 |editionFirst |chapterIntroduction |quoteOn April 29, 1968, she was shot under the orders issued by the Shanghai Military Control Committee of the People's Liberation Army. She was thirty-six. Lin Zhao died...}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Theo Helfrich, German race car driver (b. 1913)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |access-date28 April 2023 |urlhttps://www.munzinger.de/document/01000051585 |encyclopediaMunzinger Sport |titleTheo Helfrich |language=de}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Muhsin Ertuğrul, Turkish actor and director (b. 1892)<ref>{{cite web |titleErtuğrul, Muhsin, 1892-1979 |urlhttps://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n88118530.html |publisherLibrary of Congress |access-date28 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1979 &ndash; Hardie Gramatky, American author and illustrator (b. 1907)<ref>{{cite news |titleHardie Gramatky, 72; Writer and Illustrator Of 'Little Toot' Books |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1979/05/01/archives/hardie-gramatky-72-writer-and-illustrator-of-little-toot-books.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=1 May 1979}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (b. 1899)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1McCarthy |first1Todd |titleAlfred Hitchcock Dies Of Natural Causes At Bel-Air Home |urlhttps://variety.com/1980/film/news/alfred-hitchcock-dies-of-natural-causes-at-bel-air-home-1201344342/ |access-date18 March 2023 |magazineVariety |date=30 April 1980}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; Raymond Bussières, French actor, producer and screenwriter (b. 1907)<ref>{{cite web |titleBussières, Raymond 1907-1982 |urlhttps://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6pg2tt9 |publisherSocial Networks and Archival Context |access-date28 April 2023}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Mae Clarke, American actress (b. 1910)<ref>{{cite news |last1Grimes |first1William |titleMae Clarke, 81, Actress in Variety Of Movies, Is Dead |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/01/arts/mae-clarke-81-actress-in-variety-of-movies-is-dead.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=1 May 1992}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Michael Gordon, American actor and director (b. 1909)<ref>{{cite news |last1Turner |first1Adrian |titleObituary: Michael Gordon |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-michael-gordon-2321027.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Independent |date4 May 1993 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Mick Ronson, English guitarist, songwriter and producer (b. 1946)<ref>{{cite news |last1Salewicz |first1Chris |titleObituary: Mick Ronson |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-mick-ronson-2320790.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Independent |date3 May 1993 |languageen}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Mike Royko, American journalist and author (b. 1932)<ref>{{cite news |last1Pearson |first1Richard |titleFAMED CHICAGO COLUMNIST MIKE ROYKO DIES AT AGE 64 |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/04/30/famed-chicago-columnist-mike-royko-dies-at-age-64/72e75663-21c3-4ee2-b4af-22fb6ab10cbd/ |access-date18 March 2023 |newspaperWashington Post |date=30 April 1997}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Phạm Văn Đồng, Vietnamese lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1906)<ref>{{cite news |last1Templer |first1Robert |titlePham Van Dong |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/03/guardianobituaries |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=3 May 2000}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Arthur B. C. Walker Jr., American physicist and academic (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite news |last1Glanz |first1James |titleArthur Walker, 64, Scientist and Mentor, Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/09/us/arthur-walker-64-scientist-and-mentor-dies.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=9 May 2001}}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Bob Akin, American race car driver and journalist (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite news |last1Litsky |first1Frank |titleBob Akin, 66, Auto Racer Who Won at Sebring Twice |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/03/sports/bob-akin-66-auto-racer-who-won-at-sebring-twice.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=3 May 2002}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Janko Bobetko, Croatian Army general and Chief of the General Staff (b. 1919)<ref>{{cite news |titleJanko Bobetko Dies |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2003/04/30/janko-bobetko-dies/87cefea1-fc23-460c-bd5c-004e5ab421a1/ |access-date18 March 2023 |newspaperWashington Post |date=30 April 2003}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; John Henniker-Major, British diplomat and civil servant (b. 1916)<ref>{{cite news |last1Clark |first1Peter |titleLord Henniker |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/may/04/guardianobituaries.obituaries |access-date18 September 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=4 May 2004}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; William J. Bell, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite news |titleWilliam J. Bell, 78, Creator of Soap Operas, Is Dead |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/03/arts/television/william-j-bell-78-creator-of-soap-operas-is-dead.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |agencyAssociated Press |date3 May 2005}}</ref>
* 2005 &ndash; Louis Leithold, American mathematician and academic (b. 1924)<ref>{{cite news |titleLouis Leithold, an Innovator in the Teaching of Calculus, Dies at 80 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/10/us/louis-leithold-an-innovator-in-the-teaching-of-calculus-dies-at-80.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |agencyAssociated Press |date10 May 2005}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian-American economist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to India (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite news |last1Noble |first1Holcomb B. |last2Martin |first2Douglas |titleJohn Kenneth Galbraith, 97, Dies; Economist Held a Mirror to Society |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/30/obituaries/john-kenneth-galbraith-97-dies-economist-held-a-mirror-to.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=30 April 2006}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Josh Hancock, American baseball player (b. 1978)<ref>{{cite news |last1Fallstrom |first1R. B. |titleCardinals reliever Josh Hancock killed in car crash |urlhttps://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/cardinals-reliever-josh-hancock-killed-in-car-crash/ |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Seattle Times |date=29 April 2007}}</ref>
* 2007 &ndash; Dick Motz, New Zealand cricketer and rugby player (b. 1940)<ref>{{cite news |titleDick Motz |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1550781/Dick-Motz.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Telegraph |date=7 May 2007}}</ref>
* 2007 &ndash; Ivica Račan, Croatian politician, 7th Prime Minister of Croatia (b. 1944)<ref>{{cite news |last1Traynor |first1Ian |titleIvica Racan |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/apr/30/guardianobituaries.obituaries |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=29 April 2007}}</ref>
*2008 &ndash; Gordon Bradley, English-American footballer (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastHugman |editor1-firstBarry J. |titleThe PFA Premier & Football League players' records 1946-2015 |date2015 |publisherHextable |isbn9781782811671 |page103 |editionFirst}}</ref>
* 2008 &ndash; Albert Hofmann, Swiss chemist and academic (b. 1906)<ref>{{cite news |last1Smith |first1Craig S. |titleAlbert Hofmann, the Father of LSD, Dies at 102 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/30/world/europe/30hofmann.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=30 April 2008}}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; Avigdor Arikha, French-Israeli artist, printmaker and art historian (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite news |last1Fox |first1Margalit |titleAvigdor Arikha, Artist of the Everyday, Is Dead at 81 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/01/arts/01arikha.html |access-date18 September 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=1 May 2010}}</ref>
*2011 &ndash; Siamak Pourzand, Iranian journalist and critic (b. 1931)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/iran/2011/04/110430_l17_pourzand_suicide.shtml |script-titlefa:'سیامک پورزند خودکشی کرده است' |languagefa |workBBC Persian |date30 April 2011 |access-date18 March 2023 |trans-title=Siamak Pourzand has committed suicide}}</ref>
* 2011 &ndash; Joanna Russ, American writer, academic and radical feminist (b. 1937)<ref>{{cite news |last1Priest |first1Christopher |titleJoanna Russ obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/may/12/joanna-russ-obituary |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=12 May 2011}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Shukri Ghanem, Libyan politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1942)<ref>{{cite news |last1Mostyn |first1Trevor |titleShukri Ghanem obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/08/shukri-ghanem |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=8 May 2012}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Joel Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (b. 1957)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Burlingame |first1Jon |titleComposer Joel Goldsmith dies at 54 |urlhttps://variety.com/2012/music/news/composer-joel-goldsmith-dies-at-54-1118053333/ |access-date18 March 2023 |magazineVariety |date=30 April 2012}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Roland Moreno. French engineer, invented the smart card (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite news |last1Schofield |first1Jack |titleRoland Moreno obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/apr/30/roland-moreno |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=30 April 2012}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Kenny Roberts, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Waddell |first1Ray |titleKenny Roberts, Famed Singing Cowboy Yodeler, Dies |urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/kenny-roberts-famed-singing-cowboy-yodeler-dies-1097352/ |access-date18 March 2023 |magazineBillboard |date=30 April 2012}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (b. 1992)<ref>{{cite news |last1Garry |first1Chris |titleQueensland Cutters picking up the pieces after death of Alex Elisala |urlhttps://www.perthnow.com.au/news/nsw/queensland-cutters-picking-up-the-pieces-after-death-of-alex-elisala-ng-2e0aad9ee6fe1c10cd38426d3af5da51 |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Sunday Times |date9 May 2013 |languageen}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Pesah Grupper, Israeli politician, 13th Israel Minister of Agriculture (b. 1924)<ref>{{cite news |last1Aderet |first1Ofer |titlePessah Grupper, Former Agriculture Minister and Long-serving Knesset Member, Dies at 89 |urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/2013-04-30/ty-article/.premium/pessah-grupper-ex-ag-min-dies-at-89/0000017f-df29-d3a5-af7f-ffaf9c890000 |access-date27 March 2023 |workHaaretz |date30 April 2013 |languageen}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; John La Montaine, American pianist and composer (b. 1920)<ref>{{cite news |last1Vitello |first1Paul |titleJohn LaMontaine, Pulitzer-Winning Composer, Dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/15/arts/music/john-lamontaine-composer-dies-at-93.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=15 May 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Kevin Moore, English footballer (b. 1958)<ref name=moore />
* 2013 &ndash; Marianna Zachariadi, Greek pole vaulter (b. 1990)<ref>{{cite news |titleCyprus pole vault champ dead at 23 |urlhttps://www.bangkokpost.com/sports/347688/cyprus-pole-vault-champ-dead-at-23 |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Bangkok Post |date30 April 2013 |languageen}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; Iveta Bartošová, Czech singer and actress (b. 1966)<ref>{{cite news |titlePop star Iveta Bartošová dies |urlhttps://www.praguepost.com/142-culture/38726-pop-star-iveta-bartosova-dies |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Prague Post |date=29 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Al Feldstein, American author and illustrator (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news |last1Carlson |first1Michael |titleAl Feldstein obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/may/11/al-feldstein |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=11 May 2014}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Bob Hoskins, English actor (b. 1942)<ref>{{cite news |last1Gilbey |first1Ryan |titleBob Hoskins obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/apr/30/bob-hoskins |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=30 April 2014}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; François Michelin, French businessman (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite news |titleFrançois Michelin, businessman - obituary |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/11589638/Francois-Michelin-businessman-obituary.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe Telegraph |date=7 May 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Jean Nidetch, American businesswoman, co-founded Weight Watchers (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite news |last1McFadden |first1Robert D. |titleJean Nidetch, a Founder of Weight Watchers, Dies at 91 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/30/business/jean-nidetch-dies-at-91-co-founder-of-weight-watchers-and-dynamic-speaker.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=29 April 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Calvin Peete, American golfer (b. 1943)<ref>{{cite news |last1Weber |first1Bruce |titleCalvin Peete, 71, a Racial Pioneer on the PGA Tour, Is Dead |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/30/sports/calvin-peete-71-a-pioneer-on-the-pga-tour-is-dead.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=30 April 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (b. 1922)<ref>{{cite news |titleDan Walker, 92, Dies; Illinois Governor and Later a U.S. Prisoner |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/30/us/dan-walker-92-dies-illinois-governor-and-later-a-us-prisoner.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |agencyAssociated Press |date30 April 2015}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; Renato Corona, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (b. 1948)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer Chief Justice Renato Corona dies |urlhttp://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/04/29/Former-Chief-Justice-Renato-Corona-dies.html |access-date18 March 2023 |workCNN Philippines |date29 April 2016 |languageen |archive-date18 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230318114254/http://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/04/29/Former-Chief-Justice-Renato-Corona-dies.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; R. Vidyasagar Rao, Indian bureaucrat and activist (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite news |last1Chintala |first1Prashanth |titleTelangana irrigation expert R. Vidyasagar Rao dies aged 77 |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/telangana-irrigation-expert-r-vidyasagar-rao-dies-aged-78/article18302848.ece |access-date27 March 2023 |workThe Hindu |date29 April 2017 |languageen-IN}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; Luis García Meza, Bolivian general, 57th President of Bolivia (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite news |last1Roberts |first1Sam |titleLuis García Meza, Bolivian Dictator Jailed for Genocide, Dies at 88 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/02/obituaries/luis-garcia-meza-bolivian-dictator-jailed-for-genocide-dies-at-88.html |access-date27 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=2 May 2018}}</ref>
* 2018 &ndash; Michael Martin, British politician (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bates |first1Stephen |titleLord Martin of Springburn obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/apr/29/lord-martin-of-springburn-obituary |access-date27 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=29 April 2018}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Josef Šural, Czech footballer (b. 1990)<ref>{{cite news |last1Miller |first1Joshua Rhett |titleSoccer star Josef Sural dies in crash after two bus drivers fall asleep |urlhttps://nypost.com/2019/04/29/soccer-star-josef-sural-dies-in-crash-after-two-bus-drivers-fall-asleep/ |access-date18 March 2023 |workNew York Post |date=29 April 2019}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Irrfan Khan, Indian actor (b. 1967)<ref>{{cite news |last1Gilbey |first1Ryan |titleIrrfan Khan obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/apr/30/irrfan-khan-obituary |access-date27 March 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=30 April 2020}}</ref>
* 2020 &ndash; Guido Münch, Mexican astronomer and astrophysicist (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Munch |first1Christopher |titleGuido Münch (1921–2020) |journalBulletin of the AAS |date28 July 2020 |volume52 |issue2 |doi10.3847/25c2cfeb.331d8c78|s2cid225364505 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Cate Haste, English author (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite news |first1Hella |last1Pick |date7 May 2021 |titleCate Haste obituary |urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/may/07/cate-haste-obituary|access-date8 May 2021 |workThe Guardian |languageen}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Joanna Barnes, American actress and writer (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite news |last1Sandomir |first1Richard |titleJoanna Barnes, Actress in 'The Parent Trap' and Its Remake, Dies at 87 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/12/movies/joanna-barnes-dead.html |access-date27 March 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=12 May 2022}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Padma Desai, Indian-American development economist (b. 1931)<ref>{{cite news |last1Singh |first1N. K. |titlePadma Desai (1931-2023): Influential academic, a thinker ahead of her times |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/padma-desai-1931-2023-influential-academic-a-thinker-ahead-of-her-times-8592209/ |access-date18 September 2023 |workThe Indian Express |date5 May 2023 |languageen}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Catherine of Siena (Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Church)<ref>{{cite book |last1Attwater |first1Donald |titleA New Dictionary of Saints |date1994 |publisherLiturgical Press |isbn0814623247 |pages65–66 |editor-first1John |editor-last1=Cumming}}</ref>
** Hugh of Cluny<ref>{{cite book |last1Attwater |first1Donald |titleA New Dictionary of Saints |date1994 |publisherLiturgical Press |isbn0814623247 |page143 |editor-first1John |editor-last1=Cumming}}</ref>
** Robert of Molesme<ref>{{cite book |last1Attwater |first1Donald |titleA New Dictionary of Saints |date1994 |publisherLiturgical Press |isbn0814623247 |page275 |editor-first1John |editor-last1=Cumming}}</ref>
** Wilfrid II<ref>{{cite book |last1Attwater |first1Donald |titleA New Dictionary of Saints |date1994 |publisherLiturgical Press |isbn0814623247 |page324 |editor-first1John |editor-last1=Cumming}}</ref>
** April 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations)<ref>{{cite book |last1Woollomes Tabassi |first1Lisa |titleOPCW: The Legal Texts |date2015 |publisherT.M.C. Asser Press |locationThe Hague |isbn9789462650442 |page453 |edition=3rd}}</ref>
* International Dance Day (UNESCO)<ref>{{cite news |titleInternational Dance Day 2022: Health benefits of dancing |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/health/international-dance-day-2022-health-benefits-of-dancing-101651290571245.html |access-date20 March 2023 |workHindustan Times |agencyAsian News International |date30 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan)<ref>{{cite news |titleJapan names day after Hirohito |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4543461.stm |access-date18 September 2023 |workBBC News |date14 May 2005}}</ref>References{{Reflist}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/29 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day29}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/29 Historical Events on April 29]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_29 | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.458465 |
1417 | August 14 | {{For|the web series|August 14 (TV series)}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*74 BC &ndash; A group of officials, led by the Western Han minister Huo Guang, present articles of impeachment against the new emperor, Liu He, to the imperial regent, Empress Dowager Shangguan.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSima |firstGuang |titleZizhi Tongjian |year1084 |languagezh |chapter卷 024 |chapter-url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7024}}</ref>
*29 BC &ndash; Octavian holds the second of three consecutive triumphs in Rome to celebrate the victory over the Dalmatian tribes.<ref>{{cite book|author1William Michael Murray|author2Phōtios Michaēl Petsas|titleOctavian's Campsite Memorial for the Actian War|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idciALAAAAIAAJ&pgPA128|year1989|publisherAmerican Philosophical Society|isbn978-0-87169-794-3|page128}}</ref>
*1040 &ndash; King Duncan I is killed in battle against his first cousin and rival Macbeth. The latter succeeds him as King of Scotland.<ref>{{cite book|authorEdward Peck|titleNorth-east Scotland|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmm0nAQAAMAAJ|year1981|publisherJ. Bartholomew & Son|page16|isbn9780702880216}}</ref>
*1183 &ndash; Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures and flee to western Japan to escape pursuit by the Minamoto clan.<ref>{{cite book |last1Brinkley |first1Frank & Kikuchi |titleA History of the Japanese People From the Earliest Times to the End of the Meiji Era |year1912 |publisherLibrary of Alexandria |isbn978-1-4655-1304-5 |page530 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbzRen1dcdTwC&pgPT530 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAntoku {{!}} Emperor of Japan |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Antoku |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date15 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1264 &ndash; After tricking the Venetian galley fleet into sailing east to the Levant, the Genoese capture an entire Venetian trade convoy at the Battle of Saseno.<ref>{{cite journal | last Dotson | first John E. | title Fleet Operations in the First Genoese-Venetian War, 1264–1266 | pages 165–180 | journal Viator. Medieval and Renaissance Studies | volume 30 | year 1999 | issn 0083-5897 | doi = 10.1484/J.VIATOR.2.300833 }}</ref>
*1352 &ndash; War of the Breton Succession: Anglo-Bretons defeat the French in the Battle of Mauron.<ref>{{cite book |last1Wagner |first1John A. |titleEncyclopedia of the Hundred Years War |year2006 |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |isbn978-0-313-32736-0 |page214 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduVZ893wOWgoC&pgPA214 |language=en}}</ref>
*1370 &ndash; Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, grants city privileges to Karlovy Vary.<ref>{{cite book |last1Matoušek |first1Václav |last2Mautner |first2Pavel |last3Pavelka |first3Tomáš |titleText, Speech and Dialogue: 8th International Conference, TSD 2005, Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic, September 12–15, 2005, Proceedings |date25 August 2005 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-3-540-31817-0 |page9 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKnUFCAAAQBAJ&pgPR9 |language=en}}</ref>
*1385 &ndash; Portuguese Crisis of 1383–85: Battle of Aljubarrota: Portuguese forces commanded by John I of Portugal defeat the Castilian army of John I of Castile.<ref>{{cite web |titleBattle of Aljubarrota {{!}} Portugal [1385] |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Aljubarrota |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1592 &ndash; The first sighting of the Falkland Islands by John Davis.<ref>{{cite book |last1Purdy |first1John |titleThe New Sailing Directory for the Ethiopic Or Southern Atlantic Ocean ... |year1855 |publisherRichard Holmes Laurie |page137 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0WYDAAAAQAAJ&pgPA137 |languageen}}</ref>
*1598 &ndash; Nine Years' War: Battle of the Yellow Ford: Irish forces under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, defeat an English expeditionary force under Henry Bagenal.<ref>{{cite book |last1Grant |first1R. G. |title1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History |date2017 |publisherBook Sales |isbn978-0-7858-3553-0 |page307 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2ZNADwAAQBAJ&pgPA307 |languageen}}</ref>1601–1900*1720 &ndash; The Spanish military Villasur expedition is defeated by Pawnee and Otoe warriors near present-day Columbus, Nebraska.<ref>{{cite book |last1Tucker |first1Spencer |last2Arnold |first2James R. |last3Wiener |first3Roberta |titleThe Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |date2011 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-1-85109-697-8 |page559 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJsM4A0GSO34C&pgPA559 |languageen}}</ref>
*1784 &ndash; Russian colonization of North America: Awa'uq Massacre: The Russian fur trader Grigory Shelikhov storms a Kodiak Island Alutiit refuge rock on Sitkalidak Island, killing 500+ Alutiit.<ref name="Knechthaakansondickson">Richard A. Knecht, Sven Haakanson, and Shawn Dickson (2002). "[https://www.academia.edu/1108002/Awauq_discovery_and_excavation_of_an_18th_century_Alutiiq_refuge_rock_in_the_Kodiak_Archipelago Awa'uq: discovery and excavation of an 18th century Alutiiq refuge rock in the Kodiak Archipelago]". In To the Aleutians and Beyond:, Bruno Frohlich, Albert S. Harper, and Rolf Gilberg, editors, pp. 177–191. Publications of the National Museum Ethnographical Series, Vol. 20. Department of Ethnography, National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen. the Anthropology of William S. Laughlin.</ref>
*1790 &ndash; The Treaty of Wereloe ended the 1788–1790 Russo-Swedish War.<ref>{{cite book|lastHaythornwaite|firstPhilip J.|titleThe Napoleonic Source Book|year1990|publisherGuild Publishing|locationLondon|isbn978-1854092878|page68}}</ref>
*1791 &ndash; Slaves from plantations in Saint-Domingue hold a Vodou ceremony led by houngan Dutty Boukman at Bois Caïman, marking the start of the Haitian Revolution.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Haitian Revolution 1791 |urlhttps://library.brown.edu/haitihistory/5.html |websitelibrary.brown.edu |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1814 &ndash; A cease fire agreement, called the Convention of Moss, ended the Swedish–Norwegian War.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.thelocal.se/20140814/sweden-and-norway-celebrate-200-years-of-peace/ |titleSweden and Norway celebrate peace treaty |workThe Local |date14 August 2021 |access-date14 August 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1816 &ndash; The United Kingdom formally annexes the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, administering the islands from the Cape Colony in South Africa.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Occupation of Tristan da Cunha |urlhttps://snr.org.uk/the-occupation-of-tristan-da-cunha/ |websiteSNR |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen |date1 February 1935}}</ref>
*1842 &ndash; American Indian Wars: Second Seminole War ends, with the Seminoles forced from Florida.<ref>{{cite web |titleSecond Seminole War {{!}} Background, Battles, & Outcome |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Seminole-War |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1848 &ndash; Oregon Territory is organized by act of Congress.<ref>{{cite web |titleWashington State Archives – Territorial Timeline |urlhttps://www.sos.wa.gov/archives/timeline/detail.aspx?id199 |websiteOffice of the Secretary of State |access-date=16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1880 &ndash; Construction of Cologne Cathedral, the most famous landmark in Cologne, Germany, is completed.<ref>{{cite book |last1Lenman |first1Robin |titleArtists and Society in Germany, 1850–1914 |year1997 |publisherManchester University Press |isbn978-0-7190-3636-1 |page16 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIDPoAAAAIAAJ&pgPA16 |language=en}}</ref>
*1885 &ndash; Japan's first patent is issued to the inventor of a rust-proof paint.<ref>{{cite book |last1Goel |first1Deepa |last2Parashar |first2Shomini |titleIPR, Biosafety and Bioethics |year2013 |publisherPearson Education India |isbn978-93-325-1424-9 |page43 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6T08BAAAQBAJ&pgPA43 |language=en}}</ref>
*1893 &ndash; France becomes the first country to introduce motor vehicle registration.<ref>{{cite web |titleWhen was the first driving licence issued? |urlhttps://nationalmotormuseum.org.uk/ufaqs/when-was-the-first-driving-licence-issued/ |websiteThe National Motor Museum Trust |access-date16 March 2021 }}{{Dead link|dateMarch 2025 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Battle of Peking: The Eight-Nation Alliance occupies Beijing, China, in a campaign to end the bloody Boxer Rebellion in China.<ref>{{cite web |titleBoxer Rebellion {{!}} Significance, Combatants, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>1901–present*1901 &ndash; The first claimed powered flight, by Gustave Whitehead in his Number 21.<ref>{{cite web |last1Hussey |first1Kristin |titleFirst in Flight? Connecticut Stakes a Claim (Published 2015) |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/18/nyregion/where-was-modern-flight-invented-connecticut-believes-it-holds-the-answer.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/18/nyregion/where-was-modern-flight-invented-connecticut-believes-it-holds-the-answer.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |websiteThe New York Times |access-date16 March 2021 |date=17 April 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; World War I: Start of the Battle of Lorraine, an unsuccessful French offensive.<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld War I – The war in the west, 1914 |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I/The-war-in-the-west-1914 |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; World War I: The Republic of China, which had heretofore been shipping labourers to Europe to assist in the war effort, officially declares war on the Central Powers, although it will continue to send to Europe labourers instead of combatants for the remaining duration of the war.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastLaFrague |firstThomas E. |dateSeptember 1936 |titleThe Entrance of China into the World War |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3634027 |journalPacific Historical Review |volume5 |issue3 |pages222–223 |doi10.2307/3634027 |jstor=3634027 }}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; The 1920 Summer Olympics, having started four months earlier, officially open in Antwerp, Belgium, with the newly adopted Olympic flag and the Olympic oath being raised and taken at the Opening Ceremony for the first time in Olympic history.<ref>{{cite book |last1Findling |first1John E. |titleEncyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement |date2004 |publisherGreenwood |isbn9780313322785 |page74 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQmXi_-Jujj0C&qolympic+games+1920+antwerp+opening+ceremony&pgPA74}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastInternational Olympic Committee |titleAntwerp 1920 Summer Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results |urlhttps://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/antwerp-1920 |access-date13 August 2022 |websiteolympics.com}}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; Tannu Uriankhai, later Tuvan People's Republic is established as a completely independent country (which is supported by Soviet Russia).<ref>{{cite book |last1Hoch |first1Tomáš |last2Kopeček |first2Vincenc |titleDe Facto States in Eurasia |date2019 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-429-53425-6 |page92 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQRGjDwAAQBAJ&pgPT92 |language=en}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Loggers cause a forest fire in the Coast Range of Oregon, later known as the first forest fire of the Tillamook Burn; destroying {{convert|240,000|acre|km2}} of land.<ref>{{cite web |titleLogging accident sparks forest fire in Oregon Coast Range – August 14, 1933 {{!}} The NAFI Blog |urlhttps://www.nafi.org/blog/logging-accident-sparks-forest-fire-in-oregon-coast-range-august-14-1933/ |websitewww.nafi.org |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act, creating a government pension system for the retired.<ref>{{cite web |titleSocial Security Act {{!}} History & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Social-Security-Act-United-States-1935 |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Rainey Bethea is hanged in Owensboro, Kentucky in the last known public execution in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Last Hanging: There Was a Reason They Outlawed Public Executions (Published 2001) |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/06/weekinreview/the-last-hanging-there-was-a-reason-they-outlawed-public.html |websiteThe New York Times |access-date16 March 2021 |date=6 May 2001}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; World War II: Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt sign the Atlantic Charter of war stating postwar aims.<ref>{{cite web |titleAtlantic Charter {{!}} History & Definition |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/Atlantic-Charter |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Pakistan gains independence from the British Empire as the Dominion of Pakistan, due to the partition of India.<ref name"BBC">{{cite web |titleIn pictures: Pakistan marks Independence Day |urlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-40922732 |websiteBBC News |access-date16 March 2021 |date14 August 2017}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; An Idaho Department of Fish and Game program to relocate beavers known as Beaver drop occurred. This program relocated beavers from Northwestern Idaho to Central Idaho by airplane and then parachuting the beavers into the Chamberlain Basin .<ref name"Ngeo">{{cite news |last1Sherriff |first1Lucy |dateSeptember 16, 2021 |titleWhy beavers were parachuted into the Idaho wilderness 73 years ago |urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/why-beavers-were-parachuted-into-the-idaho-wilderness |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210916145417/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/why-beavers-were-parachuted-into-the-idaho-wilderness |url-statusdead |archive-dateSeptember 16, 2021 |workNational Geographic |access-dateFebruary 25, 2023 |quoteThe traditional way of relocating 'nuisance' beavers in the 1940s wasn't working. To increase the survival rate, one conservation officer turned to—yes—parachutes.}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Founding and first official meeting of the American Football League.<ref>{{cite book |last1Nelson |first1Murry R. |titleAmerican Sports: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas [4 volumes]: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas |date2013 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-0-313-39753-0 |page49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtfTXAQAAQBAJ&pgPA49 |language=en}}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; UK Marine Broadcasting Offences Act 1967 declares participation in offshore pirate radio illegal.<ref>{{cite web |titlePart 1: The Pirates |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/100-voices/radio-reinvented/the-pirates |websitewww.bbc.com |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; The Troubles: British troops are deployed in Northern Ireland as political and sectarian violence breaks out, marking the start of the 37-year Operation Banner.<ref>{{cite web |titleService in Staffordshire marks 50 years since start of Operation Banner |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-49348406 |websiteBBC News |access-date15 March 2021 |date=14 August 2019}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Bahrain declares independence from Britain.<ref>{{cite book |last1Law |first1Principal V. M. Salgaocar College of Law & Dean of Faculty of |last2University |first2Goa |last3D'Souza |first3Dr Anthony |titleWorld Constitutionalism |date 2009 |publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn978-1-4438-0910-8 |page181 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwQIZBwAAQBAJ&pgPA181 |language=en}}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; An Ilyushin Il-62 airliner crashes near Königs Wusterhausen, East Germany killing 156 people.<ref>{{cite book |last1Haine |first1Edgar A. |titleDisaster in the Air |year2000 |publisherAssociated University Presses |isbn978-0-8453-4777-5 |page123 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtwKfXowAigIC&pgPA123 |language=en}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Lech Wałęsa leads strikes at the Gdańsk, Poland shipyards.<ref>{{cite web |titleLech Walesa {{!}} Biography, Solidarity, Nobel Prize, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Lech-Walesa |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, also known as "Carlos the Jackal", is captured.<ref>{{cite web |titleCarlos the Jackal Fast Facts |urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/26/world/americas/carlos-the-jackal-fast-facts/index.html |websiteCNN |date26 April 2013 |access-date=16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Greek Cypriot refugee Solomos Solomou is shot and killed by a Turkish security officer while trying to climb a flagpole in order to remove a Turkish flag from its mast in the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus.<ref>{{cite web |titleProtester is killed as Turkish soldiers open fire during attempt to tear down flag British troops shot in Cyprus |urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12039247.protester-is-killed-as-turkish-soldiers-open-fire-during-attempt-to-tear-down-flag-british-troops-shot-in-cyprus/ |websiteHerald Scotland |date15 August 1996 |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; A widescale power blackout affects the northeast United States and Canada.<ref>{{cite web |last1Taylor |first1Alan |titlePhotos: 15 Years Since the 2003 Northeast Blackout |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/08/photos-15-years-since-the-2003-northeast-blackout/567410/ |websitewww.theatlantic.com |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; Helios Airways Flight 522, en route from Larnaca, Cyprus to Prague, Czech Republic via Athens, crashes in the hills near Grammatiko, Greece, killing 121 passengers and crew.<ref>{{cite web |titleIn 2005, Helios flight 522 crashed into a Greek hillside. Was it because one man forgot to flip a switch? |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/19/in-2005-helios-flight-522-crashed-into-a-greek-hillside-was-it-because-one-man-forgot-to-flip-a-switch |websiteThe Guardian |access-date15 March 2021 |languageen |date19 September 2020}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Lebanon War: A ceasefire takes effect three days after the United Nations Security Council's approval of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701, formally ending hostilities between Lebanon and Israel.<ref>{{cite news|titleLebanon truce holds despite clashes|date14 August 2006|publisherCNN|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/08/14/mideast.main/index.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080613073546/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/08/14/mideast.main/index.html|archive-date13 June 2008}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Sri Lankan Civil War: Sixty-one schoolgirls killed in Chencholai bombing by Sri Lankan Air Force air strike.<ref>{{cite web |titleSri Lankan government clashes with Tamil rebels |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/aug/15/davidfickling |websiteThe Guardian |access-date15 March 2021 |languageen |date15 August 2006}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; The Kahtaniya bombings kill at least 500 people.<ref>{{cite web |titleIraq sees worst bombing since invasion with 250 deaths |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36720720 |websiteBBC News |access-date15 March 2021 |date=6 July 2016}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Egypt declares a state of emergency as security forces kill hundreds of demonstrators supporting former president Mohamed Morsi.<ref>{{cite web |titleEgypt declares national emergency |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23700663 |websiteBBC News |access-date15 March 2021 |date=14 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; UPS Airlines Flight 1354 crashes short of the runway at Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport, killing both crew members on board.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20130814-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300F4-622R N155UP Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport, AL (BHM)|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-10-17}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; The U.S. Embassy in Havana, Cuba re-opens after 54 years of being closed when Cuba–United States relations were broken off.<ref>{{cite web |titleUS embassy in Cuba formally reopens: 'A day for pushing aside old barriers' |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/14/us-embassy-cuba-formally-reopens |websiteThe Guardian |access-date15 March 2021 |languageen |date14 August 2015}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; The collapse of the Ponte Morandi bridge in Genoa, Italy, left 16 people injured and 43 people killed.<ref>{{cite web |titleAt least 39 people are dead after a huge highway bridge collapsed in Italy |urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/genoa-italy-bridge-collapse-dozens-reported-dead-2018-8 |websiteBusiness Insider |access-date11 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleGenoa bridge: Hopes for new Italy as disaster trial opens |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-62076262 |websiteBBC |access-date11 September 2024}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; A magnitude 7.2 earthquake strikes southwestern Haiti, killing at least 2,248 people and causing a humanitarian crisis.<ref name":0">{{cite web|titleM 7.2 – Nippes, Haiti|urlhttps://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us6000f65h/executive|url-statuslive|access-date14 September 2021|websiteearthquake.usgs.gov|archive-date14 August 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210814142823/https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us6000f65h/executive}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; An explosion destroys a market in Armenia, killing six people and injuring dozens.<ref>{{Cite web |date14 August 2022 |titleFireworks explosion in Armenia's capital kills at least 2, injures dozens |urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/world/armenia-fireworks-explosion-1.6551090 |websiteCBC News}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Former U.S. President Donald Trump is charged in Georgia along with 18 others in attempting to overturn the results of the 2020 election in that state, his fourth indictment of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date14 August 2022 |titleTrump and 18 codefendants charged with racketeering in Georgia 2020 election probe |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-indicted-georgia-racketeering-rcna74912|websiteNBC News}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
*1479 &ndash; Catherine of York (d. 1527)<ref>{{cite book |last1Panton |first1James |titleHistorical Dictionary of the British Monarchy |year2011 |publisherScarecrow Press |isbn978-0-8108-7497-8 |page92 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBiyyueBTpaMC&pgPA92 |language=en}}</ref>
*1499 &ndash; John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, English politician (d. 1526)<ref>{{cite book |last1Somerset |first1J. A. B. |titleShropshire |date1994 |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |isbn978-0-8020-0648-6 |page712 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgPSNsR2NGAgC&pgPA712 |language=en}}</ref>
*1502 &ndash; Pieter Coecke van Aelst, Flemish painter (d. 1550)<ref>{{cite web |titlePieter Coecke van Aelst I {{!}} British Museum |urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG34043 |websitewww.britishmuseum.org |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1530 &ndash; Giambattista Benedetti, Italian mathematician and physicist (d. 1590)<ref>{{cite web |titleGiambattista Benedetti |urlhttp://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/benedeti.html |websitegalileo.rice.edu |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1552 &ndash; Paolo Sarpi, Italian writer (d. 1623)<ref>{{cite web |titlePaolo Sarpi {{!}} Italian theologian |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Paolo-Sarpi |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1599 &ndash; Méric Casaubon, Swiss-English scholar and author (d. 1671)<ref>{{cite web |titleMéric Casaubon (1599–1671) |urlhttps://data.bnf.fr/fr/12237777/meric_casaubon/ |websitedata.bnf.fr |access-date16 March 2021 |languagefr}}</ref>1601–1900*1642 &ndash; Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1723)<ref>{{cite web |titleCosimo III {{!}} grand duke of Tuscany |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Cosimo-III |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1653 &ndash; Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle, English colonel and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica (d. 1688)<ref>{{cite book |titleThe House of Commons, 1660–1690 |year1983 |publisherBoydell & Brewer |isbn978-0-436-19274-6 |page73 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHW1_upECKUwC&pgRA2-PA73 |language=en}}</ref>
*1688 &ndash; Frederick William I of Prussia (d. 1740)<ref>{{cite web |titleFrederick William I {{!}} king of Prussia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-William-I |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1714 &ndash; Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (d. 1789)<ref>{{cite web |titleJoseph Vernet {{!}} French painter |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Vernet |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1738 &ndash; Leopold Hofmann, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1793)<ref>{{cite book |last1Boer |first1Bertil van |titleHistorical Dictionary of Music of the Classical Period |date2012 |publisherScarecrow Press |isbn978-0-8108-7386-5 |page278 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1GchjwmUnmoC&pgPA278 |language=en}}</ref>
*1742 &ndash; Pope Pius VII (d. 1823)<ref>{{cite web |titlePius VII {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Pius-VII |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date14 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1758 &ndash; Carle Vernet, French painter and lithographer (d. 1836)<ref>{{cite web |titleCarle Vernet {{!}} French painter |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Carle-Vernet |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date17 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1777 &ndash; Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish physicist and chemist (d. 1851)<ref>{{cite web |titleHans Christian Ørsted {{!}} Danish physicist and chemist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Hans-Christian-Orsted |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date5 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1802 &ndash; Letitia Elizabeth Landon, English poet and novelist (d. 1838)<ref>{{cite web |titleLetitia Elizabeth Landon {{!}} British author |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Letitia-Elizabeth-Landon |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date17 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1814 &ndash; Charlotte Fowler Wells, American phrenologist and publisher (d. 1901)<ref name"Logan1912">{{cite book|lastLogan|firstMrs. John A.|titleThe Part Taken by Women in American History|urlhttps://archive.org/details/parttakenbywome00logagoog|editionPublic domain|year1912|publisherPerry-Nalle publishing Company|pages=[https://archive.org/details/parttakenbywome00logagoog/page/n949 902]–}}</ref>
*1817 &ndash; Alexander H. Bailey, American lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1874)<ref>{{cite book |last1Lanman |first1Charles |titleBiographical Annals of the Civil Government of the United States: From Original and Official Sources |year1887 |publisherJ.M. Morrison |page19 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpp9GAAAAMAAJ&pgPA19 |languageen}}</ref>
*1840 &ndash; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German-Austrian psychologist and author (d. 1902)<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard, baron von Krafft-Ebing {{!}} German psychologist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Freiherr-von-Krafft-Ebing |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1847 &ndash; Robert Comtesse, Swiss lawyer and politician (d. 1922)<ref>{{cite book |last1Justice |first1United States Congress House Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of |titleBerne Convention Implementation Act of 1987: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, First and Second Sessions, H.R. 1623 ... June 17, July 23, September 16 and 30, 1987, February 9 and 10, 1988 |year1988 |publisherU.S. Government Printing Office |page1369 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA0CKb55p3k0C&pgPA1369 |languageen}}</ref>
*1848 &ndash; Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Anglo-Irish astronomer and author (d. 1915)<ref>{{cite web |titleHonorary Member: William Huggins |urlhttps://www.rasc.ca/honorary-member-william-huggins |websiteRoyal Astronomical Society of Canada |date3 April 2013 |access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref>
*1851 &ndash; Doc Holliday, American dentist and gambler (d. 1887)<ref>{{cite book |last1Agnew |first1Jeremy |titleThe Old West in Fact and Film: History Versus Hollywood |date 2012 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-6888-1 |page113 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_x6_Od3gVzoC&pgPA113 |language=en}}</ref>
*1860 &ndash; Ernest Thompson Seton, American author, artist, and naturalist (d. 1946)<ref>{{cite web |titleErnest Thompson Seton {{!}} American writer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Ernest-Thompson-Seton |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date3 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1863 &ndash; Ernest Thayer, American poet and author (d. 1940)<ref>{{cite web |titleAbout Ernest Lawrence Thayer {{!}} Academy of American Poets |urlhttps://poets.org/poet/ernest-lawrence-thayer |websiteAcademy of American Poets |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; Guido Castelnuovo, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1952)<ref>{{cite book |last1Chang |first1Sooyoung |titleAcademic Genealogy of Mathematicians |year2011 |publisherWorld Scientific |isbn978-981-4282-29-1 |page286 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4siw31DPONUC&pgPA286 |language=en}}</ref>
*1866 &ndash; Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin, Belgian mathematician and academic (d. 1962)<ref>{{cite book |last1Süli |first1Endre |last2Mayers |first2David F. |titleAn Introduction to Numerical Analysis |date2003 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-00794-8 |page232 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhj9weaqJTbQC&pgPA232 |language=en}}</ref>
*1867 &ndash; Cupid Childs, American baseball player (d. 1912)<ref>{{cite web |titleCupid Childs |urlhttps://sabr.org/journal/article/cupid-childs/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1867 &ndash; John Galsworthy, English novelist and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1933)<ref>{{cite web |titleJohn Galsworthy {{!}} British writer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Galsworthy |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1871 &ndash; Guangxu Emperor of China (d. 1908)<ref>{{cite web |titleGuangxu {{!}} emperor of Qing dynasty |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Guangxu |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1875 &ndash; Mstislav Dobuzhinsky, Russian-Lithuanian painter and illustrator (d. 1957)<ref>{{cite book |last1Leek |first1Peter |titleRussian Painting |date 2012 |publisherParkstone International |isbn978-1-78042-975-5 |page258 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idePYhUnX4vgUC&pgPA258 |language=en}}</ref>
*1876 &ndash; Alexander I of Serbia (d. 1903)<ref>{{cite web |titleAlexander {{!}} King of Serbia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-king-of-Serbia |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1881 &ndash; Francis Ford, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1953)<ref>{{cite book |last1Mayer |first1Geoff |titleEncyclopedia of American Film Serials |date 2017 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-7762-3 |page127 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3CYSDgAAQBAJ&pgPA127 |language=en}}</ref>
*1883 &ndash; Ernest Everett Just, American biologist and academic (d. 1941)<ref>{{cite web |titleErnest Everett Just (1883–1941) |urlhttps://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/just-ernest-everett-1883-1941/ |websiteblackpast.org |access-date18 March 2021 |date=30 January 2007}}</ref>
*1886 &ndash; Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, Canadian-American physicist and academic (d. 1950)<ref>{{cite web |titleArthur Jeffrey Dempster {{!}} American physicist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Arthur-Jeffrey-Dempster |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date17 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1889 &ndash; Otto Tief, Estonian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1976)<ref>{{cite book |last1Roszkowski |first1Wojciech |last2Kofman |first2Jan |titleBiographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century |date 2016 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-317-47593-4 |page2682 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRnKlDAAAQBAJ&pgPA2682 |language=en}}</ref>
*1890 &ndash; Bruno Tesch, German chemist and businessman (d. 1946)<ref>{{cite book |last1Bartrop |first1Paul R. |last2Grimm |first2Eve E. |titlePerpetrating the Holocaust: Leaders, Enablers, and Collaborators |date2019 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-1-4408-5897-0 |page283 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSymBDwAAQBAJ&pgPA283 |language=en}}</ref>
*1892 &ndash; Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, English pianist, composer, and critic (d. 1988)<ref>{{cite web |titleKaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji {{!}} British composer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Kaikhosru-Shapurji-Sorabji |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1894 &ndash; Frank Burge, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1958)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/frank-burge/summary.html|titleFrank Burge – Career Stats & Summary |website=www.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
*1895 &ndash; Jack Gregory, Australian cricketer (d. 1973)<ref>{{cite book |last1Andrews |first1B. G. |titleJack Gregory |chapterGregory, Jack Morrison (1895–1973) |urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/gregory-jack-morrison-6478 |websiteAustralian Dictionary of Biography |publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1895 &ndash; Amaza Lee Meredith, American architect (d. 1984){{cn|date=September 2024}}
*1896 &ndash; Albert Ball, English fighter pilot (d. 1917)<ref>{{cite web |titleStatue of Captain Albert Ball, Nottingham Castle, Non Civil Parish – 1246929 {{!}} Historic England |urlhttps://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1246929 |websitehistoricengland.org.uk |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1896 &ndash; Theodor Luts, Estonian director and cinematographer (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite web |titleTheodor Luts |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba1841cf8 |websiteBFI |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen}}{{dead link|dateOctober 2023|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Margret Boveri, German journalist (d. 1975)<ref>{{cite book |last1Fell |first1Karolina Dorothea |titleKalkuliertes Abenteuer: Reiseberichte deutschsprachiger Frauen 1920–1945 |date2016 |publisherSpringer-Verlag |isbn978-3-476-03752-7 |page49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5RW1DQAAQBAJ&pgPA49 |languagede}}</ref>1901–present*1910 &ndash; Nüzhet Gökdoğan, Turkish astronomer and mathematician (d. 2003)<ref>{{Cite web|titleNüzhet Gökdoğan|urlhttps://www.tad.org.tr/ani-defteri/nuzhet-gokdogan|access-date2020-10-20|websiteTurkish Astronomy Association|languagetr}}</ref>
* 1910 &ndash; Willy Ronis, French photographer (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite web |titleWilly Ronis obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/sep/16/willy-ronis-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen |date16 September 2009}}</ref>
* 1910 &ndash; Pierre Schaeffer, French composer and producer (d. 1995)<ref>{{cite web |titlePierre Schaeffer {{!}} French composer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Pierre-Schaeffer |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; Frank Oppenheimer, American physicist and academic (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite web |titleCollection: Frank Oppenheimer papers {{!}} University of Minnesota Archival Collections Guides |urlhttps://archives.lib.umn.edu/repositories/14/resources/1604 |websitearchives.lib.umn.edu |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1913 &ndash; Hector Crawford, Australian director and producer (d. 1991)<ref>{{cite book |last1Bazzani |first1Rozzi |titleHector Crawford |chapterCrawford, Hector William (1913–1991) |urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/crawford-hector-william-14950 |websiteAustralian Dictionary of Biography |publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1913 &ndash; Paul Dean, American baseball player (d. 1981)<ref>{{cite web |titlePaul Dean |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/paul-dean/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; Herman Branson, American physicist, chemist, and academic (d. 1995)<ref>{{cite web |last1Chase |first1Anna |titleHerman Branson (1914–1995) |urlhttps://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/herman-branson-1914-1995/ |websiteblackpast.org |access-date18 March 2021 |date=16 December 2020}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; B. A. Santamaria, Australian political activist and publisher (d. 1998)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: B. A. Santamaria |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-b-a-santamaria-1149763.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen |date22 October 2011}}</ref>
*1916 &ndash; Frank and John Craighead, American naturalists (twins, Frank d. 2001, John d. 2016)<ref>{{cite web |titleFrank Craighead, Jr. and John Craighead – Conservation Heritage |urlhttps://paconservationheritage.org/stories/john-craighead-and-frank-craighead-jr/ |websitepaconservationheritage.org |date15 January 2017 |access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1916 &ndash; Wellington Mara, American businessman (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite web |last1Goldstein |first1Richard |titleWellington Mara, Co-Owner of New York Giants, Is Dead at 89 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/25/sports/football/wellington-mara-coowner-of-new-york-giants-is-dead-at-89.html |websiteThe New York Times |access-date18 March 2021 |date=25 October 2005}}</ref>
*1923 &ndash; Alice Ghostley, American actress (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite web |titleAlice Ghostley |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba30ec87f |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171013115218/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba30ec87f |url-statusdead |archive-dateOctober 13, 2017 |websiteBFI |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Sverre Fehn, Norwegian architect, designed the Hedmark Museum (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite web |titleSverre Fehn {{!}} Norwegian architect |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Sverre-Fehn |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1924 &ndash; Georges Prêtre, French conductor (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite web |last1Nichols |first1Roger |titleGeorges Prêtre obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jan/05/georges-pretre-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen |date5 January 2017}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; Russell Baker, American critic and essayist (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite web |titleRussell Baker {{!}} American journalist and humorist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Russell-Baker |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1926 &ndash; René Goscinny, French author and illustrator (d. 1977)<ref>{{cite book |last1Bendazzi |first1Giannalberto |titleAnimation: A World History: Volume II: The Birth of a Style – The Three Markets |date 2015 |publisherCRC Press |isbn978-1-317-51990-4 |page547 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrazMCgAAQBAJ&pgPT547 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Buddy Greco, American singer and pianist (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite web |titleBuddy Greco obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/jan/13/buddy-greco-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen |date13 January 2017}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Lina Wertmüller, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite web |titleLina Wertmuller {{!}} Biography, Movies, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Lina-Wertmuller |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1929 &ndash; Giacomo Capuzzi, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodi from 1989 to 2005 (d. 2021).<ref>{{Cite web|titleÈ morto monsignor Giacomo Capuzzi, vescovo di Lodi dal 1989 al 2005. Fu Il Vescovo Del Papa A Lodi|urlhttps://www.ilcittadino.it/stories/Cronaca/e-morto-monsignor-giacomo-capuzzi-vescovo-di-lodi-dal-1989-al-2005_73256_96/|access-date2021-12-26|websitewww.ilcittadino.it|date26 December 2021 |languageit}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Dick Tiger, Nigerian boxer (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite web |titleDick Tiger {{!}} Nigerian boxer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Dick-Tiger |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; Arthur Latham, British politician and Member of Parliament (d. 2016)<ref name"whoswho">{{cite web |titleLatham, Arthur Charles, (14 Aug. 1930–3 Dec. 2016), Member (Lab), Havering Council (formerly Romford Borough Council), 1952–78 and 1986–98 |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U23853 |websiteWho's Who |publisherOxford University Press |access-date1 April 2021 |doi10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u23853 |date1 December 2007}}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Earl Weaver, American baseball player and manager (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite web |titleEarl Weaver {{!}} American baseball player and manager |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Earl-Weaver |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; Frederic Raphael, American journalist, author, and screenwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleFrederic Raphael |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba64f0606 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160624174848/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba64f0606 |url-statusdead |archive-dateJune 24, 2016 |websiteBFI |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Lee Hoffman, American author (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite web |titleAuthors : Hoffman, Lee : SFE : Science Fiction Encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/hoffman_lee |websitewww.sf-encyclopedia.com |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Richard R. Ernst, Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard R. Ernst {{!}} Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-R-Ernst |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; John Brodie, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleJohn Brodie Facts & Stats |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/facts/John-Brodie |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Bennie Muller, Dutch footballer (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite web |titleBennie Muller – Player Profile – Football |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/football/bennie-muller_prs192867/person.shtml |websiteEurosport UK |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; David Crosby, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web |last1Morris |first1Chris |titleDavid Crosby, Byrds and Crosby, Stills & Nash Co-Founder, Dies at 81 |urlhttps://variety.com/2023/music/news/david-crosby-dead-dies-byrds-crosby-stills-nash-1235495467/ |websiteVariety |access-dateJanuary 19, 2023 |date=January 19, 2023}}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Connie Smith, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref>{{cite book |last1McCall |first1Michael |last2Rumble |first2John |last3Kingsbury |first3Paul |titleThe Encyclopedia of Country Music |date2012 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-992083-9 |page490 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtLZz02EzmBYC&pgPA490 |language=en}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Willie Dunn, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite web |titleWillie Dunn {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/william-lawrence-dunn |websitewww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Ronnie Campbell, English miner and politician (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite web |titleRonnie Campbell |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2053987.stm |websiteBBC News |access-date18 March 2021 |date=21 October 2002}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Ben Sidran, American jazz and rock keyboardist<ref>{{cite book |last1Masino |first1Susan |titleFamous Wisconsin Musicians |year2003 |publisherBadger Books Inc. |isbn978-1-878569-88-2 |page49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCQiOWL9N9moC&pgPA49 |language=en}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; Steve Martin, American actor, comedian, musician, producer, and screenwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleSteve Martin {{!}} Biography, Movies, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Steve-Martin |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; Wim Wenders, German director, producer, and screenwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleWim Wenders {{!}} Biography, Movies, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Wim-Wenders |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Antonio Fargas, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1946 &ndash; Larry Graham, American soul/funk bass player and singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleSly and the Family Stone {{!}} American music group |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Sly-and-the-Family-Stone |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Susan Saint James, American actress<ref nameChase2017>{{cite book |titleChase's Calendar of Events 2017: The Ultimate Go-To Guide for Special Days, Weeks and Months |date2016 |publisherBernan Press |isbn978-1-59888-859-1 |page412 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq-xrDQAAQBAJ&pgPA412 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Tom Walkinshaw, Scottish race car driver and businessman (d. 2010)<ref>{{cite web |titleTom Walkinshaw: Motor racing team owner who won the world title with |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/tom-walkinshaw-motor-racing-team-owner-who-won-world-title-michael-schumacher-and-branched-out-rugby-union-2161604.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen |date22 October 2011}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Maddy Prior, English folk singer<ref>{{cite web |titleSteeleye Span |urlhttps://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000046276 |websiteGrove Music Online |year2001 |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen |doi10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.46276|last1Laing |first1Dave |isbn978-1-56159-263-0 }}</ref>
* 1947 &ndash; Danielle Steel, American author<ref>{{cite web |titleDanielle Steel {{!}} Biography, Books, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Danielle-Steel |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1947 &ndash; Joop van Daele, Dutch footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleJoop van Daele – Player Profile – Fotbal |urlhttps://www.eurosport.ro/fotbal/joop-van-daele_prs192610/person.shtml |websiteEurosport |access-date18 March 2021 |language=ro}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Bob Backlund, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |last1Mueller |first1Chris |titleWWE Forgotten Legends 5: Bob Backlund |urlhttps://bleacherreport.com/articles/402609-wwe-forgotten-legends-5-bob-backlund |publisherBleacher Report |access-date12 August 2023 |date=7 June 2010}}</ref>
* 1949 &ndash; Morten Olsen, Danish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleMorten Olsen – UEL |urlhttps://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/clubs/players/12--morten-olsen/ |websiteUEFA |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Gary Larson, American cartoonist<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1951 &ndash; Slim Dunlap, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |lastCorcoran |firstNina |dateDecember 19, 2024 |titleSlim Dunlap, Former Replacements Guitarist, Dies at 73 |urlhttps://pitchfork.com/news/slim-dunlap-former-replacements-guitarist-dies-at-73/ |access-dateDecember 20, 2024 |websitePitchfork |languageen-US}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; Carl Lumbly, American actor<ref name="AP" />
*1952 &ndash; Debbie Meyer, American swimmer<ref>{{cite web |titleOlympedia – Debbie Meyer |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/51124 |websitewww.olympedia.org |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1953 &ndash; James Horner, American composer and conductor (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite web |titleJames Horner, 1953–2015 {{!}} Obituary {{!}} Sight & Sound |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/sight-sound-magazine/comment/obituaries/james-horner-1953-2015 |websiteBritish Film Institute |date27 June 2015 |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; Mark Fidrych, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite web |titleMark Fidrych |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/mark-fidrych/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1954 &ndash; Stanley A. McChrystal, American general<ref>{{cite web |titleStanley McChrystal {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Stanley-McChrystal |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1956 &ndash; Jackée Harry, American actress and television personality<ref>{{cite book |last1McCann |first1Bob |titleEncyclopedia of African American Actresses in Film and Television |date 2009 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-5804-2 |page172 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX7ZYsnTPIhwC&pgPA172 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Andy King, English footballer and manager (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite web |titleAndy King: Cultured Everton midfielder remembered by Toffees fans for |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/andy-king-cultured-everton-midfielder-remembered-toffees-fans-glorious-merseyside-derby-winner-1978-10285662.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen |date29 May 2015}}</ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Rusty Wallace, American race car driver<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1957 &ndash; Peter Costello, Australian lawyer and politician<ref>{{cite book |last1Carroll |first1Brian |titleAustralia's Prime Ministers: From Barton to Howard |year2004 |publisherRosenberg Publishing Pty, Ltd. |isbn978-1-877058-22-6 |page317 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW8PUBuw4idYC&pgPA317 |languageen }}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Frank Brickowski, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleFrank Brickowski |urlhttps://www.espn.com.au/nba/player/_/id/3653/frank-brickowski |websiteESPN |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1959 &ndash; Marcia Gay Harden, American actress<ref>{{cite web |titleMarcia Gay Harden {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcia-Gay-Harden |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1959 &ndash; Magic Johnson, American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleMagic Johnson {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Magic-Johnson |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; Sarah Brightman, English singer and actress<ref>{{cite web |titleSarah Brightman |urlhttp://www.bfi-staging.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba2324841 |websiteBFI |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen }}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
* 1960 &ndash; Fred Roberts, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleFred Roberts Stats, News, Bio |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/_/id/3828/fred-roberts |websiteESPN |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1961 &ndash; Susan Olsen, American actress and radio host<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 14, 2022 includes celebrities Steve Martin, Halle Berry |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-14-2022-includes-celebrities-steve-martin-halle-berry.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date12 August 2023 |date=14 August 2022}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Mark Gubicza, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleMark Gubicza |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/mark-gubicza/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; José Cóceres, Argentinian golfer<ref>{{cite web |titleJosé Coceres PGA Tour Profile – News, Stats, and Videos |urlhttps://www.pgatour.com/players/player.19972.jose-coceres.html |websitePGATour |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Neal Anderson, American football player and coach<ref>{{cite book |last1Cohen |first1Robert W. |titleThe 50 Greatest Players in Chicago Bears History |date 2020 |publisherRowman & Littlefield |isbn978-1-4930-4699-7 |page199 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsAPzDwAAQBAJ&pgPA199 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Jason Dunstall, Australian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleJason Dunstall |urlhttps://collection.australiansportsmuseum.org.au/persons/18586/jason-dunstall |websiteAustralian Sports Museum Collection Online |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Paul Broadhurst, English golfer<ref>{{cite web |titlePaul Broadhurst PGA Tour Champions Profile – News, Stats, and Videos |urlhttps://www.pgatour.com/players/player.08191.paul-broadhurst.html |websitePGATour |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Halle Berry, American model, actress, and producer<ref>{{cite web |titleHalle Berry {{!}} Biography, Movies, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Halle-Berry |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1966 &ndash; Karl Petter Løken, Swedish-Norwegian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleKarl-Petter Løken – Player Profile – Football |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/football/karl-petter-loken_prs191149/person.shtml |websiteEurosport UK |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Ben Bass, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1968 &ndash; Catherine Bell, English-American actress and producer<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1968 &ndash; Darren Clarke, Northern Irish golfer<ref>{{cite web |titleIf Darren Clarke could... |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/golf/features/newsid_3873000/3873631.stm |websiteBBC News |access-date18 March 2021 |date=7 July 2004}}</ref>
* 1968 &ndash; Jason Leonard, English rugby player<ref>{{cite web |titleJason Leonard {{!}} Rugby Union {{!}} Players and Officials |urlhttp://en.espn.co.uk/blogs/rugby/player/10878.html |websiteESPN scrum |access-date18 March 2021 |archive-date26 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230926155720/http://en.espn.co.uk/blogs/rugby/player/10878.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; Tracy Caldwell Dyson, American chemist and astronaut<ref>{{cite book |last1Cavallaro |first1Umberto |titleWomen Spacefarers: Sixty Different Paths to Space |date2017 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-3-319-34048-7 |page309 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVCNBDgAAQBAJ&pgPA309 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Stig Tøfting, Danish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleTofting gets jail term |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/b/bolton_wanderers/2329505.stm |websiteBBC News |access-date18 March 2021 |date=15 October 2002}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Kevin Cadogan, American rock guitarist{{r|larkin|p=2005}}
*1971 &ndash; Raoul Bova, Italian actor, producer, and screenwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleRaoul Bova |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2bae029773 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180723061304/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2bae029773 |url-statusdead |archive-dateJuly 23, 2018 |websiteBFI |access-date18 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1971 &ndash; Benito Carbone, Italian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleBenito Carbone Forward, Profile & Stats {{!}} Premier League |urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/1240/Benito-Carbone/overview |websitewww.premierleague.com |access-date13 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1971 &ndash; Peter Franzén, Finnish actor<ref>{{cite web |titlePeter Franzén – Discogs |websiteDiscogs |urlhttps://www.discogs.com/artist/1967069-Peter-Franz%C3%A9n |access-date14 August 2021 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleViihde: Peter Franzén |urlhttps://www.iltalehti.fi/julkkisarkisto/a/201003170125949 |workIltalehti|access-date14 August 2021 |languagefi}}</ref>
* 1971 &ndash; Mark Loretta, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleMark Loretta Stats, Fantasy & News |urlhttps://www.milb.com/player/mark-loretta-117928 |websiteMiLB.com |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Laurent Lamothe, Haitian businessman and politician, Prime Minister of Haiti<ref>{{cite book |last1Janssen |first1Sarah |titleThe World Almanac and Book of Facts 2013 |date 2012 |publisherSimon and Schuster |isbn978-1-60057-175-6 |page1995 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1yt4yY51DXIC&pgPA1995 |language=en}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Jared Borgetti, Mexican footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleJared Borgetti – UEL |urlhttps://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/clubs/players/64646--jared-borgetti/ |websiteUEFA |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Kieren Perkins, Australian swimmer<ref>{{cite web |titleOlympedia – Kieren Perkins |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/45268 |websitewww.olympedia.org |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1974 &ndash; Chucky Atkins, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleESPN.com: Detroit Pistons Roster |urlhttp://a.espncdn.com/nba/rosters/det.html |websitea.espncdn.com |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Christopher Gorham, American actor<ref name="AP" />
*1975 &ndash; Mike Vrabel, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleMike Vrabel Stats |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/1257/mike-vrabel |websiteESPN |access-date18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Fabrizio Donato, Italian triple jumper<ref>{{cite web |titleFabrizio Donato {{!}} Profile |urlhttps://worldathletics.org/athletes/italy/fabrizio-donato-14200237 |websiteworldathletics.org |access-date18 March 2021}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Juan Pierre, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJuan Pierre Stats, Fantasy & News |urlhttps://www.milb.com/player/juan-pierre-334393 |websiteMiLB.com |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Anastasios Kyriakos, Greek footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleAnastasios Kyriakos – Player Profile – Football |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/football/anastasios-kyriakos_prs207052/person.shtml |websiteEurosport UK |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Greg Rawlinson, New Zealand rugby player<ref>{{cite web |titleGregory Paul Rawlinson |urlhttp://en.espn.co.uk/timeline/rugby/player/15273.html |websiteESPN scrum |access-date17 March 2021 |archive-date25 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230925142250/http://en.espn.co.uk/timeline/rugby/player/15273.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Paul Burgess, Australian pole vaulter<ref>{{cite web |titlePaul BURGESS {{!}} Profile |urlhttps://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/australia/paul-burgess-14180019 |websitewww.worldathletics.org |access-date17 March 2021}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Peter Malinauskas, Australian politician, 47th Premier of South Australia<ref name"crouch">{{cite news|last1Crouch|first1Brad|titleMeet Peter Malinauskas: South Australia's political wishmaker|urlhttps://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/meet-peter-malinauskas-south-australias-political-wishmaker/news-story/86ec7b55d18e8209b09e3025c283566f|access-date20 March 2022|workSunday Mail|date20 August 2011}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Earl Barron, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleEarl Barron |urlhttps://gleague.nba.com/player/earl-barron/ |websiteNBA G League |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Paul Gallen, Australian rugby league player, boxer, and sportscaster<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/paul-gallen/summary.html|titlePaul Gallen – Career Stats & Summary|publisherRugby League Project|access-date2016-07-16}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Julius Jones, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleJulius Jones |urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/nfl/player/_/id/5568/julius-jones |websiteESPN |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Kofi Kingston, Ghanaian-American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |titleKofi Kingston |urlhttps://www.espn.com/wwe/story/_/id/17173532/wwe-profile-page-kofi-kingston |publisherESPN |access-date12 August 2023 |date=15 September 2019}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Scott Lipsky, American tennis player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.atptour.com/en/players/scott-lipsky/l580/overview|titleScott Lipsky {{pipe}} Overview {{pipe}} ATP Tour {{pipe}} Tennis|website=ATP Tour}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Elena Baltacha, Ukrainian-Scottish tennis player (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite web |titleElena Baltacha obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/may/05/elena-baltacha |websiteThe Guardian |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen |date5 May 2014}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Mila Kunis, Ukrainian-American actress<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1983 &ndash; Lamorne Morris, American actor and comedian<ref name="AP" />
* 1983 &ndash; Spencer Pratt, American television personality<ref name="AP" />
*1984 &ndash; Eva Birnerová, Czech tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleTennis Eva Birnerova – ESPN |urlhttp://m.espn.com/general/tennis/playercard?playerId322&srcdesktop&randref~%257B%2522ref%2522%253A%2522https%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252F%2522%257D |websitem.espn.com |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Clay Buchholz, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleClay Buchholz Stats, Fantasy & News |urlhttps://www.milb.com/player/clay-buchholz-453329 |websiteMiLB.com |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Giorgio Chiellini, Italian footballer<ref>{{cite web |last1Pellizzari |first1Tommaso |titleWorld Cup 2014: Italy profile – Giorgio Chiellini {{!}} Tommaso Pellizzari |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2014/jun/02/world-cup-2014-italy-profile-giorgio-chiellini |websiteThe Guardian |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen |date2 June 2014}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Josh Gorges, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleJosh Gorges Stats and News |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/josh-gorges-8470324 |websiteNHL.com |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Nick Grimshaw, English radio and television host<ref>{{cite web |titleNick Grimshaw |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2bde925ee6 |websiteBFI |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen}}{{dead link|dateOctober 2023|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Nicola Slater, Scottish tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleNicola Slater – Player Profile – Tennis |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/tennis/nicola-slater_prs356163/person.shtml |websiteEurosport UK |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Robin Söderling, Swedish tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleRobin Soderling |urlhttp://en.espn.co.uk/paperroundfootball/sport/player/27049.html |websiteESPN.co.uk |access-date16 March 2021 |archive-date26 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230926155710/http://en.espn.co.uk/paperroundfootball/sport/player/27049.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Christian Gentner, German footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleChristian Gentner |urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/football/player/_/id/84755/christian-gentner |websiteESPN.com |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1985 &ndash; Shea Weber, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleShea Weber |urlhttps://olympic.ca/team-canada/shea-weber/ |websiteTeam Canada – Official Olympic Team Website |date18 September 2011 |access-date=16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Braian Rodríguez, Uruguayan footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleBryan Rodríguez – Player Profile – Fotball |urlhttps://www.eurosport.no/fotball/bryan-rodriguez_prs416945/person.shtml |websiteEurosport |access-date16 March 2021 |language=no}}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Johnny Gargano, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |last1Thomas |first1Jeremy |titleWWE News: NXT Wishes Johnny Gargano a Happy Birthday, Stock Bumps Up |urlhttps://411mania.com/wrestling/wwe-news-nxt-wishes-johnny-gargano-a-happy-birthday-stock-bumps-up/ |publisher411Mania |access-date12 August 2023 |date=14 August 2019}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; David Peralta, Venezuelan baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleDavid Peralta |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/david-peralta-444482 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date12 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Tim Tebow, American football and baseball player and sportscaster<ref>{{cite web |titleTim Tebow Facts & Stats |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/facts/Tim-Tebow |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Ander Herrera, Spanish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleOlympedia – Ander Herrera |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/125651 |websitewww.olympedia.org |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Kyle Turris, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleKyle Turris |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nhl/player/gamelog/_/id/3892/kyle-turris |websiteESPN.com |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Richard Freitag, German ski jumper<ref>{{cite web |titleOlympedia – Richard Freitag |urlhttp://www.olympedia.org/athletes/127864 |websitewww.olympedia.org |access-date16 March 2021}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Giovanny Gallegos, Mexican baseball player <ref>{{cite web|titleGiovanny Gallegos|websiteMLB.com |url=https://www.mlb.com/player/giovanny-gallegos-606149}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Maya Jama, British TV presenter.<ref>{{cite web|titleMaya Jama on turning 30, birthday plans and how to handle hosting pressure|websitewww.cosmopolitan.com/ |url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/entertainment/a61838548/maya-jama-turning-30-pressure-birthday/}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Léolia Jeanjean, French tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleLeolia Jeanjean {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/320313/leolia-jeanjean |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Greet Minnen, Belgian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleGreet Minnen {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/321454/greet-minnen |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Marsai Martin, American actress and producer<ref>{{cite web |lastDelgado |firstSara |titleMarsai Martin Threw a Shrek-Themed, Star-Studded Party for Her 18th Birthday |urlhttps://www.teenvogue.com/story/marsai-martin-threw-a-shrek-themed-party-for-her-18th-birthday |dateAugust 16, 2022 |websiteTeen Vogue |publisherCondé Nast |access-dateDecember 31, 2022}}</ref>
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 582 &ndash; Tiberius II Constantine, Byzantine emperor<ref>{{cite web |titleTiberius II Constantinus {{!}} Facts, Reign, & Biography |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius-II-Constantinus |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1040 &ndash; Duncan I of Scotland<ref>{{cite book |last1Cannon |first1John |last2Hargreaves |first2Anne |titleThe Kings and Queens of Britain |date 2009 |publisherOUP Oxford |isbn978-0-19-158028-4 |page131 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFKhB1kiXq7YC&pgPT131 |language=en}}</ref>
*1167 &ndash; Rainald of Dassel, Italian archbishop<ref>{{cite web |titleRainald Of Dassel {{!}} German statesman |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Rainald-of-Dassel |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1204 &ndash; Minamoto no Yoriie, second Shōgun of the Kamakura shogunate<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttp://www5a.biglobe.ne.jp/~micro-8/toshio/azuma/120407.html |titleAzuma Kagami |languageja |chapter18}}: 7月18日 ［愚管抄］ 修善寺にて、また頼家入道をば指ころしてけり。とみにえとりつめざりければ、頸に 緒をつけ、ふぐりを取などしてころしてけりと聞えき。人はいみじくたけきも力及ば ぬことなりけり。ひきは其郡に父の党とて、みせやの大夫行時と云う者のむすめを妻 にして、一万御前が母をばもうけたるなり。その行時は又兒玉党にしたるなり。</ref>
*1433 &ndash; John I of Portugal (b. 1357)<ref>{{cite web |titleJohn I {{!}} king of Portugal |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/John-I-king-of-Portugal |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1464 &ndash; Pope Pius II (b. 1405)<ref>{{cite book |titleChambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge |year1891 |publisherJ.B. Lippincott & Company |page208 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGJlAAAAAYAAJ&pgPA208 |languageen}}</ref>
*1573 &ndash; Saitō Tatsuoki, Japanese daimyō (b. 1548)<ref>{{cite book |last1Koike |first1Kazuo |last2Kojima |first2Goseki |titleShinobi with Extending Fists |year2006 |publisherDark Horse Comics |isbn978-1-59307-509-5 |page293 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3H0EDAAAQBAJ&pgPA293 |languageen}}</ref>1601–1900*1691 &ndash; Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Irish soldier and politician (b. 1630)<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnell {{!}} Irish Jacobite |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Talbot-earl-of-Tyrconnell |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1716 &ndash; Madre María Rosa, Capuchin nun from Spain, to Peru (b. 1660)<ref>{{Cite book|titleSisters and workers in the middle ages|lastBennett|firstJudith M|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press|year1989|locationChicago}}</ref>
*1727 &ndash; William Croft, English organist and composer (b. 1678)<ref>{{cite web |titleWilliam Croft {{!}} English musician |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Croft |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1774 &ndash; Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (b. 1716)<ref>{{cite web |titleJohann Jakob Reiske {{!}} German scholar |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Jakob-Reiske |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1784 &ndash; Nathaniel Hone the Elder, Irish-born English painter and academic (b. 1718)<ref>{{cite web |titleSelf-portrait of Nathaniel Hone, R.A. {{!}} Works of Art {{!}} RA Collection {{!}} Royal Academy of Arts |urlhttps://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art-artists/work-of-art/self-portrait-of-nathaniel-hone-r-a |websitewww.royalacademy.org.uk |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1852 &ndash; Margaret Taylor, First Lady of the United States (b. 1788)<ref>{{cite web |titleMargaret Taylor {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-Taylor |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1854 &ndash; Carl Carl, Polish-born actor and theatre director (b. 1787)<ref>{{cite book|chapterBernbrunn, Carl|chapter-urlhttp://www.literature.at/viewer.alo?objid12537&page341&scale3.33&viewmodefullscreen|titleBiographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich|languagede|page327|access-dateJuly 17, 2019}}</ref>
*1860 &ndash; André Marie Constant Duméril, French zoologist and entomologist (b. 1774)<ref>{{cite book |last1Damkaer |first1David M. |titleThe Copepodologist's Cabinet: A Biographical and Bibliographical History |year2002 |publisherAmerican Philosophical Society |isbn978-0-87169-240-5 |page140 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTgUNAAAAIAAJ&pgPA140 |language=en}}</ref>
*1870 &ndash; David Farragut, American admiral (b. 1801)<ref>{{cite web |titleDavid Farragut {{!}} United States admiral |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Farragut |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1890 &ndash; Michael J. McGivney, American priest, founded the Knights of Columbus (b. 1852)<ref>{{cite web |titleMcGivney, Michael J. (1852–1890), Catholic priest and founder of the Knights of Columbus |urlhttps://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-0800959 |websiteAmerican National Biography |year2000 |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |doi10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0800959|last1Kauffman |first1Christopher J. |isbn978-0-19-860669-7 }}</ref>
*1891 &ndash; Sarah Childress Polk, First Lady of the United States (b. 1803)<ref>{{cite web |titleSarah Polk {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Sarah-Polk |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>1901–present*1905 &ndash; Simeon Solomon, English soldier and painter (b. 1840)<ref>{{cite web |titleSimeon Solomon {{!}} Artist {{!}} Royal Academy of Arts |urlhttps://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art-artists/name/simeon-solomon |websitewww.royalacademy.org.uk |access-date=19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; William Stanley, British engineer and author (b. 1829)<ref>{{cite web |titleAuthors : Stanley, William : SFE : Science Fiction Encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/stanley_william |websitewww.sf-encyclopedia.com |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Rebecca Cole, American physician and social reformer (b. 1846)<ref>{{cite book|firstDarryl|lastLyman|titleGreat African-American Women|locationNew York|publisherJ David|year2005|isbn978-0-82460-459-2|page279}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Klabund, German author and poet (b. 1890)<ref>{{cite web |titleKlabund {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Klabund |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Hugh Trumble, Australian cricketer and accountant (b. 1876)<ref>{{cite book |last1Pierce |first1Peter |titleHugh Trumble |chapterTrumble, Hugh (1867–1938) |urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/trumble-hugh-8860 |websiteAustralian Dictionary of Biography |publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; Maximilian Kolbe, Polish martyr and saint (b. 1894)<ref name"britannica.com">{{cite web |titleSaint Maksymilian Maria Kolbe {{!}} Biography, Facts, & Death |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Maksymilian-Maria-Kolbe |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Paul Sabatier, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1854)<ref>{{cite web |titlePaul Sabatier {{!}} French chemist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Sabatier-French-chemist |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Joe Kelley, American baseball player and manager (b. 1871)<ref>{{cite web |titleJoe Kelley |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/joe-kelley/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Eliška Misáková, Czech gymnast (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite web |titleCzech Girl Gymnast Dies in London of Polio |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/82987441/czech-girl-gymnast-dies-in-london-of/ |websiteThe Boston Globe |access-date14 August 2023 |pages29 |date15 August 1948}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and politician, founded the Hearst Corporation (b. 1863)<ref>{{cite web |titleWilliam Randolph Hearst {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Randolph-Hearst |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; Hugo Eckener, German pilot and designer (b. 1868)<ref>{{cite web |titleHugo Eckener {{!}} German aeronautical engineer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Eckener |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1955 &ndash; Herbert Putnam, American lawyer and publisher, Librarian of Congress (b. 1861)<ref>{{cite web |titleHerbert Putnam {{!}} American librarian |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Herbert-Putnam |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1956 &ndash; Bertolt Brecht, German poet, playwright, and director (b. 1898)<ref>{{cite web |titleBertolt Brecht {{!}} Biography, Plays, Epic Theater, Poems, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Bertolt-Brecht |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Konstantin von Neurath, German lawyer and politician, Reich Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1873)<ref>{{cite web |titleKonstantin, baron von Neurath {{!}} German official |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Konstantin-Freiherr-von-Neurath |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; Frédéric Joliot-Curie, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)<ref>{{cite web |titleFrédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie {{!}} French chemists |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curie |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; Clifford Odets, American director, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1906)<ref>{{cite web |titleClifford Odets {{!}} American dramatist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Clifford-Odets |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Johnny Burnette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite book |last1Morrison |first1Craig |titleGo Cat Go!: Rockabilly Music and Its Makers |year1996 |publisherUniversity of Illinois Press |isbn978-0-252-06538-5 |page103 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqAHvUO5GknMC&pgPA103 |language=en}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Vello Kaaristo, Estonian skier (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite web |titleOlympedia – Vello Kaaristo |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/88602 |websitewww.olympedia.org |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; Bob Anderson, English motorcycle racer and race car driver (b. 1931)<ref>{{cite web |titleBob Anderson |urlhttp://en.espn.co.uk/brabham/motorsport/driver/851.html |websiteESPN UK |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |archive-date25 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151225215741/http://en.espn.co.uk/brabham/motorsport/driver/851.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Oscar Levant, American actor, pianist, and composer (b. 1906)<ref>{{cite book |last1Rayno |first1Don |titlePaul Whiteman: Pioneer in American Music, 1930–1967 |date 2012 |publisherScarecrow Press |isbn978-0-8108-8322-2 |page407 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idn-hYmPstZmIC&pgPA407 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1972 &ndash; Jules Romains, French author and poet (b. 1885)<ref>{{cite web |titleJules Romains {{!}} French author |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Jules-Romains |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Fred Gipson, American journalist and author (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite book |last1Wilson |first1Scott |titleResting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons|edition 3rd |date2016 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-1-4766-2599-7 |page281 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFOHgDAAAQBAJ&pgPA281 |languageen}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Nicolas Bentley, English author and illustrator (b. 1907)<ref>{{cite book |last1NA |first1NA |titleTwentieth Century Crime & Mystery Writers |date2015 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-1-349-81366-7 |page106 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_U6vCwAAQBAJ&pgPA106 |language=en}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Dorothy Stratten, Canadian-American model and actress (b. 1960)<ref>{{cite book |last1Flowers |first1R. Barri |last2Flowers |first2H. Loraine |titleMurders in the United States: Crimes, Killers and Victims of the Twentieth Century |date 2004 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-2075-9 |page47 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgh6q_-Vzc0YC&pgPA47 |language=en}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Karl Böhm, Austrian conductor and director (b. 1894)<ref>{{cite web |titleKarl Böhm {{!}} Austrian musician |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Bohm |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Dudley Nourse, South African cricketer (b. 1910)<ref>{{cite web |titleAll-round records {{!}} Test matches {{!}} Cricinfo Statsguru {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com |urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/46589.html?class1;typeallround |websiteCricinfo |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; Mahasi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite book |last1Melton |first1J. Gordon |last2Baumann |first2Martin |titleReligions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices|edition2nd [6 vol.] |date2010 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-1-59884-204-3 |page418 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv2yiyLLOj88C&pgPA418 |languageen}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; Spud Davis, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite web |titleSpud Davis |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/spud-davis/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; J. B. Priestley, English novelist and playwright (b. 1894)<ref>{{cite web |titleJ. B. Priestley {{!}} British writer |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/J-B-Priestley |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Gale Sondergaard, American actress (b. 1899)<ref>{{cite web |titleGale Sondergaard Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/facts/Gale-Sondergaard |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Roy Buchanan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite book |last1Prown |first1Pete |last2Newquist |first2Harvey P. |titleLegends of Rock Guitar: The Essential Reference of Rock's Greatest Guitarists |year1997 |publisherHal Leonard Corporation |isbn978-0-7935-4042-6 |page92 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id60Jde3l7WNwC&pgPA92 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Robert Calvert, South African-English singer-songwriter and playwright (b. 1945){{r|larkin|p=1712}}
* 1988 &ndash; Enzo Ferrari, Italian race car driver and businessman, founded Ferrari (b. 1898)<ref>{{cite web |titleEnzo Ferrari {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Enzo-Ferrari |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Alberto Crespo, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1920)<ref>{{cite web |titleAlberto Crespo |urlhttp://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/driver/617.html |websiteESPN UK |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |archive-date17 January 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210117191943/http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/driver/617.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; John Sirica, American lawyer and judge (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite web |titleJohn Sirica {{!}} Biography, Facts, & Watergate Trial |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Sirica |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Elias Canetti, Bulgarian-Swiss author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: Elias Canetti |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-elias-canetti-1377364.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date18 September 2011}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Alice Childress, American actress, playwright, and author (b. 1912)<ref>{{cite web |titleAlice Childress {{!}} American writer and actress |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alice-Childress |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Sergiu Celibidache, Romanian conductor and composer (b. 1912)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: Sergiu Celibidache |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-sergiu-celibidache-1309910.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date23 October 2011}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Pee Wee Reese, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1918)<ref>{{cite web |titlePee Wee Reese {{!}} American baseball player and broadcaster |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Pee-Wee-Reese |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Larry Rivers, American painter and sculptor (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite web |titleLarry Rivers {{!}} American painter |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Larry-Rivers |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Helmut Rahn, German footballer (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: Helmut Rahn |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/aug/15/guardianobituaries.football |websiteThe Guardian |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date15 August 2003}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Czesław Miłosz, Polish-born American novelist, essayist, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite web |last1Czerniawski |first1Adam |titleObituary: Czeslaw Milosz |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/aug/16/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries |websiteThe Guardian |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date15 August 2004}}</ref>
* 2004 &ndash; Trevor Skeet, New Zealand-English lawyer and politician (b. 1918)<ref>{{cite web |last1Critchley |first1Julian |titleObituary: Sir Trevor Skeet |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/aug/19/guardianobituaries.conservatives |websiteThe Guardian |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date18 August 2004}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Bruno Kirby, American actor (b. 1949)<ref>{{cite web |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleObituary: Bruno Kirby |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/aug/30/guardianobituaries.usa |websiteThe Guardian |access-date19 March 2021 |date=29 August 2006}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Tikhon Khrennikov, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1913)<ref>{{cite web |last1Kozinn |first1Allan |titleTikhon Khrennikov, Prolific Soviet Composer, Dies at 94 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/15/arts/music/15khrennikov.html |websiteThe New York Times |access-date19 March 2021 |date=15 August 2007}}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; Herman Leonard, American photographer (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite web |titleHerman Leonard obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/aug/17/herman-leonard-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date17 August 2010}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Vilasrao Deshmukh, Indian lawyer and politician, Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite news |titleUnion minister Vilasrao Deshmukh passes away |urlhttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/union-minister-vilasrao-deshmukh-passes-away/articleshow/15491218.cms |websiteThe Economic Times |access-date19 March 2021}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Svetozar Gligorić, Serbian chess player (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite web |titleSvetozar Gligoric obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/aug/22/svetozar-gligoric |websiteThe Guardian |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen |date22 August 2012}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Phyllis Thaxter, American actress (b. 1919)<ref>{{cite web |titlePhyllis Thaxter obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/aug/17/phyllis-thaxter |websiteThe Guardian |access-date16 March 2021 |languageen |date17 August 2012}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Jack Germond, American journalist and author (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite web |last1Martin |first1Douglas |titleJack Germond, Political Reporter of the Old School, Dies at 85 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/us/jack-germond-political-reporter-of-the-old-school-dies-at-85.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/us/jack-germond-political-reporter-of-the-old-school-dies-at-85.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |websiteThe New York Times |access-date19 March 2021 |date15 August 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; Leonard Fein, American journalist and academic, co-founded Moment Magazine (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite web |last1Weber |first1Bruce |titleLeonard Fein, Provocative Writer on Jewish Affairs, Dies at 80 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/17/us/leonard-fein-80-provocative-writer-on-jewish-affairs-dies.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/17/us/leonard-fein-80-provocative-writer-on-jewish-affairs-dies.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |websiteThe New York Times |access-date19 March 2021 |date16 August 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; George V. Hansen, American politician (b. 1930)<ref>{{cite web |last1Vitello |first1Paul |titleGeorge Hansen, Idaho Congressman and Convicted Swindler, Dies at 83 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/us/george-v-hansen-seven-term-idaho-congressman-dies-at-83.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/us/george-v-hansen-seven-term-idaho-congressman-dies-at-83.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |websiteThe New York Times |access-date19 March 2021 |date20 August 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Bob Johnston, American songwriter and producer (b. 1932)<ref>{{cite web |titleBob Johnston |urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/opinion/13625837.bob-johnston/ |websiteHeraldScotland |date26 August 2015 |access-date19 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; Fyvush Finkel, American actor (b. 1922)<ref>{{cite web |last1Berger |first1Joseph |titleFyvush Finkel, Pillar of Yiddish Theater Who Crossed Into TV, Dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/15/theater/fyvush-finkel-pillar-of-yiddish-theater-dies-at-93.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/15/theater/fyvush-finkel-pillar-of-yiddish-theater-dies-at-93.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |websiteThe New York Times |access-date19 March 2021 |date15 August 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; Jill Janus, American singer (b. 1975)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://people.com/music/jill-janus-frontwoman-huntress-dead-43/|titleJill Janus, Frontwoman of Heavy Metal Rock Band Huntress, Dies By Suicide at 43|websitePeople|date16 August 2018|lastFernandez|firstAlexia|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Polly Farmer, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1935)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://australianfootball.com/players/player/graham+%27polly%27+farmer/9390|titleAustralian Football – Graham 'Polly' Farmer – Player Bio|website=australianfootball.com}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Julian Bream, English classical guitarist and lutenist (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite web |titleJulian Bream {{!}} Biography, Music, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Julian-Bream |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date19 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2020 &ndash; Angela Buxton, British tennis player (b. 1934)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/26/sports/tennis/angela-buxton-dead.html|titleAngela Buxton, Half of an Outcast Duo in Tennis History, Dies at 85|firstKatharine Q.|lastSeelye|newspaperThe New York Times|dateAugust 28, 2020}}</ref>
* 2020 &ndash; James R. Thompson, American politician, Governor of Illinois (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/deaths/date/2020?p3|titleFamous People Who Died in 2020|websiteOn This Day|access-date=2020-08-22}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Michael Aung-Thwin, American historian and scholar of Burmese and Southeast Asian history (b. 1946)<ref name":02">{{Cite web |titleIn Memoriam |urlhttps://manoa.hawaii.edu/asianstudies/people/emeritus/michael-arthur-aung-thwin/ |access-date2022-08-19 |websiteDepartment of Asian Studies |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Delwar Hossain Sayeedi, Bangladeshi Islamic lecturer, politician (b. 1940)<ref>{{Cite web |titleBangladeshi religious leader buried after violent protests |urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/15/bangladeshi-religious-leader-buried-after-violent-protests |access-date22 November 2023 |websiteAl Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Gena Rowlands, American actress (b. 1930)<ref>{{Cite web |lastHaring |firstBruce |date2024-08-15 |titleGena Rowlands Dies: 'The Notebook', 'Gloria' And 'A Woman Under the Influence' Star Was 94 |urlhttps://deadline.com/2024/08/gena-rowlands-dead-actress-the-notebook-obituary-1236040898/ |access-date2024-08-15 |websiteDeadline |languageen-US}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Arnold of Soissons<ref>{{cite book |last1Foley |first1Michael P. |titleDrinking with the Saints: The Sinner's Guide to a Holy Happy Hour |date4 May 2015 |publisherSimon and Schuster |isbn978-1-62157-383-8 |page272 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide4ipBgAAQBAJ&pgPT272 |language=en}}</ref>
**Domingo Ibáñez de Erquicia<ref>{{cite book |last1Butler |first1Alban |last2Burns |first2Paul |titleButler's Lives of the Saints: September |dateJanuary 1995 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-0-86012-258-6 |page259 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-KKc-SzyoEUC&pgPA259 |language=en}}</ref>
**Eusebius of Rome<ref>{{cite book |last1Butler |first1Alban |titleButler's Lives of the Saints |dateJanuary 1995 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-0-8146-2388-6 |page312 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu32OUS4-yd0C&pgPA312 |language=en}}</ref>
**Jonathan Myrick Daniels (Episcopal Church)<ref>{{cite book |last1Portaro |first1Sam |titleBrightest and Best: A Companion to the Lesser Feasts and Fasts |date25 January 1998 |publisherCowley Publications |isbn978-1-4616-6051-4 |page141 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyp3wPBN8QyQC&pgPA141 |language=en}}</ref>
**Maximilian Kolbe<ref name="britannica.com"/>
*National Navajo Code Talkers Day is a holiday in the United States honoring Navajo code talkers in the military.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.lapahie.com/Navajo_Reagan.cfm |titleNational Navaho Code Talkers Day |websiteLapahie.com |dateAugust 14, 1982 |access-dateMarch 12, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110206234222/http://www.lapahie.com/Navajo_Reagan.cfm |archive-dateFebruary 6, 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2008-featured-story-archive/navajo-code-talkers/index.html |titleNavajo Code Talkers and the Unbreakable Code |workCentral Intelligence Agency |dateNovember 6, 2008 |access-dateMarch 12, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100327055830/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2008-featured-story-archive/navajo-code-talkers/index.html |archive-dateMarch 27, 2010 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/video/the-warrior-tradition-fkaz4h/|titleThe Warrior Tradition|websitepbs.org|access-dateMarch 13, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191115052715/https://www.pbs.org/video/the-warrior-tradition-fkaz4h/|archive-dateNovember 15, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Falklands Day is the celebration of the first sighting of the Falkland Islands by John Davis in 1592.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://en.mercopress.com/2013/08/19/falklands-day-celebrated-on-14-august-remembers-first-recorded-sighting-by-john-davis-in-1592|titleFalklands' Day celebrated on 14 August remembers first recorded sighting by John Davis in 1592|websiteMercoPress|access-date2017-05-31}}</ref>
*Independence Day celebrates the independence of Pakistan from the United Kingdom in 1947.<ref name="BBC"/>
*Partition Horrors Remembrance Day commemorates the victims and sufferings of people during the Partition of India in 1947.<ref>{{cite web |titleLearning, not avenging history – Why India needs rethink on Partition Horrors Remembrance Day |date14 August 2021 |publisherThe Print |urlhttps://theprint.in/campus-voice/learning-not-avenging-history-why-india-needs-rethink-on-partition-horrors-remembrance-day/721611/ |languageen}}</ref>References{{reflist|refs
<ref name"larkin">{{cite book |last1Larkin |first1Colin |titleThe Encyclopedia of Popular Music |date2011 |publisherOmnibus Press |isbn978-0-85712-595-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_NNmFiUnSmUC&pgRA21-PA2005-IA3 |language=en}}</ref>
}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/14 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day14}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/14 |titleHistorical Events on August 14 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 14}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_14 | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.555651 |
1418 | Absolute zero | {{short description|Lowest theoretical temperature}}
{{About|the minimum temperature limit|other uses|Absolute Zero (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2022}}
(−273.15&nbsp;°C) is defined as absolute zero.]]
Absolute zero is the coldest point on the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as 0 kelvin (International System of Units), which is −273.15 degrees on the Celsius scale,<ref name"sib2115">{{cite web |titleSI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI) – 9th edition (updated in 2022) |urlhttps://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/SI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf/2d2b50bf-f2b4-9661-f402-5f9d66e4b507 |access-date7 September 2022 |publisherBIPM |page133 |quote[...], it remains common practice to express a thermodynamic temperature, symbol T, in terms of its difference from the reference temperature T<sub>0</sub> 273.15 K, close to the ice point. This difference is called the Celsius temperature.}}</ref><ref name"arora">{{cite book|titleThermodynamics|first1C. P.|last1Arora|publisherTata McGraw-Hill |year2001|isbn978-0-07-462014-4|atTable 2.4 page 43|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw8GhW3J8RHIC&pgPA43}}</ref> and equals −459.67 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or imperial units).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/absolute-zero-200801.html|last1Zielinski|first1Sarah|date1 January 2008|titleAbsolute Zero|publisherSmithsonian Institution|access-date26 January 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130401180715/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/absolute-zero-200801.html|archive-date1 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.
It is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest enthalpy state possible,{{cn|date=March 2025}} because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal energy.
The laws of thermodynamics show that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically.<ref>{{Citation |last1Masanes |first1Lluís |titleA general derivation and quantification of the third law of thermodynamics |date14 March 2017 |journalNature Communications |volume8 |number14538 |pages14538 |arxiv1412.3828 |bibcode2017NatCo...814538M |doi10.1038/ncomms14538 |pmc5355879 |pmid28290452 |last2Oppenheim |first2Jonathan |author2-linkJonathan Oppenheim}}.</ref> Even a system at absolute zero, if it could somehow be achieved, would still possess quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero; the kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed.
Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation.
Thermodynamics near absolute zero
At temperatures near {{convert|0|K|C F}}, nearly all molecular motion ceases and ΔS&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 for any adiabatic process, where S is the entropy. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals with no structural imperfections as T → 0. Max Planck's strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as T → 0:
:<math> \lim_{T \to 0} \Delta S = 0 </math>
The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches a constant value. An adiabat is a state with constant entropy, typically represented on a graph as a curve in a manner similar to isotherms and isobars.
<blockquote>The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T&nbsp;&nbsp;0 as coincident with the adiabat S&nbsp;&nbsp;0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature (≈&nbsp;Callen, pp.&nbsp;189–190).</blockquote>
A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 even though each is perfectly ordered.
Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous material inclusions, can and do get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.
Using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T<sup>&nbsp;3</sup>, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T<sup>&nbsp;4</sup> (Guggenheim, p.&nbsp;111). These quantities drop toward their T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 limiting values and approach with zero slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10&nbsp;K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell's relations show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated.
Since the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy (G), the enthalpy (H) and the entropy is
:<math> \Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S \,</math>
thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other (so long as ΔS is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilibrium. If ΔS and/or T are small, the condition ΔG&nbsp;<&nbsp;0 may imply that ΔH&nbsp;<&nbsp;0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough.
Moreover, the slopes of the derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0. This ensures that ΔG and ΔH are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat, i.e., an actual process is the most exothermic one (Callen, pp.&nbsp;186–187).
One model that estimates the properties of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas. The electrons, being fermions, must be in different quantum states, which leads the electrons to get very high typical velocities, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by the Boltzmann constant, and is on the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century.
Relation with Bose–Einstein condensate
{{Main|Bose–Einstein condensate}}
atoms at a temperature within a few billionths of a degree above absolute zero. Left: just before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate. Center: just after the appearance of the condensate. Right: after further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate.]]
A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale.<ref>{{cite journal|journalNature|volume412|pages295–299|year2001|titleDynamics of collapsing and exploding Bose–Einstein condensates|pmid11460153|issue6844|doi10.1038/35085500|arxiv cond-mat/0105019 |bibcode 2001Natur.412..295D|last1Donley|first1Elizabeth A.|last2Claussen|first2Neil R.|last3Cornish|first3Simon L.|last4Roberts|first4Jacob L.|last5Cornell|first5Eric A.|last6Wieman|first6Carl E.|s2cid=969048}}</ref>
This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–1925. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which published it. Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers.<ref>Clark, Ronald W. "Einstein: The Life and Times" (Avon Books, 1971) pp. 408–9 {{ISBN|0-380-01159-X}}</ref>
Seventy years later, in 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST-JILA lab, using a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to {{nowrap|170 nanokelvin}} ({{val|1.7|e-7|uK}}).<ref>{{cite web|last Levi|first Barbara Goss|author-linkBarbara Goss Levi|title Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose–Einstein Condensates|work Search & Discovery|publisher Physics Today online| year 2001|url http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-12/p14.html|access-date 26 January 2008 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071024134547/http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-12/p14.html |archive-date 24 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleNew State of Matter Seen Near Absolute Zero |urlhttp://physics.nist.gov/News/Update/950724.html |publisherNIST |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100601175245/http://physics.nist.gov/News/Update/950724.html |archive-date=1 June 2010 }}</ref>
In 2003, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) achieved a temperature of {{nowrap|450 ± 80 picokelvin}} ({{val|4.5|e-10|uK}}) in a BEC of sodium atoms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Leanhardt |first1A. E. |last2Pasquini |first2T. A. |last3Saba |first3M. |last4Schirotzek |first4A. |last5Shin |first5Y. |last6Kielpinski |first6D. |last7Pritchard |first7D. E. |last8Ketterle |first8W. |year2003 |titleCooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin |urlhttp://www.dsf.unica.it/~michele/michele/picokelvin.pdf |url-statuslive |journalScience |volume301 |issue5639 |pages1513–1515 |bibcode2003Sci...301.1513L |doi10.1126/science.1088827 |pmid12970559 |s2cid30259606 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.dsf.unica.it/~michele/michele/picokelvin.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09}}</ref> The associated black body (peak emittance) wavelength of 6.4 megameters is roughly the radius of Earth.
In 2021, University of Bremen physicists achieved a BEC with a temperature of only {{nowrap|38 picokelvin}}, the current coldest temperature record.<ref name":0" />Absolute temperature scalesAbsolute, or thermodynamic, temperature is conventionally measured in kelvin (Celsius-scaled increments)<ref name"sib2115"/> and in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit-scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined by a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the degree, so the ratios of two absolute temperatures, T<sub>2</sub>/T<sub>1</sub>, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition of this standard comes from the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. It can also be found in Fermi–Dirac statistics (for particles of half-integer spin) and Bose–Einstein statistics (for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over kT, with k representing the Boltzmann constant and T representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level.{{cn|dateSeptember 2023}}Negative temperatures
{{Main|Negative temperature}}
Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain systems can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) can be of a negative quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than any system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive-temperature system.<ref name"Chase">{{cite web|lastChase|firstScott|titleBelow Absolute Zero -What Does Negative Temperature Mean?|urlhttp://www.phys.ncku.edu.tw/mirrors/physicsfaq/ParticleAndNuclear/neg_temperature.html|workThe Physics and Relativity FAQ|access-date2 July 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815144418/http://www.phys.ncku.edu.tw/mirrors/physicsfaq/ParticleAndNuclear/neg_temperature.html|archive-date15 August 2011|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Most familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added.<ref name"Chase"/> As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state energy. Therefore, no complete system, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state,{{citation needed|dateOctober 2016}} so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (e.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable.
On 3 January 2013, physicists announced that for the first time they had created a quantum gas made up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom.<ref>{{cite journal|doi10.1038/nature.2013.12146|titleQuantum gas goes below absolute zero|journalNature|year2013|last1Merali|first1Zeeya|s2cid124101032|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
History
pioneered the idea of an absolute zero.]]
One of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, articulated the dispute known as the primum frigidum.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8vRaAAAAMAAJ&pgPA651|titleThe Stanford Dictionary of Anglicised Words and Phrases|author-linkJohn Frederick Stanford|lastStanford|firstJohn Frederick|year1892 }}</ref> The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four classical elements), others within water, others air, and some more recently within nitre. But all of them seemed to agree that, "There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality."<ref>{{cite book|lastBoyle|firstRobert|titleNew Experiments and Observations touching Cold|year1665}}</ref>
Limit to the "degree of cold"
The question of whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1703, in connection with his improvements in the air thermometer. His instrument indicated temperatures by the height at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury—the pressure, or "spring" of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Amontons |titleLe thermomètre rèduit à une mesure fixe & certaine, & le moyen d'y rapporter les observations faites avec les anciens Thermométres |journalHistoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, avec les Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique pour la même Année |date18 April 1703 |pages50–56 |urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/87349#page/216/mode/1up |trans-titleThe thermometer reduced to a fixed & certain measurement, & the means of relating to it observations made with old thermometers |languageFrench}} Amontons described the relation between his new thermometer (which was based on the expansion and contraction of alcohol (esprit de vin)) and the old thermometer (which was based on air). From p. 52: ''" […] d'où il paroît que l'extrême froid de ce Thermométre seroit celui qui réduiroit l'air à ne soutenir aucune charge par son ressort, […] "'' ([…] whence it appears that the extreme cold of this [air] thermometer would be that which would reduce the air to supporting no load by its spring, […]) In other words, the lowest temperature which can be measured by a thermometer which is based on the expansion and contraction of air is that temperature at which the air's pressure ("spring") has decreased to zero.</ref> He used a scale that marked the boiling point of water at +73 and the melting point of ice at +{{frac|51|1|2}}, so that the zero was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale.<ref nameAS2016>{{Cite EB1911|wstitleCold}}</ref> Amontons held that the absolute zero cannot be reached, so never attempted to compute it explicitly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Talbot |first1G. R. |last2Pacey |first2A. C. |date1972 |titleAntecedents of thermodynamics in the work of Guillaume Amontons |journalCentaurus |volume16 |issue1 |pages20–40 |bibcode1972Cent...16...20T |doi10.1111/j.1600-0498.1972.tb00163.x}}</ref> The value of −240&nbsp;°C, or "431 divisions [in Fahrenheit's thermometer] below the cold of freezing water"<ref>{{cite book |last1Martine |first1George |titleEssays Medical and Philosophical |date1740 |publisherA. Millar |locationLondon, England, UK |page291 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtSm2Ws6bg0oC&pgPA291 |chapter=Essay VI: The various degrees of heat in bodies}}</ref> was published by George Martine in 1740.
This close approximation to the modern value of −273.15&nbsp;°C<ref name"sib2115"/> for the zero of the air thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that {{convert|-270|C|F K}} might be regarded as absolute cold.<ref>{{cite book |lastLambert |firstJohann Heinrich |titlePyrometrie |year1779 |locationBerlin, Germany |oclc=165756016}}</ref>
Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3,000&nbsp;°C as the natural zero of temperature.
Charles's law
From 1787 to 1802, it was determined by Jacques Charles (unpublished), John Dalton,<ref>J. Dalton (1802), [https://books.google.com/books?id3qdJAAAAYAAJ&pgPA595 "Essay II. On the force of steam or vapour from water and various other liquids, both in vacuum and in air" and Essay IV. "On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat" ], Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 550–574, 595–602.</ref> and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac<ref>{{citation |authorGay-Lussac, J. L. |author-linkJoseph Louis Gay-Lussac |year1802 |titleRecherches sur la dilatation des gaz et des vapeurs |journalAnnales de Chimie |volumeXLIII |page137}}. [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/gaygas.html English translation (extract).]</ref> that, at constant pressure, ideal gases expanded or contracted their volume linearly (Charles's law) by about 1/273 parts per degree Celsius of temperature's change up or down, between 0° and 100°&nbsp;C. This suggested that the volume of a gas cooled at about −273&nbsp;°C would reach zero.Lord Kelvin's workAfter James Prescott Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on Carnot's theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Thomson|first1William|author-link1Lord Kelvin|titleOn an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's observations.|journalProceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society|date1848|volume1|pages66–71|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/87114#page/72/mode/2up}}</ref> It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273&nbsp;°C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air thermometer,<ref name"AS2016"/> where the air volume would reach "nothing". This value was not immediately accepted; values ranging from {{convert|-271.1|C}} to {{convert|-274.5|C}}, derived from laboratory measurements and observations of astronomical refraction, remained in use in the early 20th century.<ref>{{Citation |lastNewcomb |firstSimon |titleA Compendium of Spherical Astronomy |date1906 |page175 |placeNew York |publisherThe Macmillan Company |oclc64423127 |author-linkSimon Newcomb}}.</ref>
The race to absolute zero
{{see also|Timeline of low-temperature technology}}
With a better theoretical understanding of absolute zero, scientists were eager to reach this temperature in the lab.<ref name"MyUser_YouTube_November_23_2016c">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vmTFRgosx4aQ&t894s | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170406015107/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vmTFRgosx4aQ| archive-date2017-04-06 | url-statusdead|titleABSOLUTE ZERO – PBS NOVA DOCUMENTARY (full length) |newspaperYouTube |access-date= 23 November 2016}}</ref> By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new record for lowest temperatures by reaching {{convert|-130|C|F K}}. Faraday believed that certain gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, were permanent gases and could not be liquefied.<ref>[http://www.scienceclarified.com/Co-Di/Cryogenics.html Cryogenics]. Scienceclarified.com. Retrieved on 22 July 2012.</ref> Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, but only under conditions of very high pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air at {{convert|-195|C|F K}}. This was followed in 1883 by the production of liquid oxygen {{convert|-218|C|F K}} by the Polish professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.
Scottish chemist and physicist James Dewar and Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases, hydrogen and helium. In 1898, after 20 years of effort, Dewar was the first to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new low-temperature record of {{convert|-252|C|F K}}. However, Kamerlingh Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the Hampson–Linde cycle. He lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium {{convert|-269|C|F K}}. By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium, he achieved an even lower temperature, near 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on Earth at the time and his achievement earned him the Nobel Prize in 1913.<ref name"nobel">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html|titleThe Nobel Prize in Physics 1913: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes|publisherNobel Media AB|access-date24 April 2012}}</ref> Kamerlingh Onnes would continue to study the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time.Very low temperatures
, a bi-polar, filamentary, likely proto-planetary nebula in Centaurus, has a temperature of 1&nbsp;K, the lowest observed outside of a laboratory.]]
The average temperature of the universe today is approximately {{convert|2.73|K|C F|abbron}}, based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2003/09/25/947116.htm |titleColdest Place in the Universe 1 |author Kruszelnicki, Karl S. |date25 September 2003 |publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date24 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2172/whats-the-temperature-of-space |titleWhat's the temperature of space? |date 3 August 2004 |publisherThe Straight Dope |access-date24 September 2012}}</ref> Standard models of the future expansion of the universe predict that the average temperature of the universe is decreasing over time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1John |first1Anslyn J. |titleThe building blocks of the universe |journalHTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies |date25 August 2021 |volume77 |issue3 |doi10.4102/hts.v77i3.6831|s2cid238730757 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> This temperature is calculated as the mean density of energy in space; it should not be confused with the mean electron temperature (total energy divided by particle count) which has increased over time.<ref>{{cite news |titleHistory of temperature changes in the Universe revealed—First measurement using the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect |urlhttps://www.ipmu.jp/en/20201110-CosmicThermal_History |agencyKavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe |date10 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
Absolute zero cannot be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of evaporative cooling, cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Zu |first1H. |last2Dai |first2W. |last3de Waele |first3A. T. A. M. |year2022 |titleDevelopment of Dilution refrigerators – A review |journalCryogenics |volume121 |doi10.1016/j.cryogenics.2021.103390 |issn0011-2275 |s2cid244005391}}</ref> and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures of less than a billionth of a kelvin.<ref>{{cite web|titleCosmos Online – Verging on absolute zero |urlhttp://www.cosmosmagazine.com/features/online/2176/verging-absolute-zero |date4 September 2008 |authorCatchpole, Heather |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081122144155/http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/features/online/2176/verging-absolute-zero |archive-date22 November 2008 }}</ref> At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation. To study such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures.
* In November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below {{nowrap|100 picokelvin}} were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab in Espoo, Finland. However, this was the temperature of one particular degree of freedom—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom.<ref>{{cite book|lastKnuuttila |firstTauno |urlhttp://www.hut.fi/Yksikot/Kirjasto/Diss/2000/isbn9512252147 |titleNuclear Magnetism and Superconductivity in Rhodium |locationEspoo, Finland |publisherHelsinki University of Technology |year2000 |isbn978-951-22-5208-4 |access-date11 February 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010428173229/http://www.hut.fi/Yksikot/Kirjasto/Diss/2000/isbn9512252147/ |archive-date28 April 2001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|titleLow Temperature World Record|urlhttp://ltl.hut.fi/Low-Temp-Record.html|publisherLow Temperature Laboratory, Teknillinen Korkeakoulu|date8 December 2000|access-date11 February 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080218053521/http://ltl.hut.fi/Low-Temp-Record.html| archive-date18 February 2008| url-status live}}</ref>
* In February 2003, the Boomerang Nebula was observed to have been releasing gases at a speed of {{Convert|500000|km/h|abbron}} for the last 1,500 years. This has cooled it down to approximately 1&nbsp;K, as deduced by astronomical observation, which is the lowest natural temperature ever recorded.<ref>{{cite journal|last Sahai|first Raghvendra|author2 Nyman, Lars-Åke|year 1997|title The Boomerang Nebula: The Coldest Region of the Universe?|journal The Astrophysical Journal|volume 487|pages L155–L159|doi 10.1086/310897|bibcode1997ApJ...487L.155S|issue 2|hdl 2014/22450| s2cid121465475 |doi-access = free}}</ref>
* In November 2003, 90377 Sedna was discovered and is one of the coldest known objects in the Solar System, with an average surface temperature of {{cvt|-240|C|K F|sigfig2}},<ref>{{Cite web |titleMysterious Sedna {{!}} Science Mission Directorate |urlhttps://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/16mar_sedna/#:~:textNASA%27s%20new%20Spitzer%20Space%20Telescope%20also%20looked%20for,minus%20240%20degrees%20Celsius%20(minus%20400%20degrees%20Fahrenheit). |access-date2022-11-25 |websitescience.nasa.gov}}</ref> due to its extremely far orbit of 903 astronomical units.
* In May 2005, the European Space Agency proposed research in space to achieve femtokelvin temperatures.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/Scientific_Perspectives_for_ESA_s_Future_Programme_in_Life_and_Physical_Sciences_in_Space.pdf|titleScientific Perspectives for ESA's Future Programme in Life and Physical sciences in Space|workesf.org|access-date28 March 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006024523/http://www.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/Scientific_Perspectives_for_ESA_s_Future_Programme_in_Life_and_Physical_Sciences_in_Space.pdf|archive-date6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In May 2006, the Institute of Quantum Optics at the University of Hannover gave details of technologies and benefits of femtokelvin research in space.<ref>{{cite web|titleAtomic Quantum Sensors in Space|urlhttp://www.physics.ucla.edu/quantum_to_cosmos/q2c06/Ertmer.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.physics.ucla.edu/quantum_to_cosmos/q2c06/Ertmer.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|workUniversity of California, Los Angeles}}</ref>
* In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to have achieved temperatures formally below absolute zero ("negative temperature") in gases. The gas is artificially forced out of equilibrium into a high potential energy state, which is, however, cold. When it then emits radiation it approaches the equilibrium, and can continue emitting despite reaching formal absolute zero; thus, the temperature is formally negative.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.livescience.com/25959-atoms-colder-than-absolute-zero.html|titleAtoms Reach Record Temperature, Colder than Absolute Zero|worklivescience.com|date3 January 2013 }}</ref>
* In September 2014, scientists in the CUORE collaboration at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to {{cvt|0.006|K|C F|sigfig6}} for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous volume.<ref>{{cite news|titleCUORE: The Coldest Heart in the Known Universe.|urlhttp://www.interactions.org/cms/?pid1034217|access-date21 October 2014|publisherINFN Press Release}}</ref>
* In June 2015, experimental physicists at MIT cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvin, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules somewhat further.<ref>{{cite web|titleMIT team creates ultracold molecules|urlhttps://newsoffice.mit.edu/2015/ultracold-molecules-0610|workMassachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, Cambridge|access-date10 June 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150818112454/http://newsoffice.mit.edu/2015/ultracold-molecules-0610|archive-date18 August 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In 2017, Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL), an experimental instrument was developed for launch to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.science.org/content/article/coolest-science-ever-headed-space-station|titleCoolest science ever headed to the space station|date5 September 2017|workScience {{!}} AAAS|access-date24 September 2017|languageen}}</ref> The instrument has created extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose–Einstein condensates. In this space-based laboratory, temperatures as low as {{nowrap|1 picokelvin}} are projected to be achievable, and it could further the exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics.<ref name"NASA Cold Atom Laboratory Mission">{{cite web |urlhttp://coldatomlab.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130329092843/http://coldatomlab.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/ |url-statusdead |archive-date2013-03-29 |titleCold Atom Laboratory Mission |workJet Propulsion Laboratory |publisherNASA |date2017 |access-date22 December 2016 }}</ref><ref name"CALnasa">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/cold_atom_lab/ |titleCold Atom Laboratory Creates Atomic Dance |workNASA News |date26 September 2014 |access-date21 May 2015 |archive-date8 July 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210708201720/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/cold_atom_lab/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* The current world record for effective temperatures was set in 2021 at {{nowrap|38 picokelvin}} through matter-wave lensing of rubidium Bose–Einstein condensates.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal|last1Deppner|first1Christian|last2Herr|first2Waldemar|last3Cornelius|first3Merle|last4Stromberger|first4Peter|last5Sternke|first5Tammo|last6Grzeschik|first6Christoph|last7Grote|first7Alexander|last8Rudolph|first8Jan|last9Herrmann|first9Sven|last10Krutzik|first10Markus|last11Wenzlawski|first11André|date2021-08-30|titleCollective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics|urlhttps://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401|journalPhysical Review Letters|languageen|volume127|issue10|pages100401|doi10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401|pmid34533345|bibcode2021PhRvL.127j0401D |s2cid237396804|issn0031-9007}}</ref>
See also
{{Portal|Physics}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Degenerate matter
* Kelvin (unit of temperature)
* Charles's law
* Heat
* International Temperature Scale of 1990
* Orders of magnitude (temperature)
* Thermodynamic temperature
* Triple point
* Ultracold atom
* Kinetic energy
* Entropy
* Planck temperature and Hagedorn temperature, hypothetical upper limits to the thermodynamic temperature scale
{{colend}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Further reading
* {{cite book|authorHerbert B. Callen|titleThermodynamics|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsin00call|chapter-url-accessregistration|chapterChapter 10|locationNew York|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|year1960|oclc535083|isbn978-0-471-13035-2|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsin0000call}}
* {{cite book|authorHerbert B. Callen|titleThermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics|editionSecond| locationNew York|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|year1985|isbn= 978-0-471-86256-7}}
* {{cite book|authorE.A. Guggenheim|titleThermodynamics: An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists|editionFifth|locationAmsterdam|publisherNorth Holland Publishing|year1967|oclc324553|isbn978-0-444-86951-7}}
* {{cite book|authorGeorge Stanley Rushbrooke|titleIntroduction to Statistical Mechanics|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.476050|locationOxford|publisherClarendon Press|year1949|oclc=531928}}
* [https://www.bipm.org/en/search?p_p_idsearch_portlet&p_p_lifecycle2&p_p_statenormal&p_p_modeview&p_p_resource_id%2Fdownload%2Fpublication&p_p_cacheabilitycacheLevelPage&_search_portlet_dlFileId41507086&p_p_lifecycle1&_search_portlet_javax.portlet.actionsearch&_search_portlet_formDate1644345579131&_search_portlet_queryabsolute+zero&_search_portlet_sourceBIPM BIPM Mise en pratique - Kelvin - Appendix 2 - SI Brochure].
External links
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/zero/ "Absolute zero"]: a two part NOVA episode originally aired January 2008
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509100512/http://www.pa.msu.edu/~sciencet/ask_st/012992.html "What is absolute zero?"] Lansing State Journal
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Category:Temperature | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.595340 |
1419 | Adiabatic process | {{Short description|Thermodynamic process in which no mass or heat is exchanged with surroundings}}
{{About|adiabatic processes in thermodynamics|the adiabatic theorem in quantum mechanics|adiabatic theorem}}
{{Thermodynamics|cTopic=Systems}}
An adiabatic process (adiabatic {{etymology|grc|{{Wikt-lang|grc|ἀδιάβατος}} ({{grc-transl|ἀδιάβατος}})|impassable}}) is a type of thermodynamic process that occurs without transferring heat between the thermodynamic system and its environment. Unlike an isothermal process, an adiabatic process transfers energy to the surroundings only as work and/or mass flow.<ref name"Carathéodory">{{cite journal |lastCarathéodory |firstC. |author-linkConstantin Carathéodory |date1909 |titleUntersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1428268 |journalMathematische Annalen |volume67 |issue3 |pages355–386 |doi10.1007/BF01450409 |s2cid118230148}}. A translation may be found [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/caratheodory_-_thermodynamics.pdf here] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191012152205/http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/caratheodory_-_thermodynamics.pdf|date2019-10-12}}. Also a mostly reliable [https://books.google.com/books?idxwBRAAAAMAAJ&qInvestigation+into+the+foundations translation is to be found] in {{cite book |lastKestin |firstJ. |titleThe Second Law of Thermodynamics |date1976 |publisherDowden, Hutchinson & Ross |locationStroudsburg, Pennsylvania |languageen-us}}</ref><ref name"Bailyn 21">{{cite book |lastBailyn |firstM. |titleA Survey of Thermodynamics |date1994 |publisherAmerican Institute of Physics Press |isbn0-88318-797-3 |locationNew York, New York |page21 |languageen-us}}</ref> As a key concept in thermodynamics, the adiabatic process supports the theory that explains the first law of thermodynamics. The opposite term to "adiabatic" is diabatic.
Some chemical and physical processes occur too rapidly for energy to enter or leave the system as heat, allowing a convenient "adiabatic approximation".<ref name="Bailyn 53">Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 52–53.</ref> For example, the adiabatic flame temperature uses this approximation to calculate the upper limit of flame temperature by assuming combustion loses no heat to its surroundings.
In meteorology, adiabatic expansion and cooling of moist air, which can be triggered by winds flowing up and over a mountain for example, can cause the water vapor pressure to exceed the saturation vapor pressure. Expansion and cooling beyond the saturation vapor pressure is often idealized as a pseudo-adiabatic process whereby excess vapor instantly precipitates into water droplets. The change in temperature of an air undergoing pseudo-adiabatic expansion differs from air undergoing adiabatic expansion because latent heat is released by precipitation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Pseudoadiabatic_process|titlepseudoadiabatic process|publisherAmerican Meteorological Society|access-dateNovember 3, 2018}}</ref>
Description
A process without transfer of heat to or from a system, so that {{math|1Q 0}}, is called adiabatic, and such a system is said to be adiabatically isolated.<ref>{{cite book |lastTisza |firstL. |titleGeneralized Thermodynamics |date1966 |publisherMIT Press |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |page48 |languageen-us |quote(adiabatic partitions inhibit the transfer of heat and mass) |author-linkLászló Tisza}}</ref><ref>Münster, A. (1970), p. 48: "mass is an adiabatically inhibited variable."</ref> The simplifying assumption frequently made is that a process is adiabatic. For example, the compression of a gas within a cylinder of an engine is assumed to occur so rapidly that on the time scale of the compression process, little of the system's energy can be transferred out as heat to the surroundings. Even though the cylinders are not insulated and are quite conductive, that process is idealized to be adiabatic. The same can be said to be true for the expansion process of such a system.
The assumption of adiabatic isolation is useful and often combined with other such idealizations to calculate a good first approximation of a system's behaviour. For example, according to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time for heat conduction in the medium, and so the propagation of sound is adiabatic. For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be expressed as {{math|1E γP}}, where {{math|γ}} is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume ({{math|1γ {{sfrac|C<sub>p</sub>|C<sub>v</sub>}}}}) and {{math|P}} is the pressure of the gas.
Various applications of the adiabatic assumption
For a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as {{math|1ΔU Q − W}}, where {{math|ΔU}} denotes the change of the system's internal energy, {{math|Q}} the quantity of energy added to it as heat, and {{math|W}} the work done by the system on its surroundings.
*If the system has such rigid walls that work cannot be transferred in or out ({{math|1W 0}}), and the walls are not adiabatic and energy is added in the form of heat ({{math|Q > 0}}), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise.
*If the system has such rigid walls that pressure–volume work cannot be done, but the walls are adiabatic ({{math|1Q 0}}), and energy is added as isochoric (constant volume) work in the form of friction or the stirring of a viscous fluid within the system ({{math|W < 0}}), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise.
*If the system walls are adiabatic ({{math|1Q 0}}) but not rigid ({{math|W ≠ 0}}), and, in a fictive idealized process, energy is added to the system in the form of frictionless, non-viscous pressure–volume work ({{math|W < 0}}), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise. Such a process is called an isentropic process and is said to be "reversible". Ideally, if the process were reversed the energy could be recovered entirely as work done by the system. If the system contains a compressible gas and is reduced in volume, the uncertainty of the position of the gas is reduced, and seemingly would reduce the entropy of the system, but the temperature of the system will rise as the process is isentropic ({{math|1ΔS 0}}). Should the work be added in such a way that friction or viscous forces are operating within the system, then the process is not isentropic, and if there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise, the process is said to be "irreversible", and the work added to the system is not entirely recoverable in the form of work.
*If the walls of a system are not adiabatic, and energy is transferred in as heat, entropy is transferred into the system with the heat. Such a process is neither adiabatic nor isentropic, having {{math|Q > 0}}, and {{math|ΔS > 0}} according to the second law of thermodynamics.
Naturally occurring adiabatic processes are irreversible (entropy is produced).
The transfer of energy as work into an adiabatically isolated system can be imagined as being of two idealized extreme kinds. In one such kind, no entropy is produced within the system (no friction, viscous dissipation, etc.), and the work is only pressure-volume work (denoted by {{math|P dV}}). In nature, this ideal kind occurs only approximately because it demands an infinitely slow process and no sources of dissipation.
The other extreme kind of work is isochoric work ({{math|1dV 0}}), for which energy is added as work solely through friction or viscous dissipation within the system. A stirrer that transfers energy to a viscous fluid of an adiabatically isolated system with rigid walls, without phase change, will cause a rise in temperature of the fluid, but that work is not recoverable. Isochoric work is irreversible.<ref>{{cite book|lastMünster |firstA. |date1970 |titleClassical Thermodynamics |translator-firstE. S. |translator-lastHalberstadt |publisherWiley–Interscience |locationLondon |isbn0-471-62430-6 |page45}}</ref> The second law of thermodynamics observes that a natural process, of transfer of energy as work, always consists at least of isochoric work and often both of these extreme kinds of work. Every natural process, adiabatic or not, is irreversible, with {{math|ΔS > 0}}, as friction or viscosity are always present to some extent.
Adiabatic compression and expansion
The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas. Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas.
Adiabatic compression occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased by work done on it by its surroundings, e.g., a piston compressing a gas contained within a cylinder and raising the temperature where in many practical situations heat conduction through walls can be slow compared with the compression time. This finds practical application in diesel engines which rely on the lack of heat dissipation during the compression stroke to elevate the fuel vapor temperature sufficiently to ignite it.
Adiabatic compression occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a Katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or Chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Because of this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process.
Adiabatic expansion occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand in size, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of gas is reduced, the gas in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic expansion occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pilei or lenticular clouds.
Due in part to adiabatic expansion in mountainous areas, snowfall infrequently occurs in some parts of the Sahara desert.<ref>{{cite web |last1Knight |first1Jasper |titleSnowfall in the Sahara desert: an unusual weather phenomenon |urlhttps://theconversation.com/snowfall-in-the-sahara-desert-an-unusual-weather-phenomenon-176037 |websiteThe Conversation |access-date3 March 2022 |date=31 January 2022}}</ref>
Adiabatic expansion does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is via adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic expansion. Also, the contents of an expanding universe can be described (to first order) as an adiabatically expanding fluid. (See heat death of the universe.)
Rising magma also undergoes adiabatic expansion before eruption, particularly significant in the case of magmas that rise quickly from great depths such as kimberlites.<ref name"Kavanagh">{{cite journal|last1Kavanagh|first1J. L.|last2Sparks |first2R. S. J.|year2009|titleTemperature changes in ascending kimberlite magmas|journalEarth and Planetary Science Letters|publisherElsevier|volume286|issue3–4|pages404–413|doi10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.011|urlhttps://monash.academia.edu/JanineKavanagh/Papers/114092/Temperature_changes_in_ascending_kimberlite_magma|access-date18 February 2012|bibcode 2009E&PSL.286..404K }}</ref>
In the Earth's convecting mantle (the asthenosphere) beneath the lithosphere, the mantle temperature is approximately an adiabat. The slight decrease in temperature with shallowing depth is due to the decrease in pressure the shallower the material is in the Earth.<ref>{{Cite book|titleGeodynamics|urlhttps://archive.org/details/geodynamics00dltu|url-accesslimited|lastTurcotte and Schubert|publisherCambridge University Press|year2002|isbn0-521-66624-4|locationCambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/geodynamics00dltu/page/n199 185]}}</ref>
Such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes.
In practice, no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes rely on a large difference in time scales of the process of interest and the rate of heat dissipation across a system boundary, and thus are approximated by using an adiabatic assumption. There is always some heat loss, as no perfect insulators exist.
Ideal gas (reversible process)
{{Main|Reversible adiabatic process}}
of the working substance must decrease.]]
The mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process can be represented by the polytropic process equation<ref name="Bailyn 53"/>
<math display"block"> P V^\gamma \text{constant}, </math>
where {{math|P}} is pressure, {{math|V}} is volume, and {{math|γ}} is the adiabatic index or heat capacity ratio defined as
<math display"block"> \gamma \frac{C_P}{C_V} = \frac{f + 2}{f}. </math>
Here {{math|C<sub>P</sub>}} is the specific heat for constant pressure, {{math|C<sub>V</sub>}} is the specific heat for constant volume, and {{math|f}} is the number of degrees of freedom (3 for a monatomic gas, 5 for a diatomic gas or a gas of linear molecules such as carbon dioxide).
For a monatomic ideal gas, {{math|1γ {{sfrac|5|3}}}}, and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air), {{math|1γ {{sfrac|7|5}}}}.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/adiab.html |titleAdiabatic Process |websiteHyperPhysics |publisherGeorgia State University}}</ref> Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases (that is, gases far above absolute zero temperature) and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases.
One can also use the ideal gas law to rewrite the above relationship between {{math|P}} and {{math|V}} as <ref name="Bailyn 53"/>
<math display="block">\begin{align}
P^{1-\gamma} T^\gamma &= \text{constant},\\
TV^{\gamma - 1} &= \text{constant}
\end{align}</math>
where T is the absolute or thermodynamic temperature.
Example of adiabatic compression
The compression stroke in a gasoline engine can be used as an example of adiabatic compression. The model assumptions are: the uncompressed volume of the cylinder is one litre (1&nbsp;L 1000&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup> 0.001&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>); the gas within is the air consisting of molecular nitrogen and oxygen only (thus a diatomic gas with 5 degrees of freedom, and so {{math|1γ {{sfrac|7|5}}}}); the compression ratio of the engine is 10:1 (that is, the 1&nbsp;L volume of uncompressed gas is reduced to 0.1&nbsp;L by the piston); and the uncompressed gas is at approximately room temperature and pressure (a warm room temperature of ~27&nbsp;°C, or 300&nbsp;K, and a pressure of 1&nbsp;bar = 100&nbsp;kPa, i.e. typical sea-level atmospheric pressure).
<math display="block">\begin{align}
P_1 V_1^\gamma &= \mathrm{constant}_1 \\
& = 100\,000~\text{Pa} \times (0.001~\text{m}^3)^\frac75 \\
& = 10^5 \times 6.31 \times 10^{-5}~\text{Pa}\,\text{m}^{21/5} \\
& = 6.31~\text{Pa}\,\text{m}^{21/5},
\end{align}</math>
so the adiabatic constant for this example is about {{nowrap|6.31 Pa&thinsp;m<sup>4.2</sup>.}}
The gas is now compressed to a 0.1&nbsp;L (0.0001&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>) volume, which we assume happens quickly enough that no heat enters or leaves the gas through the walls. The adiabatic constant remains the same, but with the resulting pressure unknown
<math display="block">\begin{align}
P_2 V_2^\gamma &= \mathrm{constant}_1 \\
&= 6.31~\text{Pa}\,\text{m}^{21/5} \\
&= P \times (0.0001~\text{m}^3)^\frac75,
\end{align}</math>
We can now solve for the final pressure<ref>{{cite book |last1Atkins |first1Peter |last2de Paula |first2Giulio |titleAtkins' Physical Chemistry |date2006 |publisherW. H. Freeman |isbn0-7167-8759-8 |page48 |edition8th}}</ref>
<math display="block">\begin{align}
P_2 &= P_1\left (\frac{V_1}{V_2}\right)^\gamma \\
&= 100\,000~\text{Pa} \times \text{10}^{7/5} \\
&= 2.51 \times 10^6~\text{Pa}
\end{align}</math>
or 25.1&nbsp;bar. This pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the gas temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure.
We can solve for the temperature of the compressed gas in the engine cylinder as well, using the ideal gas law, PV&nbsp;=&nbsp;nRT (n is amount of gas in moles and R the gas constant for that gas). Our initial conditions being 100&nbsp;kPa of pressure, 1&nbsp;L volume, and 300&nbsp;K of temperature, our experimental constant (nR) is:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\frac{PV}{T} &= \mathrm{constant}_2 \\
&= \frac{10^5~\text{Pa} \times 10^{-3}~\text{m}^3}{300~\text{K}} \\
&= 0.333~\text{Pa}\,\text{m}^3\text{K}^{-1}.
\end{align}</math>
We know the compressed gas has {{mvar|V}}&nbsp;0.1&nbsp;L and {{mvar|P}}&nbsp; {{val|2.51|e6|uPa}}, so we can solve for temperature:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
T &= \frac{P V}{\mathrm{constant}_2} \\
&= \frac{2.51 \times 10^6~\text{Pa} \times 10^{-4}~\text{m}^3}{0.333~\text{Pa}\,\text{m}^3\text{K}^{-1}} \\
&= 753~\text{K}.
\end{align}</math>
That is a final temperature of 753&nbsp;K, or 479&nbsp;°C, or 896&nbsp;°F, well above the ignition point of many fuels. This is why a high-compression engine requires fuels specially formulated to not self-ignite (which would cause engine knocking when operated under these conditions of temperature and pressure), or that a supercharger with an intercooler to provide a pressure boost but with a lower temperature rise would be advantageous. A diesel engine operates under even more extreme conditions, with compression ratios of 16:1 or more being typical, in order to provide a very high gas pressure, which ensures immediate ignition of the injected fuel.
Adiabatic free expansion of a gas
{{See also|Free expansion}}
For an adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas, the gas is contained in an insulated container and then allowed to expand in a vacuum. Because there is no external pressure for the gas to expand against, the work done by or on the system is zero. Since this process does not involve any heat transfer or work, the first law of thermodynamics then implies that the net internal energy change of the system is zero. For an ideal gas, the temperature remains constant because the internal energy only depends on temperature in that case. Since at constant temperature, the entropy is proportional to the volume, the entropy increases in this case, therefore this process is irreversible.
Derivation of P–V relation for adiabatic compression and expansion
The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, {{math|1δQ 0}}. Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics,
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> d U + \delta W \delta Q = 0, </math>|{{EquationRef|a1}}}}
where {{math|dU}} is the change in the internal energy of the system and {{math|δW}} is work done by the system. Any work ({{math|δW}}) done must be done at the expense of internal energy {{math|U}}, since no heat {{math|δQ}} is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure–volume work {{math|δW}} done by the system is defined as
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> \delta W P \, dV. </math>|{{EquationRef|a2}}}}
However, {{math|P}} does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with {{math|V}}.
It is desired to know how the values of {{math|dP}} and {{math|dV}} relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas (recall ideal gas law {{math|1PV nRT}}) the internal energy is given by
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> U \alpha n R T = \alpha P V, </math>|{{EquationRef|a3}}}}
where {{math|α}} is the number of degrees of freedom divided by 2, {{math|R}} is the universal gas constant and {{math|n}} is the number of moles in the system (a constant).
Differentiating equation (a3) yields
{{NumBlk||<math display="block">\begin{align}
d U &= \alpha n R \, dT\\
& = \alpha \, d (P V)\\
& = \alpha (P \, dV + V \, dP).
\end{align}</math>|{{EquationRef|a4}}}}
Equation (a4) is often expressed as {{math|1dU nC<sub>V</sub> dT}} because {{math|1C<sub>V</sub> αR}}.
Now substitute equations (a2) and (a4) into equation (a1) to obtain
<math display"block"> -P \, dV \alpha P \, dV + \alpha V \, dP,</math>
factorize {{math|−P dV}}:
<math display"block"> -(\alpha + 1) P \, dV \alpha V \, dP,</math>
and divide both sides by {{math|PV}}:
<math display"block"> -(\alpha + 1) \frac{dV}{V} \alpha \frac{dP}{P}. </math>
After integrating the left and right sides from {{math|V<sub>0</sub>}} to {{math|V}} and from {{math|P<sub>0</sub>}} to {{math|P}} and changing the sides respectively,
<math display"block"> \ln \left( \frac{P}{P_0} \right) -\frac{\alpha + 1}{\alpha} \ln \left( \frac{V}{V_0} \right). </math>
Exponentiate both sides, substitute {{math|{{sfrac|α + 1|α}}}} with {{math|γ}}, the heat capacity ratio
<math display"block"> \left( \frac{P}{P_0} \right) \left( \frac{V}{V_0} \right)^{-\gamma}, </math>
and eliminate the negative sign to obtain
<math display"block"> \left( \frac{P}{P_0} \right) \left( \frac{V_0}{V} \right)^\gamma. </math>
Therefore,
<math display"block"> \left( \frac{P}{P_0} \right) \left( \frac{V}{V_0} \right)^\gamma 1,</math>
and
<math display"block"> P_0 V_0^\gamma P V^\gamma = \mathrm{constant}. </math>
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> \Delta U \alpha R nT_2 - \alpha R nT_1 = \alpha Rn \Delta T. </math>|{{EquationRef|b1}}}}
At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> W \int_{V_1}^{V_2}P \,dV. </math>|{{EquationRef|b2}}}}
Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> \Delta U + W 0. </math>|{{EquationRef|b3}}}}
By the previous derivation,
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> P V^\gamma \text{constant} = P_1 V_1^\gamma. </math>|{{EquationRef|b4}}}}
Rearranging (b4) gives
<math display"block"> P P_1 \left(\frac{V_1}{V} \right)^\gamma. </math>
Substituting this into (b2) gives
<math display"block"> W \int_{V_1}^{V_2} P_1 \left(\frac{V_1}{V} \right)^\gamma \,dV. </math>
Integrating, we obtain the expression for work,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
W = P_1 V_1^\gamma \frac{V_2^{1-\gamma} - V_1^{1-\gamma}}{1 - \gamma} \\
&= \frac{P_2 V_2 - P_1 V_1}{1 - \gamma}.
\end{align}</math>
Substituting {{math|1γ {{sfrac|α + 1|α}}}} in the second term,
<math display"block"> W -\alpha P_1 V_1^\gamma \left( V_2^{1-\gamma} - V_1^{1-\gamma} \right). </math>
Rearranging,
<math display"block"> W -\alpha P_1 V_1 \left( \left( \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right)^{1-\gamma} - 1 \right). </math>
Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases),
<math display"block"> W -\alpha n R T_1 \left( \left( \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right)^{1-\gamma} - 1 \right). </math>
By the continuous formula,
<math display"block"> \frac{P_2}{P_1} \left(\frac{V_2}{V_1}\right)^{-\gamma}, </math>
or
<math display"block"> \left(\frac{P_2}{P_1}\right)^{-\frac{1}{\gamma}} \frac{V_2}{V_1}. </math>
Substituting into the previous expression for {{math|W}},
<math display"block"> W -\alpha n R T_1 \left( \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1 \right). </math>
Substituting this expression and (b1) in (b3) gives
<math display"block"> \alpha n R (T_2 - T_1) \alpha n R T_1 \left( \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1 \right). </math>
Simplifying,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
T_2 - T_1 &= T_1 \left( \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1 \right), \\
\frac{T_2}{T_1} - 1 &= \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1, \\
T_2 &= T_1 \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}}.
\end{align}</math>
Derivation of discrete formula and work expression
The change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to
<!-- equation missing here? TODO: check revisions -->At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> W \int_{V_1}^{V_2}P \,dV. </math>|{{EquationRef|c2}}}}
Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> \Delta U + W 0. </math>|{{EquationRef|c3}}}}
By the previous derivation,
{{NumBlk||<math display"block"> P V^\gamma \text{constant} = P_1 V_1^\gamma. </math>|{{EquationRef|c4}}}}
Rearranging (c4) gives
<math display"block"> P P_1 \left(\frac{V_1}{V} \right)^\gamma. </math>
Substituting this into (c2) gives
<math display"block"> W \int_{V_1}^{V_2} P_1 \left(\frac{V_1}{V} \right)^\gamma \,dV. </math>
Integrating we obtain the expression for work,
<math display"block"> W P_1 V_1^\gamma \frac{V_2^{1-\gamma} - V_1^{1-\gamma}}{1 - \gamma} = \frac{P_2 V_2 - P_1 V_1}{1 - \gamma}. </math>
Substituting {{math|1γ {{sfrac|α + 1|α}}}} in second term,
<math display"block"> W -\alpha P_1 V_1^\gamma \left( V_2^{1-\gamma} - V_1^{1-\gamma} \right). </math>
Rearranging,
<math display"block"> W -\alpha P_1 V_1 \left( \left( \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right)^{1-\gamma} - 1 \right). </math>
Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases),
<math display"block"> W -\alpha n R T_1 \left( \left( \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right)^{1-\gamma} - 1 \right). </math>
By the continuous formula,
<math display"block"> \frac{P_2}{P_1} \left(\frac{V_2}{V_1}\right)^{-\gamma}, </math>
or
<math display"block"> \left(\frac{P_2}{P_1}\right)^{-\frac{1}{\gamma}} \frac{V_2}{V_1}. </math>
Substituting into the previous expression for {{math|W}},
<math display"block"> W -\alpha n R T_1 \left( \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1 \right). </math>
Substituting this expression and (c1) in (c3) gives
<math display"block"> \alpha n R (T_2 - T_1) \alpha n R T_1 \left( \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1 \right). </math>
Simplifying,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
T_2 - T_1 &= T_1 \left( \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1 \right), \\
\frac{T_2}{T_1} - 1 &= \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} - 1, \\
T_2 &= T_1 \left( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right)^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}}.
\end{align}</math>
Graphing adiabats
thumb|upright=1.6|P–V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms:
{{unordered list|item_style=margin-bottom: 0|The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves.
|The adiabats are isentropic.
|Volume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis.}}
An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy in a diagram. Some properties of adiabats on a P–V diagram are indicated. These properties may be read from the classical behaviour of ideal gases, except in the region where PV becomes small (low temperature), where quantum effects become important.
# Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms).
# Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once.
# An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical).
# If isotherms are concave towards the north-east direction (45° from V-axis), then adiabats are concave towards the east north-east (31° from V-axis).
# If adiabats and isotherms are graphed at regular intervals of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves towards the axes (towards the south-west), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats grow. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see Nernst's theorem).{{clarify|reasonNo quantitative formula is identified in that article as Nernst's theorem, only a qualitative "Impossibility Principle"|dateMarch 2015}}
Etymology
The term adiabatic ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|d|i|ə|ˈ|b|æ|t|ɪ|k}}) is an anglicization of the Greek term ἀδιάβατος "impassable" (used by Xenophon of rivers). It is used in the thermodynamic sense by Rankine (1866),<ref name"Rankine 1866">Rankine, William John MacQuorn (1866). On the theory of explosive gas engines, The Engineer, July 27, 1866; at page 467 of the reprint in Miscellaneous Scientific Papers, edited by W. J. Millar, 1881, Charles Griffin, London.</ref><ref name "Partington 122">{{Citation
| last = Partington
| first = J. R.
| author-link = J.R. Partington
| title = An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry.
| place = Fundamental Principles. The Properties of Gases, London
| publisher = Longmans, Green and Co.
| volume = 1
| year = 1949
| page = 122
}}</ref> and adopted by Maxwell in 1871 (explicitly attributing the term to Rankine).<ref>
{{Citation
| last = Maxwell
| first = J. C.
| author-link = James Clerk Maxwell
| title = Theory of Heat
| place = London
| publisher = Longmans, Green and Co.
| year = 1871
| edition = first
| page = 129
| url = https://archive.org/details/theoryheat04maxwgoog
}}</ref>
The etymological origin corresponds here to an impossibility of transfer of energy as heat and of transfer of matter across the wall.
The Greek word ἀδιάβατος is formed from privative ἀ- ("not") and διαβατός, "passable", in turn deriving from διά ("through"), and βαῖνειν ("to walk, go, come").<ref>Liddell, H. G., Scott, R. (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.</ref>
Furthermore, in atmospheric thermodynamics, a diabatic process is one in which heat is exchanged.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Diabatic_process|titlediabatic process|access-date24 November 2020|publisherAmerican Meteorological Society}}</ref> An adiabatic process is the opposite – a process in which no heat is exchanged.
Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory
The adiabatic process has been important for thermodynamics since its early days. It was important in the work of Joule because it provided a way of nearly directly relating quantities of heat and work.
Energy can enter or leave a thermodynamic system enclosed by walls that prevent mass transfer only as heat or work. Therefore, a quantity of work in such a system can be related almost directly to an equivalent quantity of heat in a cycle of two limbs. The first limb is an isochoric adiabatic work process increasing the system's internal energy; the second, an isochoric and workless heat transfer returning the system to its original state. Accordingly, Rankine measured quantity of heat in units of work, rather than as a calorimetric quantity.<ref>{{cite journal |authorRankine |firstW. J. MacQ. |date1854 |titleOn the geometrical representation of the expansive action of heat, and theory of thermodynamic engines |journalProceedings of the Royal Society |volume144 |pages115–175}} [https://archive.org/stream/miscellaneoussci00rank#page/340/mode/1up Miscellaneous Scientific Papers p. 339]</ref> In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called "the thermodynamic function" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the "curve of no transmission of heat",<ref>{{cite journal |authorRankine |firstW. J. MacQ. |date1854 |titleOn the geometrical representation of the expansive action of heat, and theory of thermodynamic engines |journalProceedings of the Royal Society |volume144 |pages115–175}} [https://archive.org/stream/miscellaneoussci00rank#page/341/mode/1up/search/transmission Miscellaneous Scientific Papers p. 341].</ref> which he later called an adiabatic curve.<ref name="Rankine 1866"/> Besides its two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs.
For the foundations of thermodynamics, the conceptual importance of this was emphasized by Bryan,<ref>{{cite book|author-linkGeorge H. Bryan|lastBryan |firstG. H. |date1907 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ost-physics-thermodynamicsin00bryauoft |titleThermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications |publisherB. G. Teubner |locationLeipzig}}</ref> by Carathéodory,<ref name"Carathéodory"/> and by Born.<ref>{{cite book|author-linkMax Born|lastBorn |firstM. |date1949 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/naturalphilosoph032159mbp |titleNatural Philosophy of Cause and Chance |publisherOxford University Press |locationLondon}}</ref> The reason is that calorimetry presupposes a type of temperature as already defined before the statement of the first law of thermodynamics, such as one based on empirical scales. Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis.<ref name"Bailyn Ch 3">{{cite book |lastBailyn |firstM. |titleA Survey of Thermodynamics |date1994 |publisherAmerican Institute of Physics |isbn0-88318-797-3 |locationNew York, New York |languageen-us |chapter=Chapter 3}}</ref>
In the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was not yet fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was recognized as a form of energy, and the law of conservation of energy was thereby also recognized. The view that eventually established itself, and is currently regarded as right, is that the law of conservation of energy is a primary axiom, and that heat is to be analyzed as consequential. In this light, heat cannot be a component of the total energy of a single body because it is not a state variable but, rather, a variable that describes a transfer between two bodies. The adiabatic process is important because it is a logical ingredient of this current view.<ref name"Bailyn Ch 3"/>Divergent usages of the word adiabatic
This present article is written from the viewpoint of macroscopic thermodynamics, and the word adiabatic is used in this article in the traditional way of thermodynamics, introduced by Rankine. It is pointed out in the present article that, for example, if a compression of a gas is rapid, then there is little time for heat transfer to occur, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. In this sense, a rapid compression of a gas is sometimes approximately or loosely said to be adiabatic, though often far from isentropic, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall.
Some authors, like Pippard, recommend using "adiathermal" to refer to processes where no heat-exchange occurs (such as Joule expansion), and "adiabatic" to reversible quasi-static adiathermal processes (so that rapid compression of a gas is not "adiabatic").<ref>{{Cite book |lastPippard |firstAlfred B. |titleElements of classical thermodynamics: for advanced students of physics |date1981 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-09101-5 |locationCambridge, England}}</ref> And Laidler has summarized the complicated etymology of "adiabatic".<ref>{{Cite journal |lastLaidler |firstKeith J. |date1994-03-01 |titleThe meaning of 'adiabatic' |urlhttp://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/v94-121 |journalCanadian Journal of Chemistry |languageen |volume72 |issue3 |pages936–938 |doi10.1139/v94-121 |issn=0008-4042}}</ref>
Quantum mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics, however, use the word adiabatic in a very different sense, one that can at times seem almost opposite to the classical thermodynamic sense. In quantum theory, the word adiabatic can mean something perhaps near isentropic, or perhaps near quasi-static, but the usage of the word is very different between the two disciplines.
On the one hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done almost infinitely slowly (that is to say quasi-statically), it is said to have been done adiabatically. The idea is that the shapes of the eigenfunctions change slowly and continuously, so that no quantum jump is triggered, and the change is virtually reversible. While the occupation numbers are unchanged, nevertheless there is change in the energy levels of one-to-one corresponding, pre- and post-compression, eigenstates. Thus a perturbative element of work has been done without heat transfer and without introduction of random change within the system. For example, Max Born writes
{{quote|Actually, it is usually the 'adiabatic' case with which we have to do: i.e. the limiting case where the external force (or the reaction of the parts of the system on each other) acts very slowly. In this case, to a very high approximation
<math display"block">c_1^21,\,\,c_2^20,\,\,c_3^20,\,...\,,</math>
that is, there is no probability for a transition, and the system is in the initial state after cessation of the perturbation. Such a slow perturbation is therefore reversible, as it is classically.<ref>{{cite journal|lastBorn |firstM. |author-linkMax Born |date1927 |titlePhysical aspects of quantum mechanics |journalNature |volume119 |issue2992 |pages354–357|bibcode 1927Natur.119..354B |doi 10.1038/119354a0 |doi-accessfree |translator-firstRobert |translator-lastOppenheimer |translator-link=Robert Oppenheimer}}</ref>}}
On the other hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done rapidly, it changes the occupation numbers and energies of the eigenstates in proportion to the transition moment integral and in accordance with time-dependent perturbation theory, as well as perturbing the functional form of the eigenstates themselves. In that theory, such a rapid change is said not to be adiabatic, and the contrary word diabatic is applied to it.
Recent research<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Mandal |first1Anirban |last2Hunt |first2Katharine L. C. |date2020-03-14 |titleVariance of the energy of a quantum system in a time-dependent perturbation: Determination by nonadiabatic transition probabilities |journalThe Journal of Chemical Physics |volume152 |issue10 |pages104110 |doi10.1063/1.5140009 |pmid32171229 |bibcode2020JChPh.152j4110M |s2cid212731108 |issn0021-9606|doi-accessfree }}</ref> suggests that the power absorbed from the perturbation corresponds to the rate of these non-adiabatic transitions. This corresponds to the classical process of energy transfer in the form of heat, but with the relative time scales reversed in the quantum case. Quantum adiabatic processes occur over relatively long time scales, while classical adiabatic processes occur over relatively short time scales. It should also be noted that the concept of 'heat' (in reference to the quantity of thermal energy transferred) breaks down at the quantum level, and the specific form of energy (typically electromagnetic) must be considered instead. The small or negligible absorption of energy from the perturbation in a quantum adiabatic process provides a good justification for identifying it as the quantum analogue of adiabatic processes in classical thermodynamics, and for the reuse of the term.
In classical thermodynamics, such a rapid change would still be called adiabatic because the system is adiabatically isolated, and there is no transfer of energy as heat. The strong irreversibility of the change, due to viscosity or other entropy production, does not impinge on this classical usage.
Thus for a mass of gas, in macroscopic thermodynamics, words are so used that a compression is sometimes loosely or approximately said to be adiabatic if it is rapid enough to avoid significant heat transfer, even if the system is not adiabatically isolated. But in quantum statistical theory, a compression is not called adiabatic if it is rapid, even if the system is adiabatically isolated in the classical thermodynamic sense of the term. The words are used differently in the two disciplines, as stated just above.
See also
* Fire piston
* Heat burst
; Related physics topics
* First law of thermodynamics
* Entropy (classical thermodynamics)
* Adiabatic conductivity
* Adiabatic lapse rate
* Total air temperature
* Magnetic refrigeration
* Berry phase
; Related thermodynamic processes
* Cyclic process
* Isobaric process
* Isenthalpic process
* Isentropic process
* Isochoric process
* Isothermal process
* Polytropic process
* Quasistatic process
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
;General
* {{cite book |firstRobert J. |lastSilbey |year2004 |titlePhysical chemistry |locationHoboken, New Jersey |publisherWiley |page55 |languageen-us |isbn978-0-471-21504-2 |display-authorsetal}}
* Nave, Carl Rod. "[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/adiab.html Adiabatic Processes]". HyperPhysics.
* Thorngren, Dr. Jane R. "[http://daphne.palomar.edu/jthorngren/adiabatic_processes.htm Adiabatic Processes]". Daphne – A Palomar College Web Server, 21 July 1995. {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110509121743/http://daphne.palomar.edu/jthorngren/adiabatic_processes.htm |date2011-05-09 }}.
External links
{{Wiktionary|adiabatic}}
{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/adiab.html#c1: Article in HyperPhysics Encyclopaedia]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adiabatic Process}}
Category:Thermodynamic processes
Category:Atmospheric thermodynamics
Category:Entropy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.616753 |
1422 | Amide | {{short description|1Organic compounds of the form RC(O)NR′R″}}
{{about|organic amides with the formula {{chem2|RC(\dO)NR′R″}}|the anion {{chem2|NH2-}}|Azanide|other uses|Amide (functional group)}}
{{Distinguish|imide}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
, the simplest amide]]
(zwitterionic form), an amino acid with a side chain (highlighted) containing an amide group]]
In organic chemistry, an amide,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/amide|titleAmide definition and meaning - Collins English Dictionary|author|date|websitewww.collinsdictionary.com|accessdate15 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|amide}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/amide|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402184403/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/amide|url-statusdead|archive-date2 April 2015|titleamide - Definition of amide in English by Oxford Dictionaries|author|date|websiteOxford Dictionaries – English|accessdate15 April 2018}}</ref> also known as an organic amide or a carboxamide, is a compound with the general formula {{chem2|R\sC(\dO)\sNR′R″}}, where R, R', and R″ represent any group, typically organyl groups or hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{goldbookref|fileA00266|titleamides}}</ref><ref nameFletcher>{{cite book | first John H. |last Fletcher | chapter Chapter 21: Amides and Imides | title Nomenclature of Organic Compounds: Principles and Practice | pages 166–173 | doi 10.1021/ba-1974-0126.ch021 | volume 126 | isbn 9780841201910 | chapter-url https://archive.org/details/nomenclatureofor0000flet/page/166 | location Washington, DC | publisher American Chemical Society | year 1974 }}</ref> The amide group is called a peptide bond when it is part of the main chain of a protein, and an isopeptide bond when it occurs in a side chain, as in asparagine and glutamine. It can be viewed as a derivative of a carboxylic acid ({{chem2|R\sC(\dO)\sOH}}) with the hydroxyl group ({{chem2|\sOH}}) replaced by an amino group ({{chem2|\sNR′R″}}); or, equivalently, an acyl (alkanoyl) group ({{chem2|R\sC(\dO)\s}}) joined to an amino group.
Common of amides are formamide ({{chem2|H\sC(\dO)\sNH2}}), acetamide ({{chem2|H3C\sC(\dO)\sNH2}}), benzamide ({{chem2|C6H5\sC(\dO)\sNH2}}), and dimethylformamide ({{chem2|H\sC(\dO)\sN(\sCH3)2}}). Some uncommon examples of amides are N-chloroacetamide ({{chem2|H3C\sC(\dO)\sNH\sCl}}) and chloroformamide ({{chem2|Cl\sC(\dO)\sNH2}}).
Amides are qualified as primary, secondary, and tertiary according to the number of acyl groups bounded to the nitrogen atom.<ref nameFletcher /><ref>{{GoldBookRef|titleAmides|fileA00266}}</ref>Nomenclature
{{Main|IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry#Amines and amides}}
The core {{chem2|\sC(\dO)\s(N)}} of amides is called the amide group (specifically, carboxamide group).
In the usual nomenclature, one adds the term "amide" to the stem of the parent acid's name. For instance, the amide derived from acetic acid is named acetamide (CH<sub>3</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub>). IUPAC recommends ethanamide, but this and related formal names are rarely encountered. When the amide is derived from a primary or secondary amine, the substituents on nitrogen are indicated first in the name. Thus, the amide formed from dimethylamine and acetic acid is N,N-dimethylacetamide (CH<sub>3</sub>CONMe<sub>2</sub>, where Me CH<sub>3</sub>). Usually even this name is simplified to dimethylacetamide. Cyclic amides are called lactams; they are necessarily secondary or tertiary amides.<ref nameFletcher /><ref>{{BlueBook2004|rec66.1}} Full text (PDF) of Draft Rule P-66: [https://old.iupac.org/reports/provisional/abstract04/BB-prs310305/Chapter6-Sec66.pdf Amides, Imides, Hydrazides, Nitriles, Aldehydes, Their Chalcogen Analogues, and Derivatives]</ref>Applications
{{See also|polyamide|peptide bond}}
Amides are pervasive in nature and technology. Proteins and important plastics like nylons, aramids, Twaron, and Kevlar are polymers whose units are connected by amide groups (polyamides); these linkages are easily formed, confer structural rigidity, and resist hydrolysis. Amides include many other important biological compounds, as well as many drugs like paracetamol, penicillin and LSD.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.038 |titleAlkamid database: Chemistry, occurrence and functionality of plant N-alkylamides |year2012 |last1Boonen |first1Jente |last2Bronselaer |first2Antoon |last3Nielandt |first3Joachim |last4Veryser |first4Lieselotte |last5De Tré |first5Guy |last6De Spiegeleer |first6Bart |journalJournal of Ethnopharmacology |volume142 |issue3 |pages563–590 |pmid22659196 |hdl1854/LU-2133714 |urlhttps://biblio.ugent.be/publication/2133714/file/2140565.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/2133714/file/2140565.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Low-molecular-weight amides, such as dimethylformamide, are common solvents.
Structure and bonding
ed dimer from X-ray crystallography. Selected distances: C-O: 1.243, C-N, 1.325, N---O, 2.925 Å. Color code: red O, blue N, gray C, white H.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1107/S1600536803019494 |titleA new refinement of the orthorhombic polymorph of acetamide |date2003 |last1Bats |first1Jan W. |last2Haberecht |first2Monika C. |last3Wagner |first3Matthias |journalActa Crystallographica Section E |volume59 |issue10 |pages=o1483–o1485 }}</ref>]]
The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom is delocalized into the Carbonyl group, thus forming a partial double bond between nitrogen and carbon. In fact the O, C and N atoms have molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons, forming a conjugated system. Consequently, the three bonds of the nitrogen in amides is not pyramidal (as in the amines) but planar. This planar restriction prevents rotations about the N linkage and thus has important consequences for the mechanical properties of bulk material of such molecules, and also for the configurational properties of macromolecules built by such bonds. The inability to rotate distinguishes amide groups from ester groups which allow rotation and thus create more flexible bulk material.
The C-C(O)NR<sub>2</sub> core of amides is planar. The C=O distance is shorter than the C-N distance by almost 10%. The structure of an amide can be described also as a resonance between two alternative structures: neutral (A) and zwitterionic (B).
:
It is estimated that for acetamide, structure A makes a 62% contribution to the structure, while structure B makes a 28% contribution (these figures do not sum to 100% because there are additional less-important resonance forms that are not depicted above). There is also a hydrogen bond present between the hydrogen and nitrogen atoms in the active groups.<ref name Kemnitz>{{Cite journal|doi10.1021/ja0663024|title"Amide Resonance" Correlates with a Breadth of C−N Rotation Barriers|year2007|last1Kemnitz|first1Carl R.|last2Loewen|first2Mark J.|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society|volume129|issue9|pages2521–8|pmid=17295481}}</ref> Resonance is largely prevented in the very strained quinuclidone.
<!--needs:
barrier from DMF, and a more general ref than this JACS rpt
comment on syn and anti secondary amides-->
In their IR spectra, amides exhibit a moderately intense ν<sub>CO</sub> band near 1650&nbsp;cm<sup>−1</sup>. The energy of this band is about 60&nbsp;cm<sub>−1</sub> lower than for the ν<sub>CO</sub> of esters and ketones. This difference reflects the contribution of the zwitterionic resonance structure.
Basicity
Compared to amines, amides are very weak bases. While the conjugate acid of an amine has a pK<sub>a</sub> of about 9.5, the conjugate acid of an amide has a pK<sub>a</sub> around −0.5. Therefore, compared to amines, amides do not have acid–base properties that are as noticeable in water. This relative lack of basicity is explained by the withdrawing of electrons from the amine by the carbonyl. On the other hand, amides are much stronger bases than carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones (their conjugate acids' pK<sub>a</sub>s are between −6 and −10).
The proton of a primary or secondary amide does not dissociate readily; its pK<sub>a</sub> is usually well above 15. Conversely, under extremely acidic conditions, the carbonyl oxygen can become protonated with a pK<sub>a</sub> of roughly −1. It is not only because of the positive charge on the nitrogen but also because of the negative charge on the oxygen gained through resonance.
Hydrogen bonding and solubility
Because of the greater electronegativity of oxygen than nitrogen, the carbonyl (CO) is a stronger dipole than the N–C dipole. The presence of a CO dipole and, to a lesser extent a N–C dipole, allows amides to act as H-bond acceptors. In primary and secondary amides, the presence of N–H dipoles allows amides to function as H-bond donors as well. Thus amides can participate in hydrogen bonding with water and other protic solvents; the oxygen atom can accept hydrogen bonds from water and the N–H hydrogen atoms can donate H-bonds. As a result of interactions such as these, the water solubility of amides is greater than that of corresponding hydrocarbons. These hydrogen bonds also have an important role in the secondary structure of proteins.
The solubilities of amides and esters are roughly comparable. Typically amides are less soluble than comparable amines and carboxylic acids since these compounds can both donate and accept hydrogen bonds. Tertiary amides, with the important exception of N,N-dimethylformamide, exhibit low solubility in water.
Reactions
<!-- This section is linked from Organic reaction -->
Amides do not readily participate in nucleophilic substitution reactions. Amides are stable to water, and are roughly 100 times more stable towards hydrolysis than esters.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}} Amides can, however, be hydrolyzed to carboxylic acids in the presence of acid or base. The stability of amide bonds has biological implications, since the amino acids that make up proteins are linked with amide bonds. Amide bonds are resistant enough to hydrolysis to maintain protein structure in aqueous environments but are susceptible to catalyzed hydrolysis.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}
Primary and secondary amides do not react usefully with carbon nucleophiles. Instead, Grignard reagents and organolithiums deprotonate an amide N-H bond. Tertiary amides do not experience this problem, and react with carbon nucleophiles to give ketones; the amide anion (NR<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>) is a very strong base and thus a very poor leaving group, so nucleophilic attack only occurs once. When reacted with carbon nucleophiles, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) can be used to introduce a formyl group.<ref>{{cite book|titleComprehensive Organic Functional Group Transformations|year1995|publisherPergamon Press|locationOxford|isbn0080423248|edition1st|editor1 Alan R. Katritzky|editor-link Alan R. Katritzky|editor2-lastMeth-Cohn|editor2-firstOtto|editor3 Charles Rees|editor3-link Charles Rees|page[https://archive.org/details/comprehensiveorg0000unse/page/90 90]|volume3|url=https://archive.org/details/comprehensiveorg0000unse/page/90}}</ref>
Here, phenyllithium 1 attacks the carbonyl group of DMF 2, giving tetrahedral intermediate 3. Because the dimethylamide anion is a poor leaving group, the intermediate does not collapse and another nucleophilic addition does not occur. Upon acidic workup, the alkoxide is protonated to give 4, then the amine is protonated to give 5. Elimination of a neutral molecule of dimethylamine and loss of a proton give benzaldehyde, 6.
:
Hydrolysis
Amides hydrolyse in hot alkali as well as in strong acidic conditions. Acidic conditions yield the carboxylic acid and the ammonium ion while basic hydrolysis yield the carboxylate ion and ammonia. The protonation of the initially generated amine under acidic conditions and the deprotonation of the initially generated carboxylic acid under basic conditions render these processes non-catalytic and irreversible. Electrophiles other than protons react with the carbonyl oxygen. This step often precedes hydrolysis, which is catalyzed by both Brønsted acids and Lewis acids. Peptidase enzymes and some synthetic catalysts often operate by attachment of electrophiles to the carbonyl oxygen.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Reaction name !! Product !! class="unsortable" | Comment
|-
| Dehydration
|Nitrile
| Reagent: phosphorus pentoxide; benzenesulfonyl chloride; TFAA/py<ref>{{US patent|5935953}}</ref>
|-
| Hofmann rearrangement
|Amine with one fewer carbon atom
|Reagents: bromine and sodium hydroxide
|-
| Amide reduction
| Amines, aldehydes
|Reagent: lithium aluminium hydride followed by hydrolysis
|-
|Vilsmeier–Haack reaction
|Aldehyde (via imine)
| {{chem2|POCl3}}, aromatic substrate, formamide
|-
|Bischler–Napieralski reaction
|Cyclic aryl imine
| {{chem2|POCl3}}, {{chem2|SOCl2}}, etc.
|-
|Tautomeric chlorination||Imidoyl chloride||Oxophilic halogenating agents, e.g. COCl<sub>2</sub> or SOCl<sub>2</sub>
|}
Synthesis
<!-- This section is linked from Organic reaction -->
From carboxylic acids and related compounds
Amides are usually prepared by coupling a carboxylic acid with an amine. The direct reaction generally requires high temperatures to drive off the water:
:{{chem2|RCO2H + R'2NH → RCO2- + R'2NH2+}}
:{{chem2|RCO2- + R'2NH2+ → RC(O)NR'2 + H2O}}
Esters are far superior{{explain|dateMarch 2025}} substrates relative to carboxylic acids.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Corson|first1B. B.|last2Scott|first2R. W.|last3Vose|first3C. E.|titleCyanoacetamide|journalOrganic Syntheses|date1941|volume1|page179|doi10.15227/orgsyn.009.0036}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1Jacobs|first1W. A.|titleChloroacetamide|journalOrganic Syntheses|date1941|volume1|page153|doi10.15227/orgsyn.007.0016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1Kleinberg|first1J.|last2Audrieth|first2L. F.|titleLactamide|journalOrganic Syntheses|date1955|volume3|page516|doi10.15227/orgsyn.021.0071}}</ref>{{better source needed|dateMarch 2025}}
Further "activating" both acid chlorides (Schotten-Baumann reaction) and anhydrides (Lumière–Barbier method) react with amines to give amides:
:{{chem2|RCO2R" + R'2NH → RC(O)NR'2 + R"OH}}
:{{chem2|RCOCl + 2R'2NH → RC(O)NR'2 + R'2NH2+Cl-}}
:{{chem2|(RCO)2O + R'2NH → RC(O)NR'2 + RCO2H}}
Peptide synthesis use coupling agents such as HATU, HOBt, or PyBOP.<ref>{{cite journal|titleAmide bond formation: beyond the myth of coupling reagents |first1Eric |last1Valeur |first2Mark |last2Bradley |s2cid14950926 |journalChem. Soc. Rev. |date2009|volume38 |issue2 |pages606–631 |doi10.1039/B701677H|pmid19169468 }}</ref>From nitrilesThe hydrolysis of nitriles is conducted on an industrial scale to produce fatty amides.<ref nameUllmann>{{Ullmann|doi 10.1002/14356007.a02_001.pub2|titleAmines, Aliphatic|year 2000|last1Eller|first1 Karsten|last2Henkes|first2 Erhard|last3Rossbacher|first3 Roland|last4Höke|first4 Hartmut}}</ref> Laboratory procedures are also available.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Wenner|first1Wilhelm|titlePhenylacetamide|journalOrganic Syntheses|date1952|volume32|page92|doi10.15227/orgsyn.032.0092}}</ref>Specialty routesMany specialized methods also yield amides.<ref>{{cite journal|doi10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00237 |titleNonclassical Routes for Amide Bond Formation |date2016 |last1De Figueiredo |first1Renata Marcia |last2Suppo |first2Jean-Simon |last3Campagne |first3Jean-Marc |journalChemical Reviews |volume116 |issue19 |pages12029–12122 |pmid27673596 }}</ref> A variety of reagents, e.g. tris(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) borate have been developed for specialized applications.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/790877?langen&regionGB|titleTris(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) borate 97% {{!}} Sigma-Aldrich|websitewww.sigmaaldrich.com|access-date2016-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1Sabatini|first1Marco T.|last2Boulton|first2Lee T.|last3Sheppard|first3Tom D.|date2017-09-01|titleBorate esters: Simple catalysts for the sustainable synthesis of complex amides|journalScience Advances|volume3|issue9|pagese1701028|doi10.1126/sciadv.1701028|pmc5609808|bibcode2017SciA....3E1028S|pmid=28948222}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Specialty Routes to Amides
|-
!Reaction name !! Substrate !! class="unsortable" | Details
|-
| Beckmann rearrangement
|Cyclic ketone
| Reagent: hydroxylamine and acid
|-
| Schmidt reaction
|Ketones
| Reagent: hydrazoic acid
|-
| Willgerodt–Kindler reaction
| Aryl alkyl ketones
| Sulfur and morpholine
|-
|Passerini reaction
| Carboxylic acid, ketone or aldehyde
|
|-
|Ugi reaction
| Isocyanide, carboxylic acid, ketone, primary amine
|
|-
|Bodroux reaction<ref>{{Cite journal|titlenone|authorBodroux F.|journalBull. Soc. Chim. France|year 1905|volume33|pages 831}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleBodroux reaction |publisherInstitute of Chemistry, Skopje, Macedonia |urlhttp://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry/reactions/bodroux1.htm |access-date23 May 2007 |archive-date24 September 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924074536/http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry/reactions/bodroux1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| Carboxylic acid, Grignard reagent with an aniline derivative ArNHR'
|style=background:white|
|-
|Chapman rearrangement<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Schulenberg|first1J. W.|last2Archer|first2S.|titleThe Chapman Rearrangement|journalOrg. React.|year1965|volume14|pages1–51 |doi10.1002/0471264180.or014.01|isbn978-0471264187 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi10.1039/CT9252701992|titleCCLXIX.—Imino-aryl ethers. Part III. The molecular rearrangement of N-phenylbenziminophenyl ether |year1925|last1Chapman|first1Arthur William|journalJournal of the Chemical Society, Transactions|volume127|pages=1992–1998}}</ref>
|Aryl imino ether
|For N,N-diaryl amides. The reaction mechanism is based on a nucleophilic aromatic substitution.<ref>{{Cite book|titleAdvanced organic Chemistry, Reactions, mechanisms and structure|edition 3rd |author March, Jerry |isbn 978-0-471-85472-2|year1966 |publisher Wiley }}</ref>
|-
| Leuckart amide synthesis<ref>{{Cite journal|author Leuckart, R. |journalBerichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft|doi10.1002/cber.188501801182|title Ueber einige Reaktionen der aromatischen Cyanate|year1885|volume 18|pages873–877|author-linkRudolf Leuckart (chemist)|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1425383}}</ref>
| Isocyanate
| Reaction of arene with isocyanate catalysed by aluminium trichloride, formation of aromatic amide.
|-
| Ritter reaction<ref>{{cite book|last1Adams|first1Rodger|last2Krimen|first2L.I.|last3Cota|first3Donald J.|titleOrganic Reaction Volume 17|date1969|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc|locationLondon|isbn9780471196150|pages213–326|doi=10.1002/0471264180}}</ref>
| Alkenes, alcohols, or other carbonium ion sources
| Secondary amides via an addition reaction between a nitrile and a carbonium ion in the presence of concentrated acids.
|-
| Photolytic addition of formamide to olefins<ref>{{cite book|lastMonson|firstRichard|titleAdvanced Organic Synthesis: Methods and Techniques|date1971|publisherAcademic Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0124336803|page141|urlhttps://nootropicsfrontline.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/wiki_Monson-R.S.-Advanced-organic-synthesis.-Methods-and-techniques-ГХИ-1971.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://nootropicsfrontline.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/wiki_Monson-R.S.-Advanced-organic-synthesis.-Methods-and-techniques-ГХИ-1971.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
| Terminal alkenes
| A free radical homologation reaction between a terminal alkene and formamide.
|-
|Dehydrogenative coupling<ref>{{Cite journal|doi10.1126/science.1145295|titleDirect Synthesis of Amides from Alcohols and Amines with Liberation of H<sub>2</sub>|year2007|last1Gunanathan|first1C.|last2Ben-David|first2Y.|last3Milstein|first3D.|journalScience|volume317|issue5839|pages790–2|pmid17690291|bibcode2007Sci...317..790G|s2cid43671648}}</ref>
|alcohol, amine
| requires ruthenium dehydrogenation catalyst
|-
|Transamidation<ref>{{cite journal|author1T. A. Dineen |author2M. A. Zajac |author3A. G. Myers|titleEfficient Transamidation of Primary Carboxamides by in situ Activation with N,N-Dialkylformamide Dimethyl Acetals|journalJ. Am. Chem. Soc.|volume128|issue50|pages16406–16409|year2006|doi10.1021/ja066728i|pmid17165798}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|titleA two-step approach to achieve secondary amide transamidation enabled by nickel catalysis|author1Emma L. Baker |author2Michael M. Yamano |author3Yujing Zhou |author4Sarah M. Anthony |author5Neil K. Garg|journalNature Communications|volume7|pages11554|year2016|doi10.1038/ncomms11554|pmid27199089|pmc4876455|bibcode=2016NatCo...711554B}}</ref>
|amide
|typically slow
|}
See also
* Amidogen
* Amino radical
* Amidicity
* Imidic acid
* Metal amides
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.rsc.org/Chemsoc/Chembytes/IUPACGoldbook.asp IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology]
{{nitrogen compounds}}
{{Functional groups}}
{{Organic reactions}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Functional groups | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amide | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.634279 |
1423 | Animism | {{short description|Religious belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
Animism (from {{Langx|la|anima}} meaning 'breath, spirit, life'){{sfn|EB|1878}}<ref>{{harvnb|Segal|2004|p14}}.</ref> is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence.<ref name":2">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.religionandnature.com/ern/sample/Chidester--Animism.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.religionandnature.com/ern/sample/Chidester--Animism.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleReligion and Nature}}</ref><ref namestringer>{{cite journal|lastStringer |firstMartin D. |titleRethinking Animism: Thoughts from the Infancy of our Discipline |journalJournal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |year1999 |volume5 |issue4 |pages541–56 |doi10.2307/2661147 |jstor2661147}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|lastHornborg |firstAlf |s2cid143991508 |titleAnimism, fetishism, and objectivism as strategies for knowing (or not knowing) the world |journalEthnos: Journal of Anthropology |year2006 |volume71 |issue1 |pages21–32 |doi10.1080/00141840600603129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|titleWhat Is Religion? An Introduction |lastHaught |firstJohn F. |page19 |publisherPaulist Press}}</ref> Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and in some cases words—as being animated, having agency and free will.<ref> {{cite journal| firstHans|lastVan Eyghen |titleAnimism and Science |journalReligions | volume14 | issue5| date2023 |page653 |doi10.3390/rel14050653|doi-accessfree }} </ref> Animism is used in anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system of many Indigenous peoples<ref>{{cite book|titleRitual and Belief: Readings in the Anthropology of Religion |firstDavid |lastHicks |publisherRoman Altamira |edition3 |year2010 |page359 |quoteTylor's notion of animism—for him the first religion—included the assumption that early Homo sapiens had invested animals and plants with souls&nbsp;...}}</ref> in contrast to the relatively more recent development of organized religions.<ref>{{cite web|titleAnimism |publisherELMAR Project (University of Cumbria) |date1998–1999 |othersContributed by Helen James; coordinated by Elliott Shaw with assistance from Ian Favell |urlhttp://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/seasia/animism.html}}</ref> Animism is a metaphysical belief which focuses on the supernatural universe: specifically, on the concept of the immaterial soul.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://animismkv.weebly.com/interesting-facts.html |titleInteresting facts}}</ref>
Although each culture has its own mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so widely held and inherent to most indigenous peoples that they often do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion").<ref>{{cite web|titleNative American Religious and Cultural Freedom: An Introductory Essay|workThe Pluralism Project|publisherPresident and Fellows of Harvard College and Diana Eck|year2005|urlhttp://www.pluralism.org/reports/view/176|access-date4 October 2013|archive-date23 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141223045117/http://www.pluralism.org/reports/view/176|url-status=dead}}</ref> The term "animism" is an anthropological construct.
Largely due to such ethnolinguistic and cultural discrepancies, opinions differ on whether animism refers to an ancestral mode of experience common to indigenous peoples around the world or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century (1871) by Edward Tylor. It is "one of anthropology's earliest concepts, if not the first".{{sfn|Bird-David|1999|p=S67}}
Animism encompasses beliefs that all material phenomena have agency, that there exists no categorical distinction between the spiritual and physical world, and that soul, spirit, or sentience exists not only in humans but also in other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features (such as mountains and rivers), and other entities of the natural environment. Examples include water sprites, vegetation deities, and tree spirits, among others. Animism may further attribute a life force to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the non-tribal world also consider themselves animists, such as author Daniel Quinn, sculptor Lawson Oyekan, and many contemporary Pagans.<ref name"Harvey">{{cite book |titleAnimism: Respecting the Living World |lastHarvey |firstGraham |page9 |publisherColumbia University Press |year2006 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq2np2LCDmIMC |isbn978-0-231-13700-3}}</ref>
Etymology
English anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor initially wanted to describe the phenomenon as spiritualism, but he realized that it would cause confusion with the modern religion of spiritualism, which was then prevalent across Western nations.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p7}} He adopted the term animism from the writings of German scientist Georg Ernst Stahl,{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p5}} who had developed the term {{lang|la|animismus}} in 1708 as a biological theory that souls formed the vital principle, and that the normal phenomena of life and the abnormal phenomena of disease could be traced to spiritual causes.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=3–4}}
The origin of the word comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|anima}}, which means life or soul.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAnimism - Definition, Meaning & Synonyms |urlhttps://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/animism |access-date2023-01-16 |websiteVocabulary.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
The first known usage in English appeared in 1819.{{sfn|Bird-David|1999|ppS67–S68}} "Old animism" definitions Earlier anthropological perspectives, which have since been termed the old animism, were concerned with knowledge on what is alive and what factors make something alive.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxi}} The old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxiv}} Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving "colonialist and dualistic worldviews and rhetoric".{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxii}}
Edward Tylor's definition
developed animism as an anthropological theory.]]
The idea of animism was developed by anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor through his 1871 book Primitive Culture,{{sfn|EB|1878}} in which he defined it as "the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general". According to Tylor, animism often includes "an idea of pervading life and will in nature;"<ref>{{cite book|firstEdward Burnett |lastTylor |author-linkEdward Burnett Tylor |titlePrimitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom |volume1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAucLAAAAIAAJ&pgPA260 |year1871 |publisherJ. Murray |page260}}</ref> a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as "fetishism",<ref name"Kuper 2005 85">{{cite book |lastKuper |firstAdam |urlhttps://archive.org/details/reinventionprimi00kupe |titleReinvention of Primitive Society: Transformations of a Myth |publisherRoutledge |year2005 |edition2nd |locationFlorence, KY, US |page[https://archive.org/details/reinventionprimi00kupe/page/n97 85] |url-accesslimited}}</ref> but the terms now have distinct meanings.
For Tylor, animism represented the earliest form of religion, being situated within an evolutionary framework of religion that has developed in stages and which will ultimately lead to humanity rejecting religion altogether in favor of scientific rationality.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p6}} Thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religions grew.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p6}} He did not believe that animism was inherently illogical, but he suggested that it arose from early humans' dreams and visions and thus was a rational system. However, it was based on erroneous, unscientific observations about the nature of reality.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p8}} Stringer notes that his reading of Primitive Culture led him to believe that Tylor was far more sympathetic in regard to "primitive" populations than many of his contemporaries and that Tylor expressed no belief that there was any difference between the intellectual capabilities of "savage" people and Westerners.<ref namestringer/>
The idea that there had once been "one universal form of primitive religion" (whether labelled animism, totemism, or shamanism) has been dismissed as "unsophisticated" and "erroneous" by archaeologist Timothy Insoll, who stated that "it removes complexity, a precondition of religion now, in all its variants."{{sfn|Insoll|2004|p29}} Social evolutionist conceptions
Tylor's definition of animism was part of a growing international debate on the nature of "primitive society" by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science: anthropology. By the end of the 19th century, an orthodoxy on "primitive society" had emerged, but few anthropologists still would accept that definition. The "19th-century armchair anthropologists" argued that "primitive society" (an evolutionary category) was ordered by kinship and divided into exogamous descent groups related by a series of marriage exchanges. Their religion was animism, the belief that natural species and objects had souls.
With the development of private property, the descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of "developed" religions. According to Tylor, as society became more scientifically advanced, fewer members of that society would believe in animism. However, any remnant ideologies of souls or spirits, to Tylor, represented "survivals" of the original animism of early humanity.<ref>{{cite book |lastKuper |firstAdam |titleThe Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an illusion |year1988 |publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul |locationLondon |pages=6–7}}</ref>
{{quote box
| quote = The term ["animism"] clearly began as an expression of a nest of insulting approaches to indigenous peoples and the earliest putatively religious humans. It was and sometimes remains, a colonialist slur.
| source —Graham Harvey, 2005.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxiii}}
| align = left
| width = 25em
}}
Confounding animism with totemism
In 1869 (three years after Tylor proposed his definition of animism), Edinburgh lawyer John Ferguson McLennan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended from the same species as their totemic animal.<ref name"Kuper 2005 85"/> Subsequent debate by the "armchair anthropologists" (including J. J. Bachofen, Émile Durkheim, and Sigmund Freud) remained focused on totemism rather than animism, with few directly challenging Tylor's definition. Anthropologists "have commonly avoided the issue of animism and even the term itself, rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies."<ref name"Bird-David 1999 S68">{{harvnb|Bird-David|1999|p=S68}}</ref>
According to anthropologist Tim Ingold, animism shares similarities with totemism but differs in its focus on individual spirit beings which help to perpetuate life, whereas totemism more typically holds that there is a primary source, such as the land itself or the ancestors, who provide the basis to life. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic in their worldview, whereas others like the Inuit are more typically animistic.<ref>{{cite book|lastIngold |firstTim |author-linkTim Ingold |date2000 |chapterTotemism, Animism, and the Depiction of Animals |titleThe Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling, and Skill |locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |pages=112–113}}</ref>
From his studies into child development, Jean Piaget suggested that children were born with an innate animist worldview in which they anthropomorphized inanimate objects and that it was only later that they grew out of this belief.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p14}} Conversely, from her ethnographic research, Margaret Mead argued the opposite, believing that children were not born with an animist worldview but that they became acculturated to such beliefs as they were educated by their society.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p14}}
Stewart Guthrie saw animism—or "attribution" as he preferred it—as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that both humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p15}} His suggested explanation, however, did not deal with the question of why such a belief became central to the religion.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p16}} In 2000, Guthrie suggested that the "most widespread" concept of animism was that it was the "attribution of spirits to natural phenomena such as stones and trees."{{sfn|Guthrie|2000|p106}}"New animism" non-archaic definitions Many anthropologists ceased using the term animism, deeming it to be too close to early anthropological theory and religious polemic.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxii}} However, the term had also been claimed by religious groups—namely, Indigenous communities and nature worshippers—who felt that it aptly described their own beliefs, and who in some cases actively identified as "animists."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|ppxii, 3}} It was thus readopted by various scholars, who began using the term in a different way,{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxii}} placing the focus on knowing how to behave toward other beings, some of whom are not human.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxi}} As religious studies scholar Graham Harvey stated, while the "old animist" definition had been problematic, the term animism was nevertheless "of considerable value as a critical, academic term for a style of religious and cultural relating to the world."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxv}}
Hallowell and the Ojibwe
chiefs in the 19th century. It was anthropological studies of Ojibwe religion that resulted in the development of the "new animism".|upright=1.2]]
The new animism emerged largely from the publications of anthropologist Irving Hallowell, produced on the basis of his ethnographic research among the Ojibwe communities of Canada in the mid-20th century.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p17}} For the Ojibwe encountered by Hallowell, personhood did not require human-likeness, but rather humans were perceived as being like other persons, who for instance included rock persons and bear persons.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p18}} For the Ojibwe, these persons were each willful beings, who gained meaning and power through their interactions with others; through respectfully interacting with other persons, they themselves learned to "act as a person".{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=18}}
Hallowell's approach to the understanding of Ojibwe personhood differed strongly from prior anthropological concepts of animism.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p19}} He emphasized the need to challenge the modernist, Western perspectives of what a person is, by entering into a dialogue with different worldwide views.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p18}} Hallowell's approach influenced the work of anthropologist Nurit Bird-David, who produced a scholarly article reassessing the idea of animism in 1999.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p20}} Seven comments from other academics were provided in the journal, debating Bird-David's ideas.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p21}}
Postmodern anthropology
More recently, postmodern anthropologists are increasingly engaging with the concept of animism. Modernism is characterized by a Cartesian subject-object dualism that divides the subjective from the objective, and culture from nature. In the modernist view, animism is the inverse of scientism, and hence, is deemed inherently invalid by some anthropologists. Drawing on the work of Bruno Latour, some anthropologists question modernist assumptions and theorize that all societies continue to "animate" the world around them. In contrast to Tylor's reasoning, however, this "animism" is considered to be more than just a remnant of primitive thought. More specifically, the "animism" of modernity is characterized by humanity's "professional subcultures", as in the ability to treat the world as a detached entity within a delimited sphere of activity.
Human beings continue to create personal relationships with elements of the aforementioned objective world, such as pets, cars, or teddy bears, which are recognized as subjects. As such, these entities are "approached as communicative subjects rather than the inert objects perceived by modernists."<ref>{{cite journal |lastHornborg |firstAlf |s2cid143991508 |titleAnimism, fetishism, and objectivism as strategies for knowing (or not knowing) the world |journalEthnos |year2006 |volume71 |issue1 |pages22–4 |doi10.1080/00141840600603129}}</ref> These approaches aim to avoid the modernist assumption that the environment consists of a physical world distinct from the world of humans, as well as the modernist conception of the person being composed dualistically of a body and a soul.<ref name="Bird-David 1999 S68"/>
Nurit Bird-David argues that:<ref name="Bird-David 1999 S68" />
{{Blockquote|text=Positivistic ideas about the meaning of 'nature', 'life', and 'personhood' misdirected these previous attempts to understand the local concepts. Classical theoreticians (it is argued) attributed their own modernist ideas of self to 'primitive peoples' while asserting that the 'primitive peoples' read their idea of self into others!}}
She explains that animism is a "relational epistemology" rather than a failure of primitive reasoning. That is, self-identity among animists is based on their relationships with others, rather than any distinctive features of the "self". Instead of focusing on the essentialized, modernist self (the "individual"), persons are viewed as bundles of social relationships ("dividuals"), some of which include "superpersons" (i.e. non-humans).
village, Mopti, Bandiagara, Mali, in 1972|upright=1.2]]
Stewart Guthrie expressed criticism of Bird-David's attitude towards animism, believing that it promulgated the view that "the world is in large measure whatever our local imagination makes it." This, he felt, would result in anthropology abandoning "the scientific project."{{sfn|Guthrie|2000|p=107}}
Like Bird-David, Tim Ingold argues that animists do not see themselves as separate from their environment:<ref>{{cite book|lastIngold |firstTim |author-linkTim Ingold |urlhttps://archive.org/details/perceptionenviro00ingo |titleThe Perception of the Environment: Essays in livelihood, dwelling, and skill |publisherRoutledge |year2000 |placeNew York |page[https://archive.org/details/perceptionenviro00ingo/page/n56 42] |url-accesslimited}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Hunter-gatherers do not, as a rule, approach their environment as an external world of nature that has to be 'grasped' intellectually ... indeed the separation of mind and nature has no place in their thought and practice.}}
Rane Willerslev extends the argument by noting that animists reject this Cartesian dualism and that the animist self identifies with the world, "feeling at once within and apart from it so that the two glide ceaselessly in and out of each other in a sealed circuit".{{sfn|Willerslev|2007|p[https://archive.org/details/soulhuntershunti00will/page/n40 24]}} The animist hunter is thus aware of himself as a human hunter, but, through mimicry, is able to assume the viewpoint, senses, and sensibilities of his prey, to be one with it.{{sfn|Willerslev|2007|p[https://archive.org/details/soulhuntershunti00will/page/n43 27]}} Shamanism, in this view, is an everyday attempt to influence spirits of ancestors and animals, by mirroring their behaviors, as the hunter does its prey.
Ethical and ecological understanding
Cultural ecologist and philosopher David Abram proposed an ethical and ecological understanding of animism, grounded in the phenomenology of sensory experience. In his books The Spell of the Sensuous and Becoming Animal, Abram suggests that material things are never entirely passive in our direct perceptual experience, holding rather that perceived things actively "solicit our attention" or "call our focus", coaxing the perceiving body into an ongoing participation with those things.{{sfn|Abram|1996}}{{sfn|Abram|2010}}
In the absence of intervening technologies, he suggests that sensory experience is inherently animistic in that it discloses a material field that is animate and self-organizing from the beginning. David Abram used contemporary cognitive and natural science, as well as the perspectival worldviews of diverse indigenous oral cultures, to propose a richly pluralist and story-based cosmology in which matter is alive. He suggested that such a relational ontology is in close accord with humanity's spontaneous perceptual experience by drawing attention to the senses, and to the primacy of sensuous terrain, enjoining a more respectful and ethical relation to the more-than-human community of animals, plants, soils, mountains, waters, and weather-patterns that materially sustains humanity.{{sfn|Abram|1996}}{{sfn|Abram|2010}}
In contrast to a long-standing tendency in the Western social sciences, which commonly provide rational explanations of animistic experience, Abram develops an animistic account of reason itself. He holds that civilised reason is sustained only by intensely animistic participation between human beings and their own written signs. For instance, as soon as someone reads letters on a page or screen, they can "see what it says"—the letters speak as much as nature spoke to pre-literate peoples. Reading can usefully be understood as an intensely concentrated form of animism, one that effectively eclipses all of the other, older, more spontaneous forms of animistic participation in which humans were once engaged.
{{blockquote|To tell the story in this manner—to provide an animistic account of reason, rather than the other way around—is to imply that animism is the wider and more inclusive term and that oral, mimetic modes of experience still underlie, and support, all our literate and technological modes of reflection. When reflection's rootedness in such bodily, participatory modes of experience is entirely unacknowledged or unconscious, reflective reason becomes dysfunctional, unintentionally destroying the corporeal, sensuous world that sustains it.{{sfn|Abram|1996|p[https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0/page/303 303]}} }} Relation to the concept of 'I-thou' Religious studies scholar Graham Harvey defined animism as the belief "that the world is full of persons, only some of whom are human, and that life is always lived in relationship with others."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxi}} He added that it is therefore "concerned with learning how to be a good person in respectful relationships with other persons."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xi}}
In his Handbook of Contemporary Animism (2013), Harvey identifies the animist perspective in line with Martin Buber's "I-thou" as opposed to "I-it". In such, Harvey says, the animist takes an I-thou approach to relating to the world, whereby objects and animals are treated as a "thou", rather than as an "it".<ref>{{cite book |lastHarvey |firstGraham |titleThe Handbook of Contemporary Animism |year2013 |publisherRoutledge |placeLondon, UK}}</ref>
Religion
" in the literature|upright=1.2]]
There is ongoing disagreement (and no general consensus) as to whether animism is merely a singular, broadly encompassing religious belief<ref>{{cite book|first1David A. |last1Leeming |first2Kathryn |last2Madden |first3Stanton |last3Marlan |titleEncyclopedia of Psychology and Religion |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idg0QQtlJSyOEC&pgPA42 |date6 November 2009 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-0-387-71801-9 |page42}}</ref> or a worldview in and of itself, comprising many diverse mythologies found worldwide in many diverse cultures.<ref>Harvey (2006), p. 6.</ref><ref name"Ishmael.org">{{cite web|firstDaniel |lastQuinn |titleQ and A #400 |workIshmael.org |year2012 |urlhttp://www.ishmael.org/Interaction/QandA/Detail.CFM?Record400 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110923002600/http://www.ishmael.org/Interaction/QandA/Detail.CFM?Record400 |archive-date23 September 2011}}</ref> This also raises a controversy regarding the ethical claims animism may or may not make: whether animism ignores questions of ethics altogether;<ref>{{cite book|firstEdward Burnett |lastTylor |author-linkEdward Burnett Tylor |titlePrimitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art, and custom |volume2 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5tOAAAAAMAAJ&pgPA360 |year1920 |publisherJ. Murray |page360}}</ref> or, by endowing various non-human elements of nature with spirituality or personhood,<ref>Clarke, Peter B., and Peter Beyer, eds. 2009. ''The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. London: Routledge. p. 15.</ref> it in fact promotes a complex ecological ethics.<ref>{{cite book|year2011 |publisherPolity |locationCambridge |titleEcological Ethics |edition2 |firstPatrick |lastCurry |pages142–3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTVvFTKoOV7EC&qecological+ethics |isbn978-0-7456-5126-2}}</ref> Concepts Distinction from pantheism Animism is not the same as pantheism, although the two are sometimes confused. Moreover, some religions are both pantheistic and animistic. One of the main differences is that while animists believe everything to be spiritual in nature, they do not necessarily see the spiritual nature of everything in existence as being united (monism) the way pantheists do. As a result, animism puts more emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual soul. In pantheism, everything shares the same spiritual essence, rather than having distinct spirits or souls.<ref>Harrison, Paul A. 2004. Elements of Pantheism. p. 11.</ref><ref>McColman, Carl. 2002. When Someone You Love Is Wiccan: A Guide to Witchcraft and Paganism for Concerned Friends, Nervous parents, and Curious Co-Workers. p. 97.</ref> For example, Giordano Bruno equated the world soul with God and espoused a pantheistic animism.<ref name"Kearns 1982 p. 24">{{cite book | lastKearns | firstE.J. | titleIdeas in Seventeenth-century France: The Most Important Thinkers and the Climate of Ideas in which They Worked | publisherManchester University Press | year1982 | isbn978-0-7190-0907-5 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-P_oAAAAIAAJ&pgPA24 | access-date2023-06-01 | page24}}</ref><ref name"Orr 2012 p. 87">{{cite book | lastOrr | firstE.R. | titleThe Wakeful World: Animism, Mind and the Self in Nature | publisherJohn Hunt Publishing | year2012 | isbn978-1-78099-408-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzQPtBAAAQBAJ&pgPT87 | access-date2023-06-01 | page87}}</ref> Fetishism / totemism
{{Main|Fetishism|Totemism}}
In many animistic world views, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with other animals, plants, and natural forces.{{sfn|Fernandez-Armesto|2003|p138}} African indigenous religions Traditional African religions: most religious traditions of Sub-Saharan Africa are basically a complex form of animism with polytheistic and shamanistic elements and ancestor worship.<ref>{{cite book |lastVontress |firstClemmont E. |articleAnimism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa |year2005 |urlhttps://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml |titleIntegrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy |pages124–137 |publisherSAGE Publications, Inc. |doi10.4135/9781452231648 |isbn9780761930471 |access-date2019-11-01}}</ref>
In West Africa, the Serer religious (A ƭat Roog) encompasses ancestor veneration (not worship) via the Pangool. The Pangool are the Serer ancestral spirits and interceders between the living and the Divine, Roog.<ref>Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer : Pangool". vol.2, Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal, (1990), p. 278, {{ISBN|2-7236-1055-1}}</ref><ref>Galvan, Dennis Charles, "The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal." Berkeley, University of California Press (2004), p. 53, {{ISBN|0520235916}}</ref>
In East Africa the Kerma culture display Animistic elements similar to other Traditional African religions. In contrast to the later polytheistic Napatan and Meroitic periods, the Kerma culture with displays of animals in Amulets and the esteemed antiques of Lions, appear to be an Animistic culture rather than a polytheistic culture. The Kermans likely treated Jebel Barkal as a special sacred site, and passed it on to the Kushites and Egyptians who venerated the mesa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Emberling |first1Geoff |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/41909/chapter-abstract/354773064 |titleThe Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume III: Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC |last2Minor |first2Elizabeth |publisherOxford University Press |year2022 |isbn9780197601204 |chapterEarly Kush: The Kingdom of Kerma |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0025}}</ref>
In North Africa, the traditional Berber religion includes the traditional polytheistic, animist, and in some rare cases, shamanistic, religions of the Berber people.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2023}} Asian origin religions Indian-origin religions
{{anchor | Indic | Indian | Hindu | Hinduism | Buddhist | Buddhism | Jain | Jainism | Sikh | Sikhism | Indian religion | Indian-origin religion | Indian religions | Indian-origin religions}}
In the Indian-origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, the animistic aspects of nature worship and ecological conservation are part of the core belief system.
Matsya Purana, a Hindu text, has a Sanskrit language shloka (hymn), which explains the importance of reverence of ecology. It states: "A pond equals ten wells, a reservoir equals ten ponds, while a son equals ten reservoirs, and a tree equals ten sons."<ref name=pur1>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/chandigarh-news/haryana-mulls-giving-marks-to-class-12-students-for-planting-trees-101627242568655.html "Haryana mulls giving marks to class 12 students for planting trees"], Hindustan Times, 26 July 2021.</ref> Indian religions worship trees such as the Bodhi Tree and numerous superlative banyan trees, conserve the sacred groves of India, revere the rivers as sacred, and worship the mountains and their ecology.
Panchavati are the sacred trees in Indic religions, which are sacred groves containing five type of trees, usually chosen from among the Vata (Ficus benghalensis, Banyan), Ashvattha (Ficus religiosa, Peepal), Bilva (Aegle marmelos, Bengal Quince), Amalaki (Phyllanthus emblica, Indian Gooseberry, Amla), Ashoka (Saraca asoca, Ashok), Udumbara (Ficus racemosa, Cluster Fig, Gular), Nimba (Azadirachta indica, Neem) and Shami (Prosopis spicigera, Indian Mesquite).<ref namevati1>[https://greenmesg.org/nature/trees/sacred/panchavati_trees.php "Panchvati trees"], greenmesg.org, accessed 26 July 2021.</ref><ref namegr1>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/peepal-for-east-amla-for-west-193-villages-set-to-get-panchvati-trees/articleshow/84741664.cms "Peepal for east amla for west"], Times of India, 26 July 2021.</ref>
– the Great Banyan tree revered by the people of Indian-origin religions such as Hinduism (including Vedic, Shaivism, Dravidian Hinduism), Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism|upright1.2]] festival, married women tie threads around a banyan tree in India.|left|upright1.2]]
The banyan is considered holy in several religious traditions of India. The Ficus benghalensis'' is the national tree of India.<ref name"National Symbols of India">{{cite web |urlhttp://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php/national_symbols.php?id5 |titleNational Tree |publisherGovernment of India |access-date2012-01-16}}</ref> Vat Purnima is a Hindu festival related to the banyan tree, and is observed by married women in North India and in the Western Indian states of Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat.<ref>{{Cite news|lastKerkar |firstRajendra P. |date7 Jun 2009 |titleVat-Pournima: Worship of the banyan tree |workThe Times of India |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Vat-Pournima-Worship-of-the-banyan-tree/articleshow/4625988.cms |access-date18 July 2021}}</ref> For three days of the month of Jyeshtha in the Hindu calendar (which falls in May–June in the Gregorian calendar) married women observe a fast, tie threads around a banyan tree, and pray for the well-being of their husbands.<ref>{{Cite news|date2 June 2015 |titleMumbai: Women celebrate Vat Purnima at Jogeshwari station |workMid Day |urlhttps://www.mid-day.com/mumbai/mumbai-news/article/Mumbai--Women-celebrate-Vat-Purnima-at-Jogeshwari-station-16259170 |access-date18 July 2021}}</ref> Thimmamma Marrimanu, sacred to Indian religions, has branches spread over five acres and was listed as the world's largest banyan tree in the Guinness World Records in 1989.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.backpacker-backgammon.com/news_banyan_trees.html |titleBackpacker Backgammon Boards - Banyan Trees |access-date2015-01-18 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120710100822/http://www.backpacker-backgammon.com/news_banyan_trees.html |archive-date2012-07-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.anantapur.com/travel/thimmamma.html |titleThimmamma Marrimanu – Anantapur |websiteAnantapur.com |access-date19 March 2019}}</ref>
In Hinduism, the leaf of the banyan tree is said to be the resting place for the god Krishna. In the Bhagavat Gita, Krishna said, "There is a banyan tree which has its roots upward and its branches down, and the Vedic hymns are its leaves. One who knows this tree is the knower of the Vedas." (Bg 15.1)
In Buddhism's Pali canon, the banyan (Pali: nigrodha)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |publisherPali Text Society |locationChipstead, London |date1921–1925 |editor1-lastRhys Davids |editor1-firstT. W. |editor-link1T. W. Rhys Davids |editor2-lastStede |editor2-firstWilliam |dictionaryThe Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary |urlhttp://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:96.pali |page355 |titleNigrodha |access-date22 November 2008}}</ref> is referenced numerous times.<ref>See, for instance, the automated search of the SLTP ed. of the Pali Canon for the root "nigrodh" which results in 243 matches {{cite web |urlhttp://www.bodhgayanews.net/pitakaresults.php?title&start0&to10&searchstringNigrodh |titleSearch term 'Nigrodh' found in 243 pages in all documents |websiteBodhgayanews.net |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081202012916/http://www.bodhgayanews.net/pitakaresults.php?title&start0&to10&searchstringNigrodh |archive-date2 December 2008 |access-date=22 November 2008}}</ref> Typical metaphors allude to the banyan's epiphytic nature, likening the banyan's supplanting of a host tree as comparable to the way sensual desire (kāma) overcomes humans.<ref>See, e.g., SN 46.39, "Trees [Discourse]", trans. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000), Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya (Boston: Wisdom Publications), pp. 1593, 1906 n. 81; and, Sn 2.5 v. 271 or 272 (Fausböll, 1881, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe10/sbe1034.htm p. 46]).</ref>
Mun (also known as Munism or Bongthingism) is the traditional polytheistic, animist, shamanistic, and syncretic religion of the Lepcha people.<ref name"Bareh">{{cite encyclopedia |titleSikkim |year2001 |encyclopediaEncyclopaedia of North-East India |editor-lastBareh |editor-firstHamlet |volume7 |pages284–86 |isbn81-7099-787-9 |publisherMittal Publications |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjrr7HPr8NAQC}}</ref><ref name"Ferrari">{{cite book |firstDavide |lastTorri |year2010 |chapter10. In the Shadow of the Devil: Traditional patterns of Lepcha culture reinterpreted |titleHealth and Religious Rituals in South Asia |pages149–156 |editor-lastFerrari |editor-firstFabrizio |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn978-1-136-84629-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOyKFM2qrNUEC}}</ref><ref name"West">{{cite book |titleEncyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |page462 |seriesFacts on File Library of World History |editor-lastWest |editor-firstBarbara A. |publisherInfobase |year2009 |isbn978-1-4381-1913-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpCiNqFj3MQsC}}</ref>
Sanamahism is an ethnic religion of the Meitei people of {{langnf|mni|Kangleipak|Manipur}} in Northeast India. It is a polytheistic and animist religion and is named after Lainingthou Sanamahi, one of the most important deities of the Meitei faith.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGourchandra |firstM. |date1982 |titleSanamahi Laihui |urlhttp://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465618}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Revivalism of Sanamahism |urlhttp://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?srcmanipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism |access-date2022-04-18 |websitee-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastNilabir |firstSairem |urlhttp://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465239 |titleLaiyingthou Sanamahi Amasung Sanamahi Laining Hinggat Ihou |date2002}}</ref> Chinese religions Shendao ({{Lang-zh|c神道|pshéndào|lthe Way of the Gods}}) is a term originated by Chinese folk religions influenced by, Mohist, Confucian and Taoist philosophy, referring to the divine order of nature or the Wuxing.
The Shang dynasty's state religion was practiced from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE, and was built on the idea of spiritualizing natural phenomena.
Japan and Shinto
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}
{{Shinto}}
Shinto is the traditional Japanese folk religion and has many animist aspects. The {{Nihongo|2神|3kami}}, a class of supernatural beings, are central to Shinto. All things, including natural forces and well-known geographical locations, are thought to be home to the kami. The kami are worshipped at kamidana household shrines, family shrines, and jinja public shrines.
The Ryukyuan religion of the Ryukyu Islands is distinct from Shinto, but shares similar characteristics.
Kalash people
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}
Kalash people of Northern Pakistan follow an ancient animistic religion identified with an ancient form of Hinduism.<ref>Zeb, Alam, et al. (2019). "Identifying local actors of deforestation and forest degradation in the Kalasha valleys of Pakistan." Forest Policy and Economics 104: 56–64.</ref>
The Kalash (Kalasha: {{Lang|kls|کالؕاشؕا}}, romanised: {{Lang|kls-latn|Kaḷaṣa}}, Devanagari: {{Lang|kls|कळष}}), or Kalasha, are an Indo-Aryan<ref nameWest-2010-b>{{cite book |lastWest |firstBarbara A. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpCiNqFj3MQsC&pgPA357 |titleEncyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date19 May 2010 |publisherInfobase Publishing |isbn9781438119137 |page357 |languageen}}</ref> indigenous people residing in the Chitral District of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
They are considered unique among the people of Pakistan.<ref name"www2.unitar.org">{{cite web |titleThe Kalash – Protection and Conservation of an Endangered Minority in the Hindukush Mountain Belt of Chitral, Northern Pakistan |urlhttp://www2.unitar.org/hiroshima/programmes/whs07/materials/Country%20Presentations/Pakistan.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070707041729/http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima/programmes/whs07/materials/Country%20Presentations/Pakistan.pdf|archive-date7 July 2007}}</ref><ref name"The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm">{{Cite web |titleRichard Strand's Nuristân Site: The Kalasha of Kalashüm |urlhttp://www.nuristan.info/Nuristani/Kalasha/kalasha.html |access-date31 December 2022 |websitewww.nuristan.info}}</ref><ref>Augusto S. Cacopardo. [https://books.google.com/books?idDVgrDwAAQBAJ&pgPT28 Pagan Christmas: Winter Feasts of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush]. p.28.</ref> They are also considered to be Pakistan's smallest ethnoreligious group,<ref name"The Express Tribune">{{cite news |urlhttp://tribune.com.pk/story/988585/earthquake-was-allahs-wrath-for-kalash-communitys-immoral-ways/ |title'Earthquake was Allah's wrath for Kalash community's immoral ways' |workThe Express Tribune |date10 November 2015 |access-date11 November 2015}}</ref> and traditionally practice what authors characterise as a form of animism.<ref name"atalayar.com">{{Cite web |titleThe Kalash: Pakistan's last animist tribe |urlhttps://atalayar.com/en/content/kalash-pakistans-last-animist-tribe |access-date31 December 2022 |websiteAtalayar |date29 March 2021 |languageen}}</ref><ref nameSearle-2013>{{cite book |authorSearle, Mike |titleColliding Continents: A geological exploration of the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Tibet|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-BLJuEo8lT0C|date28 March 2013|publisherOUP Oxford|isbn978-0-19-165249-3}}</ref><ref nameCamerapix-1998>{{cite book |authorCamerapix |titleSpectrum Guide to Pakistan |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZlwOAQAAMAAJ |year1998 |publisherInterlink Books |isbn978-1-56656-240-9}}</ref>{{efn|Nowhere is this more evident than among the pagan Kalash, a non-Islamic community living in the isolated valleys of Chitral whose faith is founded on animism.<ref nameCamerapix-1998/>}}<ref nameSheehan-1993>{{cite book |authorSheehan, Sean |dateOctober 1993 |titlePakistan |publisherMarshall Cavendish |isbn978-1-85435-583-6 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/pakistan00shee_0 |url-accessregistration}}</ref>{{efn|The Kalash people are small in number, hardly exceeding 3,000, but ... as well as having their own language and costume, they practice animism (the worship of spirits in nature)&nbsp;...<ref nameSheehan-1993/>}} During the mid-20th century an attempt was made to force a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan to convert to Islam, but the people fought the conversion and, once official pressure was removed, the vast majority resumed the practice of their own religion.<ref name"The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm" /> Nevertheless, some Kalasha have since converted to Islam, despite being shunned afterward by their community for having done so.<ref>{{cite web|date1 March 2021|titleTribe of Kalash: The Last Kafir|urlhttp://www.ghrd.org/2021/03/01/tribe-of-kalash-the-last-kafir/|access-date11 April 2021|websiteGlobal Human Rights Defence|languageen-US|archive-date22 April 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210422022929/https://www.ghrd.org/2021/03/01/tribe-of-kalash-the-last-kafir/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The term is used to refer to many distinct people including the Väi, the Čima-nišei, the Vântä, plus the Ashkun- and Tregami-speakers.<ref name"The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm"/> The Kalash are considered to be an indigenous people of Asia, with their ancestors migrating to Chitral Valley from another location possibly further south,<ref name"www2.unitar.org"/><ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcd0rAAAAMAAJ&qkalash+tsiyam|titleFolk: dansk etnografisk tidsskrift|last1Nicolaisen|first1Johannes|last2Yde|first2Jens|date1963|publisherDansk etnografisk forening.|languageen}}</ref> which the Kalash call "Tsiyam" in their folk songs and epics.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-dXlAAAAMAAJ&qkalash+tsiyam|titleEast and West|date1992|publisherIstituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|languageen}}</ref>
They claim to descend from the armies of Alexander who were left behind from his armed campaign, though no evidence exists for him to have passed the area.<ref>{{Cite web |lastShah |firstDanial |date29 September 2012 |titleIn the land of infidels |urlhttps://www.dawn.com/2012/09/29/in-the-land-of-infidels/ |access-date16 March 2023 |websiteDAWN.COM |languageen}}</ref><ref name"Strand-nuristan-kalaṣa">{{cite web |authorStrand, R. |author-linkRichard |titleThe kalaṣa of kalaṣüm Strand |websitenuristan.info |urlhttp://www.nuristan.info/Nuristani/Kalasha/kalasha.html}}</ref>
The neighbouring Nuristani people of the adjacent Nuristan (historically known as Kafiristan) province of Afghanistan once had the same culture and practised a faith very similar to that of the Kalash, differing in a few minor particulars.<ref name"saxena">{{cite book|lastSaxena|firstAnju|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvTgv1ZYGZdoC&qkalash+nuristani+religion&pgPA72|titleHimalayan Languages: Past and Present|publisherWalter de Gruyter|languageen|page72|isbn9783110898873|date12 May 2011}}</ref><ref name"folklore">{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idienxrTPHzzwC&qkalash+nuristani+religion&pgPA318|titleSouth Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|publisherTaylor & Francis|languageen|page318|isbn9780415939195|year2003}}</ref>
The first historically recorded Islamic invasions of their lands were by the Ghaznavids in the 11th century<ref name"Caocopardo">[https://books.google.com/books?idDVgrDwAAQBAJ&pgPT29 Pagan Christmas: Winter Feasts of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush], By Augusto S. Cacopardo</ref> while they themselves are first attested in 1339 during Timur's invasions.<ref name"Ludwig">{{cite book |editor-linkLudwig W. Adamec |editorAdamec, L.W. |year1985 |titleHistorical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan |volume6 |publisherAkademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt Graz |page349 |quoteHe identifies them more particularly with the Gandhari, that is to say, the former inhabitants of what is now known as the Mohmand country.}}</ref> Nuristan had been forcibly converted to Islam in 1895–96, although some evidence has shown the people continued to practice their customs.<ref name"Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia |lastKlimberg |firstMax |encyclopedia Encyclopædia Iranica|titleNURISTAN |url http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nuristan|editionOnline|date1 October 2004 |publisherColumbia University|location United States}}</ref> The Kalash of Chitral have maintained their own separate cultural traditions.<ref name"Newby, Eric 2008">Newby, Eric. A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush. 2008. {{ISBN|1741795281}}</ref> Korea {{expand section|dateJuly 2021}}
Muism, the native Korean belief, has many animist aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last1Lee|first1Peter H.|titleSources of Korean tradition|last2De Bary|first2Wm. Theodore|date1996|publisherColumbia University Press|isbn0-231-10566-5|locationNew York|oclc34553561}}</ref> The various deities, called kwisin, are capable of interacting with humans and causing problems if they are not honoured appropriately. priestess in the Philippines making an offering to an apdel, a guardian anito spirit of her village that reside in the water-worn stones known as pinaing<ref name"cole">{{cite journal |first1Fay-Cooper |last1Cole |first2Albert |last2Gale |year1922 |titleThe Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe |journalField Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series |volume14 |issue2 |pages235&ndash;493 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole}}</ref>|upright1.2]] Philippines indigenous religions In the indigenous Philippine folk religions, pre-colonial religions of Philippines and Philippine mythology, animism is part of their core beliefs as demonstrated by the belief in Anito, Diwata and Bathala as well as their conservation and veneration of sacred Indigenous Philippine shrines, forests, mountains and sacred grounds.<ref>{{Cite book |lastScott |firstWilliam Henry |titleBarangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society |date1994 |publisherAteneo de Manila University Press |isbn978-971-550-135-4 |locationQuezon City, Manila, Philippines}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |lastCrawfurd |firstJohn |titleHistory of the Indian Archipelago. 2 |date2013 |access-date2025-03-21 |seriesCambridge library collection. Perspectives from the Royal Asiatic Society |editionReprint |placeCambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-1-108-05615-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastZialcita |firstFernando N. |date2020 |titleGilda Cordero-Fernando: 1932–2020 |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1353/phs.2020.0040 |journalPhilippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints |volume68 |issue3-4 |pages541–547 |doi10.1353/phs.2020.0040 |issn=2244-1638}}</ref>
Anito (lit. '[ancestor] spirit') refers to the various indigenous shamanistic folk religions of the Philippines, led by female or feminized male shamans known as babaylan. It includes belief in a spirit world existing alongside and interacting with the material world, as well as the belief that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to natural phenomena.<ref name"Scott1994">{{cite book |authorScott, William Henry |author-linkWilliam Henry Scott (historian) |year1994 |titleBarangay: Sixteenth century Philippine culture and society |urlhttps://archive.org/details/BarangaySixteenthCenturyPhilippineCultureAndSociety |publisherAteneo de Manila University Press |placeQuezon City |isbn978-9715501354}}</ref><ref name"SoulBook1991">{{cite book |last1Demetrio |first1Francisco R. |last2Cordero-Fernando |first2Gilda |author2-linkGilda Cordero-Fernando |first3Roberto B. |last3Nakpil-Zialcita |first4Fernando |last4Feleo |year1991 |titleThe Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine pagan religion |publisherGCF Books |placeQuezon City |asinB007FR4S8G}}</ref>
In indigenous Filipino belief, the Bathala is the omnipotent deity which was derived from Sanskrit word for the Hindu supreme deity bhattara,<ref>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 16, 123, 494–495, 550–552</ref><ref>Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. {{ISBN|971-550-135-4}}. p. 234.</ref> as one of the ten avatars of the Hindu god Vishnu.<ref>de los Reyes y Florentino, Isabelo (2014). History of Ilocos, Volume 1. University of the Philippines Press, 2014. {{ISBN|9715427294}}, 9789715427296. p. 83.</ref><ref>John Crawfurd (2013). History of the Indian Archipelago: Containing an Account of the Manners, Art, Languages, Religions, Institutions, and Commerce of Its Inhabitants. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–220. {{ISBN|978-1-108-05615-1}}.</ref> The omnipotent Bathala also presides over the spirits of ancestors called Anito.<ref name"Marsden, William 1784">Marsden, William (1784). The History of Sumatra: Containing an Account of the Government, Laws, Customs and Manners of the Native Inhabitants. Good Press, 2019.</ref><ref name"Marsden, William 1784 Page 255">Marsden, William (1784). The History of Sumatra: Containing an Account of the Government, Laws, Customs and Manners of the Native Inhabitants, with a Description of the Natural Productions, and a Relation of the Ancient Political State of that Island. p. 255.</ref><ref>Silliman, Robert Benton (1964). Religious Beliefs and Life at the Beginning of the Spanish Regime in the Philippines: Readings. College of Theology, Silliman University, 1964. p. 46</ref><ref>Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander. The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Volume 40 (of 55): 1690–1691. Chapter XV, p. 106.</ref> Anitos serve as intermediaries between mortals and the divine, such as Agni (Hindu) who holds the access to divine realms; for this reason they are invoked first and are the first to receive offerings, regardless of the deity the worshipper wants to pray to.<ref>Talbott, Rick F. (2005). Sacred Sacrifice: Ritual Paradigms in Vedic Religion and Early Christianity. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2005. {{ISBN|1597523402|9781597523400}}. p. 82</ref><ref>Pomey, François & Tooke, Andrew (1793). The Pantheon: Representing the Fabulous Histories of the Heathen Gods, and the Most Illustrious Heroes of Antiquity, in a Short, Plain, and Familiar Method, by Way of Dialogue, for the Use of Schools. Silvester Doig, 1793. p. 151</ref>
In ancient Philippine animism, Diwata or Diwatas in plural is a broad, gender-neutral term for supernatural beings, including gods, goddesses, fairies, nature spirits, and celestial entities. Rooted in Hindu-Buddhist influences, the word originally meant "celestial being" or "descent" in Sanskrit word devata (deity).<ref>{{Cite book |lastDaniélou |firstAlain |titleThe myths and gods of India: the classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen series |date1991 |publisherInner Traditions International ; Distributed to the book trade in the U.S. by American International Distribution Corp |isbn978-0-89281-354-4 |locationRochester, Vt. : [s.l.]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastScott |firstWilliam Henry |titleBarangay: sixteenth century Philippine culture and society |date2004 |publisherAteneo de Manila Univ. Pr |isbn978-971-550-135-4 |edition5. pr |locationManila}}</ref>In modern Filipino culture, Diwata is often interpreted and linked to fairies, muses, nymphs, or even dryads.<ref>{{Cite book |lastAndrews |firstRoy Chapman |urlhttps://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.147302 |title[Mammal field catalog] |date1916 |publisher[s.n.]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |titleThe Peshat is One, Because the Truth is One: |date2019-01-23 |workThe Dual Truth, Volumes I &amp; II |pages132–148 |urlhttps://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1zjgb1f.10 |access-date2025-03-21 |publisherAcademic Studies Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastOwen |firstNorman G. |dateFebruary 1998 |titleHistorical Dictionary of the Philippines. By Artemio R. Guillermo and May Kyi Win . Lanham, Md.: The Scarecrow Press, 1997. xi, 363 pp. $62.00. |urlhttps://doi.org/10.2307/2659094 |journalThe Journal of Asian Studies |volume57 |issue1 |pages273–275 |doi10.2307/2659094 |issn0021-9118}}</ref> Abrahamic religions
Animism also has influences in Abrahamic religions.
The Old Testament and the Wisdom literature preach the omnipresence of God (Jeremiah 23:24; Proverbs 15:3; 1 Kings 8:27), and God is bodily present in the incarnation of his Son, Jesus Christ. (Gospel of John 1:14, Colossians 2:9).<ref>{{Cite book|lastWallace |firstMark I. |chapterChristian Animism, Green Spirit Theology, and the Global Crisis today |titleInterdisciplinary and Religio-Cultural Discourses on a Spirit-Filled World |year2013 |pages197–211 |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |doi10.1057/9781137268990_15 |isbn9781137268990 }}</ref> Animism is not peripheral to Christian identity but is its nurturing home ground, its axis mundi. In addition to the conceptual work the term animism performs, it provides insight into the relational character and common personhood of material existence.<ref name":2" />
The Christian spiritual mapping movement is based upon a similar worldview to that of animism. It involves researching and mapping the spiritual and social history of an area in order to determine the demon (territorial spirit) controlling an area and preventing evangelism, so that the demon can be defeated through spiritual warfare prayer and rituals. Both posit that an invisible spirit world is active and that it can be interacted with or controlled, with the Christian belief that such power to control the spirit world comes from God rather than being inherent to objects or places. "The animist believes that rituals and objects contain spiritual power, whereas a Christian believes that rituals and objects may convey power. Animists seek to manipulate power, whereas Christians seek to submit to God and to learn to work with his power."<ref>{{Cite thesis |lastHolvast |firstRené |titleSpiritual Mapping: The Turbulent Career of a Contested American Missionary Paradigm, 1989–2005 |date2008 |degreePhD |access-dateSeptember 15, 2024 |publisherUtrecht University |isbn978-90-393-4829-1 |urlhttps://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/29340/holvast.pdf |pages24–25}}</ref>
With rising awareness of ecological preservation, recently theologians like Mark I. Wallace argue for animistic Christianity with a biocentric approach that understands God being present in all earthly objects, such as animals, trees, and rocks.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-10-15 |titleTheologian Mark Wallace Explores Christian Animism in Recent Book |urlhttps://www.swarthmore.edu/news-events/theologian-mark-wallace-explores-christian-animism-recent-book |access-date2020-12-08 |websitewww.swarthmore.edu |languageen}}</ref>
Pre-Islamic Arab religion
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}
Pre-Islamic Arab religion can refer to the traditional polytheistic, animist, and in some rare cases, shamanistic, religions of the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula. The belief in jinn, invisible entities akin to spirits in the Western sense dominant in the Arab religious systems, hardly fit the description of Animism in a strict sense. The jinn are considered to be analogous to the human soul by living lives like that of humans, but they are not exactly like human souls neither are they spirits of the dead.<ref name"MagicAndDivination-2021">Magic and Divination in Early Islam. (2021). Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.</ref>{{rp|p49}} It is unclear if belief in jinn derived from nomadic or sedentary populations.<ref name"MagicAndDivination-2021"/>{{rp|p51}}
New religious movements
Some modern pagan groups, including Eco-pagans, describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings and spirits with whom humans share the world and cosmos.<ref>Pizza, Murphy, and James R. Lewis. 2008. Handbook of Contemporary Paganism. pp.&nbsp;408–09.</ref>
The New Age movement commonly demonstrates animistic traits in asserting the existence of nature spirits.<ref>Hanegraaff, Wouter J. 1998. New Age Religion and Western Culture. p. 199.</ref>
Shamanism
{{Main|Shamanism}}
A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20200311005110/https://www.lexico.com/definition/shaman Shaman]." Lexico. Oxford University Press and Dictionary.com. Retrieved 25 July 2020.</ref>
According to Mircea Eliade, shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name"Eli72">{{cite book|author-linkMircea Eliade |lastEliadem |firstMircea |date1972 |titleShamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy |seriesBollingen Series LXXVI. |publisherPrinceton University Press |pages=3–7}}</ref>
Abram, however, articulates a less supernatural and much more ecological understanding of the shaman's role than that propounded by Eliade. Drawing upon his own field research in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Americas, Abram suggests that in animistic cultures, the shaman functions primarily as an intermediary between the human community and the more-than-human community of active agencies—the local animals, plants, and landforms (mountains, rivers, forests, winds, and weather patterns, all of which are felt to have their own specific sentience). Hence, the shaman's ability to heal individual instances of disease (or imbalance) within the human community is a byproduct of their more continual practice of balancing the reciprocity between the human community and the wider collective of animate beings in which that community is embedded.{{sfn|Abram|1996|pp[https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0/page/3 3–29]}} Animist life Non-human animals Animism entails the belief that all living things have a soul, and thus, a central concern of animist thought surrounds how animals can be eaten, or otherwise used for humans' subsistence needs.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p99}} The actions of non-human animals are viewed as "intentional, planned and purposive",{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p101}} and they are understood to be persons, as they are both alive, and communicate with others.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p100}}
In animist worldviews, non-human animals are understood to participate in kinship systems and ceremonies with humans, as well as having their own kinship systems and ceremonies.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p102}} Graham Harvey cited an example of an animist understanding of animal behavior that occurred at a powwow held by the Conne River Mi'kmaq in 1996; an eagle flew over the proceedings, circling over the central drum group. The assembled participants called out {{Lang|mic|kitpu}} ('eagle'), conveying welcome to the bird and expressing pleasure at its beauty, and they later articulated the view that the eagle's actions reflected its approval of the event, and the Mi'kmaq's return to traditional spiritual practices.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp102–103}}
In animism, rituals are performed to maintain relationships between humans and spirits. Indigenous peoples often perform these rituals to appease the spirits and request their assistance during activities such as hunting and healing. In the Arctic region, certain rituals are common before the hunt as a means to show respect for the spirits of animals.<ref>{{Cite web |lastKoto |firstKoray |date2023-04-05 |titleAnimism in Anthropological and Psychological Contexts |urlhttps://ulukayin.org/animism-in-anthropological-and-psychological-contexts/ |access-date2023-04-08 |websiteULUKAYIN English |languageen-US}}</ref>
Flora
Some animists also view plant and fungi life as persons and interact with them accordingly.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p104}} The most common encounter between humans and these plant and fungi persons is with the former's collection of the latter for food, and for animists, this interaction typically has to be carried out respectfully.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p106}} Harvey cited the example of Māori communities in New Zealand, who often offer karakia invocations to sweet potatoes as they dig up the latter. While doing so, there is an awareness of a kinship relationship between the Māori and the sweet potatoes, with both understood as having arrived in Aotearoa together in the same canoes.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=106}}
In other instances, animists believe that interaction with plant and fungi persons can result in the communication of things unknown or even otherwise unknowable.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p104}} Among some modern Pagans, for instance, relationships are cultivated with specific trees, who are understood to bestow knowledge or physical gifts, such as flowers, sap, or wood that can be used as firewood or to fashion into a wand; in return, these Pagans give offerings to the tree itself, which can come in the form of libations of mead or ale, a drop of blood from a finger, or a strand of wool.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp104–105}}
The elements
Various animistic cultures also comprehend stones as persons.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp106–107}} Discussing ethnographic work conducted among the Ojibwe, Harvey noted that their society generally conceived of stones as being inanimate, but with two notable exceptions: the stones of the Bell Rocks and those stones which are situated beneath trees struck by lightning, which were understood to have become Thunderers themselves.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p107}} The Ojibwe conceived of weather as being capable of having personhood, with storms being conceived of as persons known as 'Thunderers' whose sounds conveyed communications and who engaged in seasonal conflict over the lakes and forests, throwing lightning at lake monsters.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p107}} Wind, similarly, can be conceived as a person in animistic thought.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp108–109}}
The importance of place is also a recurring element of animism, with some places being understood to be persons in their own right.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p109}} Spirits Animism can also entail relationships being established with non-corporeal spirit entities.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p122}}
Other usage
Science
In the early 20th century, William McDougall defended a form of animism in his book Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism (1911).
Physicist Nick Herbert has argued for "quantum animism" in which the mind permeates the world at every level:
{{blockquote|The quantum consciousness assumption, which amounts to a kind of "quantum animism" likewise asserts that consciousness is an integral part of the physical world, not an emergent property of special biological or computational systems. Since everything in the world is on some level a quantum system, this assumption requires that everything be conscious on that level. If the world is truly quantum animated, then there is an immense amount of invisible inner experience going on all around us that is presently inaccessible to humans, because our own inner lives are imprisoned inside a small quantum system, isolated deep in the meat of an animal brain.<ref>{{cite web|firstNick |lastHerbert |author-linkNick Herbert (physicist) |titleHolistic Physics – or – An Introduction to Quantum Tantra |date2002 |access-date2014-05-01 |urlhttp://www.southerncrossreview.org/16/herbert.essay.htm |publishersoutherncrossreview.org}}</ref>}}
Werner Krieglstein wrote regarding his quantum Animism:
{{blockquote|Herbert's quantum Animism differs from traditional Animism in that it avoids assuming a dualistic model of mind and matter. Traditional dualism assumes that some kind of spirit inhabits a body and makes it move, a ghost in the machine. Herbert's quantum Animism presents the idea that every natural system has an inner life, a conscious center, from which it directs and observes its action.<ref>Werner J. Krieglstein Compassion: A New Philosophy of the Other 2002, p. 118</ref>}}
In Error and Loss: A Licence to Enchantment,{{sfn|Curtis|2018}} Ashley Curtis (2018) has argued that the Cartesian idea of an experiencing subject facing off with an inert physical world is incoherent at its very foundation and that this incoherence is consistent with rather than belied by Darwinism. Human reason (and its rigorous extension in the natural sciences) fits an evolutionary niche just as echolocation does for bats and infrared vision does for pit vipers, and is epistemologically on a par with, rather than superior to, such capabilities. The meaning or aliveness of the "objects" we encounter, rocks, trees, rivers, and other animals, thus depends for its validity not on a detached cognitive judgment, but purely on the quality of our experience. The animist experience, or the wolf's or raven's experience, thus become licensed as equally valid worldviews to the modern western scientific one; they are indeed more valid, since they are not plagued with the incoherence that inevitably arises when "objective existence" is separated from "subjective experience."
Socio-political impact
Harvey opined that animism's views on personhood represented a radical challenge to the dominant perspectives of modernity, because it accords "intelligence, rationality, consciousness, volition, agency, intentionality, language, and desire" to non-humans.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxviii}} Similarly, it challenges the view of human uniqueness that is prevalent in both Abrahamic religions and Western rationalism.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pxix}}
Art and literature
Animist beliefs can also be expressed through artwork.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p50}} For instance, among the Māori communities of New Zealand, there is an acknowledgement that creating art through carving wood or stone entails violence against the wood or stone person and that the persons who are damaged therefore have to be placated and respected during the process; any excess or waste from the creation of the artwork is returned to the land, while the artwork itself is treated with particular respect.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p55}} Harvey, therefore, argued that the creation of art among the Māori was not about creating an inanimate object for display, but rather a transformation of different persons within a relationship.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=64}}
Harvey expressed the view that animist worldviews were present in various works of literature, citing such examples as the writings of Alan Garner, Leslie Silko, Barbara Kingsolver, Alice Walker, Daniel Quinn, Linda Hogan, David Abram, Patricia Grace, Chinua Achebe, Ursula Le Guin, Louise Erdrich, and Marge Piercy.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xxiii}}
Animist worldviews have also been identified in the animated films of Hayao Miyazaki.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/spirits-gods-and-pastel-paints-the-weird-world-of-master-animator-hayao-miyazaki-1880974.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/spirits-gods-and-pastel-paints-the-weird-world-of-master-animator-hayao-miyazaki-1880974.html |archive-date7 May 2022 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |titleSpirits, gods and pastel paints: The weird world of master animator Hayao Miyazaki |firstRobert |lastEpstein |date31 January 2010 |newspaperThe Independent |access-date1 June 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://kyotojournal.org/the-journal/culture-arts/musings-on-miyazaki-early-and-late-2/ |titleMusings on Miyazaki |firstDavid A. |lastRoss |date19 April 2011 |publisherKyoto Journal |access-date1 June 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170609083409/http://www.kyotojournal.org/the-journal/culture-arts/musings-on-miyazaki-early-and-late-2/ |archive-date9 June 2017 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastOgihara-Schuck |firstEriko |date16 October 2014 |titleMiyazaki's Animism Abroad: The Reception of Japanese Religious Themes by American and German Audiences |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0786472628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v52raDbtNpa4 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151009134931/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v52raDbtNpa4&glUS&hlen |archive-date2015-10-09 |titleHayao Miyazaki - The Essence of Humanity |firstLewis |lastBond |publisherChannel Criswell |websiteYouTube.com |date6 October 2015 |access-date1 June 2018}}</ref> See also {{col div|colwidth30em}}
* Anecdotal cognitivism
* Animatism
* Anima mundi
*Dayawism
* Ecotheology
* Hylozoism
* Mana
* Mauri (life force)
* Kaitiaki
* Panpsychism
* Religion and environmentalism
* Sacred trees
* Shamanism
* Wildlife totemization
{{colend}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{reflist|25em}}
Sources
* {{cite book |lastAbram |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Abram |titleThe Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World |urlhttps://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0 |url-accessregistration |locationNew York |publisherPantheon Books |year1996 |isbn978-0-679-43819-9}}
* {{cite book |lastAbram |firstDavid |year2010 |titleBecoming Animal: An Earthly Cosmology |placeNew York |publisherPantheon Books |isbn=978-0-375-42171-6}}
* {{cite journal |lastBird-David |firstNurit |title"Animism" Revisited: Personhood, Environment, and Relational Epistemology |journalCurrent Anthropology |volume41 |numberS1 |year1999 |pages67–91 |doi10.1086/200061 |doi-accessfree}}
* {{cite book |lastCurtis |firstAshley |titleError and Loss: A Licence to Enchantment |locationZürich |publisherKommode Verlag |year2018}}
* {{cite book |lastFernandez-Armesto |firstFelipe |titleIdeas that Changed the World |publisherDorling Kindersley |year=2003}}
* {{cite journal |lastGuthrie |firstStewart |titleOn Animism |journalCurrent Anthropology |volume41 |issue1 |year2000 |pages106–107 |jstor10.1086/300107 |doi10.1086/300107 |pmid10593728 |s2cid224796411}}
* {{cite book |lastHarvey |firstGraham |author-linkGraham Harvey (religious studies scholar) |titleAnimism: Respecting the Living World |year2005 |publisherHurst & Co |locationLondon |isbn978-0-231-13701-0}}
* {{cite book |lastInsoll |firstTimothy |titleArchaeology, Ritual, Religion |year2004 |publisherRoutledge |locationLondon |isbn=978-0-415-25312-3}}
* {{cite EB9 |lastLonie |firstAlexander Charles Oughter |wstitleAnimism |volume2 |ref{{harvid|EB|1878}} |pages55–57}}
* {{cite book |lastSegal |firstRobert |year2004 |titleMyth: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |lastWillerslev |firstRane |titleSoul Hunters: Hunting, animism, and personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs |urlhttps://archive.org/details/soulhuntershunti00will |url-accesslimited |year2007 |publisherUniversity of California Press |placeBerkeley |isbn9780520252172}} Further reading * {{cite book |lastAdler |firstMargot |author-linkMargot Adler |year2006 |orig-date1979 |titleDrawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers and Other Pagans in America |editionRevised |publisherPenguin Books |locationLondon |isbn978-0-14-303819-1 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/drawingdownmoonw00adle_2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |lastArmstrong |firstKaren |titleA History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam |publisherBallantine Books |year1994 |refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastDean |firstBartholomew |year2009 |titleUrarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia |locationGainesville |publisherUniversity Press of Florida |isbn978-0-8130-3378-5 |refnone}}
* {{cite book |chapterLamphun's Little-Known Animal Shrines (Animist traditions in Thailand) |last1Forbes |first1Andrew |last2 Henley |first2David |titleAncient Chiang Mai |volume1 |locationChiang Mai |publisherCognoscenti Books |year2012 |ref=none}}
* Hallowell, Alfred Irving. 1960. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view." In Culture in History, edited by S. Diamond. (New York: Columbia University Press).
** Reprint: 2002. Pp.&nbsp;17–49 in Readings in Indigenous Religions, edited by G. Harvey. London: Continuum.
* Ingold, Tim. 2006. "Rethinking the animate, re-animating thought." Ethnos 71(1):9–20.
* Käser, Lothar. 2004. Animismus. Eine Einführung in die begrifflichen Grundlagen des Welt- und Menschenbildes traditionaler (ethnischer) Gesellschaften für Entwicklungshelfer und kirchliche Mitarbeiter in Übersee. Bad Liebenzell: Liebenzeller Mission. {{ISBN|3-921113-61-X}}.
** mit dem verkürzten Untertitel Einführung in seine begrifflichen Grundlagen auch bei: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Okumene, Neuendettelsau 2004, {{ISBN|3-87214-609-2}}
* Quinn, Daniel. [1996] 1997. The Story of B: An Adventure of the Mind and Spirit. New York: Bantam Books, and the essay "Our Religions: Are They the Religions of Humanity Itself?", usually available at Ishmael.org
* Wundt, Wilhelm. 1906. Mythus und Religion, Teil II. Leipzig 1906 (Völkerpsychologie II)
External links
*{{wiktionary inline}}
*{{commonscat inline}}
{{Theism}}
{{witchcraft}}
{{Paganism}}
{{philosophy of religion}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Anthropology of religion
Category:Indigenous spirituality
Category:Metaphysical theories
Category:Panentheism
Category:Philosophy of religion
Category:Polytheism
Category:Schools of thought
Category:Transtheism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animism | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.701068 |
1425 | Antonio Vivaldi | {{short description|Italian Baroque composer and violinist (1678–1741)}}
{{redirect|Vivaldi|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Antonio Vivaldi
| image = Vivaldi.jpg
| caption Probable portrait of Vivaldi, {{circa|1723}}{{refn|According to {{harvnb|Talbot|2011|p148}}: "An anonymous portrait in oils in the Museo Internazionale e Biblioteca della Musica di Bologna is generally believed to be of Vivaldi and may be linked to the Morellon La Cave engraving, which appears to be a modified mirror reflection of it."|group=n}}
| birth_place = Venice
| birth_date {{birth date|1678|03|04|dfy}}
| death_date {{death date and age|1741|07|28|1678|03|04|dfy}}
| death_place = Vienna
| signature = Antonio Vivaldi signature.svg
| signature_size = 150
}}
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi{{refn|English: {{IPAc-en|UK|v|ɪ|ˈ|v|æ|l|d|i}} {{respell|viv|AL|dee}}, {{IPAc-en|US|v|ɪ|ˈ|v|ɑː|l|d|i|,_|-|ˈ|v|ɔː|l|-}} {{respell|viv|AHL|dee|,_|viv|AWL|dee}};<ref>
{{cite book|lastWells|firstJohn C.|year2008|titleLongman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition3rd|publisherLongman|isbn978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lastRoach|firstPeter|year2011|titleCambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|edition18th|placeCambridge|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-15253-2}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190516194131/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Vivaldi,_Antonio "Vivaldi, Antonio"] (US) and {{Cite dictionary |urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Vivaldi,+Antonio |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211105093719/https://www.lexico.com/definition/vivaldi,_antonio |url-statusdead |archive-date5 November 2021 |titleVivaldi, Antonio |dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary |publisherOxford University Press.}}</ref> {{IPA|it|anˈtɔːnjo ˈluːtʃo viˈvaldi|lang|it-Antonio Vivaldi.ogg|smallno}}; {{langx|vec|Antonio Łucio Vivaldi}} {{IPA|vec|aŋˈtɔnjo ˈɰutʃo viˈvaldi|}}.|groupn}} (4 March 1678&nbsp;– 28 July 1741) was an Ita<!--DO NOT CHANGE, THIS IS WHAT RELIABLE SOURCES CALL HIM. IT DOESN'T MATTER IF "ITALY WASN'T A STATE"-->lian composer, virtuoso violinist, impresario of Baroque music and Roman Catholic priest.{{sfn|Talbot|Porter|Knapp|2022|loc=§ "Introduction"}} Regarded as one of the greatest Baroque composers, Vivaldi's influence during his lifetime was widespread across Europe, giving origin to many imitators and admirers. He pioneered many developments in orchestration, violin technique and programmatic music.{{sfn|Talbot|Lockey|2020}} He consolidated the emerging concerto form, especially the solo concerto, into a widely accepted and followed idiom.
Vivaldi composed many instrumental concertos, for the violin and a variety of other musical instruments, as well as sacred choral works and more than fifty operas. His best-known work is a series of violin concertos known as The Four Seasons. Many of his compositions were written for the all-female music ensemble of the {{lang|it|Ospedale della Pietà}}, a home for abandoned children. Vivaldi began studying for the Catholic priesthood at the age of 15 and was ordained at 25, but was given dispensation to no longer say public Masses due to a health problem.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://aleteia.org/2018/11/09/the-italian-composer-vivaldi-was-also-a-catholic-priest/ | titleThe Italian composer Vivaldi was also a Catholic priest | date=9 November 2018 }}</ref> Vivaldi also had some success with expensive stagings of his operas in Venice, Mantua and Vienna. After meeting the Emperor Charles VI, Vivaldi moved to Vienna, hoping for royal support. However, the Emperor died soon after Vivaldi's arrival, and Vivaldi himself died in poverty less than a year later.
After almost two centuries of decline, Vivaldi's musical reputation underwent a revival in the early 20th century, with much scholarly research devoted to his work. Many of Vivaldi's compositions, once thought lost, have been rediscovered – some as recently as 2015.<ref>[https://scaramucciaensemble.com/en/new-discoveries-of-vivaldi/ New Discoveries of Vivaldi]. Scaramuccia Ensemble. Retrieved 27 October 2023.</ref> His music remains widely popular in the present day and is regularly played all over the world.
Early life
Birth and background
, Sestiere di Castello, Venice]]
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on 4 March 1678 in Venice, then the capital of the Republic of Venice.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p207}} He was son of Giovanni Battista Vivaldi and Camilla Calicchio, as recorded in the register of San Giovanni in Bragora.{{sfn|Landon|1996|p15}}
He was baptized immediately after his birth at his home by the midwife, the reason for which has led to speculation. It was most likely done due to his poor health. There is a false rumor that an earthquake struck the city that day.{{Sfn|Kolneder|1982|p46}} This rumor may have originated from an earthquake that struck Venice on 17 April 1688.{{sfn|White|2013|p11}} The baptismal ceremonies which had been omitted were supplied two months later.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p=39}}
Vivaldi had five known siblings: Bonaventura Tomaso, Margarita Gabriela, Cecilia Maria, Francesco Gaetano, and Zanetta Anna.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p37}} Vivaldi's health was problematic. One of his symptoms, {{lang|it|strettezza di petto}} ("tightness of the chest"), has been interpreted as a form of asthma.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p39}} This did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, composing, or taking part in musical activities,{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p39}} although it prevented him from playing wind instruments.YouthHis father, Giovanni Battista, was a barber before becoming a professional violinist and was one of the founders of the {{lang|it|Sovvegno dei musicisti di Santa Cecilia}}, an association of musicians.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p36}} He taught Antonio to play the violin and then toured Venice, playing the violin with his young son. Antonio was probably taught at an early age, judging by the extensive musical knowledge he had acquired by the age of 24, when he started working at the {{lang|it|Ospedale della Pietà}}.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p=41}}
The president of the {{lang|it|sovvegno}} was Giovanni Legrenzi, an early Baroque composer and the {{lang|it|maestro di cappella}} at St Mark's Basilica. It is possible that Legrenzi gave the young Antonio his first lessons in composition. Vivaldi's father may have been a composer himself: in 1689, an opera titled {{lang|it|La Fedeltà sfortunata}} was composed by a Giovanni Battista Rossi—the name under which Vivaldi's father had joined the Sovvegno di Santa Cecilia.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p=40}}In 1691, at the age of thirteen, Vivaldi wrote an early liturgical work – {{lang|it|Laetatus sum}} (RV Anh 31).
In 1693, at the age of fifteen, he began studying to become a priest.{{sfn|Landon|1996|p16}} He was ordained in 1703, aged 25, and was soon nicknamed {{lang|it|il Prete Rosso}}, "The Red Priest";{{sfn|Pincherle|1957|p16}} {{lang|it|Rosso}} is Italian for "red" and would have referred to the color of his hair, a family trait.{{refn|In 1704, a year after his ordination, he was given a dispensation from celebrating Mass, most likely because of his ill health. Vivaldi said Mass as a priest only a few times, and appeared to have withdrawn from liturgical duties, though he remained a member of the priesthood. It is thought{{by whom|dateJune 2021}} that this is also due to his habit of composing while celebrating Mass. That he remained committed to his vocation is suggested by the entry in the Vienna death records for him that reads, "Antonio Vivaldi, Secular Priest".{{sfn|Heller|1997}}|groupn}}
Career
Ospedale della Pietà
Although Vivaldi is most famous as a composer, he was regarded as an exceptional technical violinist as well. The German architect Johann Friedrich Armand von Uffenbach referred to Vivaldi as "the famous composer and violinist" and noted in his diary that "Vivaldi played a solo accompaniment excellently, and at the conclusion he added a free fantasy [an improvised cadenza] which absolutely astounded me, for it is hardly possible that anyone has ever played, or ever will play, in such a fashion."{{sfn|Landon|1996|p=49}} <ref>Travelling in Italy, he noted in his diary, on the occasion of an opera performance in the Teatro Sant' Angelo in the spring of 1715:
...&nbsp;towards the end, Vivaldi played an accompagnement solo,&nbsp;... which quite shocked me,&nbsp;... because his fingers came only within a straw’s breadth of the bridge, so that there was no space for the bow, and this on all 4 strings with fugues and a velocity which is unbelievable, he astonished everyone with it – https://wiener-urtext.com/en/antonio-vivaldi.</ref> In September 1703, Vivaldi (24) became {{lang|it|maestro di violino}} (master of violin) at an orphanage called the Pio Ospedale della Pietà (Devout Hospital of Mercy) in Venice; although his talents as a violinist probably secured him the job, he soon became a successful teacher of music there.{{sfn|Talbot|Lockey|2020}}
Over the next thirty years he composed most of his major works while working at the Ospedale.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p51}} There were four similar institutions in Venice; their purpose was to give shelter and education to children who were abandoned or orphaned, or whose families could not support them. They were financed by funds provided by the Republic.{{sfn|Pincherle|1957|p18}} The boys learned a trade and had to leave when they reached the age of fifteen. The girls received a musical education, and the most talented among them stayed and became members of the Ospedale's renowned orchestra and choir.
Shortly after Vivaldi's appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad, too. Vivaldi wrote concertos, cantatas and sacred vocal music for them.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p77}} These sacred works, which number over 60, are varied: they included solo motets and large-scale choral works for soloists, double chorus, and orchestra.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p78}} In 1704, the position of teacher of ''viola all'inglese was added to his duties as violin instructor.{{sfn|Landon|1996|p26}} The position of maestro di coro'', which was at one time filled by Vivaldi, required a lot of time and work. He had to compose an oratorio or concerto for every feast and teach the orphans both music theory and how to play certain instruments.{{sfn|Pincherle|1957|p24}}
His relationship with the board of directors of the Ospedale was often strained. The board had to vote every year on whether to keep a teacher. The vote on Vivaldi was seldom unanimous and went 7 to 6 against him in 1709.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p48}} In 1711, after a year as a freelance musician, he was recalled by the Ospedale with a unanimous vote; clearly during his year's absence the board had realized the importance of his role.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p48}} He became responsible for all of the musical activity of the institution{{sfn|Heller|1997|p54}} when he was promoted to ''maestro de' concerti (music director) in 1716{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p59}}<!-- Was he promoted in 1713 or 1716? Article apparently stated both --> and responsible for composing two new concertos every month.<ref>{{cite web |url https://sonatica.fm |title Famous Composers |last Hughes |first Gervase |date 1961 |access-date 1 July 2023 |quote "in 1716 maestro de’ concerti with the responsibility of composing two new concertos each month." |archive-url https://sonatica.fm/blog/item/17-famous-composers-antonio-vivaldi |archive-date = 1 July 2023}}</ref>
In 1705, the first collection (Connor Cassara) of his works was published by Giuseppe Sala.{{sfn|Pincherle|1957|p38}} His Opus 1 is a collection of 12 sonatas for two violins and basso continuo, in a conventional style.{{sfn|Landon|1996|p26}} In 1709, a second collection of 12 sonatas for violin and basso continuo appeared (Opus 2).{{sfn|Landon|1996|p31}} A real breakthrough as a composer came with his first collection of 12 concerti for one, two, and four violins with strings, L'estro armonico (Opus 3), which was published in Amsterdam in 1711 by Estienne Roger,{{sfn|Landon|1996|p42}} and dedicated to Grand Prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. The prince sponsored many musicians, including Alessandro Scarlatti and George Frideric Handel. He was a musician himself, and Vivaldi probably met him in Venice.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p54}} L'estro armonico was a resounding success all over Europe. It was followed in 1714 by La stravaganza'' (Opus 4), a collection of concerti for solo violin and strings,{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p58}} and dedicated to an old violin student of Vivaldi's, the Venetian noble Vettor Dolfin.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p=71}}
In February 1711, Vivaldi and his father traveled to Brescia, where his setting of the Stabat Mater (RV 621) was played as part of a religious festival. The work seems to have been written in haste: the string parts are simple, the music of the first three movements is repeated in the next three, and not all the text is set. Nevertheless, perhaps in part because of the forced essentiality of the music, the work is considered to be one of his early masterpieces.
Despite his frequent travels from 1718, the Ospedale paid him 2 sequins to write two concerti a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least five times when in Venice. The orphanage's records show that he was paid for 140 concerti between 1723 and 1733.
Opera impresario
In early 18th-century Venice, opera was the most popular musical entertainment. It proved most profitable for Vivaldi. There were several theaters competing for the public's attention. Vivaldi started his career as an opera composer as a sideline: his first opera, Ottone in villa (RV 729) was performed not in Venice, but at the Garzerie Theater in Vicenza in 1713.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p98}} The following year, Vivaldi became the impresario of the Teatro San Angelo in Venice, where his opera Orlando finto pazzo (RV 727) was performed. The work was not to the public's taste, and it closed after a couple of weeks, being replaced with a repeat of a different work already given the previous year.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p54}}
In 1715, he presented Nerone fatto Cesare (RV 724, now lost), with music by seven different composers, of which he was the leader. The opera contained eleven arias and was a success. In the late season, Vivaldi planned to put on an opera entirely of his own creation, Arsilda, regina di Ponto (RV 700), but the state censor blocked the performance. The main character, Arsilda, falls in love with another woman, Lisea, who is pretending to be a man.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p=54}} Vivaldi got the censor to accept the opera the following year, and it was a resounding success.
During this period, the Pietà commissioned several liturgical works. The most important were two oratorios. Moyses Deus Pharaonis, (RV 643) is now lost. The second, Juditha triumphans (RV 644), celebrates the victory of the Republic of Venice against the Turks and the recapture of the island of Corfu. Composed in 1716, it is one of his sacred masterpieces. All eleven singing parts were performed by girls of the orphanage, both the female and male roles. Many of the arias include parts for solo instruments—recorders, oboes, violas d'amore, and mandolins—that showcased the range of talents of the girls.{{sfn|Landon|1996|p=52}}
Also in 1716, Vivaldi wrote and produced two more operas, ''L'incoronazione di Dario (RV 719) and La costanza trionfante degli amori e degli odi (RV 706). The latter was so popular that it was performed two years later, re-edited and retitled Artabano re dei Parti (RV 701, now lost). It was also performed in Prague in 1732. In the years that followed, Vivaldi wrote several operas that were performed all over Italy.
His progressive operatic style caused him some trouble with more conservative musicians such as Benedetto Marcello, a magistrate and amateur musician who wrote a pamphlet denouncing Vivaldi and his operas. The pamphlet, Il teatro alla moda'', attacks the composer even though it does not mention him directly. The cover drawing shows a boat (the San Angelo), on the left end of which stands a little angel wearing a priest's hat and playing the violin. The Marcello family claimed ownership of the Teatro San Angelo, and a long legal battle had been fought with the management for its restitution, without success. The obscure text under the engraving mentions non-existent places and names: for example, ALDIVIVA is an anagram of "A. Vivaldi".
In a letter written by Vivaldi to his patron Marchese Bentivoglio in 1737, he makes reference to his "94 operas". Only about 50 operas by Vivaldi have been discovered, and no other documentation of the remaining operas exists. Although Vivaldi could have been exaggerating, it is plausible that, in his dual role of composer and impresario, he might have either written or been responsible for the production of as many as 94 operas—given that his career had by then spanned almost 25 years.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p97}} Although Vivaldi certainly composed many operas in his time, he never attained the prominence of other great composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti, Johann Adolph Hasse, Leonardo Leo, and Baldassare Galuppi, as evidenced by his inability to keep a production running for an extended period of time in any major opera house.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p114}}
Mantua and the Four Seasons
{{Further|The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)}}
In 1717 or 1718, Vivaldi was offered a prestigious new position as Maestro di Cappella of the court of Prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt, governor of Mantua, in the northwest of Italy{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p=64}} He moved there for three years and produced several operas, among them Tito Manlio (RV 738). In 1721, he was in Milan, where he presented the pastoral drama La Silvia (RV 734); nine arias from it survive. He visited Milan again the following year with the oratorio ''L'adorazione delli tre re magi al bambino Gesù'' (RV 645, now lost). In 1722 he moved to Rome, where he introduced his operas' new style. The new Pope Benedict XIII invited Vivaldi to play for him. In 1725, Vivaldi returned to Venice, where he produced four operas in the same year.
During this period, Vivaldi wrote the Four Seasons, four violin concertos that give musical expression to the seasons of the year. The composition is probably one of his most famous. Although three of the concerti are wholly original, the first, "Spring", borrows motifs from a Sinfonia in the first act of Vivaldi's contemporaneous opera Il Giustino. The inspiration for the concertos was probably the countryside around Mantua. They were a revolution in musical conception: in them, Vivaldi represented flowing streams, singing birds (of different species, each specifically characterized), barking dogs, buzzing mosquitoes, crying shepherds, storms, drunken dancers, silent nights, hunting parties from both the hunters' and the prey's point of view, frozen landscapes, ice-skating children, and warming winter fires. Each concerto is associated with a sonnet, possibly by Vivaldi, describing the scenes depicted in the music. They were published as the first four concertos in a collection of twelve, ''Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione, Opus 8, published in Amsterdam by Michel-Charles Le Cène in 1725.
During his time in Mantua, Vivaldi became acquainted with an aspiring young singer Anna Tessieri Girò, who would become his student, protégée, and favorite prima donna''.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p66}} Anna, along with her older half-sister Paolina, moved in with Vivaldi and regularly accompanied him on his many travels. There was speculation as to the nature of Vivaldi's and Girò's relationship, but no evidence exists to indicate anything beyond friendship and professional collaboration. Vivaldi, in fact, adamantly denied any romantic relationship with Girò in a letter to his patron Bentivoglio, dated 16 November 1737.{{sfn|Talbot|1978|p67}}
Late period
Vivaldi collaborated with choreographer Giovanni Gallo on several of his later operas stage in Venice with Gallo choreographing the ballets found within those works.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |authorIrene Alm|date2002|entryGallo [Galli, Galletto], Giovanni |encyclopediaGrove Music Online|publisherOxford University Press |doi10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O006334}}</ref> At the height of his career, he received commissions from European nobility and royalty, some of which were:
* The serenata (cantata) Gloria e Imeneo (RV 687), which was commissioned in 1725 by the French ambassador to Venice in celebration of the marriage of Louis XV, when Vivaldi was 48 years old.
* The serenata, La Sena festeggiante (RV 694), written in 1726 and also premiered at the French embassy, to celebrate the birth of the French royal princesses, Henriette and Louise Élisabeth.
* Vivaldi's Opus 9, La cetra, which was dedicated to Emperor Charles VI. In 1728, Vivaldi met the emperor while the emperor was visiting Trieste to oversee the construction of a new port. Charles VI admired the music of the Red Priest so much that he is said to have spoken more with the composer during their one meeting than he spoke to his ministers in more than two years. He gave Vivaldi the title of knight, a gold medal and an invitation to Vienna. Vivaldi gave Charles a manuscript copy of La cetra, a set of concerti almost completely different from the set of the same title published as Opus 9. The printing was probably delayed, forcing Vivaldi to gather an improvised collection for the emperor.
* His opera Farnace (RV 711) was presented in 1730;{{refn|Vivaldi's connections with musical life in Prague and his association with Antonio Denzio, the impresario of the Sporck theater in Prague are detailed in Daniel E. Freeman, The Opera Theater of Count Franz Anton von Sporck in Prague (Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon Press, 1992).|groupn}} it garnered six revivals.{{sfn|Heller|1997|p114}} Some of his later operas were created in collaboration with two of Italy's major writers of the time. Accompanied by his father, Vivaldi traveled to Vienna and Prague in 1730.
* ''L'Olimpiade and Catone in Utica were written by Pietro Metastasio, the major representative of the Arcadian movement and court poet in Vienna. La Griselda'' was rewritten by the young Carlo Goldoni from an earlier libretto by Apostolo Zeno.
Like many composers of the time, Vivaldi faced financial difficulties in his later years. His compositions were no longer held in such high esteem as they had once been in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded. In response, Vivaldi chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance his migration to Vienna.{{sfn|Kolneder|1982|p179}} The reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that, after the success of his meeting with Emperor Charles VI, he wished to take up the position of a composer in the imperial court. On his way to Vienna, Vivaldi might have stopped in Graz to see Anna Girò.{{sfn|Kolneder|1982|p180}}
Death
by P. L. Ghezzi, Rome (1723){{refn|There are only three known surviving depictions of Vivaldi made in his lifetime: this caricature, a woodcut by la Cave, and an anonymous oil portrait of the composer and his violin. ''Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians{{Full citation needed|dateMarch 2019}}<!--There are five editions of Grove's Dictionary, as well as two editions of the subsequent New Grove Dictionary''. All seven articles on Vivaldi are signed. To which article does this claim refer?--> has disputed the authenticity of the last portrait.|groupn}}]]
-Bankverein]]
Vivaldi probably moved to Vienna to stage operas, especially as he took up residence near the Kärntnertortheater. Shortly after his arrival in Vienna, Charles VI died, which left the composer without any imperial patronage or a steady source of income. Soon afterwards, Vivaldi became impoverished{{refn|Landon supplies this assertion and furthermore quotes the report of Vivaldi's death which reached Venice in the Commemorali Gradenigo: "Abbe Lord Antonio Vivaldi, incomparable virtuoso of the violin, known as the Red Priest, much esteemed for his compositions and concertos, who earned more than 50,000 ducats in his life, but his disorderly prodigality caused him to die a pauper in Vienna."{{sfn|Landon|1996|p166}}|groupn}}{{sfn|Pincherle|1957|p53}} and, during the night of 27/28 July 1741, aged 63,{{refn|Talbot (p. 69) gives the 27th as the day of death. {{harvnb|Formichetti|2006|p194}} reports that he died during the night and his death was the first registered on the next day. {{harvnb|Heller|1997|p263}} states: "The composer's death is noted in the official coroner's report and in the burial account book of St. Stephen's Cathedral Parish as having occurred on 28 July 1741". But the so-called Totenbeschauprotokoll is not a reliable source, since the date can refer to when the entry was made, not to the actual time of death.|groupn}} he died of "internal infection", in a house owned by the widow of a Viennese saddlemaker.
On 28 July, Vivaldi's funeral took place at St. Stephen's Cathedral. Contrary to popular legend, the young Joseph Haydn who was in the cathedral choir at the time had nothing to do with his burial, since no music was performed on that occasion.<ref>{{cite web |lastLorenz |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Lorenz (musicologist) |date9 June 2014 |titleHaydn Singing at Vivaldi's Exequies: An Ineradicable Myth |websitemichaelorenz.blogspot.com |urlhttp://michaelorenz.blogspot.com/2014/06/haydn-singing-at-vivaldis-exequies.html }}</ref> The funeral was attended by six pall-bearers and six choir boys (Kuttenbuben), at a "mean" cost of 19 florins and 45 kreuzer. Only a Kleingeläut (small peal of bells), the lowest class, was provided, at a cost of 2 florins and 36 kreuzer.<ref>{{cite book |last1Kendall |first1Alan |titleVivaldi |date1979 |publisherPanther Books |locationLondon |isbn0586050655 |page=173}}</ref>
Vivaldi was buried in a simple grave in a burial ground that was owned by the public hospital fund – the Bürgerspital-Gottesacker cemetery, next to St Charles Church, a baroque church in an area that is now part of the site of the TU Wien university.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.konzert-wien.info/karlskirche-wien.html | titleDie Karlskirche Wien }}</ref> The cemetery existed until 1807. The house where he lived in Vienna has since been destroyed; the Hotel Sacher is built on part of the site. Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi "star" in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltplatz.
Only two, possibly three, original portraits of Vivaldi are known to survive: an engraving, an ink sketch and an oil painting. The engraving, which was the basis of several copies produced later by other artists, was made in 1725 by François Morellon de La Cave for the first edition of ''Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione'', and shows Vivaldi holding a sheet of music.{{sfn|Talbot|2011|pp147–148}} The ink sketch, a caricature, was done by Ghezzi in 1723 and shows Vivaldi's head and shoulders in profile. It exists in two versions: a first jotting kept at the Vatican Library, and a much lesser-known, slightly more detailed copy recently discovered in Moscow.{{sfn|Talbot|2011|p87}} The oil painting, which can be seen in the International Museum and Library of Music of Bologna, is by an anonymous artist and is thought to depict Vivaldi due to its strong resemblance to the La Cave engraving.{{sfn|Talbot|2011|p=148}}
During his lifetime, Vivaldi was popular in many countries throughout Europe, including France, but after his death his popularity dwindled. After the end of the Baroque period, Vivaldi's published concerti became relatively unknown, and were largely ignored. Even his most famous work, The Four Seasons, was unknown in its original edition during the Classical and Romantic periods. Vivaldi's work was rediscovered in the 20th century.
Works
{{further|List of compositions by Antonio Vivaldi|List of operas by Antonio Vivaldi}}
{{listen|imagenone|helpno|type=music
| filename = Vivaldi - Four Seasons 1 Spring mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.oga
| title = "La primavera" (Spring) – Movement 1: Allegro from the Four Seasons
| description = A 2000 live performance by Wichita State University Chamber Players.
}}
A composition by Vivaldi is identified by RV number, which refers to its place in the "Ryom-Verzeichnis" or "Répertoire des oeuvres d'Antonio Vivaldi", a catalog created in the 20th century by the musicologist Peter Ryom.
Le quattro stagioni (The Four Seasons) of 1723 is his most famous work. The first four of the 12 concertos, titled ''Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione ("The Contest between Harmony and Invention"), they depict moods and scenes from each of the four seasons. This work has been described as an outstanding example of pre-19th-century program music.<ref>Gerard Schwarz, Musically Speaking – The Great Works Collection: Vivaldi'' (CVP, Inc., 1995), 13.</ref> Vivaldi's other notable sets of 12 violin concertos include La stravaganza&nbsp;(The Eccentricity), ''L'estro armonico&nbsp;(The Harmonic Inspiration) and La cetra''&nbsp;(The Lyre).
Vivaldi wrote more than 500 concertos. About 350 of these are for solo instrument and strings, of which 230 are for violin; the others are for bassoon, cello, oboe, flute, viola d'amore, recorder, lute, or mandolin. About forty concertos are for two instruments and strings, and about thirty are for three or more instruments and strings.
As well as about 46 operas, Vivaldi composed a large body of sacred choral music, such as the Gloria, RV 589; Nisi Dominus, RV 608; Magnificat, RV 610 and Stabat Mater, RV 621. Gloria, RV 589 remains one of Vivaldi's more popular sacred works. Other works include sinfonias, about 90 sonatas and chamber music.
Some sonatas for flute, published as Il Pastor Fido, have been erroneously attributed to Vivaldi, but were composed by Nicolas Chédeville.
Catalogues of Vivaldi works
{{see also|Ryom-Verzeichnis}}
Vivaldi's works attracted cataloging efforts befitting a major composer. Scholarly work intended to increase the accuracy and variety of Vivaldi performances also supported new discoveries that made old catalogs incomplete. Works still in circulation today might be numbered under several different systems (some earlier catalogs are mentioned here).
Because the simply consecutive Complete Edition (CE) numbers did not reflect the individual works (Opus numbers) into which compositions were grouped, numbers assigned by Antonio Fanna were often used in conjunction with CE numbers. Combined Complete Edition (CE)/Fanna numbering was especially common in the work of Italian groups driving the mid-20th-century revival of Vivaldi, such as Gli Accademici di Milano under Piero Santi. For example, the Bassoon Concerto in B{{music|flat}} major, "La Notte", RV 501, became CE 12, F. VIII,1
Despite the awkwardness of having to overlay Fanna numbers onto the Complete Edition number for meaningful grouping of Vivaldi's oeuvre, these numbers displaced the older Pincherle numbers as the (re-) discovery of more manuscripts had rendered older catalogs obsolete.
This cataloging work was led by the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi, where Gian Francesco Malipiero was both the director and the editor of the published scores (Edizioni G. Ricordi). His work built on that of Antonio Fanna, a Venetian businessman and the institute's founder, and thus formed a bridge to the scholarly catalog dominant today.
Compositions by Vivaldi are identified today by RV number, the number assigned by Danish musicologist Peter Ryom in works published mostly in the 1970s, such as the "Ryom-Verzeichnis" or "Répertoire des oeuvres d'Antonio Vivaldi". Like the Complete Edition before it, the RV does not typically assign its single, consecutive numbers to "adjacent" works that occupy one of the composer's single opus numbers. Its goal as a modern catalog is to index the manuscripts and sources that establish the existence and nature of all known works.{{refn|These several numbering systems are cross-referenced at [http://www.classical.net/music/composer/works/vivaldi/index.php classical.net].|groupn}}Style and influence
The German scholar Walter Kolneder has discerned the influence of Legrenzi's style in Vivaldi's early liturgical work Laetatus sum (RV Anh 31), written in 1691 at the age of thirteen.
Vivaldi was also influenced by the Composer Arcangelo Corelli.<ref name"Arcangelo Corelli">{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle Corelli, Arcangelo |volume7 | last |first|author-link | page143 |short}}</ref>
Johann Sebastian Bach was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his St John Passion, St Matthew Passion, and cantatas). Bach transcribed six of Vivaldi's concerti for solo keyboard, a further three for organ, and one for four harpsichords, strings, and basso continuo (BWV 1065) based upon the concerto for four violins, two violas, cello, and basso continuo (RV 580).{{sfn|Talbot|Lockey|2020}}{{sfn|Wolff|Emery|2001}}
Legacy
, from Michel-Charles Le Cène's edition of Vivaldi's Op. 8, 1725)]]
In the early 20th century, Fritz Kreisler's Concerto in C, in the Style of Vivaldi (which he passed off as an original Vivaldi work) helped revive Vivaldi's reputation. Kreisler's concerto in C spurred the French scholar Marc Pincherle to begin an academic study of Vivaldi's oeuvre. Many Vivaldi manuscripts were rediscovered, and were acquired by the Turin National University Library as a result of the generous sponsorship of Turinese businessmen Roberto Foa and Filippo Giordano, in memory of their sons. This led to a renewed interest in Vivaldi by, among others, Mario Rinaldi, Alfredo Casella, Ezra Pound, Olga Rudge, Desmond Chute, Arturo Toscanini, Arnold Schering and Louis Kaufman, all of whom were instrumental in the revival of Vivaldi throughout the 20th century.
In 1926, in a monastery in Piedmont, researchers discovered fourteen bound volumes of Vivaldi's work (later discovered to be fifteen) that were previously thought to have been lost during the Napoleonic Wars. Some missing tomes in the numbered set were discovered in the collections of the descendants of the Grand Duke Durazzo, who had acquired the monastery complex in the 18th century. The volumes contained 300 concertos, 19 operas and over 100 vocal-instrumental works.<ref>Antonio Vivaldi biography by Alexander Kuznetsov and Louise Thomas, a booklet attached to the CD "The best of Vivaldi", published and recorded by Madacy Entertainment Group Inc, St. Laurent Quebec Canada</ref>
The resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century greatly benefited from the noted efforts of Alfredo Casella, who in 1939 organized the historic Vivaldi Week, in which the rediscovered Gloria (RV 589) and l'Olimpiade were revived. Since World War II, Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed wide success. Historically informed performances, often on "original instruments", have increased Vivaldi's fame still further.
Recent rediscoveries of works by Vivaldi include two psalm settings: Psalm 127, Nisi Dominus RV 803 (in eight movements); and Psalm 110, Dixit Dominus RV 807 (in eleven movements). These were identified in 2003 and 2005, respectively, by the Australian scholar Janice Stockigt. The Vivaldi scholar Michael Talbot described RV 807 as "arguably the best nonoperatic work from Vivaldi's pen to come to light since ... the 1920s".<ref>Michael Talbot, liner notes to the CD Vivaldi: Dixit Dominus, Körnerscher Sing-Verein Dresden (Dresdner Instrumental-Concert), Peter Kopp, Deutsche Grammophon 2006, catalogue number 4776145</ref>
In February 2002, musicologist {{Interlanguage link|Steffen Voss|de}} discovered 70% of the music for the opera Motezuma (RV 723) in the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin archives. Long thought lost, it was described by Dutch musicologist {{Interlanguage link|Kees Vlaardingerbroek|nl}} as "the most important Vivaldi discovery in 75 years."<ref>{{cite news |last1Riding |first1Alan |titleLost Vivaldi Opera Finally Gets Its Music and Words Together |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/13/arts/music/lost-vivaldi-opera-finally-gets-its-music-and-words-together.html |access-date2 January 2024 |workThe New York Times |date13 June 2005}}</ref> One of the earliest operas to have been set in the Americas, versions of it were staged in Düsseldorf in 2005 and Long Beach in 2009.<ref name "Apthorp">Apthorp, Shirley (22 September 2005). [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid10000100&sidaok_7SwBB5eQ&refergermany "Vivaldi's Motezuma Has Dusseldorf Premiere After Court Win"], Bloomberg News. Retrieved 14 March 2015.</ref><ref name "Ng">Ng, David (March 22, 2009). [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-mar-22-ca-motezuma22-story.html "Vivaldi's 'Motezuma,' lost, found, restored, re-imagined"], Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2 January 2023.</ref>
Vivaldi's 1730 opera, Argippo (RV 697), which had also been considered lost, was rediscovered in 2006 by the harpsichordist and conductor Ondřej Macek, whose Hofmusici orchestra performed the work at Prague Castle on 3 May 2008—its first performance since 1730.
Modern depictions of Vivaldi's life include a 2005 radio play, commissioned by ABC Radio National and written by Sean Riley. Entitled The Angel and the Red Priest, the play was later adapted for the stage and performed at the Adelaide Festival of the Arts.<ref>{{cite web|titleAngel and the Red Priest by Sean Riley|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/rn/airplay/stories/2011/3244574.htm|workAirplay|date15 June 2011|publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation Radio National|access-date4 July 2011}}</ref> Films about Vivaldi include: {{Interlanguage link|Red Venice|fr|Rouge Venise}} (1989), an Italian-French co-production under the direction of Étienne Périer; {{Interlanguage link|Antonio Vivaldi, a Prince in Venice|fr|Antonio Vivaldi, un prince à Venise}} (2006), an Italian-French co-production under the direction of {{Interlanguage link|Jean-Louis Guillermou|fr|Jean-Louis Guillermou}};<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0463283/ |titleAntonio Vivaldi, un prince à Venise |publisherIMDb }}</ref> and Vivaldi, the Red Priest (2009), an Italian film created and directed by Liana Marabini, and loosely based on Vivaldi's life as both priest and composer.ReferencesNotes{{reflist|groupn|30em}}
Citations
{{reflist|20em}}
Sources
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |lastFormichetti |firstGianfranco |year2006 |titleVenezia e il prete col violino. Vita di Antonio Vivaldi |trans-titleVenice and the Priest with the Violin. Life of Antonio Vivaldi |languageItalian |publisherBompiani |locationMilan |isbn=88-452-5640-5 }}
* {{cite book |lastHeller |firstKarl |translator-lastMarinelli |translator-firstDavid |year1997 |orig-year1991 |titleAntonio Vivaldi: The Red Priest of Venice |publisherAmadeus Press |locationPompton Plains |isbn1-57467-015-8 }}
* {{cite book |lastKolneder |firstWalter |author-linkWalter Kolneder |year1982 |titleAntonio Vivaldi: Documents of His Life and Works |publisherHeinrichshofen's Verlag |locationAmsterdam |isbn3-7959-0338-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastLandon |firstH. C. Robbins |author-linkH. C. Robbins Landon |year1996 |orig-year1993 |titleVivaldi: Voice of the Baroque |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |locationChicago |isbn=0-226-46842-9 }}
* {{cite book |lastPincherle |firstMarc |author-linkMarc Pincherle |year1957 |titleVivaldi: Genius of the Baroque |publisherW. W. Norton & Company |locationNew York |isbn }}
* {{cite book |lastTalbot |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Talbot (musicologist) |year1978 |titleVivaldi |publisherJ. M. Dent |locationLondon |isbn }}
* {{cite book |lastTalbot |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Talbot (musicologist) |year2011 |titleThe Vivaldi Compendium |publisherBoydell Press |locationWoodbridge |isbn }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastTalbot |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Talbot (musicologist) |othersRevised by Nicholas Lockey |editor-first1Nicholas |editor-last1Lockey |year2020 |orig-year2001 |encyclopediaGrove Music Online |titleVivaldi, Antonio |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |doi10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40120 |isbn978-1-56159-263-0 |url-accesssubscription |urlhttps://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000040120 |ref={{sfnRef|Talbot|Lockey|2020}} }} {{Grove Music subscription}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1Talbot |first1Michael |author-link1Michael Talbot (musicologist) |last2Porter |first2William V. |last3Knapp |first3Raymond L. |date24 July 2022 |titleAntonio Vivaldi &#124; Biography, Compositions & Facts |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |publisherEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |locationChicago |access-date1 October 2022 |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Antonio-Vivaldi }}
* {{cite book |lastWhite |firstMicky |year2013 |titleAntonio Vivaldi A Life in Documents |publisherLeo S. Olschki Editore |locationFlorence |isbn= }}
* {{Cite Grove |last1Wolff |first1Christoph |author-link1Christoph Wolff |last2Emery |first2Walter |date20 January 2001 |titleBach, Johann Sebastian |doi10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.6002278195}} {{Grove Music subscription}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
* {{Cite Grove1900|wstitleVivaldi, Antonio |volume 4.5 | pages317-318 |last Lane Poole|firstReginald |author-link Reginald Lane Poole|year1900| short}}
* Romijn, André. Hidden Harmonies: The Secret Life of Antonio Vivaldi, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-9554100-1-7}}
* Selfridge-Field, Eleanor (1994). Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi. New York, Dover Publications. {{ISBN|0-486-28151-5}}.
External links
{{commons category}}
* {{IMSLP|Vivaldi, Antonio}}
* {{ChoralWiki}}
* {{MutopiaComposer|VivaldiA}}
* {{BBC composer page|vivaldi|Vivaldi}}
* {{IMDb name|0006334|Antonio Vivaldi}}
{{Antonio Vivaldi}}
{{Baroque music}}
{{Subject bar
| portal1 = Classical music
| portal2 = Opera
| portal3 = Biography
| portal4 = Music
| commons = y
| q = y
| s = y
| s-search = Author:Antonio Vivaldi
| d = y
| d-search = Q1340
}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vivaldi, Antonio}}
Category:1678 births
Category:1741 deaths
Category:18th-century Italian composers
Category:18th-century Italian male musicians
Category:18th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
Category:Catholic liturgical composers
Category:Composers for cello
Category:Composers for violin
Category:Italian Baroque composers
Category:Italian classical cellists
Category:Italian classical composers of church music
Category:Italian classical violinists
Category:Italian expatriates in Austria
Category:Italian impresarios
Category:Italian male classical violinists
Category:Italian male opera composers
Category:Italian opera composers
Category:Musicians from Venice
Category:Oratorio composers
Category:Republic of Venice clergy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.724616 |
1428 | Adrian | {{about|the masculine given name}}
{{Infobox given name
|name = Adrian
|image = Bust Hadrian Musei Capitolini MC817 cropped.jpg
|imagesize |caption Bust of Hadrian
|pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|eɪ|d|r|i|ən}} {{respell|AY|dree|ən}}<br />{{IPA|de|ˈaːdʁiaːn|lang}}<br />{{IPA|ro|adriˈan|lang}}<br>{{IPA|pl|ˈadrjan|lang}}<br>{{IPA|es|aˈðɾjan|lang}}
|gender = Male
|feminine = Adriana, Adriane, Adrienne
|meaning = "from Adria"
|region = Pinnaculum Anatarius
|origin = Latin
| nickname = Ade, Ada, Ady,Aďko
|related names = Adriaan, Adriaen, Adriana, Adriane, Adriano/Adrião, Adrianus, Adrien, Adrienne, Ada, Ari, Arie, Hadrien, Jadran, Jadranko
}}
Adrian is a form of the Latin given name Adrianus or Hadrianus. Its ultimate origin is most likely via the former river Adria from the Venetic and Illyrian word adur, meaning "sea" or "water".<ref>Adrian Room, ''Brewer's Dictionary of Names'', p.7. {{ISBN|1-85986-323-X}}.</ref>{{sfn|Room|2006|p=20}}
The Adria was until the 8th century BC the main channel of the Po River into the Adriatic Sea but ceased to exist before the 1st century BC. Hecataeus of Miletus (c.550 – c.476 BC) asserted that both the Etruscan harbor city of Adria and the Adriatic Sea had been named after it.<ref>{{Cite book|titleSpina e il delta padano (Atti del convegno "Spina, due civiltà a confronto")|editorRebecchi, Fernando |firstSimonetta|last Bonomi |chapterAdria e Spina|publisherL'erma di Bretschneider|year1998|isbn88-7062-983-X|refbonomi|languageit | pages 241–3}}</ref> Emperor Hadrian's family was named after the city or region of Adria/Hadria, now Atri, in Picenum, which most likely started as an Etruscan or Greek colony of the older harbor city of the same name.<ref>{{DGRG|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0064:entryadria-geo |titleAdria |volume1|page=8}}</ref> <!--would be nice to have a more recent reference for this-->
Several saints and six popes have borne this name, including the only English pope, Adrian IV, and the only Dutch pope, Adrian VI. As an English name, it has been in use since the Middle Ages.
Religion
* Pope Adrian I (c. 700–795)
* Pope Adrian II (c. 792–872)
* Pope Adrian III (c. 830–885)
* Pope Adrian IV (c. 1100–1159), English pope
* Pope Adrian V (c. 1205–1276)
* Pope Adrian VI (1459–1523)
* Adrian of Batanea (died 308), Christian martyr and saint
* Adrian of Canterbury (died 710), scholar and Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury
* Adrian of Castello (1460–1521), Italian cardinal and writer
* Adrian of May (died 875), Scottish saint from the Isle of May, martyred by Vikings
* Adrian of Moscow (1627–1700), last pre-revolutionary Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia
* Adrian of Nicomedia (died 306), martyr and Herculian Guard of the Roman Emperor Galerius Maximian
* Adrian of Ondrusov (died 1549), Russian Orthodox saint and wonder-worker
* Adrian of Poshekhonye (died 1550), Russian Orthodox saint, hegumen of Dormition monastery in Yaroslavl region
* Adrian of Transylvania (fl. 1183–1201), Hungarian bishop and chancellor
* Adrian Fortescue (martyr) (1476–1539), English courtier at Henry VIII's court, beatified as a Roman Catholic martyr
* Adrian Gouffier de Boissy (1479–1523), French Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal
* Adrian Kivumbi Ddungu (1923–2009), Ugandan Roman Catholic bishop
* Adrian Leo Doyle (born 1936), Australian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church
Government and politics
* Adrian Amstutz (born 1953), Swiss politician
* Adrian Arnold (1932–2018), American politician
* Adrian Bailey (born 1945), British politician
* Adrian Baillie (1898–1947), British politician
* Adrian A. Basora (born 1938), US Ambassador to the Czech Republic
* Adrian Benepe (born 1957), American Commissioner of the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation
* Adrian Bennett (1933–2006), Australian politician
* Adrian Benjamin Bentzon (1777–1827), Norwegian Governor of the British West Indies
* Adrian Berry, 4th Viscount Camrose (1937–2016), British hereditary peer and journalist
* Adrian P. Burke (1904–2000), American judge and politician
* Adrián Fernández Cabrera (born 1967), Mexican politician
* Adrian Cioroianu (born 1967), Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs
* Adrian Cochrane-Watson (born 1967), Irish politician
* Adrian Davis (civil servant), British economist and civil servant
* Adrian Delia (born 1969), Maltese politician
* Adrian Fenty (born 1970), American politician, mayor of Washington D.C.
* Adrian Flook (born 1963), British politician
* Adrian Foster (politician), Canadian politician
* Adrian Hasler (born 1964), Prime Minister of Liechtenstein
* Adrian Knatchbull-Hugessen (1891–1976), Canadian lawyer and senator
* Adrian Kubicki (born 1987), Consul General of the Republic of Poland in New York City.
* Adrián Vázquez Lázara (born 1982), Spanish politician
* Adrian Molin (1880–1942), Swedish writer and political activist
* Adrian Năstase (born 1950), Romanian politician
* Adrian Neritani, former Permanent Representative of Albania to the United Nations
* Adrián Rivera Pérez (born 1962), Mexican politician
* Adrian Piccoli (born 1970), Australian politician
* Adrian Cola Rienzi (1905–1972), Trinidadin and Tobagonian trade unionist, civil rights activist, politician, and lawyer
* Adriano Sánchez Roa (born 1956), Dominican politician
* Adrian Rurawhe (born 1961), New Zealand politician
* Adrian M. Smith (born 1970), American politician
* Adrian Sanders (born 1959), British politician
* Adrian Severin (born 1954), Romanian politician and Member of the European Parliament
* Adrian Smith (politician) (born 1970), American politician
* Adrian Stokes (courtier) (1519–1586), English politician
* Adrian Stoughton (1556–1614), English politician
* Adrian Zuckerman (born 1956), US Ambassador to Romania
Academia
* Adrian Albert (1905–1972), American mathematician<!--Abraham Adrian Albert, but used his middle name as his given name (A. Adrian Albert) -->
* Adrian Baddeley (born 1955), Australian scientist
* Adrian Bailey (academic), American scholar
* Adrian Bejan (born 1948), Romanian-born professor of mechanical engineering at Duke University
* Adrian Beverland (1650–1716), Dutch philosopher and jurist who settled in England
* Adrian Bird (born 1947), British geneticist
* Adrian Bowyer (born 1952), British engineer, creator of the RepRap project
* Adrian John Brown (1852–1919), British professor and pioneer
* Adrian David Cheok (born 1971/1972), Australian electrical engineer and professor
* Adrian Curaj (born 1958), Romanian engineer
* Adrian Darby (born 1937), British conservationist and academic
* Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969), British historian and author who writes mostly about ancient Roman history
* Adrian Hardy Haworth (1767–1833), English entomologist, botanist and carcinologist
* Adrian Ioana (born 1981), Romanian mathematician
* Adrian Mihai Ionescu, Romanian professor
* Adrian Ioviță (born 1954), Romanian-Canadian mathematician
* Adrian Jacobsen (1853–1947), Norwegian ethnologist and explorer <!--Johan Adrian Jacobsen, but used his middle name as his given name-->
* Adrian Kaehler, American scientist, engineer, entrepreneur, inventor, and author
* Adrian Liston (born 1980), British immunologist and author
* Adrian Paterson, South African scientist and engineer
* Adrián Recinos (1886–1962), Guatemalan historian, Mayanist and diplomat
* Adrian Smith (born 1946), British statistician
* Adrian Stephens (1795–1876), English engineer, inventor of the steam whistle
* Adrian V. Stokes (1945–2020), British computer scientist
* Adrian Webb (born 1943), British academic and public administrator
* Adrian Zenz (born 1974), German anthropologist
Military
* Adrian Becher (1897–1957), British Army officer and cricketer
* Adrian von Bubenberg (1434–1479), Bernese knight, military commander and mayor
* Adrian Carton de Wiart (1880–1963), Belgian-born British Army lieutenant-general awarded the Victoria Cross
* Adrian Cole (RAAF officer) (1895–1966), Australian World War I flying ace
* Adrian Johns (born 1951), English governor of Gibraltar and former Royal Navy vice-admiral
* Adrian Dietrich Lothar von Trotha (1848–1920), German military commander in Africa
* Adrian Marks (1917–1998), United States Navy pilot
* Adrian Consett Stephen (1894–1918), Australian artillery officer and playwright
* Adrian Warburton (1918–1944), British Second World War pilot
* Adrián Woll (1795–1875), French Mexican general during the Texas Revolution and the Mexican–American War
Sports
American football
* Adrian Amos (born 1993), American football player
* Adrian Arrington (born 1985), American football player
* Adrian Awasom (born 1983), Cameroon-born American football player
* Adrian Baird (born 1979), Canadian football player
* Adrian Baril (1898–1961), American football player
* Adrian Battles (born 1987), American football player
* Adrian Breen (quarterback) (born 1965), American football player
* Adrian Burk (1927–2003), American football player
* Adrian Clarke (born 1991), Canadian football player
* Adrian Clayborn (born 1988), American football player
* Adrian Colbert (born 1993), American football player
* Adrian Cooper (born 1968), American football player
* Adrian Davis (Canadian football) (born 1981), Canadian football player
* A. J. Davis (cornerback, born 1983), American football player known as A.J. Davis
* Adrian Dingle (American football) (born 1977), American football player
* Adrian Ealy (born 1999), American football player
* Adrian Ford (1904–1977), American football player
* Adrian Grady (born 1985), American football player
* Adrian Hamilton (born 1987), American football player
* Adrian Hardy (born 1970), American football player
* Adrian Hubbard (born 1992), American football player
* Adrian Jones (American football) (born 1981), American football player
* Adrian Killins (born 1998), American football player
* Adrian Klemm (born 1977), American football player and coach
* Adrian Madise (born 1980), American football player
* Adrian Magee (born 1996), American football player
* Adrian Martinez (American football) (born 2000), American football player
* Adrian Mayes (born 1980), American football player
* Adrian Moten (born 1988), American football player
* Adrian Murrell (born 1970), American football player
* Adrian Peterson (American football, born 1979), American football player
* Adrian Peterson (born 1985), American football player
* Adrian Phillips (born 1992), American football player
* Adrian Robinson (1989–2015), American football player
* Adrian Ross (born 1975), American football player
* Adrian Tracy (born 1988), American football player
* Adrian White (American football) (born 1964), American football player
* Adrian Wilson (American football) (born 1979), American football player
* Adrian Young (American football) (born 1949), American football player
Association football
* Adrián Aldrete (born 1988), Mexican footballer
* Adrian Aliaj (born 1976), Albanian footballer
* Adrian Allenspach (born 1969), Swiss footballer
* Adrian Alston (born 1949), English footballer
* Adrián Álvarez (born 1968), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Anca (born 1976), Romanian footballer and manager
* Adrian Antunović (born 1989), Croatian footballer
* Adrián Argachá (born 1986), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian García Arias (born 1975), Mexican footballer and manager
* Adrián Arregui (born 1992), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Ascues (born 2002), Peruvian footballer
* Adrian Ávalos (born 1974), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Avrămia (born 1992), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Bajrami (born 2002), Swiss footballer
* Adrian Bakalli (born 1976), Belgian footballer
* Adrian Bălan (born 1990), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Balboa (born 1994), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian Baldovin (born 1971), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Barbullushi (born 1968), Albanian footballer
* Adrian Bartkowiak (born 1987), Polish footballer
* Adrian Basta (born 1988), Polish footballer
* Adrián Bastía (born 1978), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Beck (born 1997), German footballer
* Adrian Benedyczak (born 2000), Polish footballer
* Adrián Berbia (born 1977), Uruguayan goalkeeper
* Adrián Bernabé (born 2001), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Bevington (born {{circa|1971}}), British football PR and director
* Adrian Bielawski (born 1996), Polish footballer
* Adrian Bird (born 1969), English footballer
* Adrian Błąd (born 1991), Polish footballer
* Adrian Blake (born 2005), English footballer
* Adrian Bogoi (born 1973), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Bone (born 1988), Ecuadorian footballer
* Adrian Boothroyd (born 1971), English footballer and manager
* Adrian Borza (born 1985), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Budka (born 1980), Polish footballer
* Adrian Bumbescu (born 1960), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Bumbut (born 1984), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Butters (born 1988), Canadian soccer player
* Adrián Butzke (born 1999), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Caceres (born 1982), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Calello (born 1987), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Cañas (born 1992), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Cann (born 1980), Canadian soccer player
* Adrian Cașcaval (born 1987), Moldovan footballer
* Adrián Centurión (born 1993), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Čermák (born 1993), Slovak footballer
* Adrian Chama (born 1989), Zambian footballer
* Adrián Chávez (born 1962), Mexican footballer
* Adrian Chomiuk (born 1988), Polish footballer
* Adrián Chovan (born 1995), Slovak footballer
* Adrian Cieślewicz (born 1990), Polish footballer
* Adrian Clarke (footballer) (born 1974), English footballer
* Adrian Clifton (born 1988), English footballer
* Adrián Colombino (born 1993), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrián Colunga (born 1984), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Coote (born 1978), English footballer
* Adrián Cortés (born 1983), Mexican footballer
* Adrian Cristea (born 1983), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Cruz (born 1987), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Cuadra (born 1997), Chilean footballer
* Adrian Cuciula (born 1986), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Cucovei (born 1982), Moldovan footballer
* Adrian Dabasse (born 1993), French footballer
* Adrián Dalmau (born 1994), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Danek (born 1994), Polish footballer
* Adrián Diéguez (born 1996), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Drida (born 1982), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Dubois (born 1987), American footballer
* Adrian Dulcea (born 1978), Romanian footballer and manager
* Adrian Durrer (born 2001), Swiss footballer
* Adrian Edqvist (born 1999), Swedish footballer
* Adrián El Charani (born 2000), Venezuelan footballer
* Adrian Elrick (born 1949), New Zealand footballer
* Adrián Escudero (1927–2011), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Faúndez (born 1989), Chilean footballer
* Adrian Fein (born 1999), German footballer
* Adrián Fernández (footballer, born 1980), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Fernández (footballer, born 1992), Paraguayan footballer
* Adrian Foncette (born 1988), Trinidadian footballer
* Adrian Forbes (born 1979), English footballer
* Adrian Foster (footballer) (born 1971), English footballer and manager
* Adrián Fuentes (born 1996), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Gabbarini (born 1985), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Dan Găman (born 1978), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Gheorghiu (born 1981), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Gîdea (born 2000), Romanian footballer
* Adrián González (footballer, born 1976), Argentine footballer
* Adrián González (footballer, born 1988), Spanish footballer
* Adrián González (footballer, born 1995), Argentine footballer
* Adrián González (footballer, born 2003), Mexican footballer
* Adrián Hernán González (born 1976), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Goransch (born 1999), Mexican footballer
* Adrian Grbić (born 1996), Austrian footballer
* Adrian Grigoruță (born 1983), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Gryszkiewicz (born 1999), Polish footballer
* Adrián Gunino (born 1989), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian Hajdari (born 2000), Macedonian footballer
* Adrian Aleksander Hansen (born 2001), Norwegian footballer
* Adrian Heath (born 1961), English footballer and manager
* Adrian Henger (born 1996), Polish footballer
* Adrián José Hernández (born 1983), Spanish footballer, known as Pollo
* Adrián Horváth (born 1987), Hungarian footballer
* Adrian Iencsi (born 1975), Romanian footballer and manager
* Adrian Ilie (born 1974), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Ilie (footballer, born 1981), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Ionescu (footballer, born 1958), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Ionescu (footballer, born 1985), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Ioniță (born 2000), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Iordache (born 1980), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Dragoș Iordache (born 1981), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Jevrić (born 1986), German footballer
* Adrián Jusino (born 1992), Bolivian footballer
* Adrian Kappenberger (born 1996), Danish footballer
* Adrian Kasztelan (born 1986), Polish footballer
* Adrian Klepczyński (born 1981), Polish footballer
* Adrian Klimczak (born 1997), Polish footballer
* Adrian Knup (born 1968), Swiss footballer
* Adrián Kocsis (born 1991), Hungarian footballer
* Adrian Kunz (born 1967), Swiss footballer
* Adrián Lapeña (born 1996), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Torres Lázaro (born 1998), Spanish footballer commonly known as Lele
* Adrian Leijer (born 1986), Australian footballer
* Adrián Leites (born 1992), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian LeRoy (born 1987), Canadian soccer player
* Adrián Leško (born 1995), Slovak footballer
* Adrian Liber (born 2001), Croatian footballer
* Adrian Lis (born 1992), Polish footballer
* Adrian Littlejohn (born 1970), English footballer
* Adrián Lois (born 1989), Spanish footballer
* Adrián López (footballer, born 1987), Spanish footballer
* Adrián López (born 1988), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Lozano (born 1999), Mexican footballer
* Adrian Lucaci (1966–2020), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Lucero (born 1985), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Marín Lugo (born 1994), Mexican footballer
* Adrián Luna (born 1992), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian Łyszczarz (born 1999), Polish footballer
* Adrian Madaschi (born 1982), Australian footballer
* Adrian Małachowski (born 1998), Polish footballer
* Adrian Marek (born 1987), Polish footballer
* Adrian Mariappa (born 1986), English footballer
* Adrián Marín (footballer, born 1994), Mexican footballer
* Adrián Marín (footballer, born 1997), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Mărkuș (born 1992), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Martín (footballer) (born 1982), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Martínez (Mexican footballer) (born 1970)
* Adrián Martínez (Venezuelan footballer) (born 1993)
* Adrián Emmanuel Martínez (born 1992), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Nahuel Martínez (born 1992), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Matei (footballer) (born 1968), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Mazilu (born 2005), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Mierzejewski (born 1986), Polish footballer
* Adrian Mihalcea (born 1976), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Moescu (born 2001), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Mouriño (born 1988), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Mrowiec (born 1983), Polish footballer
* Adrian Mutu (born 1979), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Nalați (born 1983), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Napierała (born 1982), Polish footballer
* Adrian Neaga (born 1979), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Negrău (born 1968), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Neniță (born 1996), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Nikçi (born 1989), Swiss footballer
* Adrian Romeo Niță (born 2003), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Olah (born 1981), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Olegov (born 1985), Bulgarian footballer
* Adrian Olszewski (born 1993), Polish footballer
* Adrián Ortolá (born 1993), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Paluchowski (born 1987), Polish footballer
* Adrian Pătraș (born 1984), Moldovan footballer
* Adrian Pătulea (born 1984), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Paz (born 1966), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian Pelka (born 1981), German footballer
* Adrian Pennock (born 1971), English footballer
* Adrián Peralta (born 1982), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Pereira (born 1999), Norwegian footballer
* Adrian Petre (born 1998), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Pettigrew (born 1986), English footballer
* Adrian Pigulea (born 1968), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Piț (born 1983), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Pitu (born 1975), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Popa (footballer, born 1988), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Popa (footballer, born 1990), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Poparadu (born 1987), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Popescu (born 1960), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Popescu (footballer, born 1975), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Pukanych (born 1981), Ukrainian footballer
* Adrian Pulis (born 1979), Maltese footballer
* Adrian Purzycki (born 1997), Polish footballer
* Adrian Rakowski (born 1990), Polish footballer
* Adrián Ramos (born 1986), Colombian footballer
* Adrián Ricchiuti (born 1978), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Riera (born 1996), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Ripa (born 1985), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Rochet (born 1987), Israeli footballer
* Adrián Rojas (born 1977), Chilean footballer
* Adrian Rolko (born 1978), Czech footballer
* Adrián Romero (Argentine footballer) (born 1975)
* Adrián Romero (Uruguayan footballer) (born 1977)
* Adrian Ropotan (born 1986), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Ruelas (born 1991), American soccer player
* Adrian Rus (born 1996), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Rusu (born 1984), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Sahibeddine (born 1994), French footballer
* Adrian Sălăgeanu (born 1983), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Sánchez (born 1999), Argentine footballer
* Adrián San Miguel del Castillo (born 1987), Spanish football goalkeeper known as simply Adrián
* Adrián Sardinero (born 1990), Spanish footballer
* Adrian Sarkissian (born 1979), Uruguayan footballer
* Adrian Scarlatache (born 1986), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Schlagbauer (born 2002), German footballer
* Adrián Scifo (born 1987), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Šemper (born 1998), Croatian footballer
* Adrian Senin (born 1979), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Serioux (born 1979), Canadian soccer player
* Adrian Sikora (born 1980), Polish footballer
* Adrian Sosnovschi (born 1977), Moldovan footballer and manager
* Adrián Spörle (born 1995), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Spyrka (born 1967), German footballer
* Adrian Stanilewicz (born 2000), German footballer
* Adrian Șter (born 1998), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Stoian (born 1991), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Stoicov (1967–2017), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Șut (born 1999), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Świątek (born 1986), Polish footballer
* Adrián Szekeres (born 1989), Hungarian footballer
* Adrián Szőke (born 1998), Serbian footballer
* Adrian Toma (born 1976), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Torres (born 1989), Argentine footballer
* Adrian Trinidad (born 1982), Argentine footballer
* Adrián Turmo (born 2001), Spanish footballer
* Adrián Ugarriza (born 1997), Peruvian footballer
* Adrian Ursea (born 1967), Romanian footballer and manager
* Adrian Valentić (born 1987), Croatian footballer
* Adrian Vera (born 1997), American footballer
* Adrian Viciu (born 1991), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Viveash (born 1969), English footballer, better known as Adi Viveash
* Adrian Vlas (born 1982), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Ionuț Voicu (born 1992), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Voiculeț (born 1985), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Webster (footballer, born 1951), English footballer and coach
* Adrian Webster (footballer, born 1980), New Zealand footballer
* Adrian Whitbread (born 1971), English footballer and manager
* Adrian Williams, better known as Ady Williams (born 1971), English footballer and manager
* Adrian Winter (born 1986), Swiss footballer
* Adrian Woźniczka (born 1982), Polish footballer
* Adrian Zahra (born 1990), Australian footballer
* Adrian Zaluschi (born 1989), Romanian footballer
* Adrián Zambrano (born 2000), Venezuelan footballer
* Adrián Zela (born 1989), Peruvian footballer
* Adrian Zendejas (born 1995), American footballer
* Adrián Zermeño (born 1979), Mexican footballer
Baseball
* Adrian Constantine Anson better known as Cap Anson (1852–1922), American baseball player
* Adrián Beltré (born 1979), Dominican Republic baseball player
* Adrian Brown (baseball) (born 1974), American baseball player
* Adrian Burnside (born 1977), Australian baseball player
* Adrian Cárdenas (born 1987), American baseball player
* Adrian Devine (1951–2020), American baseball player
* Adrian Garrett (1943–2021), American baseball player and coach
* Adrián González (born 1982), American-Mexican baseball player
* Adrian Houser (born 1993), American baseball player
* Addie Joss (1880–1911), American baseball pitcher
* Adrian Lynch (1897–1934), American baseball player
* Adrián Morejón (born 1999), Cuban baseball player
* Adrián Nieto (born 1989), Cuban baseball player
* Adrian Sampson (born 1991), American baseball player
* Adrián Sánchez (born 1990), Colombian-Venezuelan baseball player
* Adrián Zabala (1916–2002), Cuban baseball player
Basketball
* Adrian Autry (born 1972), American basketball player
* Adrian Banks (born 1986), American basketball player
* Adrian Bauk (born 1985), Australian basketball player
* Adrian Branch (born 1963), American basketball player
* Adrian Caldwell (born 1966), American basketball player
* Adrian Celada, Filipino basketball player
* Adrian Dantley (born 1956), American basketball player
* Adrian Griffin (born 1974), American basketball player
* Adrian Pledger (born 1976), American basketball player
* Adrian Smith (basketball) (born 1936), American basketball player
* Adrian Tudor (born 1985), Romanian basketball player
* Adrian Williams-Strong (born 1977), American basketball player
Boxing
* Adrian Blair (born 1943), Australian boxer
* Adrian Clark (boxer) (born 1986), American boxer
* Adrian Diaconu (born 1978), Romanian boxer
* Adrián Hernández (boxer) (born 1986), Mexican boxer
* Adrian Mora (born 1978), American boxer
Cricket
* Adrian Aymes (born 1964), British cricketer
* Adrian Barath (born 1990), West Indian cricketer
* Adrian Birrell (born 1960), South African cricketer and coach
* Adrian Brown (cricketer) (born 1962), English cricketer
* Adrian Jones (cricketer) (born 1961), English cricketer
* Adrian Rollins (born 1972), English cricketer
Ice hockey
* Adrian Aucoin (born 1973), Canadian ice hockey player
* Adrian Foster (ice hockey) (born 1982), Canadian ice hockey player
* Adrian Kempe (born 1996), Swedish ice hockey player
* Adrian Wichser (born 1980), Swiss ice hockey player
Racing
* Adrian Adgar (born 1965), English cyclist
* Adrian Archibald (born 1969), British motorcycle racer
* Adrian Banaszek (born 1993), Polish cyclist
* Adrián Campos (1960–2021), Spanish racing driver
* Adrián Campos Jr. (born 1988), Spanish racing driver
* Adrian Carrio (born 1989), American racing driver
* Adrian "Wildman" Cenni, American off-road racing driver
* Adrián Fernández (born 1965), Mexican racing driver and team owner
* Adrián Fernández (motorcyclist) (born 2004), Spanish motorcycle racer
* Adrián González (cyclist) (born 1992), Spanish cyclist
* Adrian Kurek (born 1988), Polish road bicycle racer
* Adrián Martín (motorcyclist) (born 1992), Spanish motorcycle racer
* Adrian Newey (born 1958), British race car engineer and designer
* Adrian Quaife-Hobbs (born 1991), British racing driver
* Adrian Aas Stien (born 1992), Norwegian cyclist
* Adrian Sutil (born 1983), German racing driver
* Adrián Vallés (born 1986), Spanish race car driver
* Adrian Zaugg (born 1986), South African racing driver
Rugby
* Adrian Apostol (born 1990), Romanian rugby player
* Adrian Barich (born 1963), Australian rules footballer and television and radio presenter
* Adrian Barone (born 1987), New Zealand rugby union footballer
* Adrian Bassett (born 1967), Australian rules footballer
* Adrian Battiston (born 1963), Australian rules footballer
* Adrian Beer (born 1943), Australian rules footballer
* Adrian Clarke (rugby union) (born 1938), New Zealand rugby player
* Adrian Davies (born 1969), English rugby player
* Adrian Davis (rugby league) (born 1990), Australian rugby player
* Adrian Garvey (born 1968), Zimbabwean-born South African rugby union player
* Adrian Lungu (born 1960), Romanian rugby player
* Adrian Morley (born 1977), English rugby player
* Adrian Pllotschi (born 1959), Romanian rugby player and coach
* Adrian Stoop (1883–1957), English rugby union player
* Adrian Young (footballer) (1943–2020), Australian rugby player
Swimming
* Adrian Andermatt (born 1969), Swiss swimmer
* Adrian Moorhouse (born 1964), English swimmer
* Adrian O'Connor (born 1972), Irish backstroke swimmer
* Adrian Radley (born 1976), Australian swimmer
* Adrian Robinson (swimmer) (born 2000), Botswanan swimmer
* Adrian Romero (swimmer) (born 1972), Guamanian swimmer
* Adrian Turner (born 1977), British Olympic swimmer
Tennis
* Adrian Andreev (born 2001), Bulgarian tennis player
* Adrian Bey (1938–2019), Rhodesian-born American professional tennis player
* Adrian Bodmer (born 1995), Swiss tennis player
* Adrian Bohane (born 1981), Irish-American former professional tennis player
* Adrian Cruciat (born 1983), Romanian tennis player
* Adrian Gavrilă (born 1984), Romanian tennis player
* Adrian Mannarino (born 1988), French tennis player
* Adrian Marcu (born 1961), professional tennis player from Romania
* Adrián Menéndez Maceiras (born 1985), Spanish tennis player
* Adrian Quist (1913–1991), Australian tennis player
* Adrian Ungur (born 1985), Romanian tennis player
* Adrian Voinea (born 1974), Romanian tennis player
Other
* Adrian Adonis (1954–1988), American professional wrestler
* Adrian Ang (born 1988), Malaysian bowler
* Adrián Annus (born 1973), Hungarian hammer thrower
* Adrian Bachmann (born 1976), Swiss sprint canoer
* Adrian Ballinger (born 1976), British-American climber, skier, and mountain guide
* Adrián Ben (born 1998) Spanish middle-distance runner
* Adrian Berce (born 1958), Australian field hockey player
* Adrian Blincoe (born 1979), New Zealand runner
* Adrian Błocki (born 1990), Polish racewalker
* Adrian Breen (hurler) (born 1992), Irish hurler
* Adrian Cosma (1950–1996), Romanian handball player
* Adrian Crișan (born 1980), Romanian table tennis player
* Adrián Gavira (born 1987), Spanish beach volleyball player
* Adrian Gomes (born 1990), Brazilian gymnast
* Adrian Gray (born 1981), English darts player
* Adrian Gunnell (born 1972), English snooker player
* Adrian Hansen (born 1971), South African squash player
* Adrian Lewis (born 1985), English darts player
* Adrian Metcalfe (1942–2021), British runner and sports broadcaster
* Adrian Neville (born 1986), English professional wrestler, known professionally as Pac
* Adrian Parker (born 1951), British modern pentathlete and Olympic champion
* Adrian Patrick (born 1973), English former sprinter
* Adrián Alonso Pereira (born 1988), Spanish futsal player
* Adrián Popa (born 1971), Hungarian weightlifter
* Adrian Rollinson (born 1965), British strongman
* Adrian Schultheiss (born 1988), Swedish figure skater
* Adrian Smith (strongman) (born 1964), British strongman
* Adrian Street (1940–2023), Welsh wrestler and author
* Adrian Strzałkowski (born 1990), Polish long jumper
* Adrián Paz Velázquez (born 1964), Mexican Paralympic athlete
* Adrian Watt (born 1947), American ski jumper
* Adrian White (equestrian) (born 1933), New Zealand equestrian
* Adrian Alejandro Wittwer (born 1986), Swiss extreme athlete and ice swimmer
* Adrian Zieliński (born 1989), Polish weightlifter
Arts and entertainment
* Adrian Adlam (born 1963), British violinist and conductor
* Adrian Aeschbacher (1912–2002), Swiss classical pianist
* Adrian Alandy (born 1980), Filipino actor and model
* Adrian Allinson (1890–1959), British painter, potter and engraver
* Adrián Alonso (born 1994), Mexican actor
* Adrian Alphona, Canadian comic book artist
* Adrian Anantawan (born 1986), Canadian violinist
* Adrian Augier, St. Lucian poet and producer
* Adrian Bică Bădan (born 1988), Romanian footballer
* Adrian Baker (born 1951), English singer, songwriter, and record producer
* Adrian Bărar (1960–2021), Romanian guitarist and composer
* Adrian Barber (1938–2020), English musician and producer
* Adrian Batten (1591–1637), English organist
* Adrian Bawtree (born 1968), English composer and organist
* Adrian Beaumont (born 1937), British composer, conductor, and professor
* Adrian Beers (1916–2004), British double bass player and teacher
* Adrian Belew (born 1949), American guitarist, singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer
* Adrian Biddle (1952–2005), English cinematographer
* Adrian Blevins (born 1964), American poet
* Adrian Borland (1957–1999), English singer, songwriter, guitarist and record producer
* Adrian Boult (1889–1983), English conductor
* Adrian Brown (1929–2019), British director and poet
* Adrian Brown (born 1949), British conductor
* Adrian Brunel (1892–1958), English film director and screenwriter
* Adrian Bustamante (born 1981), American actor
* Adrián Caetano (born 1969), Uruguayan-Argentine film director, producer and screenplay writer
* Adrian Carmack (born 1969), American video game artist
* Adrián Carrio (born 1986), Spanish pianist
* Adrian Chiles (born 1967), British television and radio presenter
* Adrian Clarke (photographer), English photographer
* Adrian Clarke (poet), British poet
* Adrian Conan Doyle (1910–1970), English race-car driver, big-game hunter, explorer, and writer
* Adrian Dingle (artist) (1911–1974), Welsh-Canadian painter and comic book artist
* Adrian Dunbar (born 1958), Northern Ireland actor
* Adrian Edmondson (born 1957), better known as Ade Edmondson, English actor, comedian, director, writer and musician
* Adrian Enescu (1948–2016), Romanian composer
* Adrian Erlandsson (born 1970), Swedish heavy metal drummer
* Adrian Fisher (musician) (1952–2000), former guitarist for Sparks (band)
* Adrian Gaxha (born 1984), Macedonian singer-songwriter and producer
* Adrian Ghenie (born 1977), Romanian painter
* Adrian Gonzales (1937–1998), Filipino comic book artist
* Adrián Luis González (born 1939), Mexican potter
* Adrian Gray (born 1961), British artist
* Adrian Adolph Greenburg (1903–1959), costume designer for over 250 films, known as simply Adrian
* Adrian Grenier (born 1976), American actor, producer, director, musician and environmentalist
* Adrian Griffin (drummer), Australian drummer
* Adrian Gurvitz (born 1949), English singer, musician and songwriter
* Adrian Hall (actor) (born 1959), British actor and co-director
* Adrian Hall (artist) (born 1943), British artist
* Adrian Hall (director) (1927–2023), American theatre director
* Adrian Hates (born 1973), German dark wave musician
* Adrian Heath (1920–1992), British painter
* Adrian Heathfield, British writer and curator
* Adrian Hoven (1922–1981), Austrian actor, producer and film director
* Adrian A. Husain (born 1945), Pakistani poet
* Adrian Ivaniţchi (born 1947), Romanian folk musician and guitarist
* Adrian Jones (sculptor) (1845–1938), English sculptor and painter who specialized in animals, particularly horses
* Adrian Jones (born 1978), Swedish musician, member of Gjallarhorn
* Adrian Karsten (1960–2005), American sports reporter
* Adrian Kowanek (born 1977), Polish musician
* Adrian Le Roy (1520–1598), French string player, composer, music publisher and educator
* Adrian Leaper (born 1953), English conductor
* Adrian Legg (born 1948), English guitar player
* Adrian Lester (born 1968), British actor
* Adrian Lucas (born 1962), English organist, tutor, and composer
* Adrian Lulgjuraj (born 1980), Albanian rock singer
* Adrian Lukis (born 1957), British actor
* Adrian Lux (born 1986), Swedish disc jockey and music producer
* Adrian Lyne (born 1941), English filmmaker and producer
* Adrian Martin (born 1959), Australian film and arts critic
* Adrian Martinez (actor) (born 1972), American actor and comedian
* Adrian McKinty (born 1968), Northern Irish writer of crime and mystery novels
* Adrian Minune (born 1974), Romani-Romanian manele singer
* Adrian Mitchell (1932–2008), English poet, novelist and playwright
* Adrian William Moore (born 1956), British philosopher and broadcaster
* Adrián Navarro (born 1969), Argentine actor
* Adrian Noble (born 1950), English theatre director
* Adrian Pasdar (born 1965), American actor and film director
* Adrian Paul (born 1959), English actor
* Adrian Pecknold (1920–1999), Canadian mime, director, and author
* Adrian Petriw (born 1987), Canadian actor
* Adrian Picardi (born 1987), American filmmaker
* Adrian Pintea (1954–2007), Romanian actor
* Adrian Piotrovsky (1898–1937), Russian dramaturge
* Adrian Piper (born 1948), American conceptual artist and philosophy professor
* Adrian R'Mante (born 1978), American television actor
* Adrian Rawlins (born 1958), English actor
* Adrian Ludwig Richter (1803–1884), German painter and etcher
* Adrian Rodriguez (DJ), German DJ
* Adrián Rodríguez (born 1988), Spanish actor and singer from Catalonia
* Adrian Rodriguez, American bass guitarist for The Airborne Toxic Event
* Adrian Rollini (1903–1956), American multi-instrumentalist best known for his jazz music
* Adrian Ross (1859–1933), British lyricist
* Adrián Rubio, Mexican actor and model
* Adrian Scarborough (born 1968), English character actor
* Adrian Scott (1912–1972), American screenwriter and film producer
* Adrian Shaposhnikov (1888–1967), Russian classical composer
* Adrian Sherwood (born 1958), English record producer
* Adrian Sînă (born 1977), Romanian singer-songwriter and record producer
* Adrian D. Smith (born 1944), American architect
* Adrian Smith (born 1957), English musician and one of three guitarists/songwriters in the English band Iron Maiden
* Adrian Smith (illustrator), British illustrator
* Adrian Steirn, Australian photographer and filmmaker working in Africa
* Adrian Consett Stephen (1894–1918), Australian artillery officer and playwright
* Adrian Stokes (critic) (1902–1972), British art critic
* Adrian Scott Stokes (1854–1935), English landscape painter
* Adrian Stroe (born 1959), Romanian serial killer
* Adrian Sturges (born 1976), British film producer
* Adrián Suar (born 1968), Argentine actor and media producer
* Adrian Tanner, English writer and director
* Adrian Taylor (producer) (1954–2014), American television news producer
* Adrian Tchaikovsky (born 1972), British fantasy and science fiction author
* Adrián Terrazas-González (born 1975), Mexican jazz composer and wind player
* Adrian Thaws (born 1968), English musician and actor
* Adrian Tomine (born 1974), American cartoonist
* Adrian Utley (born 1957), English musician best known as a member of the band Portishead
* Adrian Vandenberg (born 1954), Dutch rock guitarist
* Adrian Wells (born 1989), British-American clinical psychologist, singer and songwriter
* Adrian White (musician), Canadian drummer
* Adrian Willaert (c. 1490–1562), Flemish composer of the Renaissance and founder of the Venetian School
* Adrian Wilson (actor) (born 1969), South African model and actor
* Adrian Wilson (artist) (born 1964), British artist and photographer
* Adrian Wong (born 1990), Hong Kong actress
* Adrian Wright (1947–2015), English-Australian actor
* Adrian Young (born 1969), American drummer for the rock band No Doubt
* Adrian Younge (born 1978), American composer, arranger, and music producer
* Adrian Zagoritis (born 1968), British songwriter and record producer
* Adrian Zingg (1734–1816), Swiss painter
* Adrian Zmed (born 1954), American television personality and film actor
Criminals
* Adrian Gonzalez (kidnapper) (born 2000), American kidnapper
* Adrián Gómez González, Mexican drug lord
* Adrián Arroyo Gutiérrez (born 1976), Costa Rican serial killer and rapist, known as The Southern Psychopath
* Adrian Lim (1942–1988), Singaporean serial killer
* Adrian Stroe (born 1959), Romanian serial killer
Other
* Adrian Arendt (born 1952), Romanian sailor
* Adrian Bancker (1703–1772), American silversmith
* Adrian Beecroft (born 1947), British venture capitalist
* Adrian Bell (1901–1980), English ruralist journalist, crossword compiler, and farmer
* Adrian Bellamy (born 1941/1942), British businessman
* Adrian Block (1567–1627), Dutch explorer of the American East Coast
* Adrian Brown (archivist) (born 1969), British archivist
* Adrian Brown (journalist), Australian journalist
* Adrian Cheng (born 1979), Hong Kong entrepreneur and business executive
* Adrian Cioroianu (born 1967), Romanian historian, politician, journalist, and essayist
* Adrian Cronauer (1938–2018), American former lawyer and radio speaker
* Adrian Diel (1756–1839), German physician
* Adrian Finighan (born 1964), British journalist
* Adrian Frutiger (1928–2015), Swiss typeface designer
* Adrian Fulford (born 1953), British judge
* Adrian Geiges (born 1960), German writer and journalist
* Adrian Anthony Gill (1954–2016), British writer and critic
* Adrian Hanauer (born 1966), American businessman and minority owner and general manager of the Seattle Sounders FC
* Adrian Hayes (adventurer) (born 1959), British explorer
* Adrian Holovaty (born 1981), American web developer, journalist and entrepreneur
* Adrian van Hooydonk (born 1964), Dutch automobile designer
* Adrian Albert Jurgens (1886–1953), South African philatelist
* Adrian Kantrowitz (1918–2008), American cardiac surgeon
* Adrian Kashchenko (1858–1921), Ukrainian writer, historian of the Zaporozhian Cossacks
* Adrian Knox (1863–1932), Australian judge
* Adrian Künzi (born 1973), Swiss banker
* Adrian Lamo (born 1981), Colombian-American threat analyst and "grey hat" hacker
* Adrian Long, British civil engineer
* Adrian Mikhalchishin (born 1954), Ukrainian chess grandmaster
* Adrian von Mynsicht (1603–1638), German alchemist
* Adrian Parr (born 1967), Australian philosopher and cultural critic
* Adrian Păunescu (1943–2010), Romanian poet, journalist, and politician
* Adrian Plass (born 1948), English author and speaker
* Adrian Rogers (1931–2005), American pastor, conservative, and author
* Adrian Andrei Rusu (born 1951), Romanian medieval archaeologist
* Adrian Anthony Spears (1910–1991), American judge
* Adrián Steckel, Mexican businessman
* Adrian Stephen (1883–1948), British author and psychoanalyst, brother of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell
* Adrian Swire (1932–2018), billionaire British heir and businessman
* Adrian Ursu (born 1968), Romanian journalist
* Adrian Weale (born 1964), English writer, journalist, illustrator and photographer
* Adrian Wewer (1836–1914), German-born American architect and Franciscan friar
* Adrian White (businessman) (born 1942), British businessman, founder of Biwater
* Adrian Zecha (born 1933), Indonesian hotelier
Fictional characters
Male
* Adrien Agreste, a superhero and male protagonist of Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir
*Adrian Blenderbland, a character for The Millionairess, a play by George Bernard Shaw
* Adrian Chase, DC Comics superhero
* Adrian Corbo, alias Flex, a Marvel Comics superhero
* Adrian "Fletch" Fletcher, character on the British medical dramas Casualty and Holby City
* Adrian Ivashkov, character in Richelle Mead's Vampire Academy and protagonist in Bloodlines
* Adrian Leverkühn, protagonist of Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus
* Adrian Mole, protagonist of The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole
* Adrian Monk, protagonist of the television series Monk
* Adrian Montague, protagonist of the novel ''The Nobleman's Guide to Scandal and Shipwrecks by Mackenzi Lee
* Adrian Pimento, a recurring character in Brooklyn Nine-Nine
* Adrian Shephard, protagonist of the Half-Life expansion "Half-Life: Opposing Force"
* Adrian Fahrenheit Ţepeş, alias Alucard, character in the Castlevania video games
* Adrian Toomes, alias Vulture, a Marvel Comics villain
* Adrian Veidt, alias Ozymandias, character in the Watchmen graphic novel series
* Adrian Woodhouse, spawn of Satan in the film Rosemary's Baby''
* Adrian, in Shakespeare's Coriolanus
* Adrian, a son of Satan in Little Nicky
Female
* Adrian Andrews, Ace Attorney character from Justice for All
* Adrian Hall, character on the soap opera Home and Away
* Adrian Pennino, wife of Rocky Balboa in the Rocky series
* Adrian Seidelman, character from the Cybersix comic and television series
* Adrian, a mental woman in The Crush (1993)
See also
* Adreian
* Hadrien
References
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* {{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idM1JIPAN-eJ4C|titlePlacenames of the world|firstAdrian|lastRoom|publisherMcFarland & Company|isbn978-0-7864-2248-7|year2006}}
{{given name}}
Category:English masculine given names
Category:Masculine given names
Category:German masculine given names
Category:Dutch masculine given names
Category:Norwegian masculine given names
Category:Swedish masculine given names
Category:Danish masculine given names
Category:Icelandic masculine given names
Category:Romanian masculine given names
Category:Spanish masculine given names
<!-- In the US 6% of Adrians and 1.8% of Adrians born in the last 10 years are female; not enough to call the name "unisex" Category:English-language unisex given names --> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.756357 |
1433 | Aare | {{Short description|River in Switzerland}}
{{About|a river in Switzerland|other uses|Aare (given name)|and|Aare (surname)|and| Aar (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Aare
| other_name = Aar
| image = Bern Untertorbrücke 05.jpg
| image_caption = The Aare at Bern
| pushpin_map = Switzerland
| pushpin_map_size | pushpin_map_caption Mouth
| pushpin_map_alt | mapframe yes
| mapframe-zoom = 7
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = Switzerland
| subdivision_type2 = Cantons
| subdivision_name2 = Bern, Solothurn, Aargau
| subdivision_type3 = Settlements
| subdivision_name3 = Meiringen (BE), Interlaken (BE), Thun (BE), Münsingen, Muri bei Bern, Bern, Bremgarten bei Bern, Aarberg (BE), Büren a.A. (BE), Solothurn (SO), Aarwangen (BE), Aarburg (BE), Olten (SO), Niedergösgen (SO), Schönenwerd (SO), Aarau (AG), Wildegg (AG), Brugg (AG), Windisch (AG), Döttingen (AG), Klingnau (AG)
| source1_location = Unteraar Glacier, Bernese Oberland
| source1_coordinates {{coord|46.56858|8.18774|region:CH-BE|formatdms}}
| mouth_location = Rhine below Koblenz, Switzerland
| mouth_coordinates {{coord|47.6057|8.2234|displayit|region:CH_type:river}}
| map = Aare basin simple.png
| map_caption = Drainage basin of the Aare
| length = {{convert|291.5|km}} {{GeoQuelle|CH|GS}}
| source1_elevation {{convert|1940|m|abbron}}
| mouth_elevation {{convert|311|m|abbron}}
| discharge1_location = Untersiggenthal
| discharge1_min {{convert|351|m3/s|abbron}} (MNQ 1935-2013),<br />{{convert|138|m3/s|abbr=on}} (NNQ, 1963)
| discharge1_avg {{convert|559|m3/s|abbron}} (MQ 1935-2013)
| discharge1_max {{convert|735|m3/s|abbron}} (MHQ 1935-2013),<br />{{convert|2656|m3/s|abbr=on}} (HHQ, 2007)
| progression = {{RRhine}}
| tributaries_left = Lütschine (Lake Brienz), Kander (Lake Thun), Gürbe, Saane/La Sarine, Zihl/La Thielle (Lakes of Neuchatel and Bienne), La Suze (Lake of Bienne), Dünnern
| tributaries_right = Gadmerwasser, Zulg, Emme, Murg, Wigger, Suhre, Aabach, Reuss, Limmat, Surb
| waterbodies = Oberaarsee, Grimselsee, Räterichsbodensee, Lake Brienz, Lake Thun, Wohlensee, Lake Biel, Stausee Niederried, Klingnauer Stausee
| basin_size {{convert|17779|km2|abbron}}
| extra =
}}
The Aare ({{IPA|de-CH|ˈaːrɛ|lang|De-Aare2.ogg}}) or Aar ({{IPA|de-CH|aːr|lang|De-Aar2.ogg}}) is the main tributary of the High Rhine (its discharge even exceeds that of the latter at their confluence)<ref>{{cite web |titleHigh Rhine |publisherICPR – International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine |urlhttps://www.iksr.org/en/topics/rhine/sub-basins/high-rhine |access-date2024-06-15}}</ref> and the longest river that both rises and ends entirely within Switzerland.<ref nameCVDE>{{harvnb|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968|p11}}</ref><ref name=GH/>
Its total length from its source to its junction with the Rhine comprises about {{convert|295|km}},<ref nameCVDE /><ref name"eb"/> during which distance it descends {{convert|1565|m|abbron}}, draining an area of {{convert|17779|km2|abbron}}, almost entirely within Switzerland, and accounting for close to half the area of the country, including all of Central Switzerland.<ref name"eb">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p4}}</ref>
There are more than 40 hydroelectric plants along the course of the Aare.<ref name=cohen/>
The river's name dates to at least the La Tène period, and it is attested as Nantaror "Aare valley" in the Berne zinc tablet.
The name was Latinized as Arula/Arola/Araris.<ref>{{harvnb|Kristol|Cattin|Meroni|Schmid|2005|p73}}</ref>{{refn| group nb |The river Obringa, mentioned by Ptolemy (2.7.9) as a tributary of the Rhine, has been identified with either the Mosel or the Aare.<ref>{{harvnb|Forbiger|1848|p126f}}</ref>}}Course
]]
]]
The Aare rises in the great Aargletschers (Aare Glaciers) of the Bernese Alps, in the canton of Bern and west of the Grimsel Pass.<ref name"CVDE"/> The Finsteraargletscher and Lauteraargletscher come together to form the Unteraargletscher (Lower Aar Glacier), which is the main source of water for the Grimselsee (Lake of Grimsel).<ref nameGH>{{harvnb|Gresswell|Huxley|1965|p27}}</ref><ref namecohen>{{harvnb|Cohen|1998|p1}}</ref> The Oberaargletscher (Upper Aar Glacier) feeds the Oberaarsee, which also flows into the Grimselsee.<ref nameGH/> The Aare leaves the Grimselsee just to the east to the Grimsel Hospiz, below the Grimsel Pass, and then flows northwest through the Haslital, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall, {{convert|46|m|ft|abbr=on}}, past Guttannen.
Right after Innertkirchen it is joined by its first major tributary, the Gamderwasser. Less than {{convert|1|km}} later the river carves through a limestone ridge in the Aare Gorge ({{langx|de|Aareschlucht}}).<ref nameCVDE /> It is here that the Aare proves itself to be more than just a river, as it attracts thousands of tourists annually to the causeways through the gorge.<ref nameGH/> A little past Meiringen, near Brienz, the river expands into Lake Brienz. Near the west end of the lake it indirectly receives its first important tributary, the Lütschine, by the Lake of Brienz. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli (Swiss German diminutive for ground) between Interlaken and Unterseen before flowing into Lake Thun.<ref name=CVDE />
Near the west end of Lake Thun, the river indirectly receives the waters of the Kander, which has just been joined by the Simme, by the Lake of Thun. Lake Thun marks the head of navigation.<ref namecohen/> On flowing out of the lake it passes through Thun, and then flows through the city of Bern, passing beneath eighteen bridges and around the steeply-flanked peninsula on which the Old City is located. To the south of the Old City peninsula is the {{ill|Mattenschwelle|de}}, a weir which provides water for the small Matte hydroelectric power plant. River swimming in the Aare is popular in Bern, and the river is sometimes full of bathers on summer days. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or La Sarine it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the 19th century, the Jura water correction, the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent flooding, was diverted by the Aare-Hagneck Canal into the Lac de Bienne. From the upper end of the lake, at Nidau, the river issues through the Nidau-Büren Canal, also called the Aare Canal,<ref nameGH/> and then runs east to Büren. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravel and snowmelt that the river brings from the Alps, and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the "vegetable garden of Switzerland".
From here the Aare flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town Solothurn<ref nameCVDE /> (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), Olten, Aarau,<ref nameCVDE /> near which is the junction with the Suhre, and Wildegg, where the Seetal Aabach falls in on the right. A short distance further, below Brugg, it receives first the Reuss, its major tributary, and shortly afterwards the Limmat, its second strongest tributary. It now turns due north, and soon becomes itself a tributary of the Rhine, which it even surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite downstream from Koblenz (Switzerland), opposite Waldshut in Germany. The Rhine, in turn, empties into the North Sea after crossing into the Netherlands.
Tributaries
]]
*Limmat (after and northeast of Brugg, and northwest of Baden)
**Reppisch
**Sihl
***Alp
***Minster
**Lake Zurich
***Jona
***Wägitaler Aa
***Linthkanal
****Lake Walen
*****Linth
******Löntsch
******Sernf
******Flätschbach
*****Seez
*****Seerenbach
*Reuss (after and northeast of Brugg, and northwest of Baden)
**Lorze
**Kleine Emme
**Lake Lucerne
***Sarner Aa
***Engelberger Aa
***Muota
**Schächen
**Chärstelenbach
**Göschener Reuss
*Aabach (coming from Seetal, in Wildegg)
**Bünz
*Suhre (after and north of Aarau)
**Wyna
*Aabach (from the left in Aarau)
*Stegbach
*Dünnern (in Olten)
*Wigger (right before Aarburg)
*Murg (before, west of Murgenthal)
**Rot (Roggwil)
**Langete (Langenthal)
***Ursenbach (Kleindietwil)
***Rotbach (Huttwil)
*(Grosse) Emme (after, east of Solothurn)
*Lake of Bienne
**La Suze (in Biel/Bienne, right next to the outflow)
**Zihlkanal
***Lake of Neuchatel
****La Broye (flows through Lake Morat)
****Zihl/La Thielle
*****L'Orbe
*****Le Talent
*Saane/La Sarine (after, west of Wohlensee)
**Sense
*Gürbe (in Muri bei Bern)
*Zulg (west of Steffisburg)
*Lake Thun
**Kander (west of Spiez)
***Simme
***Entschlige
*Lake Brienz
**Lütschine (at the end of Lake Brienz, right next to the outflow)
*Gadmerwasser (right after, northwest of Innertkirchen)
Reservoirs
* Lake Grimsel,<ref namea1>{{harvnb|Anon|1973|p74}}</ref> {{convert|1908|m|ft}}
* Lake Brienz,<ref namea1/> {{convert|564|m|ft}}<ref nameGH1>{{harvnb|Gresswell|Huxley|1965|p=272}}</ref>
* Lake Thun,<ref namea1/> {{convert|558|m|ft}}<ref nameGH1/>
* Lake Wohlen,<ref namea2>{{harvnb|Anon|1973|p70}}</ref> {{convert|481|m|ft}}
* Niederriedsee,<ref name=a2/> {{convert|461|m|ft}}
* Lake Biel,<ref name=a2/> {{convert|429|m|ft}}
* Klingnauer Stausee, {{convert|318|m|ft}}
Incidents
On May 26, 2022, Indonesia West Java Governor Ridwan Kamil's eldest child, Emmeril Kahn Mumtadz,<ref name":kompas">{{Cite web |titleFamily Declares Indonesian Governor’s Son Who Drowned in Swiss River Dead |urlhttps://go.kompas.com/read/2022/06/03/152705874/family-declares-indonesian-governors-son-who-drowned-in-swiss-river-dead}}</ref> was declared missing after being swept away by the river current. Chronologically, Eril was swimming in the river with his sister and friends.<ref>{{Cite news |date2022-06-13 |titleIndonesians mourn governor's son found dead in Swiss river |urlhttps://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/indonesians-mourn-governors-son-found-dead-in-swiss-river |access-date2024-08-30 |workThe Straits Times |languageen |issn0585-3923}}</ref> When he wanted to rise to the surface, Eril was dragged by a fairly swift current of the river which had previously received help from his friend.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRidwan Kamil's Eldest Son Is Missing in Switzerland |urlhttps://jakartaglobe.id/news/ridwan-kamils-eldest-son-is-missing-in-switzerland}}</ref> The search efforts involving the police search and rescue team, maritime police, fire department, and authority of the city of Bern.<ref name":kompas" /> One week after declared missing, Emmeril Kahn Mumtadz was declared dead in absentia at the age of 22.<ref>{{Cite web |lastantaranews.com |date2022-06-09 |titleProgress in search for governor's son, presumed drowned in Aare River |urlhttps://en.antaranews.com/news/233377/progress-in-search-for-governors-son-presumed-drowned-in-aare-river |access-date2024-08-30 |websiteAntara News |languageen}}</ref> Although on June 9, 2022, Eril's body was located.<ref>{{Cite web |lastArkyasa |firstMahinda |date2022-06-09 |titleRidwan Kamil's Son Found Dead in Aare River |urlhttps://en.tempo.co/read/1600228/ridwan-kamils-son-found-dead-in-aare-river |access-date2024-08-30 |websiteTempo |languageen}}</ref> The funeral procession of Emmeril “Eril” Kahn Mumtadz took place in the family's burial ground located in Cimaung, Bandung regency, West Java.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRidwan Kamil’s drowned son laid to rest as Bandung mourns - Tue, June 14, 2022 |urlhttps://www.thejakartapost.com/paper/2022/06/13/ridwan-kamils-drowned-son-laid-to-rest-as-bandung-mourns.html |access-date2024-08-30 |websiteThe Jakarta Post |languageen}}</ref> Soon after news about Eril's body brought back to his home, Indonesian netizens review bombed Aare River's Google listing, leaving negative comments and one-star ratings as if the waterway was fully to blame for the tragedy.<ref>{{Cite web |titleIndonesians review bomb Swiss river where governor’s son went missing |urlhttps://coconuts.co/jakarta/news/indonesians-review-bomb-swiss-river-where-governors-son-went-missing/ |access-date2024-08-30 |website|languageen-US}}</ref>
See also
* Rivers of Switzerland
Notes
{{reflist|groupnb}}Footnotes{{Reflist}}References* {{cite book | author Anon | year 1973 | title Atlas Routier et Touristique | language French | publisher Bordas-Tirade | location = Paris, France }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Bridgwater | editor1-first W.| editor2-last Aldrich | editor2-first Beatrice | encyclopedia The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia | title Aare | publisher Columbia University Press | location New York, NY | year 1968 | isbn 978-0670230709 | edition = 3rd }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Cohen | editor-first Saul B. | encyclopedia The Columbia Gazetteer of the World | title Aare | publisher Columbia University Press | location New York, NY | isbn 0-231-11040-5 | year 1998 }}
* {{cite book | last Forbiger | first Albert | title Handbuch Der Alten Geographie | volume 3 | publisher Veriag von Gustav Mayer | location Leipzig, Germany | year 1848 | url https://books.google.com/books?idAvwoAAAAYAAJ&pgPA127 }}
* {{cite book | editor1-last Gresswell | editor1-first R. Kay | editor2-last Huxley | editor2-first Anthony | publisher G. P. Putnam's Sons | location New York, NY | year 1965 | title Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Rivers and Lakes }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Hoiberg | editor-first Dale H. | encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica | title Aare River | publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | location Chicago, IL | edition 15th | isbn 978-0-85229-961-6 | year = 2010 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Kristol | editor1-first Andres | editor2-last Cattin | editor2-first Florence | editor3-last Meroni | editor3-first Barbara | editor4-last Schmid | editor4-first Gabrielle | title Aarau AG (Aarau) | encyclopedia Lexikon der schweizerischen Gemeindenamen LSG: Dictionnaire toponymique de scommunes suisses DTS /Dizionario toponomastico dei comuni svizzeri DTS | location Stuttgart, Germany | publisher Huber Frauenfeld | year 2005 | isbn 3-7193-1308-5 | edition 1st | language German | trans-title Encyclopedia of the Swiss municipality of LSG: Dictionnaire de toponymique scommunes Suisses DTS / Dizionario dei comuni toponomastico svizzeri DTS }}External links
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.aareschlucht.ch The Aare Gorge (Aareschlucht)]
*{{Wikisource-inline|list**{{cite EB9 |wstitle Aar |volumeI | pages2-3 |short=1}}
**{{Cite Nuttall|titleAar |shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAar |volume I | pages2-3|shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite Collier's|wstitleAar |shortx |noicon=x}}
}}
{{Rhine Tributaries}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Rivers of Switzerland
Category:Rivers of the canton of Bern
Category:Rivers of Aargau
Category:Water transport in Switzerland
Category:Rivers of the Alps | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aare | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.772407 |
1435 | Abbotsford, Scottish Borders | {{short description|Historic house in the region of the Scottish Borders}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2013}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Abbotsford
| native_name | native_name_lang
| former_names = Cartleyhole, Clarty Hole
| alternate_names | status
| image = Abbotsford Morris edited.jpg
| image_alt | image_size 300px
| caption = Abbotsford in 1880
| map_type = Scotland Scottish Borders
| map_alt | map_caption Location in the Scottish Borders
| relief | altitude
| building_type = Baronial Mansion
| architectural_style = Gothic Revival
| structural_system | cost
| ren_cost | client
| owner = Scott Family
| current_tenants | landlord
| location = Scottish Borders
| address = Galashiels
| location_town =Near Galashiels
| location_country = Scotland
| coordinates {{coord|55|35|59|N|2|46|55|W|region:GB|displayinline,title}}
| groundbreaking_date | start_date
| completion_date | opened_date
| inauguration_date | renovation_date 1817–1825
| awards | designations Category A Listed Building
}}
Abbotsford is a historic country house in the Scottish Borders, near Galashiels, on the south bank of the River Tweed. Now open to the public, it was built as the residence of historical novelist and poet Sir Walter Scott between 1817 and 1825.<ref>James C. Corson, ''Notes and Index to Sir Herbert Grierson's Edition of the Letters of Sir Walter Scott (Oxford, 1979), pp. 343–344.</ref> It is a Category A Listed Building{{sfn|Historic Environment Scotland LB15104|ignore-erryes}} and the estate is listed in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland.{{sfn|Historic Environment Scotland GDL00001|ignore-erryes}}
Description
, 1844]]
The nucleus of the estate was a farm of {{convert|100|acre|km2}}, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e., muddy) Hole, and was bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Scott renamed it "Abbotsford" after a neighbouring ford used by the monks of Melrose Abbey.<ref namescottsabbotsford>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.scottsabbotsford.com/visit/the-house |titleAbbotsford – The Home of Sir Walter Scott |websiteAbbotsford – The Home of Sir Walter Scott |access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref>
Following a modest enlargement of the original farmhouse in 1811–1812, massive expansions took place in 1816–1819 and 1822–1824. In this mansion Scott gathered a large library, a collection of ancient furniture, arms and armour, and other relics and curiosities especially connected with Scottish history, notably the Celtic Torrs Pony-cap and Horns and the Woodwrae Stone, all now in the Museum of Scotland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nms.ac.uk/torrsponycap|titleTorrs pony cap|publisherMuseum of Scotland|access-date25 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://canmore.org.uk/site/34845/woodrae-castle|titleWoodrae Castle: Cross Slab(S) (Pictish), Pictish Symbol Stone(S) (Pictish)|workCanmore|access-date25 July 2018}}</ref> Scott described the resulting building as "a sort of romance in Architecture"<ref>Grierson, op. cit., 8.129: Scott to John Richardson, [November–December 1823].</ref> and "a kind of Conundrum Castle to be sure".<ref>The Journal of Sir Walter Scott'', ed. W. E. K. Anderson (Oxford, 1972), 11: 7 January 1828.</ref>
The last and principal acquisition was that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new house was then begun and completed in 1824.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish Baronial. With his architects William Atkinson and Edward Blore Scott was a pioneer of the Scottish Baronial style of architecture: the house is recognized as a highly influential creation with themes from Abbotsford being reflected across many buildings in the Scottish Borders and beyond.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastBuck|firstMichael|date1 November 2013|titleEarly Planning at Abbotsford, 1811–12: Walter Scott, William Stark and the Cottage that Never Was|journalArchitectural Heritage|volume24|pages41–65|doi10.3366/arch.2013.0045 }}</ref>
The manor as a whole appears as a "castle-in-miniature", with small towers and imitation battlements decorating the house and garden walls.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastIrving|firstGordon|dateJuly 1971|titleSir Walter Scott's Abbotsford|journalThe Christian Science Monitor|page13|via=ProQuest}}</ref> Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Scott collected many of these curiosities to be built into the walls of the South Garden, which previously hosted a colonnade of gothic arches along the garden walls. Along the path of the former colonnade sits the remains of Edinburgh's 15th century Mercat Cross and several examples of classical sculpture.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/3314732/The-ugliest-place-on-Tweedside.html|titleThe ugliest place on Tweedside|lastRussell|firstVivian|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph|date10 October 2003|access-date20 November 2018|issn0307-1235}}</ref>
The estate and its neo-Medieval features nod towards Scott's desire for a historical feel, but the writer ensured that the house would provide all the comforts of modern living. As a result, Scott used the space as a proving-ground for new technologies. The house was outfitted with early gas lighting and pneumatic bells connecting residents with servants elsewhere in the house.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastRigney|firstAnn|date2007|titleAbbotsford: Dislocation and Cultural Remembrance|journalWriters' Houses and the Making of Memory|volume1|pages76–77|viaProQuest}}</ref>
Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830, the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's grandson Walter Scott Lockhart (later Walter Lockhart Scott, 1826–1853), his younger sister Charlotte Harriet Jane Hope-Scott (née Lockhart) 1828–1858, J. R. Hope Scott, QC, and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
'', by Elizabeth Nasmyth]]
The house was opened to the public in 1833, but continued to be occupied by Scott's descendants until 2004. The last of his direct descendants to hold the Lairdship of Abbotsford was his great-great-great-granddaughter Dame Jean Maxwell-Scott (8 June 1923 – 5 May 2004). She inherited it from her elder sister Patricia Maxwell-Scott in 1998. The sisters turned the house into one of Scotland's premier tourist attractions, after they had to rely on paying visitors to afford the upkeep of the house. It had electricity installed only in 1962.
Dame Jean was at one time a lady-in-waiting to Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, patron of the Dandie Dinmont Club, a breed of dog named after one of Sir Walter Scott's characters; and a horse trainer, one of whose horses, Sir Wattie, ridden by Ian Stark, won two silver medals at the 1988 Summer Olympics.{{sfn|Sydney Morning Herald|2004|p=32}}
On Dame Jean's death the Abbotsford Trust was established to safeguard the estate.<ref name=scottsabbotsford/>
In 2005, Scottish Borders Council considered an application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the River Tweed from Abbotsford, to which Historic Scotland and the National Trust for Scotland objected.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.thetimes.com/article/after-200-years-scott-house-leaves-family-cw28k8qwk60|titleAfter 200 years Scott house leaves family|lastEnglish|firstShirley|date19 May 2005|workThe Times|access-date22 September 2017|locationLondon|url-accessregistration }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|lastFairburn|firstRobert|titleHousing plan put on hold|date6 December 2005|urlhttp://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id2357362005|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070516075613/http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id2357362005|workThe Scotsman|archive-date16 May 2007}}</ref> There have been modifications to the proposed development, but it is still being opposed in 2020.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.thesouthernreporter.co.uk/news/politics/council/campaigners-keep-opposition-land-near-borders-authors-home-being-earmarked-housing-2523009|titleCampaigners keep up opposition|date30 March 2020|workThe Southern Reporter|access-date11 June 2020}}</ref>
Sir Walter Scott rescued the "jougs" from Threave Castle in Dumfries and Galloway and attached them to the castellated gateway he built at Abbotsford.{{sfn|Napier|1897|p=153}}
Tweedbank railway station is located near to Abbotsford.
Miscellaneous
Abbotsford gave its name to the Abbotsford Club, founded by William Barclay Turnbull in 1833 or 1834 in Scott's honour, and a successor to the Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs. It was a text publication society, which existed to print and publish historical works connected with Scott's writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
In August 2012, a new Visitor Centre opened at Abbotsford which houses a small exhibition, gift shop and Ochiltree's café with views over the house and grounds. The house re-opened to the public after extensive renovations in July 2013.
In 2014 it won the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award for its then recent conservation project.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.europanostra.org/awards/137/ |titleEuropa Nostra |publisherEuropa Nostra |access-date3 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-283_en.htm |titleEuropean Commission – PRESS RELEASES – Press release – Winners of 2014 EU Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Awards announced |publisherEuropa (web portal) |access-date3 February 2016}}</ref>
{{clearleft}}
{{Gallery
|title=Abbotsford House exterior
|width=160
|height=170
|align=center
|File:Abbotsford Aug2009 01.jpg|Abbotsford as seen from the gardens
|File:Abottsford - panoramio.jpg|The walled garden
|File:The Orangery, Abbotsford - geograph.org.uk - 1317838.jpg|The orangerie
|File:Morris at Abbotsford 02.JPG|Statue of Morris: a character from Scott's novel Rob Roy-
}}
{{Gallery
|title=Abbotsford House interior
|width=160
|height=170
|align=center
|File:Abbotsford House Original Study Room.jpg|The Original Study Room
|File:Abbotsford House Dining Room.jpg|The Dining Room
|File:Abbotsford House Drawing Room.jpg|The Drawing Room
|File:Abbotsford House Library HDR.jpg|The Library
|File:Abbotsford House Study Room.jpg|The Study Room
}}
See also
*List of places in the Scottish Borders
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
*{{Historic Environment Scotland|numLB15104|descABBOTSFORD INCLUDING HOUSE, WALLED GARDENS AND COURTYARDS, CONSERVATORY, BOTHIES, GAME LARDER, ICE HOUSE, TERRACES, GATE LODGE, BOUNDARY WALLS, GARDENER'S COTTAGE, STABLE BLOCK, GARDEN STATUARY AND ALL OTHER ANCILLARY STRUCTURES|catA|access-date26 February 2019|ref={{SfnRef|Historic Environment Scotland LB15104}} }}
*{{Historic Environment Scotland|numGDL00001|descABBOTSFORD|access-date26 February 2019|fewer-linksyes|ref={{SfnRef|Historic Environment Scotland GDL00001}} }}
*{{Citation|lastNapier |firstGeorge G. |year1897 |titleThe Home and Haunts of Sir Walter Scott, Bart |publisherJames Maclehose |locationGlasgow |page= [https://archive.org/stream/homesandhauntss00napigoog#page/n221/mode/1up 153]}}
*{{Citation|titleObituary of Dame Jean Maxwell-Scott |newspaperThe Sydney Morning Herald |date13 July 2004 |page32|ref={{SfnRef|Sydney Morning Herald|2004}} }}
Attribution
* {{EB1911|wstitleAbbotsford|volume1}}
External links
{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://www.scottsabbotsford.co.uk/ Abbotsford – The Home of Sir Walter Scott] – official site
*[http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/55750/details/abbotsford+house/ RCAHMS / CANMORE site record for Abbotsford]
*[http://www.walterscott.lib.ed.ac.uk/biography/homes.html Edinburgh University Library]
*[https://archive.org/details/abbotsford00crociala Abbotsford] (by W S Crockett – 1904 illustrated book pub. A & C Black)
*[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7948 Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey] by Washington Irving, from Project Gutenberg
*{{Wikisource-inline|list=
**Washington Irving, "Abbotsford", in Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey
**{{cite EB9 |wstitle Abbotsford |volume I | page26 |short1}}
**{{Cite Nuttall|titleAbbotsford |shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite NSRW|wstitleAbbotsford |shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite Collier's|wstitleAbbotsford |shortx |noicon=x}}
}}
{{Walter Scott}}
{{authority control}}
Category:Category A listed buildings in the Scottish Borders
Category:Category A listed houses in Scotland
Category:Scottish baronial architecture
Category:Walter Scott
Category:Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes
Category:Gardens in the Scottish Borders
Category:Literary museums in Scotland
Category:Historic house museums in the Scottish Borders
Category:Country houses in the Scottish Borders
Category:Houses completed in 1824
Category:Galashiels | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbotsford,_Scottish_Borders | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.781938 |
1436 | Abraham | {{Short description|Hebrew patriarch according to the Hebrew Bible}}
{{About|the biblical figure|the 16th president of the United States|Abraham Lincoln|the name|Abraham (name)|other uses}}
{{Redirect-several|Abram|Avraham|Avram}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| image | caption {{nowrap|Abraham Casting out Hagar and Ishmael (1657)}}<br />{{nowrap|by Giovanni Francesco Barbieri}}
| known_for Namesake of the Abrahamic religions: traditional founder of the Jewish nation, {{sfn|Levenson|2012|p3}}{{sfn|Mendes-Flohr|2005}} spiritual ancestor of Christians,{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p6}} major Islamic prophet,{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p8}} Manifestation of God and originator of monotheistic faith in Baháʼí Faith,{{Sfn|Smith|2000a|p22, 231}} third spokesman (natiq) prophet of Druzes{{sfn|Swayd|2009|p3}}
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* Sarah
* Hagar (concubine)
* Keturah
}}
| religion = Abrahamic
| name = Abraham
| native_name = אַבְרָהָם
| native_name_lang = Hbo
| birth_name = אַבְרָם<ref>Genesis 17:5</ref>
| birth_date = 1948 AM
| birth_place = Ur Kasdim, Mesopotamia
| father = Terah
| mother = Amathlai<ref>בבא בתרא צא א</ref>
| children = {{Collapsible list
| title = {{nobold|Oldest to youngest:}}
| Ishmael (son, with Hagar)
| Isaac (son, with Sarah)
| Zimran (son, with Keturah)
| Jokshan (son, with Keturah)
| Medan (son, with Keturah)
| Midian (son, with Keturah)
| Ishbak (son, with Keturah)
| Shuah (son, with Keturah)
}}
| relatives = {{Collapsible list
| title = {{nobold|Closest to furthest:}}
| Haran (brother)
| Nahor (brother)
| Sarah (half-sister and wife)
| Jacob (grandson)
| Esau (grandson)
| Lot (nephew)
| Twelve Tribes of Israel (great-grandsons)
| Dinah (great-granddaughter)
| see: ''Abraham's family tree
}}
| death_place = Cave of Machpelah, Hebron, Canaan<ref>Genesis 25:8</ref>
| death_date = 2123 AM
}}
Abraham{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|b|r|ə|h|æ|m|,_|-|h|ə|m}}; {{Hebrew name|{{Script/Hebrew|אַבְרָהָם}}|ʾAvraham|ʾAḇrāhām}}; {{langx|grc-x-biblical|Ἀβραάμ}}, {{Transliteration|grc|Abraám}}; {{langx|ar|{{Script/Arabic|إبراهيم}}}}, {{Transliteration|ar|Ibrāhīm}}|name|group}} (originally Abram){{efn|{{Hebrew name|{{Script/Hebrew|אַבְרָם}}|ʾAvram|ʾAḇrām}}}} is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.{{sfn|McCarter|2000|p8}} In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jews and God; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish;{{efn|{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1992|p10}} writes "In the NT Abraham is recognized as the father of Israel and of the Levitical priesthood (Heb. 7), as the "legal" forebear of Jesus (i.e. ancestor of Joseph according to Matt. 1), and spiritual progenitor of all Christians (Rom. 4; Gal. 3:16, 29; cf. also the Visio Pauli'')"}}{{sfn|Wright|2010|p72}} and in Islam, he is a link in the chain of Islamic prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p8}} As the namesake of the Abrahamic religions, Abraham is also revered in other Abrahamic religions, such as the Baháʼí Faith and the Druze faith.{{sfn|Swayd|2009|p3}}{{Sfn|Smith|2000a|p22, 231}}
The story of the life of Abraham, as told in the narrative of the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible, revolves around the themes of posterity and land.<ref>{{Cite book |lastMeyer |firstFrederick Brotherton |urlhttps://books.google.com.eg/books/about/The_Life_of_Abraham.html?idPQ1A4xnC-AAC&redir_escy |titleThe Life of Abraham: The Obedience of Faith |last2Meyer |first2F. B. |date1996 |publisherYWAM Publishing |isbn978-1-883002-34-3 |languageen}}</ref> He is said to have been called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land of Canaan, which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. This promise is subsequently inherited by Isaac, Abraham's son by his wife Sarah, while Isaac's half-brother Ishmael is also promised that he will be the founder of a great nation. Abraham purchases a tomb (the Cave of the Patriarchs) at Hebron<ref>{{Cite web |titleTomb of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs (Ma’arat HaMachpelah) |urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/tomb-of-the-patriarchs-ma-arat-hamachpelah |access-date2025-04-02 |websitewww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref> to be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land; and, in the second generation, his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin to earn his parents' approval. Abraham later marries Keturah and has six more sons; but, on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives "all Abraham's goods" while the other sons receive only "gifts".{{sfn|Ska|2009|pp=26–31}}
Most scholars view the patriarchal age, along with the Exodus and the period of the biblical judges, as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era.{{sfn|McNutt|1999|pp41–42}} It is largely concluded that the Torah, the series of books that includes Genesis, was composed during the Persian period, as a result of tensions between Jewish landowners who had stayed in Judah during the Babylonian captivity and traced their right to the land through their "father Abraham", and the returning exiles who based their counterclaim on Moses and the Exodus tradition of the Israelites.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp227–228, 260}}
The Abraham Cycle
Structure and narrative programs
The Abraham cycle is not structured by a unified plot centered on a conflict and its resolution or a problem and its solution.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p28}} The episodes are often only loosely linked, and the sequence is not always logical, but it is unified by the presence of Abraham himself, as either actor or witness, and by the themes of posterity and land.{{sfn|Ska|2009|pp28–29}} These themes form "narrative programs" set out in [https://www.sefaria.org/Genesis.11.27 Genesis 11:27–31] concerning the sterility of Sarah and [https://www.sefaria.org/Genesis.12.1-3 12:1–3] in which Abraham is ordered to leave the land of his birth for the land God will show him.{{sfn|Ska|2009|pp28–29}}Origins and callingTerah, the ninth in descent from Noah, was the father of Abram, Nahor, Haran ({{langx|he|הָרָן}} Hārān) and Sarah.<ref>Freedman, Meyers & Beck. Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2400-4}}, 2000, p. 551 and {{bibleverse|Genesis|20:12|niv}}</ref> Haran was the father of Lot, who was Abram's nephew; the family lived in Ur of the Chaldees. Haran died there. Abram married Sarah (Sarai). Terah, Abram, Sarai, and Lot departed for Canaan, but settled in a place named Haran ({{langx|he|חָרָן}} Ḥārān), where Terah died at the age of 205.<ref>{{Cite journal|titleThe Chronology of the Pentateuch: A Comparison of the MT and LXX|authorLarsson, Gerhard|year1983|journalJournal of Biblical Literature|volume102|issue3|pages401–409|doi10.2307/3261014|jstor3261014 | issn 0021-9231 }}</ref> According to some exegetes (like Nahmanides), Abram was actually born in Haran and he later relocated to Ur, while some of his family remained in Haran.<ref>{{Cite journal|urlhttps://tobias-lib.ub.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/148219/jbq_444_KleinMeso.pdf|title=Nahmanides' Understanding of Abraham's Mesopotamian Origins
|authorKlein, Reuven Chaim|year2016|journal=Jewish Bible Quarterly
|volume44|issue4|pages=233–240}}</ref>
God had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse them who may curse him. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and their possessions and people that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:4–6|niv}}</ref>
Sarai
{{Main|Sarah}}
, {{circa|1900}} (Jewish Museum, New York)]]
There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram, Lot, and their households traveled to Egypt. On the way Abram told Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. When they entered Egypt, the Pharaoh's officials praised Sarai's beauty to Pharaoh, and they took her into the palace and gave Abram goods in exchange. God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with plagues, which led Pharaoh to try to find out what was wrong.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:14–17|niv}}</ref> Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that Abram and Sarai leave.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:18–20|niv}}</ref>
Abram and Lot separate
{{main|Abraham and Lot's conflict}}
When they lived for a while in the Negev after being banished from Egypt and came back to the Bethel and Ai area, Abram's and Lot's sizable herds occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen, who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand or on the right hand, that there be no conflict between them.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|13:9|niv}}</ref> Lot decided to go eastward to the plain of Jordan, where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoara, and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward Sodom.<ref>{{cite book|authorGeorge W. Coats|titleGenesis, with an Introduction to Narrative Literature|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOrrdUOovklIC&pgPA113|year1983|publisherWm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn978-0-8028-1954-3|pages113–114}}</ref> Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar to worship God.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvRolnGU5KvAC&pgPA59|titleThe Religion of the Patriarchs|firstAugustine|lastPagolu|pages 59–60|date1 November 1998|publisherA&C Black|isbn978-1-85075-935-5 |viaGoogle Books}}</ref>
Chedorlaomer
{{Main|Battle of Siddim}}
, {{Circa|1464}}–1467]]
During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities, Sodom and Gomorrah, against Elam, Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|14:8–12|niv}}</ref> Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|13:12|niv}}</ref>
One person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the Battle of Siddim. When they caught up with them at Dan, Abram devised a battle plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abram's unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King Chedorlaomer at Hobah, just north of Damascus. They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that had been taken.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|14:13–16|niv}}</ref>
Upon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in the Valley of Shaveh, the "king's dale". Also, Melchizedek king of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest of El Elyon, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God.<ref>Noth, Martin. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (Englewood Cliffs 1972) p. 28</ref> Abram then gave Melchizedek a tenth of everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Abram declined to accept anything other than the share to which his allies were entitled.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|14:22-24|niv}}</ref>
Covenant of the pieces
{{see also|Covenant of the pieces}}
The voice of the Lord came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaims, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and Jebusites.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastZeligs |firstDorothy F. |date1961 |titleAbraham and the Covenant of the Pieces: A Study in Ambivalence |journalAmerican Imago |volume18 |issue2 |pages173–186 |jstor26301751 |issn0065-860X}}</ref>
Hagar
{{see also|Hagar}}
and Hagar, Bible illustration from 1897]]
Abram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations, because after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born. Sarai then offered her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abram with the intention that she would bear him a son.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid53&letterH |titleJewish Encyclopedia, Hagar'' |publisherJewishencyclopedia.com |access-date16 December 2023 |archive-date20 October 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111020081331/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid53&letterH |url-status=live }}</ref>
After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Sarai responded by mistreating Hagar, and Hagar fled into the wilderness. An angel spoke with Hagar at the fountain on the way to Shur. He instructed her to return to Abram's camp and that her son would be "a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren." She was told to call her son Ishmael. Hagar then called God who spoke to her "El-roi", ("Thou God seest me:" KJV). From that day onward, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, ("The well of him that liveth and seeth me." KJV margin), located between Kadesh and Bered. She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was 86 years of age when Ishmael was born.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|16:4–16|niv}}</ref>
Sarah
Thirteen years later, when Abram was 99 years of age, God declared Abram's new name: "Abraham"&nbsp;– "a father of many nations".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:5|niv}}</ref> Abraham then received the instructions for the covenant of the pieces, of which circumcision was to be the sign.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:10–14|niv}}</ref>
God declared Sarai's new name: "Sarah", blessed her, and told Abraham, "I will give thee a son also of her".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:15–16|niv}}</ref> Abraham laughed, and "said in his heart, 'Shall a child be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear [a child]?'"<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:17|niv}}</ref> Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:22–27|niv}}</ref>
{{anchor|Three visitors}}Three visitors
, {{circa|1896–1902|lk=no}}]]
Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the terebinths of Mamre. He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread, to which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarah's tent to order ash cakes made from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18:1–8|niv}}</ref>
One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18:15|niv}}</ref>
Abraham's plea
{{main|Sodom and Gomorrah|Lot (biblical person)}}
, {{circa|1896–1902|lk=no}}]]
After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to God and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that "if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18:17–33|niv}}</ref>
When the two visitors arrived in Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two "men" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that Lot bring out his guests so that they may "know" ({{Abbr|v.|verse}} 5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not "known" (v. 8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:1–9|niv}}</ref> thus confirming the wickedness of the city and portending their imminent destruction.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:12–13|niv}}</ref>
Early the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before God. He "looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even "ten righteous" (v. 18:32) had been found, as "the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:27–29|niv}}</ref>
Abimelech
, before 1903 (Jewish Museum, New York)]]
{{see also|Endogamy|Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis}}
Abraham settled between Kadesh and Shur in what the Bible anachronistically calls "the land of the Philistines". While he was living in Gerar, Abraham openly claimed that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, King Abimelech had her brought to him. God then came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a man's wife. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continued to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|20:1–7|niv}}</ref>
Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeed she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|20:12||Genesis 20:12|niv}}</ref> Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|20:8–18|niv}}</ref>
After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and Phicol, the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of Abraham's Well. Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: Beersheba. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to Philistia, Abraham planted a tamarisk grove in Beersheba and called upon "the name of the {{LORD}}, the everlasting God."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:22–34||Genesis 21:22–34|niv}}</ref>
Isaac
As had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:21|niv}}</ref> Sarah became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was "an hundred years old", when his son whom he named Isaac was born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:1–5|niv}}</ref> For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God hath made me to laugh, so that all who hear will laugh with me."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:6–7|niv}}</ref> Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:8–13|niv}}</ref>
Ishmael
, {{circa|1699|lk=no}} (Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Rhode Island)]]
Ishmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to Sarah. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. God told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that "in Isaac shall seed be called to thee."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:12|niv}}</ref> He also said Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:9–13|niv}}</ref>
Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. After God heard the boy's voice, an angel of the Lord confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation, and will be "living on his sword". A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled archer living in the wilderness of Paran. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:14–21|niv}}</ref>
Binding of Isaac
{{main|Binding of Isaac}}
, 1635 (Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg)]]
At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He then commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied "God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a "ram caught in a thicket by his horns", which he sacrificed instead of his son. The place was later named as Jehovah-jireh. For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:1–19||Genesis 22:1–19|niv}}</ref>
Later years
{{see also|Abraham's family tree}}
Sarah died, and Abraham buried her in the Cave of the Patriarchs (the "cave of Machpelah"), near Hebron which he had purchased along with the adjoining field from Ephron the Hittite.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|23:1–20|niv}}</ref> After the death of Sarah, Abraham took another wife, a concubine named Keturah, by whom he had six sons: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:1–6|niv}}</ref> According to the Bible, reflecting the change of his name to "Abraham" meaning "a father of many nations", Abraham is considered to be the progenitor of many nations mentioned in the Bible, among others the Israelites, Ishmaelites,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:12–18|niv}}</ref> Edomites,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|36:1–43}}</ref> Amalekites,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|36:12–16|niv}}</ref> Kenizzites,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|36:9–16|niv}}</ref> Midianites and Assyrians,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:1–5|niv}}</ref> and through his nephew Lot he was also related to the Moabites and Ammonites.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:35–38|niv}}</ref> Abraham lived to see Isaac marry Rebekah, and to see the birth of his twin grandsons Jacob and Esau. He died at age 175, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:7–10|niv}}, {{bibleverse|1 Chronicles|1:32|niv}}</ref>
Historical context
Historicity
at Beersheba, Israel]]
In the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such as William F. Albright and G. Ernest Wright and biblical scholars such as Albrecht Alt and John Bright believed that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the "patriarchal age", the 2nd millennium BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|lastBright|firstJohn|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0VG67yLs-LAC&qAbraham|titleA History of Israel|date1959|publisherWestminster John Knox Press|isbn978-0-664-22068-6|page93|languageen}}</ref> But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found in Thomas L. Thompson's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives (1974),<ref>{{Cite book|lastThompson|firstThomas L.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido91vmgEACAAJ&qThe+Historicity+of+the+Patriarchal+Narratives:+The+Quest+for+the+Historical+Abraham|titleThe Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham|date1974|publisherGruyter, Walter de, & Company |isbn9783110040968 |languageen}}</ref> and John Van Seters' Abraham in History and Tradition (1975).<ref>{{Cite book|lastSeters|firstJohn Van|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMySUQgAACAAJ&qAbraham+in+history+and+tradition|titleAbraham in History and Tradition|date1975|publisherYale University Press|isbn978-0-300-01792-2|archive-date7 December 2024|access-date13 October 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241207061533/https://books.google.com/books?idMySUQgAACAAJ&qAbraham+in+history+and+tradition|url-statuslive}}</ref> Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they were Iron Age creations.{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|pp18–19}} Van Seters' and Thompson's works were a paradigm shift in biblical scholarship and archaeology, which gradually led scholars to no longer consider the patriarchal narratives as historical.<ref>{{Cite book|lastMoorey|firstPeter Roger Stuart|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide1x9Rs_zdG8C&qA+Century+of+Biblical+Archaeology|titleA Century of Biblical Archaeology|date1991|publisherWestminster John Knox Press|isbn978-0-664-25392-9|pages153–154}}</ref> Some conservative scholars attempted to defend the Patriarchal narratives in the following years, but this has not found acceptance among scholars.<ref>{{harvnb|Dever|2001|p98}}: "There are a few sporadic attempts by conservative scholars to "save" the patriarchal narratives as history, such as Kenneth Kitchen [...] By and large, however, the minimalist view of Thompson's pioneering work, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives, prevails."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastGrabbe|firstLester L.|editor1-firstH. G. M|editor1-lastWilliamson|titleUnderstanding the History of Ancient Israel|urlhttps://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.001.0001/upso-9780197264010-chapter-5|chapterSome Recent Issues in the Study of the History of Israel|publisherBritish Academy|year2007|isbn978-0-19-173494-6|languageen-US|doi10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.001.0001|quoteThe fact is that we are all minimalists – at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the settlement. When I began my PhD studies more than three decades ago in the USA, the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs was widely accepted as was the unified conquest of the land. These days it is quite difficult to find anyone who takes this view.|archive-date28 March 2022|access-date12 July 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220328134917/https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.001.0001/upso-9780197264010-chapter-5|url-statuslive}}</ref> By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had stopped trying to recover any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible historical figures.{{sfn|Dever|2001|p98 and fn.2}}
{{anchor|Renaming}} Origins of the narrative
]]
Abraham's story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p27}} (he is mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|33:24}}</ref> and the Book of Isaiah<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|63:16}}</ref>). As with Moses, Abraham's name is apparently very ancient, as the tradition found in the Book of Genesis no longer understands its original meaning (probably "Father is exalted" – the meaning offered in [https://www.sefaria.org/Genesis.17:5 Genesis 17:5], "Father of a multitude", is a folk etymology).{{sfn|Thompson|2016|pp23–24}} At some stage the oral traditions became part of the written tradition of the Pentateuch; a majority of scholars believe this stage belongs to the Persian period, roughly 520–320 BCE.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p260}} The mechanisms by which this came about remain unknown,{{sfn|Enns|2012|p26}} but there are currently at least two hypotheses.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp217, 227–28}} The first, called Persian Imperial authorisation, is that the post-Exilic community devised the Torah as a legal basis on which to function within the Persian Imperial system; the second is that the Pentateuch was written to provide the criteria for determining who would belong to the post-Exilic Jewish community and to establish the power structures and relative positions of its various groups, notably the priesthood and the lay "elders".{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp217, 227–28}}
The completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions.{{sfn|Carr|Conway|2010|p193}} In the Book of Ezekiel,<ref>{{bibleverse-nb|Ezekiel|33:24|niv}}</ref> written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE), Ezekiel, an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they do not observe Torah.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p43}} The Book of Isaiah<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Isaiah|63:16|niv}}</ref> similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the "gôlâ"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p44}} The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., Ezra–Nehemiah), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p44}}
Amorite origin hypothesis
According to Nissim Amzallag, the Book of Genesis portrays Abraham as having an Amorite origin, arguing that the patriarch's provenance from the region of Harran as described in {{bibleverse|Genesis|11:31}} associates him with the territory of the Amorite homeland. He also notes parallels between the biblical narrative and the Amorite migration into the Southern Levant in the 2nd millennium BCE.<ref>{{cite book |titleYahweh and the Origins of Ancient Israel: Insights from the Archaeological Record |lastAmzallag |firstNissim |publisherCambridge University Press |year2023 |isbn978-1-009-31478-7 |page76 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQee-EAAAQBAJ&pgPA76}}</ref> Likewise, some scholars like Daniel E. Fleming and Alice Mandell have argued that the biblical portrayal of the Patriarchs' lifestyle appears to reflect the Amorite culture of the 2nd millennium BCE as attested in texts from the ancient city-state of Mari, suggesting that the Genesis stories retain historical memories of the ancestral origins of some of the Israelites.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions |lastFleming |firstDaniel E. |publisherEerdmans |year2004 |isbn978-0-8028-2173-7 |pages193–232 |editor-lastHoffmeier |editor-firstJames K. |chapterGenesis in History and Tradition: The Syrian Background of Israel's Ancestors, Reprise |editor-last2Millard |editor-first2Alan R. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPUcs-FQv4uIC&pgPA193 |archive-date5 December 2024 |access-date22 June 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241205133533/https://books.google.com/books?idPUcs-FQv4uIC&pgPA193 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleThe Cambridge Companion to Genesis |lastMandell |firstAlice |publisherCambridge University Press |year2022 |isbn978-1-108-42375-5 |pages143–46 |editor-lastArnold |editor-firstBill T. |chapterGenesis and its Ancient Literary Analogues |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-EpgEAAAQBAJ&pgPA143 |archive-date8 June 2024 |access-date22 June 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240608142040/https://books.google.com/books?id-EpgEAAAQBAJ&pgPA143 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Alan Millard argues that the name Abram is of Amorite origin and that it is attested in Mari as ʾabī-rām. He also suggests that the Patriarch's name corresponds to a form typical of the Middle Bronze Age and not of later periods.<ref>{{cite journal |titlePatriarchal Names in Context |journalTyndale Bulletin |lastMillard |firstAlan |volume75 |issueDecember |pages155–174 |year2024 |doi10.53751/001c.117657 |issn2752-7042 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>Palestine origin hypothesisThe earliest possible reference to Abraham may be the name of a town in the Negev listed in a victory inscription of Pharaoh Sheshonq I (biblical Shishak), which is referred as "the Fortress of Abraham", suggesting the possible existence of an Abraham tradition in the 10th century BCE.{{sfn|McCarter|2000|p9}} The orientalist Mario Liverani proposed to see in the name Abraham the mythical eponym of a Palestinian tribe from the 13th century BCE, that of the Raham, of which mention was found in the stele of Seti I found in Beth-She'an and dating back to 'around 1289 BCE.<ref>The stele reads: «The Apiru of Mount Yarumta, together with the Tayaru, attack the Raham tribe». J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, p. 255. Princeton, 1955.</ref> The tribe probably lived in the area surrounding or close to Beth-She'an, in Galilee (the stele in fact refers to fights that took place in the area). The semi-nomadic and pastoral Semitic tribes of the time used to prefix their names with the term banū ("sons of"), so it is hypothesized that the Raham called themselves Banu Raham. Furthermore, many interpreted blood ties between tribe members as common descent from an eponymous ancestor (i.e., one who gave the tribe its name), rather than as the result of intra-tribal ties. The name of this eponymous mythical ancestor was constructed with the patronymic (prefix) Abū ("father"), followed by the name of the tribe; in the case of the Raham, it would have been Abu Raham, later to become Ab-raham, Abraham. Abraham's Journey from Ur to Harran could be explained as a retrospective reflection of the story of the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile. Indeed, Israel Finkelstein suggested that the oldest Abraham traditions originated in the Iron Age (monarchic period) and that they contained an autochthonous hero story, as the oldest mentions of Abraham outside the book of Genesis ([https://www.sefaria.org/Ezekiel.33 Ezekiel 33] and [https://www.sefaria.org/Isaiah.51 Isaiah 51]): do not depend on Genesis 12–26; do not have an indication of a Mesopotamian origin of Abraham; and present only two main themes of the Abraham narrative in Genesis—land and offspring.<ref name":82">{{cite journal |titleComments on the Historical Background of the Abraham Narrative: Between "Realia" and "Exegetica" |journalHebrew Bible and Ancient Israel |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/29972948 |last1Finkelstein |first1Israel |issue1 |volume3 |pages3–23 |last2Römer |first2Thomas |year2014 |doi10.1628/219222714x13994465496820 |archive-date29 February 2024 |access-date23 November 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240229190528/https://www.academia.edu/29972948 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Yet, unlike Liverani, Finkelstein considered Abraham as ancestor who was worshiped in Hebron, which is too far from Beit She'an, and the oldest tradition of him might be about the altar he built in Hebron.<ref name":82" />
Religious traditions
{{Judaism|1=figures}}
Abraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God—leading to the belief that the Jews are the chosen people of God. In Christianity, Paul the Apostle taught that Abraham's faith in God—preceding the Mosaic law—made him the prototype of all believers, Jewish or gentile; and in Islam, he is seen as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p8}}JudaismIn Jewish tradition, Abraham is called Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו), "our father Abraham," signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, the first Jew.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p3}} His story is read in the weekly Torah reading portions, predominantly in the parashot: Lech-Lecha (לֶךְ-לְךָ), Vayeira (וַיֵּרָא), Chayei Sarah (חַיֵּי שָׂרָה), and Toledot (תּוֹלְדֹת).<ref>{{Cite book |lastHeld |firstShai |urlhttps://books.google.com.eg/books?idXzIxDwAAQBAJ&printsecfrontcover&sourcegbs_book_other_versions_r&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse |titleThe Heart of Torah: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion |date2017 |publisherU of Nebraska Press |isbn978-0-8276-1333-1 |languageen}}</ref>
Hanan bar Rava taught in Abba Arikha's name that Abraham's mother was named ʾĂmatlaʾy bat Karnebo.<ref>{{Cite web|titleBava Batra 91a|urlhttps://www.sefaria.org/Bava_Batra.91a|access-date2021-03-08|websitewww.sefaria.org|archive-date30 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150530091641/https://www.sefaria.org/Bava_Batra.91a|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Efn|MSS variants: bat Barnebo, bat bar-Nebo, bar-bar-Nebo, bat Karnebi, bat Kar Nebo. Karnebo (outpost of Nabu) is attested as a Sumerian theophoric place-name in Akkadian inscriptions, including the Michaux stone. It referred to at least two separate cities in antiquity.<ref>Yamada, Shigeo. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/orient/40/0/40_56/_pdf "Karus on the Frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Orient 40 (2005)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220521130027/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/orient/40/0/40_56/_pdf |date21 May 2022 }}"</ref> Rabbinic tradition connects Karnebo to the Biblical Hebrew Kar (כר lamb), translating it pure lambs.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Rashbam_on_Bava_Batra.91a.14.2?langbi "Rashbam on Bava Batra 91a:14:2"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220521122919/https://www.sefaria.org/Rashbam_on_Bava_Batra.91a.14.2?langbi |date21 May 2022 }}. http://www.sefaria.org {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130202120144/http://www.sefaria.org/ |date2 February 2013 }}. Retrieved 2021-03-08.</ref>}} Hiyya bar Abba taught that Abraham worked in Teraḥ's idol shop in his youth.<ref>{{Cite web|titleBereishit Rabbah 38|urlhttps://www.sefaria.org/Bereishit_Rabbah.38|access-date2021-03-11|websitewww.sefaria.org|archive-date11 July 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230711002906/https://www.sefaria.org/Bereishit_Rabbah.38|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In Legends of the Jews, God created heaven and earth for the sake of the merits of Abraham.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|locVol I: The Wicked Generations}} After the biblical flood, Abraham was the only one among the pious who solemnly swore never to forsake God,{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|locVol. I: In the Fiery Furnace}} studied in the house of Noah and Shem to learn about the "Ways of God,"{{sfn|Jasher|1840|p22|locCh9, vv 5–6}} continued the line of High Priest from Noah and Shem, and assigning the office to Levi and his seed forever. Before leaving his father's land, Abraham was miraculously saved from the fiery furnace of Nimrod following his brave action of breaking the idols of the Chaldeans into pieces.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909}} During his sojourning in Canaan, Abraham was accustomed to extend hospitality to travelers and strangers and taught how to praise God also knowledge of God to those who had received his kindness.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|loc=Vol. I: The Covenant with Abimelech}}
Along with Isaac and Jacob, he is the one whose name would appear united with God, as God in Judaism was called ''Elohei Abraham, Elohei Yitzchaq ve Elohei Ya'aqob ("God of Abraham, God of Isaac, and God of Jacob") and never the God of anyone else.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|locVol. I: Joy and Sorrow in the House of Jacob}} He was also mentioned as the father of thirty nations.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|locVol. I: The Birth of Esau and Jacob}}
Christianity
, {{circa|1680–85}} (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam)]]
In Christianity, Abraham is revered as the prophet to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom God initiated a covenant (cf. Covenant Theology'').{{sfn|Wright|2010|p72}}<ref name"WaReMu">{{harvnb|Waters|Reid|Muether|2020|ps: "Paul also shows us how the Abrahamic covenant relates to the covenantal administrations that precede and follow it. ... There is, then, covenantal continuity between the inaugural administration of God's one gracious covenant in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:15) and the subsequent administration of that covenant to Abraham and his family (Gen. 12; 15; 17). The Abrahamic administration serves to reveal more of the person and work of Christ and, in this way, continue to administer Christ to human beings through faith."}}</ref> Paul the Apostle declared that all who believe in Jesus (Christians) are "included in the seed of Abraham and are inheritors of the promise made to Abraham."{{sfn|Wright|2010|p72}} In Romans 4, Abraham is praised for his "unwavering faith" in God, which is tied into the concept of partakers of the covenant of grace being those "who demonstrate faith in the saving power of Christ".<ref>Firestone, Reuven. [http://cmje.usc.edu/articles/abraham.php "Abraham."] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170909233637/http://cmje.usc.edu/articles/abraham.php |date9 September 2017 }} Encyclopedia of World History.</ref><ref name="WaReMu" />
Throughout history, church leaders, following Paul, have emphasized Abraham as the spiritual father of all Christians.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1992|p10}} Augustine of Hippo declared that Christians are "children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith", Ambrose stated that "by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham", and Martin Luther recalled Abraham as "a paradigm of the man of faith."{{efn|{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1992|p10}} states "St. Augustine, following Paul, regards all Christians as children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith, although "born of strangers" (e.g. In Joan. Ev. 108). St. Ambrose likewise says that by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham. Abraham's initial departure from his homeland is understood by St. Caesarius of Arles as a type of Christian leaving the world of carnal habits to follow Christ. Later commentators as diverse as Luther and Kierkegaard recall Abraham as a paradigm of the man of faith. }}
The Roman Catholic Church, the largest Christian denomination, calls Abraham "our father in Faith" in the Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Canon, recited during the Mass. He is also commemorated in the calendars of saints of several denominations: on 20 August by the Maronite Church, 28 August in the Coptic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East (with the full office for the latter), and on 9 October by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod.<ref name"LCMS">{{cite web |titleCommemorations |urlhttps://www.lcms.org/worship/church-year/commemorations |publisherLutheran Church—Missouri Synod |access-date31 October 2020 |languageen |archive-date4 July 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190704153818/https://www.lcms.org/worship/church-year/commemorations |url-statuslive }}</ref> In the introduction to his 15th-century translation of the Golden Legend's account of Abraham, William Caxton noted that this patriarch's life was read in church on Quinquagesima Sunday.<ref name"Caxton">{{cite web|lastCaxton|firstWilliam|titleAbraham|urlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/goldenlegend/GoldenLegend-Volume1.asp#Abraham|websiteThe Golden Legend|publisherInternet Medieval Source Book|access-date3 April 2014|archive-date13 August 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110813234236/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/goldenlegend/GoldenLegend-Volume1.asp#Abraham|url-statuslive}}</ref>
He is the patron saint of those in the hospitality industry.{{sfn|Holweck|1924|p7}} The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with two feast days in its liturgical calendar. The first time is on 9 October (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 9 October falls on 22 October of the modern Gregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other is on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. Abraham is also mentioned in the Divine Liturgy of Basil the Great, just before the Anaphora, and Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple. A popular hymn sung in many English-speaking Sunday Schools by children is known as "Father Abraham" and emphasizes the patriarch as the spiritual progenitor of Christians.<ref name"Smith2000">{{cite book |last1Smith |first1Carol |titleThe Ultimate Guide to the Bible |date2000b |publisherBarbour |isbn978-1-57748-824-8 |page91 |languageen}}</ref>
Some Christian theologians equate the "three visitors" with the Holy Trinity, seeing in their apparition a theophany experienced by Abraham<ref nameBucur>{{cite journal |last Bucur |firstBogdan G. |title The Early Christian Reception of Genesis 18: From Theophany to Trinitarian Symbolism |year2015 |pages 245–272 |journalJournal of Early Christian Studies |volume 23 |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |locationBaltimore, MD |number2 |doi 10.1353/earl.2015.0020 |s2cid12888388 |url https://www.duq.edu/assets/Documents/theology/_pdf/faculty-publications/Bucur%20publications/JECS%202015%20Genesis%2018.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.duq.edu/assets/Documents/theology/_pdf/faculty-publications/Bucur%20publications/JECS%202015%20Genesis%2018.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date 1 June 2022}}</ref> (see also the articles on the Constantinian basilica at Mamre and the church at the so-called "Oak of Mamre").
Islam
{{main|Abraham in Islam}}
Islam regards Ibrahim (Abraham) as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad via Ismail (Ishmael).{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=8}}
Ibrāhīm is mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran, more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses.{{sfn|Peters|2003|p9}} He is called both a hanif (monotheist) and muslim (one who submits),{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p200}} and Muslims regard him as a prophet and patriarch, the archetype of the perfect Muslim, and the revered reformer of the Kaaba in Mecca.{{sfn|Lings|2004|p}} Islamic traditions consider Ibrāhīm the first Pioneer of Islam (which is also called millat Ibrahim, the "religion of Abraham"), and that his purpose and mission throughout his life was to proclaim the Oneness of God. In Islam, Abraham holds an exalted position among the major prophets and he is referred to as "Ibrahim Khalilullah", meaning "Abraham the Friend of God".<ref>{{Cite book |lastDavey |firstStephen |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbkkO0QEACAAJ |titleAbraham & Islam |date2011 |publisherWisdom for the Heart |language=en}}</ref>
Besides Ishaq and Yaqub, Ibrahim is among the most honorable and the most excellent men in sight of God.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://en.quranacademy.org/quran/38:45-47|titleSurah 38 Sad (The letter Saad). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy|websiteen.quranacademy.org|access-date13 February 2018|archive-date14 February 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180214073432/https://en.quranacademy.org/quran/38:45-47|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{sfn|Maulana|2006|p104}} Ibrahim was also mentioned in Quran as "Father of Muslims" and the role model for the community.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://en.quranacademy.org/quran/22:78|titleSurah 22 Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy|websiteen.quranacademy.org|access-date26 April 2018|archive-date26 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180426144715/https://en.quranacademy.org/quran/22:78|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://en.quranacademy.org/quran/60:4-6|titleSurah 60 Al-Mumtahanah (She that is to be examined). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy|websiteen.quranacademy.org|access-date26 April 2018|archive-date26 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180426144942/https://en.quranacademy.org/quran/60:4-6|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Druze
The Druze regard Abraham as the third spokesman (natiq) after Adam and Noah, who helped transmit the foundational teachings of monotheism (tawhid) intended for the larger audience.{{sfn|Swayd|2009|p3}} He is also among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history according to the Druze faith.<ref name"Hitti 1928 37">{{cite book|titleThe Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings| first Philip K.|lastHitti|year 1928| isbn978-1465546623| page37 |publisherLibrary of Alexandria}}</ref><ref name"Dana 2008 17">{{cite book|titleThe Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status| first Nissim |lastDana|year 2008| isbn9781903900369| page17 |publisherMichigan University press}}</ref>MandaeismIn Mandaeism, Abraham ({{langx|myz|ࡀࡁࡓࡀࡄࡉࡌ|translitAbrahim}}) is mentioned in Book 18 of the Right Ginza as the patriarch of the Jewish people. Mandaeans consider Abraham to have been originally a Mandaean priest, however they differ with Abraham and Jews regarding circumcision which they consider to be bodily mutilation and therefore forbidden.<ref name"GR Gelbert">{{cite book |urlhttps://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/ |last1Gelbert |first1Carlos |titleGinza Rba |year2011 |publisherLiving Water Books |locationSydney |isbn978-0958034630 |archive-date16 March 2022 |access-date17 February 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220316031021/https://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"GR Lidzbarski">{{cite book|lastLidzbarski|firstMark|date1925|titleGinza: Der Schatz oder Das große Buch der Mandäer|locationGöttingen|publisherVandenhoek & Ruprecht|urlhttps://archive.org/details/MN41563ucmf_2}}</ref><ref name DrowerHaranGawaita>{{cite book|lastDrower|firstEthel Stefana|titleThe Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa|publisherBiblioteca Apostolica Vaticana|year1953}}</ref><ref name"auto2">{{cite book|lastDrower|firstEthel Stefana|titleThe Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran|publisherOxford At The Clarendon Press|year1937}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lastSmith|firstAndrew Phillip|titleJohn the Baptist and the Last Gnostics: the Secret History of the Mandaeans|publisherWatkins|year2016}}</ref>{{rp|18,185}}
Baháʼí Faith
Baháʼís considered Abraham as a Manifestation of God, and as the originator of monotheistic religion.{{Sfn|Smith|2000a|p22, 231}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá states that Abraham was born in Mesopotamia,{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p10}} and Bahá'u'lláh states that the language which Abraham spoke, when "he crossed the Jordan", is Hebrew ('Ibrání), so "the language of the crossing."{{Sfn|Baháʼu'lláh|1976|p54}} To ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the Abraham was born to a family that was ignorant of the oneness of God.{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p4}} Abraham opposed his own people and government, and even his own kin, he rejected all their gods, and, alone and single-handed, he withstood a powerful nation.{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p4}} These people believed not in one God but in many gods, to whom they ascribed miracles, and hence they all rose up against Abraham. No one supported him except his nephew Lot and "one or two other individuals of no consequence".{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p4}} At last the intensity of his enemies' opposition obliged him, utterly wronged, to forsake his native land. Abraham then came to "these regions", that is, to the Holy Land.{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p4}} To Bahá'u'lláh, the "Voice of God" commanded Abraham to offer up Ishmael as a sacrifice, so that his steadfastness in the faith of God and his detachment from all else but him may be demonstrated unto men. The purpose of God, moreover, was to sacrifice him as a ransom for the sins and iniquities of all the peoples of the earth.{{Sfn|Baháʼu'lláh|1976|p23}}
In the Baháʼí texts, like the Islamic texts, Abraham is often referred to as "the Friend of God".{{Sfn|Smith|2000a|p22}} 'Abdu'l-Bahá described Abraham as the founder of monotheism.{{sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|1978|p22}}
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also suggested the "holy manifestations who have been the sources or founders of the various religious systems" were united and agreed in purpose and teaching, and the Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, the Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh are one in "spirit and reality".{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|1912|p118}} Artistic depictions Painting and sculpture
. The hand of God originally came down to restrain Abraham's knife (both are now missing).]]
Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others.{{efn|nameAbeart}} Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable of Lazarus resting in the "Bosom of Abraham", as described in the Gospel of Luke, became an iconic image in Christian works.{{sfn|Exum|2007|p135}} According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the "somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom".{{sfn|Exum|2007|p135}} Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, including Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Caravaggio (1573–1610), Donatello, Raphael, Philip van Dyck (Dutch painter, 1680–1753), and Claude Lorrain (French painter, 1600–1682). Rembrandt (Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) did several, Marc Chagall did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, and James Tissot (French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject.{{efn|nameAbeart}}
The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus depicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marble Early Christian sarcophagus used for the burial of Junius Bassus. He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as "probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture."{{sfn|Rutgers|1993|p}} The sarcophagus was originally placed in or under Old St. Peter's Basilica, was rediscovered in 1597, and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum of St. Peter's Basilica) in the Vatican. The base is approximately {{convert|4|x|8|x|4|ft|m|abbron}}. The Old Testament scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in the New Testament, in an early form of typology. Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac.
George Segal created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 work ''Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael''. The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110429085513/http://www.miamiartmuseum.org/collection-selected-segalgeorge.asp Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. George Segal. Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions.]. Retrieved 10 September 2014.</ref>
Christian iconography
, Serbia]]
Abraham can sometimes be identified by the context of the image{{snd}} the meeting with Melchizedek, the three visitors, or the sacrifice of Isaac. In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his accessory, as in this statue by Giovanni Maria Morlaiter or this painting by Lorenzo Monaco.
As early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christian typology in making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross, and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for example this 11th-century Christian altar engraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.christianiconography.info/abraham.html |titleAbraham the Patriarch in Art – Iconography and Literature |publisherChristian Iconography – a project of Georgia Regents University. |access-date2014-04-18 |archive-date19 April 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140419020651/http://www.christianiconography.info/abraham.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
of Abraham in Heaven from the Holy Mother Church, Ploieşti, Romania]]
Some early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as the triune God. Thus in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, a 5th-century mosaic portrays only the visitors against a gold ground and puts semitransparent copies of them in the "heavenly" space above the scene. In Eastern Orthodox art, the visit is the chief means by which the Trinity is pictured (example). Some images do not include Abraham and Sarah, like Andrei Rublev's Trinity, which shows only the three visitors as beardless youths at a table.<ref nameBoguslawski>{{cite web|lastBoguslawski|firstAlexander|titleThe Holy Trinity|urlhttp://myweb.rollins.edu/aboguslawski/Ruspaint/trinity.html|publisherRollins.edu|access-date3 April 2014}}</ref>LiteratureFear and Trembling (original Danish title: Frygt og Bæven) is an influential philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio (John the Silent). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.{{sfn|Kierkegaard|1980|pp155–156}} W. G. Hardy's novel Father Abraham (1935) tells the fictionalized life story of Abraham.<ref>{{cite news|titleAbraham's Quest For God|lastAllison|firstW. T.|date26 January 1935|newspaperWinnipeg Tribune|locationWinnipeg, Manitoba|page39|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/sports-clipping-jan-26-1935-1458299/|archive-date7 December 2019|access-date23 January 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191207042023/https://newspaperarchive.com/sports-clipping-jan-26-1935-1458299/|url-statuslive}}{{free access}}</ref> In her short story collection Sarah and After, Lynne Reid Banks tells the story of Abraham and Sarah, with an emphasis on Sarah's view of events.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSutherland |firstZena |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUxgsBHor_LgC&dq%22Sarah+and+After%22+Lynne+Reid+Banks&pgPA28 |titleThe Best in Children's Books: The University of Chicago Guide to Children's Literature, 1973–78 |date1980 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |isbn978-0-226-78059-7 |page28 |languageen}}</ref>
Music
In 1681, Marc-Antoine Charpentier released a Dramatic motet (Oratorio), Sacrificim Abrahae H.402 – 402 a – 402 b, for soloists, chorus, doubling instruments and continuo. Sébastien de Brossard composed a cantata ''Abraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac.'' between 1703 and 1708.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://en.opera-scores.com/O/S%C3%A9bastien+de+Brossard/Abraham+ou+le+sacrifice+d'Isaac.html#:~:textComposer:+Brossard+S%C3%A9bastien+de+Full,full+scores+in+pdf|titleCantata: Abraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac Sébastien de Brossard. Sheet music|websiteen.opera-scores.com}}</ref>
In 1994, Steve Reich released an opera named The Cave. The title refers to the Cave of the Patriarchs. The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham, and his immediate family, as it is recounted in religious texts, and understood by individuals from different cultures and religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite web |lastReich |firstSteve |date1990 |titleThe Cave - Steve Reich Composer |urlhttps://stevereich.com/composition/the-cave/ |websitestevereich.com |access-date26 August 2023 |archive-date26 August 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230826204939/https://stevereich.com/composition/the-cave/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited"<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.bobdylan.com/songs/highway-61-revisited/|titleHighway 61 Revisited &#124; The Official Bob Dylan Site|websitewww.bobdylan.com|access-date30 December 2023|archive-date22 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210122041934/http://www.bobdylan.com/songs/highway-61-revisited/|url-statuslive}}</ref> is the title track for his 1965 album Highway 61 Revisited. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.<ref>{{cite news|titleRolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/500songs/page/4|access-date8 August 2008|url-statusdead| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080913125603/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/500songs/page/4| archive-date13 September 2008}}</ref> The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, God tells Abraham to "kill me a son". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.duluthnewstribune.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/from-odessa-to-duluth-the-journey-of-bob-dylans-grandparents|titleFrom Odessa to Duluth: The journey of Bob Dylan's grandparents|date28 March 2022|websiteDuluth News Tribune|access-date30 December 2023|archive-date30 December 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230214919/https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/from-odessa-to-duluth-the-journey-of-bob-dylans-grandparents|url-statuslive}}</ref> See also
{{portal|Judaism|Christianity|Islam}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* Abraham I, II, III (disambiguations)
* Abraham Path
* Abraham's Gate at Tel Dan
* Apocalypse of Abraham
* Book of Abraham
* Nimrod vs. Abraham
* Gathering of Israel
* Genealogies of Genesis
* Ibarum
* Ibrium
* List of oldest fathers
* Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)
* Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions
}}
Notes
{{notelist|30em|refs{{efn|nameAbeart|For a very thorough online collection of links to artwork about Abraham see: {{cite web|urlhttp://www.jesuswalk.com/abraham/abraham-artwork.htm |titleArtwork Depicting Scenes from Abraham's Life|access-date= 25 March 2011}} }}
}}
References
{{reflist|20em}}
Bibliography
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{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}<!-- this template needs {{refend}} at end of this section -->
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* {{cite book |last1Ska |first1Jean Louis |titleThe Exegesis of the Pentateuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions |year2009 |publisherMohr Siebeck |url https://books.google.com/books?id7g4yqsv0S0cC&pgPA30 |isbn=978-3-16-149905-0 }}
* {{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1Nq9lD5wnBMC&qabraham+druze&pgPA3|titleThe a to Z of the Druzes|isbn978-0810868366|last1Swayd|first1Samy S.|year2009|publisherRowman & Littlefield }}
* {{cite book |lastSmith | firstPeter |author-linkPeter Smith (historian) |date2000a |titleA Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |publisherOneworld Publications |isbn978-1780744803|access-dateDecember 26, 2020|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpYfrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT71}}
* {{cite book |lastThompson |firstThomas L. |titleThe Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham |publisherWalter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |author-linkThomas L. Thompson |locationBerlin/Boston |year2016 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY0iHDwAAQBAJ&pgPA23 |isbn978-3-11-084144-2 |orig-date1974 }}
* {{cite book|last1Waters|first1Guy P.|last2Reid|first2J. Nicholas |last3Muether|first3John R. |titleCovenant Theology: Biblical, Theological, and Historical Perspectives|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl0gAEAAAQBAJ|year2020|publisherCrossway|isbn978-1-4335-6006-4}}
* {{cite book|lastWright|firstChristopher J. H. |author-linkChristopher J. H. Wright|titleThe Mission of God's People: A Biblical Theology of the Church's Mission|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idG_2QnrMdwNQC&pgPA72|year2010|publisherZondervan |isbn978-0-310-32303-7}}
{{refend}}<!-- PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE THIS TEMPLATE -->
External links
{{EBD poster|wstitle=Abraham}}
{{EB1911 poster|Abraham}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.azamra.org/Earth/mount-03.html Abraham smashes the idols] (accessed 24 March 2011).
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2890 "Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham"], a map dating back to 1590.
* [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KI/ki-1.html Kitáb-i-Íqán]
{{Legendary progenitors}}
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{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Book of Genesis}}
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Category:Vayeira | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.850539 |
1437 | Abraxas | {{short description|Mystical word of Gnostic origins that carries many meanings, including as a proper name}}
{{Other uses}}
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2020}}
{{gnosticism}}
Abraxas ({{langx|grc-x-biblical|ἀβραξάς|abraxas}}, variant form {{lang|grc-x-biblical|ἀβράναξ}} <small>romanized:</small> {{transl|grc|abranax}})<!--9,380 hits on Google scholar for Abraxas, vs 934 for Abrasax--> is a word of mystic meaning in the system of the Gnostic Basilides, being there applied to the "Great Archon" ({{transl|grc|megas archōn}}), the princeps of the 365 spheres ({{transl|grc|ouranoi}}).<ref>{{cite web |titleABRASAX, ab´rɑ-sax (ABRAXAS, ab-rax´as) |urlhttps://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.html?termAbrasax |websitewww.ccel.org |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304132032/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.html?termAbrasax |archive-date2016-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781444338386 |titleThe Encyclopedia of Ancient History |date2013-01-21 |publisherWiley |isbn978-1-4051-7935-5 |editor-lastBagnall |editor-firstRoger S |edition1 |languageen |doi10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah17001 |editor-last2Brodersen |editor-first2Kai |editor-last3Champion |editor-first3Craige B |editor-last4Erskine |editor-first4Andrew |editor-last5Huebner |editor-first5Sabine R |editor-link5Sabine R. Huebner }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastSmith |firstAndrew Phillip |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh1tbBgAAQBAJ&dq%22Abraxas%22+gnosticism&pgPR7 |titleA Dictionary of Gnosticism |date2014-03-17 |publisherQuest Books |isbn978-0-8356-3097-9 |languageen}}</ref> The word is found in Gnostic texts such as the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, and also appears in the Greek Magical Papyri. It was engraved on certain antique gemstones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used as amulets or charms.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbraxas|volume1|page72}}</ref> As the initial spelling on stones was {{transl|grc|Abrasax}} ({{lang|grc-x-biblical|Αβρασαξ}}), the spelling of {{transl|grc|Abraxas}} seen today probably originates in the confusion made between the Greek letters sigma (Σ) and xi (Ξ) in the Latin transliteration.
The seven letters spelling its name may represent each of the seven classic planets.{{sfn|Mead|1906|p=402}} The word may be related to Abracadabra, although other explanations exist.
There are similarities and differences between such figures in reports about Basilides's teaching, ancient Gnostic texts, the larger Greco-Roman magical traditions, and modern magical and esoteric writings. Speculations have proliferated on Abraxas in recent centuries, which has been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon.<ref>"Demonographers have made him a demon, who has the head of a king and serpents for feet." {{cite book |lastCollin de Plancy |firstJacques Auguste Simon |titleDictionnaire Infernal |year1818 |chapterAbracax or Abraxas |author-linkCollin de Plancy |chapter-urlhttp://www.lucifer.tw/fantasy/artist/devil/pic/plancy.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130120231703/http://www.lucifer.tw/fantasy/artist/devil/pic/plancy.pdf |archive-date20 Jan 2013}}</ref> Etymology Gaius Julius Hyginus (Fab. 183) gives Abrax Aslo Therbeeo as names of horses of the sun mentioned by 'Homerus'.{{Citation needed|dateFebruary 2023}} The passage is miserably corrupt, but it may not be accidental that the first three syllables make Abraxas.
The proper form of the name is evidently Abrasax, as with the Greek writers, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, Didymus (De Trin. iii. 42), and Theodoret; also Augustine and Praedestinatus; and in nearly all the legends on gems. By a probably euphonic inversion the translator of Irenaeus and the other Latin authors have Abraxas, which is found in the magical papyri, and even, though most sparingly, on engraved stones.
The attempts to discover a derivation for the name, Greek, Hebrew, Coptic, or other, have not been entirely successful:
Egyptian
Chuvash linguists, the word was translated as Ouroboros
* Claudius Salmasius (1588–1653) thought it Egyptian, but never gave the proofs which he promised.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}
*J. J. Bellermann thinks it is a compound of the Egyptian words {{Lang|egy|abrak}} and {{Lang|egy|sax}}, meaning "the honorable and hallowed word", or "the word is adorable".<ref>{{Cite web |titlePhilip Schaff: New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. I: Aachen - Basilians - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |urlhttps://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.html?termabrasax |access-date2025-02-26 |website=www.ccel.org}}</ref>
* Samuel Sharpe finds in it an Egyptian invocation to the Godhead, meaning "hurt me not".<ref name"Sharpe_1870">{{cite book |lastSharpe |firstSamuel |date 1870 |titleThe History of Egypt: From the Earliest Times Till the Conquest by the Arabs, A.D. 640, Volume 2 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQw0GAAAAQAAJ&qabraxas |locationLondon, United Kingdom |publisherBell & Daldy |page172}}</ref> Hebrew * Abraham Geiger sees in it a Grecized form of {{Lang|he-latn|Ha-Brachah}}, "The Blessing." Charles William King supports this gloss, citing a similar translation of the word abracadabra as {{Lang|he-latn|Ha-Brachah-dabarata}}, "Pronounce the Blessing."{{sfn|King|1887|pp251-252}}
*J. B. Passerius derives it from {{Lang|he-latn|abh}}, "father", {{Lang|he-latn|bara}}, "to create", and {{Lang|he-latn|a-}} negative—"the uncreated Father".{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}
*Giuseppe Barzilai goes back for explanation to the first verse of the prayer attributed to Nehunya ben HaKanah, the literal rendering of which is "O [God], with thy mighty right hand deliver the unhappy [people]", forming from the initial and final letters of the words the word Abrakd (pronounced Abrakad), with the meaning "the host of the winged ones", i.e., angels. While this theory can explain the mystic word Abracadabra, the association of this phrase with Abraxas is uncertain.{{Citation needed|dateFebruary 2023}} Greek * Wendelin discovers a compound of the initial letters, amounting to 365 in numerical value, of four Hebrew and three Greek words, all written with Greek characters: {{transl|grc|ab, ben, rouach, hakadōs; sōtēria apo xylou}} ("Father, Son, Spirit, holy; salvation from the cross").<ref name"Funk and Wagnalls Company">{{Cite book |last1Herzog |first1Johann Jakob |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqxEMAAAAIAAJ |titleThe New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge: Embracing Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology and Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Biography from the Earliest Times to the Present Day |last2Hauck |first2Albert |last3Jackson |first3Samuel Macauley |last4Sherman |first4Charles Colebrook |last5Gilmore |first5George William |date1908 |publisherFunk and Wagnalls Company |pages17 |language=en}}</ref>
*According to a note of Isaac de Beausobre's, Jean Hardouin accepted the first three of these, taking the four others for the initials of the Greek {{Lang|grc-latn|anthrōpoussōzōn hagiōi xylōi}}, "saving mankind by the holy cross".<ref name="Funk and Wagnalls Company"/>
* Isaac de Beausobre derives Abraxas from the Greek {{Lang|grc-latn|habros}} and {{Lang|grc-latn|saō}}, "the beautiful, the glorious Savior".<ref name="Funk and Wagnalls Company"/>
Perhaps the word may be included among those mysterious expressions discussed by Adolf von Harnack,{{sfn|Harnack|1891|pp=86–89}} "which belong to no known speech, and by their singular collocation of vowels and consonants give evidence that they belong to some mystic dialect, or take their origin from some supposed divine inspiration".
The Egyptian author of the book De Mysteriis in reply to Porphyry (vii. 4) admits a preference of 'barbarous' to vernacular names in sacred things, urging a peculiar sanctity in the languages of certain nations, as the Egyptians and Assyrians; and Origen (Contra Cels. i. 24) refers to the 'potent names' used by Egyptian sages, Persian Magi, and Indian Brahmins, signifying deities in the several languages.{{Citation needed|dateFebruary 2023}} Sources It is uncertain what the actual role and function of Abraxas was in the Basilidian system, as our authorities (see below) often show no direct acquaintance with the doctrines of Basilides himself. As an archon In the system described by Irenaeus, "the Unbegotten Father" is the progenitor of Nous "Discerning Mind"; Nous produced Logos "Word, Reason"; Logos produced Phronesis "Mindfulness"; Phronesis produced Sophia "Wisdom" and Dynamis "Potentiality"; Sophia and Dynamis produced the principalities, powers, and angels, the last of whom create "the first heaven". They, in turn, originate a second series, who create a second heaven. The process continues in like manner until 365 heavens are in existence, the angels of the last or visible heaven being the authors of our world.<ref name"EB1911"/> "The ruler" [principem, i.e., probably ton archonta] of the 365 heavens "is Abraxas, and for this reason he contains within himself 365 numbers".
The name occurs in the Refutation of All Heresies (vii. 26) by Hippolytus, who appears in these chapters to have followed the Exegetica of Basilides. After describing the manifestation of the Gospel in the Ogdoad and Hebdomad, he adds that the Basilidians have a long account of the innumerable creations and powers in the several 'stages' of the upper world (diastemata), in which they speak of 365 heavens and say that "their great archon" is Abrasax, because his name contains the number 365, the number of the days in the year; i.e. the sum of the numbers denoted by the Greek letters in ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ according to the rules of isopsephy is 365:
{{block indent|1Α 1, Β 2, Ρ 100, Α 1, Σ 200, Α 1, Ξ 60}}
As a god
Epiphanius (Haer. 69, 73 f.) appears to follow partly Irenaeus, partly the lost Compendium of Hippolytus.<ref>Lipsius, R. A., Zur Quellenkritik d. Epiphanios 99 f.</ref> He designates Abraxas more distinctly as "the power above all, and First Principle", "the cause and first archetype" of all things; and mentions that the Basilidians referred to 365 as the number of parts (mele) in the human body, as well as of days in the year.
The author of the appendix to Tertullian De Praescr. Haer. (c. 4), who likewise follows Hippolytus's Compendium,<ref>Lipsius 33 f. &c.</ref> adds some further particulars; that 'Abraxas' gave birth to Mind (nous), the first in the series of primary powers enumerated likewise by Irenaeus and Epiphanius; that the world, as well as the 365 heavens, was created in honour of 'Abraxas'; and that Christ was sent not by the Maker of the world but by 'Abraxas'.
Nothing can be built on the vague allusions of Jerome, according to whom 'Abraxas' meant for Basilides "the greatest God" (De vir. ill. 21), "the highest God" (Dial. adv. Lucif. 23), "the Almighty God" (Comm. in Amos iii. 9), and "the Lord the Creator" (Comm. in Nah. i. 11). The notices in Theodoret (Haer. fab. i. 4), Augustine (Haer. 4), and 'Praedestinatus' (i. 3), have no independent value.
It is evident from these particulars that Abrasax was the name of the first of the 365 Archons, and accordingly stood below Sophia and Dynamis and their progenitors; but his position is not expressly stated, so that the writer of the supplement to Tertullian had some excuse for confusing him with "the Supreme God".
As an aeon
With the availability of primary sources, such as those in the Nag Hammadi library, the identity of Abraxas remains unclear. The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, for instance, refers to Abraxas as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Pleroma in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Pleroma that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality.
As a demon
The Catholic church later deemed Abraxas a pagan god, and ultimately branded him a demon as documented in J. Collin de Plancy's Infernal Dictionary, Abraxas (or Abracax) is labeled the "supreme God" of the Basilidians, whom he describes as "heretics of the second century". He further indicated the Basilidians attributed to Abraxas the rule over "365 skies" and "365 virtues". In a final statement on Basilidians, de Plancy states that their view was that Jesus Christ was merely a "benevolent ghost sent on Earth by Abraxas".{{sfn|de Plancy|2015|p764}} Abraxas stones
A vast number of engraved stones are in existence, to which the name "Abraxas-stones" has long been given. One particularly fine example was included as part of the Thetford treasure from fourth century Norfolk, England. The subjects are mythological, and chiefly grotesque, with various inscriptions, in which ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ often occurs, alone or with other words. Sometimes the whole space is taken up with the inscription. In certain obscure magical writings of Egyptian origin ἀβραξάς or ἀβρασάξ is found associated with other names which frequently accompany it on gems;{{sfn|Reuvens|1830}} it is also found on the Greek metal tesseræ among other mystic words. The meaning of the legends is seldom intelligible: but some of the gems are amulets; and the same may be the case with nearly all.
's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' (Band 2,2 page 358 ff plaque 144) with different images of Abraxas.]]
*The Abraxas-image alone, without external Iconisms, and either without, or but a simple, inscription. The Abrasax-imago proper is usually found with a shield, a sphere or wreath and whip, a sword or sceptre, a cock's head, the body clad with armor, and a serpent's tail. There are, however, innumerable modifications of these figures: Lions', hawks', and eagles' skins, with or without mottos, with or without a trident and star, and with or without reverses.
*'Abraxas combined with other Gnostic Powers. If, in a single instance, this supreme being was represented in connection with powers of subordinate rank, nothing could have been more natural than to represent it also in combination with its emanations, the seven superior spirits, the thirty Aeons, and the three hundred and sixty-five cosmical Genii; and yet this occurs upon none of the relics as yet discovered, whilst those with Powers not belonging to the Gnostic system are frequently met with.
*Abraxas with Jewish symbols.' This combination predominates, not indeed with symbolical figures, but in the form of inscriptions, such as: Iao, Eloai, Adonai, Sabaoth, Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Onoel, Ananoel, Raphael, Japlael, and many others. The name ΙΑΩ, to which ΣΑΒΑΩΘ is sometimes added, is found with this figure even more frequently than ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ, and they are often combined. Beside an Abrasax figure the following, for instance, is found: ΙΑΩ ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ ΑΔΩΝ ΑΤΑ, "Iao Abrasax, thou art the Lord".{{sfn|Bellermann|1819|lociii., No. 10}} With the Abrasax-shield are also found the divine names Sabaoth Iao, Iao Abrasax, Adonai Abrasax, etc.{{sfn|Baudissin|1876|p189}}
*Abraxas with Persian deities. Chiefly, perhaps exclusively, in combination with Mithras, and possibly a few specimens with the mystical gradations of mithriaca, upon Gnostic relics.
*Abraxas with Egyptian deities. It is represented as a figure, with the sun-god Phre leading his chariot, or standing upon a lion borne by a crocodile; also as a name, in connection with Isis, Phtha, Neith, Athor, Thot, Anubis, Horus, and Harpocrates in a Lotus-leaf; also with a representation of the Nile, the symbol of prolificacy, with Agathodaemon (Chnuphis), or with scarabs, the symbols of the revivifying energies of nature.
*Abraxas with Grecian deities, sometimes as a figure, and again with the simple name, in connection with the planets, especially Venus, Hecate, and Zeus, richly engraved.
*Simple or ornamental representations of the journey of departed spirits through the starry world to Amenti, borrowed, as those above-named, from the Egyptian religion. The spirit wafted from the earth, either with or without the corpse, and transformed at times into Osiris or Helios, is depicted as riding upon the back of a crocodile, or lion, guided in some instances by Anubis, and other genii, and surrounded by stars; and thus attended hastening to judgment and a higher life.
*Representations of the judgment, which, like the preceding, are either ornamental or plain, and imitations of Egyptian art, with slight modifications and prominent symbols, as the vessel in which Anubis weighs the human heart, as comprehending the entire life of man, with all its errors.
*Worship and consecrating services were, according to the testimony of Origen in his description of the ophitic diagram, conducted with figurative representations in the secret assemblies of the Gnostics unless indeed the statement on which this opinion rests designates, as it readily may, a statue of glyptic workmanship. It is uncertain if any of the discovered specimens actually represent the Gnostic cultus and religious ceremonies, although upon some may be seen an Abrasax-figure laying its hand upon a person kneeling, as though for baptism or benediction.
*Astrological groups. The Gnostics referred everything to astrology. Even the Bardesenists located the inferior powers, the seven, twelve and thirty-six, among the planets, in the zodiac and starry region, as rulers of the celestial phenomena which influence the earth and its inhabitants. Birth and health, wealth and allotment, are considered to be mainly under their control. Other sects betray still stronger partiality for astrological conceits. Many of these specimens also are improperly ascribed to Gnosticism, but the Gnostic origin of others is too manifest to allow of contradiction.
*Inscriptions, of which there are three kinds:
**Those destitute of symbols or iconisms, engraved upon stone, iron, lead and silver plates, in Greek, Latin, Coptic or other languages, of amuletic import, and in the form of prayers for health and protection.
**Those with some symbol, as a serpent in an oval form.
**Those with iconisms, at times very small, but often made the prominent object, so that the legend is limited to a single word or name. Sometimes the legends are as important as the images. It is remarkable, however, that thus far none of the plates or medals found seem to have any of the forms or prayers reported by Origen. It is necessary to distinguish those specimens that belong to the proper Gnostic period from such as are indisputably of later origin, especially since there is a strong temptation to place those of more recent date among the older class.
Gallery
<gallery caption="Prints from Bernard de Montfaucon's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures (Band 2,2) page 358 ff.">
File:Montfaucon 358 Abraxas.xcf|Plaque 144
File:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 145.xcf|Plaque 145
File:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 146.xcf|Plaque 146
File:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 147.xcf|Plaque 147
File:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 148.xcf|Plaque 148
File:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 149.xcf|Plaque 149
</gallery>
Anguipede
In a great majority of instances the name Abraxas is associated with a singular composite figure, having a Chimera-like appearance somewhat resembling a basilisk or the Greek primordial god Chronos (not to be confused with the Greek titan Cronus). According to E. A. Wallis Budge, "as a Pantheus, i.e. All-God, he appears on the amulets with the head of a cock (Phœbus) or of a lion (Ra or Mithras), the body of a man, and his legs are serpents which terminate in scorpions, types of the Agathodaimon. In his right hand he grasps a club, or a flail, and in his left is a round or oval shield." This form was also referred to as the Anguipede. Budge surmised that Abrasax was "a form of the Adam Kadmon of the Kabbalists and the Primal Man whom God made in His own image".{{sfn|Budge|1930|pp = 209–210}}
Some parts at least of the figure mentioned above are solar symbols, and the Basilidian Abrasax is manifestly connected with the sun. J. J. Bellermann has speculated that "the whole represents the Supreme Being, with his Five great Emanations, each one pointed out by means of an expressive emblem. Thus, from the human body, the usual form assigned to the Deity, forasmuch as it is written that God created man in his own image, issue the two supporters, Nous and Logos'', symbols of the inner sense and the quickening understanding, as typified by the serpents, for the same reason that had induced the old Greeks to assign this reptile for an attribute to Pallas. His head—a cock's—represents Phronesis, the fowl being emblematical of foresight and vigilance. His two hands bear the badges of Sophia and Dynamis, the shield of Wisdom, and the scourge of Power."{{sfn|King|1887 | p246}} Origin In the absence of other evidence to show the origin of these curious relics of antiquity the occurrence of a name known as Basilidian on patristic authority has not unnaturally been taken as a sufficient mark of origin, and the early collectors and critics assumed this whole group to be the work of Gnostics. During the last three centuries attempts have been made to sift away successively those gems that had no claim to be considered in any sense Gnostic, or specially Basilidian, or connected with Abrasax. The subject is one which has exercised the ingenuity of many savants, but it may be said that all the engraved stones fall into three classes:<ref name"Leclercq1913">{{catholic|wstitleAbrasax|inlineyes|lastLeclercq|firstHenri|volume1|year1913}}</ref>
* Abraxas, or stones of Basilidian origin<ref name="Leclercq1913"/>
* Abraxastes, or stones originating in ancient forms of worship and adapted by the Gnostics<ref name="Leclercq1913"/>
* Abraxoïdes, or stones absolutely unconnected with the doctrine of Basilides<ref name="Leclercq1913"/>
While it would be rash to assert positively that no existing gems were the work of Gnostics, there is no valid reason for attributing all of them to such an origin. The fact that the name occurs on these gems in connection with representations of figures with the head of a cock, a lion, or an ass, and the tail of a serpent was formerly taken in the light of what Irenaeus says about the followers of Basilides:
{{blockquote|These men, moreover, practise magic, and use images, incantations, invocations, and every other kind of curious art. Coining also certain names as if they were those of the angels, they proclaim some of these as belonging to the first, and others to the second heaven; and then they strive to set forth the names, principles, angels, and powers of the 365 imagined heavens.|Adversus hæreses, I. xxiv. 5; cf. Epiph. Haer. 69 D; Philastr. Suer. 32}}
Incantations by mystic names were characteristic of the hybrid Gnosticism planted in Spain and southern Gaul at the end of the fourth century and at the beginning of the fifth, which Jerome connects with Basilides and which (according to his Epist., lxxv.) used the name Abraxas.
It is therefore not unlikely that some Gnostics used amulets, though the confident assertions of modern writers to this effect rest on no authority. Isaac de Beausobre properly calls attention to the significant silence of Clement in the two passages in which he instructs the Christians of Alexandria on the right use of rings and gems, and the figures which may legitimately be engraved on them (Paed. 241 ff.; 287 ff.). But no attempt to identify the figures on existing gems with the personages of Gnostic mythology has had any success, and Abraxas is the only Gnostic term found in the accompanying legends that is not known to belong to other religions or mythologies. The present state of the evidence therefore suggests that their engravers and the Basilidians received the mystic name from a common source now unknown.
Magical papyri
Having due regard to the magic papyri, in which many of the unintelligible names of the Abrasax-stones reappear, besides directions for making and using gems with similar figures and formulas for magical purposes, it can scarcely be doubted that many of these stones are pagan amulets and instruments of magic.
The magic papyri reflect the same ideas as the Abrasax-gems and often bear Hebraic names of God.<ref name"BlauKohler"/> The following example is illustrative: "I conjure you by Iaō Sabaōth Adōnai Abrasax, and by the great god, Iaeō".{{sfn|Betz|1996}}<ref>Wessely, Neue Zauberpapyri, p. 27, No. 229.</ref> The patriarchs are sometimes addressed as deities; for which fact many instances may be adduced. In the group "Iakoubia, Iaōsabaōth Adōnai Abrasax",{{sfn|Betz|1996}}{{sfn|Betz|1996|p44}} the first name seems to be composed of Jacob and Ya. Similarly, entities considered angels in Judaism are invoked as gods alongside Abrasax: thus "I conjure you&nbsp;... by the god Michaēl, by the god Souriēl, by the god Gabriēl, by the god Raphaēl, by the god Abrasax Ablathanalba Akrammachari&nbsp;...".{{sfn|Betz|1996}}
In text PGM V. 96–172, Abraxas is identified as part of the "true name which has been transmitted to the prophets of Israel" of the "Headless One, who created heaven and earth, who created night and day&nbsp;... Osoronnophris whom none has ever seen&nbsp;... awesome and invisible god with an empty spirit"; the name also includes Iaō and Adōnai.{{sfn|Betz|1996}} "Osoronnophris" represents Egyptian Wsir Wn-nfr, "Osiris the Perfect Being".{{sfn|Betz|1996}} Another identification with Osiris is made in PGM VII. 643-51: "you are not wine, but the guts of Osiris, the guts of&nbsp;... Ablanathanalba Akrammachamarei Eee, who has been stationed over necessity, Iakoub Ia Iaō Sabaōth Adōnai Abrasax."{{sfn|Betz|1996}} PGM VIII. 1-63, on the other hand, identifies Abraxas as a name of "Hermes" (i.e. Thoth).{{sfn|Betz|1996}} Here the numerological properties of the name are invoked, with its seven letters corresponding to the seven planets and its isopsephic value of 365 corresponding to the days of the year.{{sfn|Betz|1996}} Thoth is also identified with Abrasax in PGM LXXIX. 1-7: "I am the soul of darkness, Abrasax, the eternal one, Michaēl, but my true name is Thōouth, Thōouth."{{sfn|Betz|1996}}
One papyrus titled the "Monad" or the "Eighth Book of Moses" (PGM XIII. 1–343) contains an invocation to a supreme creator God; Abraxas is given as being the name of this God in the language of the baboons.{{sfn|Betz|1996}} The papyrus goes on to describe a cosmogonic myth about Abraxas, describing how he created the Ogdoad by laughing. His first laughter created light; his second divided the primordial waters; his third created the mind; his fourth created fertility and procreation; his fifth created fate; his sixth created time (as the sun and moon); and his seventh and final laughter created the soul.{{sfn|Betz|1996}} Then, from various sounds made by Abrasax, there arose the serpent Python who "foreknew all things", the first man (or Fear), and the god Iaō, "who is lord of all".{{sfn|Betz|1996}} The man fought with Iaō, and Abrasax declared that Iaō's power would derive from both of the others, and that Iaō would take precedence over all the other gods.{{sfn|Betz|1996}} This text also describes Helios as an archangel of God/Abrasax.{{sfn|Betz|1996}}
The Leyden Papyrus recommends that this invocation be pronounced to the moon:
{{blockquote|[24] Ho! Sax, Amun, Sax, Abraxas; for thou art the moon, (25) the chief of the stars, he that did form them, listen to the things that I have(?) said, follow the (words) of my mouth, reveal thyself to me, Than, (26) Thana, Thanatha, otherwise Thei, this is my correct name.{{sfn|Griffith|1904|loc=[http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/dmp/dmp26.htm Col. XXIII]}}}}
The magic word "Ablanathanalba", which reads in Greek the same backward as forward, also occurs in the Abraxas-stones as well as in the magic papyri. This word is usually conceded to be derived from the Hebrew (Aramaic), meaning "Thou art our father" (אב לן את), and also occurs in connection with Abraxas; the following inscription is found upon a metal plate in the Karlsruhe Museum:<ref name"BlauKohler">{{Cite Jewish Encyclopedia|titleAbraxas|last1Blau|first1Ludwig|last2Kohler|first2Kaufmann|pages129–130|urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid633&letterA}}</ref>
{{poemquote|style=text-align:center|АВРАΣАΞ
ΑΒΛΑΝΑΘ
ΑΝΑΛΒΑ}}
In architecture
* Les Espaces d'Abraxas is a high-density housing complex in Noisy-le-Grand near Paris, France designed by Spanish architect Ricardo Bofill and opened in 1983.
In literature
{{unordered list
| In the 1516 novel Utopia by Thomas More, the island called Utopia once had the name "Abraxa", which scholars have suggested is a related use.{{sfn|More|Armes|1891|p=268}}
| Jacques Collin de Plancy's {{lang|fr|Dictionnaire Infernal}} (Infernal Dictionary), published in 1818, states that Abraxas (or Abracax) was an anguipede (a deity represented with snake feet) pagan God of "Asian theogonies" with a "rooster's head, dragon's feet and a whip in his hand". De Plancy says that demonologists describe Abraxas as a demon having a "king's head and snakes in lieu of feet".{{sfn|de Plancy|2015|p=764}}
| Abrasax is invoked in Aleister Crowley's 1913 work, "The Gnostic Mass" of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica:
{{blockquote|IO IO IO IAO SABAO KURIE ABRASAX KURIE MEITHRAS KURIE PHALLE. IO PAN, IO PAN PAN IO ISCHUROS, IO ATHANATOS IO ABROTOS IO IAO. KAIRE PHALLE KAIRE PAMPHAGE KAIRE PANGENETOR. HAGIOS, HAGIOS, HAGIOS IAO.<ref>[http://www.scarletwoman.org/docs/docs_mass.html Gnostic Mass, Liber XV, Ecclesiæ Gnosticæ Catholicæ Canon Missæ], hosted by the Scarlet Woman Lodge of Ordo Templi Orientis in Austin, Texas.</ref>}}
| Abraxas is an important figure in Carl Jung's 1916 book Seven Sermons to the Dead, a representation of the driving force of individuation (synthesis, maturity, oneness), referred with the figures for the driving forces of differentiation (emergence of consciousness and opposites), Helios God-the-Sun, and the Devil.{{sfn|Hoeller|2009|p=77}}
{{blockquote|There is a God about whom you know nothing, because men have forgotten him. We call him by his name: Abraxas. He is less definite than God or Devil.&nbsp;...
Abraxas is activity: nothing can resist him but the unreal&nbsp;... Abraxas stands above the sun[-god] and above the devil&nbsp; If the Pleroma were capable of having a being, Abraxas would be its manifestation.|2nd Sermon}}
{{blockquote|That which is spoken by God-the-Sun is life; that which is spoken by the Devil is death; Abraxas speaketh that hallowed and accursed word, which is life and death at the same time. Abraxas begetteth truth and lying, good and evil, light and darkness in the same word and in the same act. Wherefore is Abraxas terrible.|3rd Sermon}}
| Several references to the god Abraxas appear in Hermann Hesse's 1919 novel Demian, such as:
{{blockquote|The bird fights its way out of the egg. The egg is the world. Who would be born must first destroy a world. The bird flies to God. That God's name is Abraxas.|Max Demian}}
{{blockquote|... it appears that Abraxas has much deeper significance. We may conceive of the name as that of the godhead whose symbolic task is the uniting of godly and devilish elements.|Dr. Follens}}
{{blockquote|Abraxas doesn't take exception to any of your thoughts or any of your dreams. Never forget that. But he will leave you once you become blameless and normal.|Pistorius}}
| In James Branch Cabell's novel Jurgen (1919) in Chapter 44: In the Manager's Office, Koshchei, who made all things as they are, when identified as Koshchei the Deathless, calls himself "Koshchei, or Adnari, or Ptha, or Jaldalaoth, or Abraxas—it is all one what I may be called hereabouts." Since Jung wrote about Koshchei (see above) in 1916, and Jurgen was published in 1919, Cabell might well have been familiar with Jung's treatise when he used the name.
| Salman Rushdie's novel ''Midnight's Children (1981) contains a reference to Abraxas in the chapter "Abracadabra":
{{blockquote|Abracadabra: not an Indian word at all, a cabbalistic formula derived from the name of the supreme god of the Basilidan gnostics, containing the number 365, the number of the days of the year, and of the heavens, and of the spirits emanating from the god Abraxas.|Saleem Sinai}}
}}
In popular culture
*In the L word Season 1, the character Jennifer Schechter writes a story with a demon called Abraxas
*The band Santana's second studio album was called "Abraxas." It was released September 23, 1970.
*In Foundation'', the Abraxas Conjecture is a mathematic proof that was unsolved for over five hundred years. Gaal Dornick solved Abraxas using Kalle's Ninth Proof of Folding.
*In the 2021 immersive sim video game Cruelty Squad, developed and published by artist Ville Kallio, Abraxas appears as the final assassination target in the game's final level, "Archon Grid."
*In the 2022 folk horror video game ''The Excavation of Hob's Barrow'', published by Wadjet Eye Games, Abraxas features as a long-dormant god/demon inspired by the original Gnostic mythology.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Gnostic Horror of The Excavation of Hob's Barrow |date 23 November 2022 |urlhttps://www.mashxtomuse.com/single-post/the-gnostic-horror-of-the-excavation-of-hob-s-barrow |publisher Mash X to Muse}}</ref>
*The 2023 horror movie Late Night with the Devil includes mention of a fictional cult that worships Abraxas.<ref>{{Cite web |lastHaysom |firstSam |date2024-03-22 |title'Late Night with the Devil's disturbing ending, explained |urlhttps://mashable.com/article/late-night-with-the-devil-ending-explainer |access-date2024-04-07 |websiteMashable |languageen}}</ref>
*In the 2023–2024 South Korean television series My Demon, Abraxas is the pseudonym of one of the antagonist in the series and mention a passage in the book, Demian.
*The videogame franchise Megami Tensei includes Abraxas as a recurring demon.
*The original Charmed includes Abraxas as demon who tries to steal the book of shadows in season 2 episode 1.
*In the 2024 episodic adventure video game Life Is Strange: Double Exposure, Abraxas is the name of a collegiate secret society.
See also
* Arimanius
* Chronos
* Sator Square
References
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
Works cited
* {{cite book |last1Baudissin |first1Wolf Wilhelm von |titleStudien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte: 1.: Heft 1 |date1876 |publisherFr. Wilhelm Grunow |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id42PjwZWtWgUC |access-date26 April 2020 |language=de}}
* {{cite book |last1Bellermann |first1Johann Joachim |titleVersuch über die Gemmen der Alten mit dem Abraxas-Bilde |date1819 |publisherDieterici |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idurROAAAAcAAJ |access-date26 April 2020 |language=de}}
* {{cite book |last1Betz |first1Hans Dieter |titleThe Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, Including the Demotic Spells |volume1 |date1996 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |isbn978-0-226-04447-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=K0hCj5u3HNQC }}
* {{cite book |last1Budge |first1Ernest Alfred Wallis |titleAmulets and superstitions |date1930 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
* {{cite book |last1Griffith |first1Francis Llewellyn |titleThe demotic magical papyrus of London and Leiden |date1904 |publisherClarendon Press |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=fbokvwEACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1Harnack |first1Adolf von |titleÜber das gnostische buch Pistis-sophia. Brod und Wasser: die eucharistischen elemente bei Justin: Zwei Untersuchungen |date1891 |publisherJ. C. Hinrichs |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXcQXyQEACAAJ |languagede}}
* {{cite book |last1Hoeller |first1Stephan A. |titleThe Gnostic Jung and the Seven Sermons to the Dead |date2009 |publisherQuest Books |isbn978-0-8356-3024-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjlFbBgAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1King |first1Charles William |titleThe Gnostics and Their Remains: Ancient and Mediaeval |date1887 |publisherD. Nutt |urlhttps://archive.org/details/gnosticsandtheir00kinguoft }}
* {{cite book|lastMead|firstG. R. S.|chapter-urlhttps://www.sacred-texts.com/gno/th1/th145.htm|chapterXI. Concerning the Æon-Doctrine|titleThrice-Greatest Hermes|volume1|year1906|locationLondon and Benares|publisher=The Theosophical Publishing Society }}
* {{cite book |last1More |first1Thomas |last2Armes |first2William Dallam |titleUtopia |date1891 |publisherColumbian Publishing Company |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=DVhJAAAAYAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1de Plancy |first1J. Colli |titleInfernal Dictionary |editionDeluxe |date2015 |publisherAbracax House |isbn978-0-9903427-3-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=5pt6tAEACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1Ralls |first1Karen |titleKnights Templar Encyclopedia |date2007 |publisherRed Wheel/Weiser |isbn978-1-56414-926-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-9pEDwAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1Reuvens |first1Casparus Jacobus Christianus |titleLettres à m. Letronne ... sur les papyrus bilingues et grecs, et sur quelques autres monumens gréco-égyptiens du Musée d'antiquités de l'université de Leide |date1830 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3IJUl7NcooQC |languagefr}}General references* {{cite book|firstC.|lastSalmasius|titleDe armis climactericis|page572|locationLeyden|year=1648}}
*Wendelin, in a letter in {{cite book|titleJ. Macarii Abraxas ... accedit Abraxas Proteus, seu multiformis gemmæ Basilidainæ portentosa varietas, exhibita ... a J. Chifletio|pages112–115|locationAntwerp|year1657}}
* {{cite book|firstI. |lastde Beausobre|titleHistoire critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme|volumeii|pages50–69|locationAmsterdam|year=1739}}
* {{cite book|firstJ. B. |lastPasserius|titleDe gemmis Basilidianis diatriba, in Gori, Thesaurus gemmarum antiquarum astriferarum, ii. |pages221–286|locationFlorence|year1750}}
* {{cite book|author1Tubières de Grimvard |author2Count de Caylus |titleRecueil d'antiquités, vi|pages65–66|locationParis|year1764}}
* {{cite book|firstF. |lastMünter|titleVersuch über die kirchlichen Alterthümer der Gnostiker|pages203–214|locationAnspach|year1790}}
* {{cite book|firstJ. |lastMatter|titleHistoire critique du Gnosticisme|volumei|locationParis|year1828}}
*Idem, Abraxas in Herzog, RE, 2d ed., 1877.
* {{cite book|firstS. |lastSharpe|titleEgyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity|page252, note|locationLondon|year1863|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/emec/index.htm}}
* {{cite journal|lastGeiger|titleAbraxas und Elxai|journalZeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft|volumexviii|year1864|pages824–825}}
* {{cite book|firstG. |lastBarzilai|titleGli Abraxas, studio archeologico|locationTrieste|year=1873}}
*Idem, Appendice alla dissertazione sugli Abraxas, ib. 1874.
* {{cite book|firstE. |lastRenan|titleHistoire des origines du Christianisme|volumevi|page160|locationParis|year=1879}}
* {{cite book|firstC. W. |lastKing|titleThe Gnostics and their Remains|locationLondon|year1887|urlhttp://www.sacred-texts.com/gno/gar/index.htm|ref=none}}
*Harnack, Geschichte, i. 161. The older material is listed by Matter, ut sup., and Wessely, Ephesia grammata, vol. ii., Vienna, 1886.
* {{cite book|firstB. |lastde Montfaucon|titleL'Antiquité expliquée|volumeii|page356|locationParis|year=1719–1724}} Eng. transl., 10 vols., London, 1721–2725.
* {{cite book|firstR. E.|lastRaspe|titleDescriptive catalogue of ... engraved Gems ... cast ... by J. Tassie |volume2 vols|locationLondon|year1791}}
* {{cite book|firstJ. M. A. |lastChabouillet|titleCatalogue général et raisonné des camées et pierres gravées de la Bibliothèque Impériale|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cataloguegnralet00chab |locationParis|year1858}}
Attribution
* {{source-attribution|{{cite book|lastHerzog|firstJohann Jakob|titleProtestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia, Volume I|year1860|publisherLindsay & Blakiston|pages28–29|locationPhiladelphia|chapterAbraxas|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHaMAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28}}}}
* {{source-attribution|{{cite book|titleA Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines, Being a Continuation of 'The Dictionary of the Bible'|first1William |last1Smith |author-link William Smith (lexicographer) |first2Henry|last2Wace|author-link2= Henry Wace (Anglican priest) }}}}
* {{Schaff-Herzog|titleAbraxas|firstW.|lastDrexler|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/newschaffherzog00unkngoog#page/n48/mode/2up|volume1|pages16,17}}
Further reading
*{{cite book |editor1-lastMerkelbach |editor1-firstReinhold |editor2-lastTotti |editor2-firstMaria |titleAbrasax: Ausgewählte Papyri Religiösen und Magischen Inhalts |languagede |year1990–1992 |publisherWestdeutscher Verlag }}
*{{cite web|last1Barrett |first1Caitlín E. |titlePlaster Perspectives on 'Magical Gems': Rethinking the Meaning of 'Magic' |urlhttps://antiquities.library.cornell.edu/gems/plaster-perspectives-on-magical-gems |websiteCornell Collection of Antiquities |publisherCornell University Library |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150526164252/https://antiquities.library.cornell.edu/gems/plaster-perspectives-on-magical-gems |archive-date2015-05-26 }} External links
* [http://www.gnosis.org/library/7Sermons.htm The complete texts of Carl Jung's "The Seven Sermons To The Dead"]
* [https://www.themystica.com/abraxas/ Abraxas article from The Mystica]
{{Authority control}}
Category:Gnostic deities
Category:Magic words
Category:Mythological hybrids
Category:Names of God in Gnosticism
Category:Theophoric names
Category:Thoth
Category:Hermes
Category:Osiris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraxas | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.889628 |
1438 | Absalom | {{Short description|Third son of the Israelite king David}}
{{About|the biblical figure|the name|Absalom (name)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Absalom
| title = Prince of Israel
| image = Muerte de absalon en el CESEDEN (cropped).jpg
| caption = Death of Absalom (1762) by Corrado Giaquinto
| reign | birth_date Unknown
| birth_place = Hebron, Kingdom of Israel
| death_date = {{circa|1000 BCE}}
| death_place = Ephraim, Kingdom of Israel
| burial_date | predecessor
| successor | wife
| consort | issue {{Collapsible list
| title {{nobold|4 avouched children:}}<ref name"auto">{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|14:27|KJV}}</ref>
| 3 unnamed sons<ref name="auto"/>
| 1 daughter named Tamar<ref name="auto"/>
}}
| dynasty = House of David
| royal anthem | royal motto
| father = David ben Yishai
| mother = Maacah bat Talmai
| religion = Yahwism
}}
Absalom ({{langx|he|אַבְשָׁלוֹם}} {{Transliteration|he|ʾAḇšālōm}}, {{Literal translation|Father of Peace}}), according to the Hebrew Bible, was an Israelite prince. Born to David and Maacah, who was from Geshur, he was the only full sibling of Tamar. He is described in the Hebrew Bible as being exceptionally beautiful, as is his sister.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|14:25|NIV}}</ref> In the narrative of 2 Samuel 13, his sister Tamar takes refuge at his house after she is raped by their paternal half-brother Amnon (born to David and Ahinoam, who was from Jezreel); David is angered by the incident, but does nothing, as Amnon is his heir apparent. Infuriated by the rape and David's inaction, Absalom assassinates Amnon and subsequently flees to Geshur, which is ruled by his and Tamar's maternal grandfather Talmai.
Following three years in exile, he returns to Israel and rallies popular support against the House of David. A war ensues when Absalom's rebels mobilize at Hebron and begin fighting David's army in an attempt to overthrow him, but their revolt ends in failure when Absalom is killed by David's nephew and army commander Joab during the Battle of the Wood of Ephraim.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|18:1–17|NIV}}</ref> In the aftermath of his death, Absalom's sister is described as being left "a desolate woman in her brother's house" and the sole guardian of his orphaned daughter, who is also named Tamar.
Biblical narrative
Background
around 1650]]
Absalom, David's third son, by Maacah, was born in Hebron.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|3:3}}</ref> At an early age, he moved, along with the transfer of the capital, to Jerusalem, where he spent most of his life. He was a great favorite of his father and of the people. His charming manners, personal beauty, insinuating ways, love of pomp, and royal pretensions captivated the hearts of the people from the beginning. He lived in great style, drove in a magnificent chariot, and had fifty men run before him.
Little is known of Absalom's family life, but the biblical narrative states that he had three sons and one daughter, Tamar, who is described as a beautiful woman.<ref name"auto"/> From the language of 2 Samuel 18:18, Absalom states, "I have no son to keep my name in remembrance".<ref name"auto1">{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|18:18|KJV}}</ref> It may be that his sons died before his statement,{{sfn|Kirkpatrick|1905|p173}} or, as Matthew Henry suggests, Absalom's three sons may have been born after his statement.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAn Exposition of the Old and New Testament |lastHenry |firstMatthew |authorlinkMatthew Henry |publisher Henry George Bohn |year1853 |url https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/mhm/2-samuel-14.html |quote= It is probable that it was a good while before he had a child. Then, despairing of having one, he set up the pillar (2 Samuel 18:18) to bear up his name, but afterwards he had three sons and one daughter (2 Samuel 14:27). Or perhaps these sons, while he was hatching his rebellion, were all cut off by the righteous hand of God, and he thereupon set up that monument.}}</ref>
Aside from his daughter Tamar, Absalom had another daughter or granddaughter, Maacah,<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Chronicles|11:20|KJV}}</ref> who later became the favorite wife of Rehoboam.{{efn|A footnote in the New King James Version reads "Literally daughter, but in the broader sense of granddaughter"{{bibleverse|2 Chron| 11:20|NKJV}} }} Maacah was the mother of Abijah of Judah and the grandmother of Asa of Judah. She served as queen mother for Asa until he deposed her for idolatry.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Kings|15:1-14|KJV}}{{bibleverse|2 Chron|11:20-22|KJV}}{{bibleverse|2 Chron|15:16|KJV}}</ref>
Murder of Amnon
, 17th century]]
, "Scenes from the Life of David"]]
, "Scenes from the Life of Absalom", c. 1250]]
(1391–1458), - tiled floor, south transept of Siena Cathedral ]]
Absalom also had a sister named Tamar, who was raped by her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest son. Absalom waited two years after the rape for vengeance, sending his servants to murder a drunken Amnon at a feast to which Absalom had invited all of King David's sons.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|13|NIV}}</ref>
After this murder, Absalom fled to his maternal grandfather Talmai, the king of Geshur.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|13:37|NIV}}{{bibleverse|Joshua|12:5|NIV}}{{bibleverse|Joshua|13:2|NIV}}</ref> Not until three years later was Absalom fully reinstated in David's favour and finally returned to Jerusalem.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|13–14|NIV}} (see Joab)</ref>
The revolt at Hebron
In Jerusalem, Absalom built support for himself by speaking to those who came to King David for justice, saying, "See, your claims are good and right; but there is no one deputed by the king to hear you", perhaps reflecting flaws in the judicial system of the united monarchy. "If only I were the judge of the land! Then all who had a suit or cause might come to me, and I would give them justice." He made gestures of flattery by kissing those who bowed before him instead of accepting supplication. He "stole the hearts of the people of Israel".<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|15|NRSV}}</ref>
After four years, he declared himself king, raised a revolt at Hebron, the former capital, and publicly raped his father's ten concubines.{{sfn|Kirk-Duggan|2004|p=59}} It is said that this was God punishing David for his sin with Bathsheba tenfold. All Israel and Judah flocked to him, and David, attended only by the Cherethites and Pelethites and his former bodyguard, which had followed him from Gath, found it expedient to flee. The priests Zadok and Abiathar remained in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as David's spies. Absalom reached the capital and consulted with the renowned Ahitophel (sometimes spelled Achitophel). It is also speculated that Ahitophel could have joined Absalom's cause as David had previously committed adultery with his granddaughter, Bathsheba.
David took refuge from Absalom's forces beyond the Jordan River. However, he took the precaution of instructing a servant, Hushai, to infiltrate Absalom's court and subvert it. Once in place, Hushai convinced Absalom to ignore Ahitophel's advice to attack his father while he was on the run, and instead to prepare his forces for a major attack. This gave David critical time to prepare his own troops for the battle. When Ahitophel saw that his advice was not followed, he committed suicide by hanging himself.
Battle of Ephraim's Wood
A fateful battle was fought in the Wood of Ephraim (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|16:18}}</ref> When Absalom fled from David's army, his head was caught in the boughs of an oak tree as the mule he was riding ran beneath it. He was discovered there still alive by one of David's men, who reported this to Joab, the king's commander. Joab, accustomed to avenging himself, took this opportunity to even the score with Absalom.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|14:30}}</ref> Absalom had once set Joab's field of barley on fire<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|17:25}}</ref> and then made Amasa Captain of the Host instead of Joab. Killing Absalom was against David's explicit command, "Beware that none touch the young man Absalom". Joab injured Absalom with three darts through the heart and Absalom was subsequently killed by ten of Joab's armor-bearers.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|18:14-15}}</ref>
When David heard that Absalom was killed, although not how he was killed, he greatly sorrowed.
{{blockquote|O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!|source=2 Sam 18:33<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|18:33}}</ref>}}
David withdrew to the city of Mahanaim<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|19:32}}</ref> in mourning, until Joab roused him from "the extravagance of his grief"{{sfn|Kirkpatrick|1905|p177}} and called on him to fulfill his duty to his people.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|19:1–8}}</ref>Memorial
in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, Jerusalem, which has no connection to biblical Absalom.]]
Absalom had erected a monument near Jerusalem to perpetuate his name:
{{blockquote|Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared up for himself a pillar, which is in the king's dale: for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance: and he called the pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day, Absalom's place.|source2 Sam 18:18<ref name"auto1"/> }}
An ancient monument in the Kidron Valley near the Old City of Jerusalem, known as the Tomb of Absalom or Absalom's Pillar and traditionally identified as the monument of the biblical narrative, is now dated by modern archeologists to the first century AD.{{sfn|Price|House|2017|p334}} The Jewish Encyclopedia reports: "A tomb twenty feet high and twenty-four feet square, which late tradition points out as the resting-place of Absalom. It is situated in the eastern part of the valley of Kidron, to the east of Jerusalem. In all probability it is the tomb of Alexander Jannæus (Conder, in Hastings' Dict. Bible, article "Jerusalem", p.&nbsp;597). It existed in the days of Josephus.<ref>"Antiquities" vii. 10, § 3</ref>{{sfn|Singer|1901|p134}} However, archaeologists have now dated the tomb to the 1st century AD.{{sfn|Barkat |2003}} In a 2013 conference, Professor Gabriel Barkay suggested that it could be the tomb of Herod Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great, based in part on the similarity to Herod's newly discovered tomb at Herodium. For centuries, it was the custom among passers-by—Jews, Christians and Muslims—to throw stones at the monument. Residents of Jerusalem would bring their unruly children to the site to teach them what became of a rebellious son.{{sfn|Vilnay|1999|p113}}Rabbinic literatureThe explanation in Rabbanic Literature about why Ahithophel had advised Absalom to act against his father: The Talmud speaks of this counsellor of David as "a man, like Balaam, whose great wisdom was not received in humility as a gift from heaven, and so became a stumbling block to him."<ref name"Numbers Rabbah 22">Numbers Rabbah 22</ref> He was "one of those who, while casting longing eyes upon things not belonging to them, also lose the things they possess."<ref>Tosefta, Sotah, 4:19</ref> Accordingly, Ahithophel was granted access by Almighty God into the Divine powers of God. And being thus familiar with Divine wisdom and knowledge as imparted through the Holy Spirit, he was consulted as an oracle like the Urim and Thummim.<ref>2 Samuel 16:23, Yerushalmi Sanhedrin 10 (29a), Sukkah 53a et seq.</ref> "..and great as was his wisdom, it was equalled by his scholarship. Therefore, David did not hesitate to submit himself to his instruction, even though Ahithophel was a very young
man at his death, not more than thirty-three years old. The one thing lacking in him was sincere piety, which proved his undoing in the end, for it induced him to participate in Absalom's rebellion against David. Thus, he forfeited even his share in the world to come.
To this dire course of action, he was misled by astrology and other signs, which he interpreted as prophecies of his kingship when in reality, they pointed to the royal destiny of his granddaughter Bath-sheba. Possessed by his erroneous belief, he cunningly urged Absalom to commit an unheard-of crime. Thus, Absalom would profit nothing by his rebellion, for, though he accomplished his father's ruin, he would yet be held to account and condemned to death for his violation of family purity, and the way to the throne would be clear for Ahithophel, the great sage in Israel."<ref>[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2882/2882.txt Legends of the Jews pp.62-67]{{PD-notice}}</ref>
The life and death of Absalom offered to the rabbis a welcome theme wherewith to warn the people against false ambition, vainglory, and unfilial conduct. The vanity with which he displayed his beautiful hair, the rabbis say, became his snare and his stumbling-block. "By his long hair the Nazirite entangled the people to rebel against his father, and by it he himself became entangled, to fall a victim to his pursuers".<ref>Mishnah Soṭah, i. 8</ref> And again, elsewhere: "By his vile stratagem he deceived and stole three hearts, that of his father, of the elders, and finally of the whole nation of Israel, and for this reason three darts were thrust into his heart to end his treacherous life".<ref>Tosef., Soṭah, iii. 17</ref> More striking is the following: "Did one ever hear of an oak-tree having a heart? And yet in the oak-tree in whose branches Absalom was caught, we read that upon its heart he was held up still alive while the darts were thrust through him.<ref>[Mek., Shirah, § 6]</ref> This is to show that when a man becomes so heartless as to make war against his own father, nature itself takes on a heart to avenge the deed."
"The knowledge that a part of Absalom's following sided with him in secret,--that, though he was pursued by his son, his friends remained true to him,--somewhat consoled David in his distress. He thought that in these circumstances, if the worst came to the worst, Absalom would at least feel pity for him. At first, however, the despair of David knew no bounds. He was on the point of worshipping an idol, when his friend Hushai the Archite approached him, saying: "The people will wonder that such a king should serve idols." David replied: "Should a king such as I am be killed by his own son? It is better for me to serve idols than that God should be held responsible for my misfortune, and His Name thus be desecrated." Hushai reproached him: "Why didst thou marry a captive?" "There is no wrong in that," replied David, "it is permitted according to the law." Thereupon Hushai: "But thou didst disregard the connection between the passage permitting it and the one that follows almost immediately after it in the Scriptures, dealing with the disobedient and rebellious son, the natural issue of such a marriage."<ref>{{citation-attribution|1[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2882/2882.txt Legends of the Jews pp.100-101]}}</ref> Absalom's end was beset with terrors. When he was caught in the branches of the oak-tree, he was about to sever his hair with a sword stroke, but suddenly he saw hell yawning beneath him, and he preferred to hang in the tree to throwing himself into the abyss alive. Absalom's crime was, indeed, of a nature to deserve the supreme torture, for which reason he is one of the few Jews who have no portion in the world to come.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2882/2882.txt Legends of the Jews p.105]}}</ref>
Popular legend states that the eye of Absalom was of immense size, signifying his insatiable greed.<ref>Niddah, 24b</ref> Indeed, "hell itself opened beneath him, and David, his father, cried seven times: 'My son! my son!' while bewailing his death, praying at the same time for his redemption from the seventh section of Gehenna, to which he was consigned".<ref>Soṭah, 10b</ref> According to R. Meir,<ref>Sanh. 103b</ref> "he has no share in the life to come". And according to the description of Gehenna by Joshua ben Levi, who, like Dante, wandered through hell under the guidance of the angel Duma, Absalom still dwells there, having the rebellious heathen in charge; and when the angels with their fiery rods run also against Absalom to smite him like the rest, a heavenly voice says: "Spare Absalom, the son of David, My servant."{{sfn|Singer|1901|p133}} "That the extreme penalties of hell were thus averted from him, was on account of David's eightfold repetition of his son's name in his lament over him. Besides, David's intercession had the effect of re-attaching Absalom's severed head to his body. An account of Joshua Ben Levi going to the fifth compartment of PAradise reports:"The fifth compartment is of silver, and gold, and refined gold, and of crystal, and bdellium; and through its midst flows the river Gihon. The walls are of silver and gold, and a perfume breathes through it more exquisite than the perfume of Lebanon. And beds of silver and gold are there prepared, covered with violet and purple covers, woven by Eve, and mixed with scarlet and made of hair of goats, woven by angels. Here dwell the Messiah and Elijah in a palanquin of the wood of Lebanon; the pillars thereof of silver, the bottom thereof of gold, the seat of it of purple. Herein lieth the Messiah, the son of David, who is the love of the daughters of Jerusalem, the midst thereof is love. The prophet Elijah takes the head of the Messiah and places it in his bosom and says to him: "Be quiet and wait, for the end draweth nigh." On every Monday and Thursday and Saturday and Holiday the Patriarchs come to him and the fathers of the Tribes and Moses and Aaron and David and Solomon and every king of Israel and of the house of Judah, and they weep with him and comfort him, and say unto him: "Be quiet and wait and rely upon thy Creator, for the end draweth nigh." Also Korah and his company and Dathan and Abiram and Absalom come to him on every Wednesday, and ask him: "When will the end of our misery come? When wilt thou reveal thyself?"16. He answereth them and says: "Go to your fathers and ask them." And when they hear of their fathers they feel ashamed and do not ask any further.<ref>[https://sacred-texts.com/journals/jras/1893-15.htm Hebrew Visions of Hell and Paradise]</ref> King David’s prayers granted his rebellious son Avshalom access to the World to Come<ref>[https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2312388/jewish/Chapter-5-Who-Will-Rise.htm Who-Will-Rise Chabad Library]</ref> At his death Absalom was childless, for all his children, his three sons and his daughter, died before him, as a punishment for his having set fire to a field of grain belonging to Joab."<ref>{{citation-attribution|1[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2882/2882.txt Legends of the Jews pp.107-108]}}</ref> Although Absalom avenged his sister defilement by Amnon ironically he proved himself not to be very much different from Amnon. As Amnon had sought the advice of Jonadab in order to rape Tamar, Absalom had sought the advice of Ahitophel who advised Absalom to have incestuous relations with his father's concubines in order to show all Israel how odious he was to his father [2 Samuel 16:20] .Likewise as Amnon had brought two curses on himself for incest with his half sister and failing to fulfill the Torah Law, Absalom brought four curses on himself for dishonoring his father; relations with his father's wives [concubines]; and failing to fulfill the Torah Law twice. [Deuteronomy 27:20 26] The Rabbis explain that the concubines were not punished by G-d. They were violated by Absalom. Absalom with his own free will, choose to do that. It is true G-d created a world where we humans can choose good or evil, but the choice in the end remains ours. Although G-d had told David that his wives would be taken, he did not ordain or force Absalom to violate them. He just foretold it. Is A lesson to be learned of the consequences from Absalom life is that his lust for power was so deep that he engaged in acts of chillul hashem and brought upon himself 4 curses from the Torah? (Dishonoring his father by his revolt; dishonoring his father's wives; and twice bring curses on himself for not fulfilling the Torah law)?Yes. He was a prince who could had almost anything. The only things he wanted were things he could not have. He lusted after his sister and his father's throne. Wealth is not determined by possessions but by mindset. In his mind, Absalom was a pauper. He only looked at what he did not have.<ref>[https://www.thehebrewcafe.com/forum/showthread.php?tid680&page3 Response of Chabbad Ask A Rabbi Query 27 September 2024]</ref>
Art and literature
Poetry
* The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe, with the Tragedie of Absalon, a play by George Peele, written before 1594 and published in 1599.
* Absalom and Achitophel (1681), a satirical poem by John Dryden, uses the biblical story as an allegory for contemporary politics.{{sfn|Thomas|2006|p=}}
* "Absalom" by Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806–1867).{{sfn|Willis|1845|p=}}
* "Absaloms Abfall" by Rainer Maria Rilke ("The Fall of Absalom", trans. Stephen Cohn).{{sfn|Rilke|1998|p161}}{{sfn|Freedman|1998|p283}}
* "Absalom" is a section in Muriel Rukeyser's long poem The Book of the Dead (1938), inspired by the biblical text, spoken by a mother who lost three sons to silicosis.{{sfn|Dayton|2003|p=48}}
* "Avshalom" by Yona Wallach, published in her first poetry collection Devarim (1966), alludes to the biblical character.{{sfn|Giora|2003|p=36}}
* "Prayer for Sunset" by Leonard Cohen, published in his first poetry collection Let Us Compare Mythologies (1956), Absalom appears in a simile.{{sfn|Cohen|1956|p30}}Fiction* In the 1946 short story "Absalom" by C.L. Moore and Henry Kuttner, the character Absalom is a child prodigy, who does non-consensual brain surgery on his father (a former child prodigy, though not as intelligent as his son) to make the father totally focused on Absalom's success. This relates to the Biblical story of the son usurping his father.{{sfn|Webster|n.d.|p}}{{sfn|Moore|Kuttner|2012|p=10}}
* Georg Christian Lehms, Des israelitischen Printzens Absolons und seiner Prinzcessin Schwester Thamar Staats- Lebens- und Helden-Geschichte (The Heroic Life and History of the Israelite Prince Absolom and his Princess Sister Tamar), novel in German published in Nuremberg, 1710.{{sfn|Goosen |1999|p=26}}
* Absalom, Absalom! is a novel by William Faulkner, and refers to the return of the main character Thomas Sutpen's son.{{sfn|Urgo|Polk|2010|p=xi}}
* Oh Absalom! was the original title of Howard Spring's novel My Son, My Son!, later adapted for the film of the latter name.{{sfn|Lennox|2010|p=62}}
* Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton. Absalom was the name of Stephen Kumalo's son in the novel. Like the Biblical Absalom, Absalom Kumalo was at odds with his father, the two fighting a moral and ethical battle of sorts over the course of some of the novel's most important events. Absalom kills and murders a man, and also meets an untimely death.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1992|p=14}}
* Throughout Robertson Davies's The Manticore a comparison is repeatedly made between the protagonist's problematic relations with his father and those of the Biblical Absalom and King David. Paradoxically, in the modern version, it is the rebellious son who has the first name "David". The book also introduces the term "Absalonism", as a generic term for a son's rebellion against his father.{{sfn|Lennox|2010|p=62}}
* Absalom appears as a prominent character in Peter Shaffer's play Yonadab, which portrays Amnon's rape of Tamar and his murder at Absalom's hands.{{sfn|MacMurraugh-Kavanagh|1998|p=74}}
* A scene in the Swedish writer Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel "The Long Ships" depicts a 10th Century Christian missionary recounting the story of Absalom's rebellion to the assembled Danish court, including the aging King Harald Bluetooth and his son Sweyn Forkbeard; thereupon, King Harald exclaims "Some people can learn a lesson from this story!", casting a meaningful glance at his son Sweyn—whom the King (rightly) suspects of plotting a rebellion.{{sfn|Anon|1988|p=30}}
* In the novel The Book of Tamar by Nel Havas, the story of Absalom is presented from the viewpoint of his sister. While closely following the main events as related in the Bible, Havas concentrates on the motives behind Absalom's actions, which Havas presents as more complex than depicted in the scriptures.
* In the novel ''Ender's Shadow'' by Orson Scott Card, the main character Bean invokes the quote to give solace to the kamikaze pilots Ender had unknowingly sent to their deaths to defeat the Formics.
*The role played by luxuriant hair in the death of Absalom is referenced to telling effect in the ghost story The Diary of Mr Poynter by master of the genre M.R. James. The ghost in question is that of dissolute young nobleman Sir Everard Charlett, known to his Oxford University cronies by the nickname Absalom, on account of his beautiful, long hair and debauched lifestyle. Sir Everard has commemorated his flowing locks by the unusual expedient of having them portrayed in a wallpaper pattern, which later proves to have the power to summon his malign, hair-covered ghost - much to the horror of James's unfortunate protagonist, Mr. James Denton.<ref name"ge">M. R. James, "The Diary of Mr. Poynter," in Collected Ghost Stories, ed. Darryl Jones (Oxford UP, 2011).</ref>Music
* Josquin des Prez composed the motet "Absalon, fili mi" on the occasion of the death of Juan Borgia (Absalon being a further alternative spelling).
* Nicholas Gombert composed the two-part, eight-voice motet "Lugebat David Absalon".
* Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672) composed "Fili mi, Absalon" as part of his Sinfoniae Sacrae, op. 6.
* The single verse, 2 Samuel 18:33, regarding David's grief at the loss of his son ("And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept: and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!"), is the inspiration for the text of several pieces of choral music, usually entitled When David Heard (such as those by Renaissance composers Thomas Tomkins and Thomas Weelkes, or modern composers Eric Whitacre, Joshua Shank, and Norman Dinerstein). This verse is also used in "David's Lamentation" by William Billings, first published in 1778.
* Leonard Cohen's poem "Prayer for Sunset" compares the setting sun to the raving Absalom, and asks whether another Joab will arrive tomorrow night to kill Absalom again.
* "Absalom, Absalom" is a song on the 1996 Compass CD Making Light of It by singer/songwriter Pierce Pettis, incorporating several elements of the biblical narrative.
* The Australian composer Nigel Butterley set the verse in his 2008 choral work "Beni Avshalom", commissioned by the Sydney Chamber Choir.
* During the finale of the song "Distant Early Warning" by Canadian band Rush, Geddy Lee sings, "Absalom, Absalom, Absalom"; lyrics written by drummer Neil Peart.
* David Olney's 2000 CD ''Omar's Blues'' includes the song "Absalom". The song depicts David grieving over the death of his son.
* The story of Absalom is referred to several places in folk singer Adam Arcuragi's song "Always Almost Crying".
* The San Francisco–based band Om mentions Absalom in their song "Kapila's Theme" from their debut album Variations on a Theme.
* The garage folk band David's Doldrums references Absalom in their song, "My Name Is Absalom". The song alludes to Absalom's feelings of solemnity and abandonment of love and hope.
* In "Every Kind Word" by Lackthereof, Danny Seim's project parallel to Menomena, Seim sings "...&nbsp;and your hair is long like Absalom."
* "Barach Hamelech", an Israeli song by Amos Etinger and Yosef Hadar.
* The grindcore band Discordance Axis references Absalom at the end of the track entitled "Castration Rite".<!--
Don't seem to be notable, no article: * The progressive metal band from Barranquilla, Colombia, Absalom has his name.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://karmametalcolombian.blogspot.com/2008/04/absalom-absalom-colombian-2003.html |titleUn Alma Oculto |authorInfernal North |date8 April 2008 |publisherblogspot.com |access-date13 November 2016}}</ref> -->
* In 2007 Ryland Angel released "Absalom" on Ryland Angel-Manhattan Records.
* "Hanging By His Hair" from the 1998 Wormwood album by The Residents recounts Absalom's defiance and death. Also performed on Roadworms (The Berlin Sessions) and Wormwood Live.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://residents.com/historical/page0/page20/page20.html |titleResidents |access-date2009-07-07 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090519121348/http://residents.com/historical/page0/page20/page20.html |archive-date2009-05-19 }}</ref>
* "Absalom" is a song on Brand New Shadows's debut album, White Flags. It is a mournful lament from King David's perspective.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://brandnewshadows.com/_downloads/lyrics.pdf |titleBrand New Shadows |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110708090903/http://brandnewshadows.com/_downloads/lyrics.pdf |archive-date8 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* "Absalom" is an album by the experimental/progressive band Stick Men featuring Tony Levin, Markus Reuter and Pat Mastelotto.
* The American Rock band Little Feat reference Absalom in their song "Gimme a Stone" on the album entitled Chinese Work Songs.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.littlefeat.net/index.php?pagelyrics&dc_id261 |titleGimme a Stone |authorKenny Gradney |publisherBubbleUp |access-date13 November 2016 |archive-date4 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304035626/http://www.littlefeat.net/index.php?pagelyrics&dc_id261 |url-statusdead }}</ref> This song is written from the perspective of King David—mainly focusing on the task of fighting Goliath—but contains a lament to Absalom. This was a cover of the song, the original being on the 1998 Americana concept album Largo, by David Forman and Levon Helm.
References
Notes
{{Notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book|authorAnon|titleHistorisk tidskrift|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjn9lAAAAIAAJ|year1988|publisherSvenska historiska föreningen|language=sv}}
* {{Cite news |firstAmiram|last Barkat |urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/1.5348158 |title Jewish Yad Avshalom revealed as a Christian shrine from Byzantine era |newspaperHaaretz |date22 July 2003 |access-date=27 September 2018}}
* {{Cite book|lastCohen|firstLeonard |author-linkLeonard Cohen|titleLet Us Compare Mythologies|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtAhVDwAAQBAJ|year1956|publisherMcClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-2454-2 }}
* {{Cite book|lastDayton|firstTim |titleMuriel Rukeyser's the Book of the Dead|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7E6kliu1ZMsC&pgPA48|year2003|publisherUniversity of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-6314-8}}
* {{Cite book|lastFreedman|firstRalph |titleLife of a Poet: Rainer Maria Rilke|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMRmu9Xy9aqkC&pgPA283|year1998|publisherNorthwestern University Press|isbn=978-0-8101-1543-9}}
* {{Cite book|lastGiora|firstRachel |titleOn Our Mind: Salience, Context, and Figurative Language|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id21wGBXE7FCEC&pgPA36|year2003|publisherOxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535050-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1Goosen |first1Louis |titleVan Abraham tot Zacharia: thema's uit het Oude Testament in religie, beeldende kunst, literatuur, muziek en theater |date1999 |publisherSUN |isbn9789061685784 |urlhttps://www.dbnl.org/arch/goos020vana01_01/pag/goos020vana01_01.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.dbnl.org/arch/goos020vana01_01/pag/goos020vana01_01.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date11 April 2019 |languagenl}}
* {{Cite book|lastJeffrey|firstDavid Lyle |titleA Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzD6xVr1CizIC&pgPA14|year1992|publisherWm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3634-2}}
* {{Cite book|lastKirk-Duggan|firstCheryl A. |titlePregnant Passion: Gender, Sex, and Violence in the Bible|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idM_gW1I90G4MC&pgPA59|year2004|publisherBrill|isbn=90-04-12731-3}}
* {{Cite book|firstA.F. |lastKirkpatrick|author-linkAlexander Kirkpatrick|titleCambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges <!--title-linkCambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges-->|publisherCambridge University Press|date1905|editorJ J Stewart Perowne|editor-linkJohn Perowne|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cambridgebiblefo10unse/page/176/mode/2up}}
* {{Cite book|lastLennox|firstDoug |titleNow You Know The Bible|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnt8z0qrbOMUC&pgPA62|year2010|publisherDundurn|isbn=978-1-4597-1871-5}}
* {{Cite book|lastMacMurraugh-Kavanagh|firstMadeleine |titlePeter Shaffer: Theatre and Drama|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhxWHDAAAQBAJ&pgPA74|year1998|publisherPalgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-37295-5}}
* {{Cite book|last1Moore|first1C. L. |last2Kuttner|first2Henry |titleAbsalom|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2qu_y5dz7cQC&pgPP10|year2012|publishereStar Books|isbn=978-1-61210-446-1}}
* {{Cite book|last1Price|first1J. Randall |last2House|first2H. Wayne |titleZondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology: A Book by Book Guide to Archaeological Discoveries Related to the Bible|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3xDxCgAAQBAJ&pgPT334|year2017|publisherZondervan Academic|isbn=978-0-310-52764-0}}
* {{Cite book|lastRilke|firstRainer Maria |titleNeue Gedichte|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwRCJwgmfhzYC&pgPA161|year1998|publisherNorthwestern University Press|isbn978-0-8101-1649-8|chapterThe Fall of Absalom}}
* {{cite book|editor-lastSinger|editor-firstIsidore |chapterABSALOM ("The Father of Peace") |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/TheJewishEncyclopediaFunkWagnallVolIAachApocalypticLiterature1901/page/n177/mode/2up|date1901|titleThe Jewish Encyclopedia|publisherFunk & Wagnall|locationNew York and London|volume1|editor-linkIsidore Singer}}
* {{Cite book|lastThomas|firstW. |titleThe Crafting of Absalom and Achitophel: Dryden's Pen for a Party|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDEk9DgAAQBAJ|year2006|publisherWilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|isbn978-0-88920-584-0}}
* {{Cite book|last1Urgo|first1Joseph R. |last2Polk|first2Noel |titleReading Faulkner: Absalom, Absalom!|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5xLNJzi5ZkYC|date 2010|publisherUniv. Press of Mississippi|isbn978-1-60473-435-5}}
* {{Cite book|lastVilnay|firstZev |titleThe Vilnay Guide to Israel|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2mniAAAAMAAJ|year1999|publisherBeit Or-Vilnay Publishers|chapterPillar of Absalom|isbn=9789659026906 }}
* {{Cite web|urlhttp://www.philsp.com/articles/pastmasters_12.html |titleA Kuttner Above the Rest (But Wait, There's Moore!) |publisherPhilsp.com |access-date2020-02-14|firstBud|lastWebster|date=n.d.}}
* {{Cite book|lastWillis|firstNathaniel Parker |author-linkNathaniel Parker Willis|titleThe Poems, Sacred, Passionate, and Humorous, of Nathaniel Parker Willis|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK-ISAAAAIAAJ|year1845|publisherClark & Austin}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
* {{Cite Collier's|wstitleAbsalom |shortx}}
* Some musical scores of David's lament for Absalom: [http://www1.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Absalon,_fili_mi Absalon, fili mi] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220125084402/https://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Absalon,_fili_mi |date2022-01-25 }})
{{Authority control}}
Category:Rapists
Category:Incestual abuse
Category:Mythological people involved in incest
Category:Biblical murderers
Category:Children of David
Category:Jewish rebels
Category:Jewish royalty
Category:Rebel princes
Category:Sons of kings
Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded
Category:Mythological fratricides
Category:Mythological rapists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absalom | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.907467 |
1439 | Abydos | Abydos may refer to:
Abydos, a progressive metal side project of German singer Andy Kuntz
Abydos (Hellespont), an ancient city in Mysia, Asia Minor
Abydos (Stargate), name of a fictional planet in the Stargate science fiction universe
Abydos, Egypt, a city in ancient Egypt
Abydos Station, a pastoral lease and cattle station in Western Australia
See also
Abidu, a village in Iran
Abidos, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in southwestern France | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abydos | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.909721 |
1440 | Abydos, Egypt | {{Short description|City in ancient Egypt}}
{{citation style|date=July 2024}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Abydos
| native_name = أبيدو
| native_name_lang = ar
| alternate_name = {{lang|cop|Ⲉⲃⲱⲧ}}; Abedju
| image = AbydosFacade.jpg
| map_dot_label=Abydos
| alt |reliefyes
| caption = Façade of the Temple of Seti I in Abydos, built {{Circa|1300 BCE}}
| map_type = Nile#Egypt
| coordinates {{coord|26|11|06|N|31|55|08|E|displayinline,title}}
| location = El-Balyana, Sohag Governorate, Egypt
| region = Upper Egypt
| type = Settlement
| epochs = First Dynasty to Thirtieth Dynasty
}}
Abydos {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|aɪ|d|ɒ|s}} ({{langx|ar| أبيدوس|Abīdūs}} or {{Langx|ar|افود|translitAfūd}};<ref name":0">{{Cite web |lastPeust |firstCarsten |titleDie Toponyme vorarabischen Ursprungs im modernen Ägypten |urlhttp://www.peust.de/ortsnamen_original.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.peust.de/ortsnamen_original.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |page11}}</ref> Sahidic {{langx|cop|Ⲉⲃⲱⲧ}} {{transl|cop|Ebōt}}) is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt. It is located about {{convert|11|km|mi|abbroff}} west of the Nile at latitude 26° 10' N, near the modern Egyptian towns of El Araba El Madfuna and El Balyana. In the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abedju (ꜣbḏw or AbDw)(Arabic Abdu عبد-و).<ref>{{ cite book|lastHawas|firstZahi|titleمخطوط معجم اللغة المصرية القديمة احمد كمال كمال. الجزء االثاني عشر|languageArabic|year2002|publisherAl-maǧlis al-aʿlá li-l-aṯār, high council of antiquities|placeCairo|pages496|isbn9773053474|quote=}}</ref>
The English name Abydos comes from the Greek {{lang|grc|Ἄβυδος}}, a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the unrelated city of Abydos on the Hellespont.
Considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt, the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples, including Umm el-Qa'ab, a royal necropolis where early pharaohs were entombed.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/abydoskingstombs.html |titleTombs of kings of the First and Second Dynasty |access-date2008-01-15 |publisherUCL |workDigital Egypt| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080106154345/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/abydoskingstombs.html| archive-date6 January 2008 | url-status live}}</ref> These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area, leading to the growth of the town's importance as a cult site.
Today, Abydos is notable for the memorial temple of Seti I, which contains an inscription from the Nineteenth Dynasty known to the modern world as the Abydos King List. This is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti I's father, Ramesses I.<ref nameTEwjb>{{cite web |authorMisty Cryer |titleTravellers in Egypt – William John Bankes |year2006 |workTravellersinEgypt.org |urlhttp://www.travellersinegypt.org/archives/2004/10/william_john_bankes.htm|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160814225455/http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archives/2004/10/william_john_bankes.htm|url-statusdead|archive-date=2016-08-14}}</ref> It is also notable for the Abydos graffiti, ancient Phoenician and Aramaic graffiti found on the walls of the Temple of Seti I.
The Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/abydostown.html|titleAbydos town |access-date2008-01-15 |publisherUCL |workDigital Egypt| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080104104323/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/abydostown.html| archive-date4 January 2008 | url-status live}}</ref> Many of the original structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost; many may have been destroyed by the new construction.
History
, on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, Louvre Museum, 3300–3200 BCE.<ref name="JJ"/>]]
{{Hiero|1Name of Abydos|2<hiero>Ab-b-Dw:O49</hiero>|alignleft|eraegypt}}
Most of Upper Egypt became unified under rulers from Abydos during the Naqada III period (3200–3000 BCE), at the expense of rival cities such as Nekhen.<ref>{{cite book |last1Thompson |first1Jason |titleA History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present |year2008 |publisherAmerican Univ in Cairo Press |isbn978-977-416-091-2 |page18 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHbcCqIC5358C&pgPA18 |languageen}}</ref> The conflicts leading to the supremacy of Abydos may appear on numerous reliefs of the Naqada II period, such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife, or the frieze of Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis.<ref name"JJ">{{cite journal |last1Josephson |first1Jack |titleNaqada IId, Birth of an Empire |pages166–167 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/19179915 |languageen |doi10.5913/jarce.51.2015.a007 |journalJournal of the American Research Center in Egypt |volume51 |doi-broken-date1 November 2024 }}</ref>
Tombs and at least one temple of rulers of the Predynastic period have been found at Umm El Qa'ab including that of Narmer, dating to {{circa|3100 BCE}}.<ref name"Dawn">{{cite book |last1Patch |first1Diana Craig |last2Eaton-Krauss |first2Marianne |last3Allen |first3Susan J. |last4Friedman |first4Renée F. |last5Roth |first5Ann Macy |last6Silverman |first6David P. |last7Cortes |first7Emilia |last8Roehrig |first8Catharine H. |last9Serotta |first9Anna |titleDawn of Egyptian Art |year2011 |publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art |isbn978-1-58839-460-6 |page16 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtfkvlD4Pi20C&qAbydos+was+occupied+by+the+rulers+of+the+%5B%5BPredynastic+Period&pgPA16 |access-date24 August 2020 |languageen}}</ref><ref name"Bestock">{{cite book |last1Bestock |first1Laurel |titleThe Development of Royal Funerary Cult at Abydos: Two Funerary Enclosures from the Reign of Aha |year2009 |publisherOtto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn978-3-447-05838-4 |page2 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrIXRokO0ijcC&qPredynastic+&pgPA2 |access-date24 August 2020 |languageen}}</ref> The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the Thirtieth Dynasty, and the cemetery was in continuous use.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=81}}
The pharaohs of the First Dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as the founder of the First Dynasty, and his successor, Aha.<ref>Wilkinson (1999), p. 3</ref> It was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the Second Dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well. Funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great 'forts', were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the Second Dynasty; the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy, the Shunet El Zebib.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/abydosfuneraryenclosures.html|title The Funerary Enclosures of Abydos|access-date2008-01-15|workDigital Egypt|publisherUCL}}</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p81}}
<gallery class"center" widths"200px" heights"200px" perrow"2" caption="King Khasekhemwy fort">
File:Khasekhemwy Monument (II).jpg|King Khasekhemwy "fort" in Abydos. {{circa|2700 BCE}}
File:Enceinte de khasekhemouy.jpg|King Khasekhemwy "fort" in Abydos.
</gallery>
]]
, Late Period, Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt, reign of Psammetichus I]]
From the Fifth Dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, came to be seen as a manifestation of the dead pharaoh in the underworld. Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty) constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult.
During the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentiu's name became an epithet of Osiris. King Mentuhotep II was the first to build a royal chapel. In the Twelfth Dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p81}} Associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple and a small town known as "Wah-Sut", that was used by the workers for these structures.<ref name"bvzwvt">Harvey, EA24, p.3</ref> Next to the cenotaph at least two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were buried (in tombs S9 and S10) as well as some rulers of the Second Intermediate Period, such as Senebkay. An indigenous line of kings, the Abydos Dynasty, may have ruled the region from Abydos at the time.
New construction during the Eighteenth Dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=82}} The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area; very little of it remains today.
Thutmose III built a far larger temple, about {{convert|130|x|200|ft|m|abbron}}. He also made a processional way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, featuring a great gateway of granite.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}}
Seti I, during the Nineteenth Dynasty, founded a temple to the south of the town in honor of the ancestral pharaohs of the early dynasties; this was finished by Ramesses II, who also built a lesser temple of his own.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p81}} Merneptah added the Osireion, just to the north of the temple of Seti.<ref name"bvzwvt" />
Ahmose II in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within approximately {{convert|18|ft|m|abbron}}. depth of the ruins discovered in modern times; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by more than 4,000 measurements and 1,000 levellings.<ref>Petrie, Abydos, ii.</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}}
The last building added was a new temple of Nectanebo I, built in the Thirtieth Dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times of the Greek occupancy of Egypt, that began three hundred years before the Roman occupancy that followed, the structures began to decay and no later works are known.<ref>Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p81}} Cult centre
From earliest times, Abydos was a cult centre, first of the local deity, Khentiamentiu, and from the end of the Old Kingdom, the rising cult of Osiris. A tradition developed that the Early Dynastic cemetery was the burial place of Osiris and the tomb of Djer was reinterpreted as that of Osiris.<ref>O'Connor, David (2009). ''Abydos: Egypt's First Pharaohs and the Cult of Osiris. Thames & Hudson. pp. 18–19</ref>
Decorations in tombs throughout Egypt, such as the one displayed to the right, record pilgrimages to Abydos by wealthy families.<ref>{{cite web|authorStephen P. Harvey |urlhttps://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/abydos/abydos.html|titleHoly Abydos|websiteArchaeology|date25 June 2001}}</ref> Great Osiris Temple
temple: Horus presents royal regalia to a worshipping Seti I.]]
From the First Dynasty to the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, nine or ten temples were successively built on one site at Abydos. The first was an enclosure, about {{convert|30|x|50|ft|m|abbron}}, enclosed by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Incorporating one wall of this first structure, the second temple of about {{convert|40|ft|m|abbron}} square was built with walls about {{convert|10|ft|m|abbron}} thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded the grounds. This outer wall was made wider some time around the Second or Third Dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the Fourth Dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are found in these ashes and were probably the substitutes for live sacrifices decreed by Khufu (or Cheops) in his temple reforms.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|pp81-82}}
At an undetermined date, a great clearance of temple offerings had been made and the modern discovery of a chamber into which they were gathered yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles that demonstrate the splendid work of the First Dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple hieroglyphs inlaid into a green glaze and tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces found. The Khufu Statuette in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this great pharaoh.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=82}}
The temple was entirely rebuilt on a larger scale by Pepi I in the Sixth Dynasty. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about {{convert|40|x|50|ft|m|abbron}} inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the Eleventh Dynasty Mentuhotep II added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, Mentuhotep III entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about {{convert|45|ft|m|abbron}} square. He also added subsidiary chambers. Soon thereafter, in the Twelfth Dynasty, Senusret I laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos'' was laid out enclosing a much larger area and the new temple itself was about three times the earlier size.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}} Brewery On 14 February 2021, Egyptian and American archaeologists discovered what could be the oldest brewery in the world dating from around 3100 BCE at the reign of King Narmer. Dr. Matthew Adams, one of the leaders of the mission, stated that it was used to make beer for royal rituals.<ref>{{Cite news|url https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-antiquities-idUSKBN2AE0ET |titleAncient mass production brewery uncovered in Egypt |websiteReuters|date14 February 2021 |access-date2021-02-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/egypt-brewery-1.5913913?cmprss |title5,000-year-old brewery, possibly world's oldest, uncovered in Egypt |websiteCBC News|access-date2021-02-14}}</ref> Main sites Seti I Temple
{{Main|Temple of Seti I (Abydos)}}
The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This surviving building is best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=82}} A principal purpose of the temple was to serve as a memorial to king Seti I, as well as to show reverence for the early pharaohs, which is incorporated within as part of the "Rite of the Ancestors".
The long list of the pharaohs of the principal dynasties—recognized by Seti—are carved on a wall and known as the "Abydos King List" (showing the cartouche name of many dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from the first, Narmer or Menes, until Seti's time). There were significant names deliberately left off of the list. So rare, as an almost complete list of pharaoh names, the Table of Abydos, rediscovered by William John Bankes, has been called the "Rosetta Stone" of Egyptian archaeology, analogous to the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian writing, beyond the Narmer Palette.<ref nameautogenerated1>Misty Cryer, "Travellers in Egypt – William John Bankes" (2006), TravellersinEgypt.org, web: [http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archives/2004/10/william_john_bankes.html TravEgypt-WJB] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060830115640/http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archives/2004/10/william_john_bankes.html |date=2006-08-30 }}: re-discovered Table of Abydos.</ref>
at the rear of the temple]]
There were also seven chapels built for the worship of the pharaoh and principal deities. These included three chapels for the "state" deities Ptah, Re-Horakhty, and (centrally positioned) Amun and the challenge for the Abydos triad of Osiris, Isis and Horus. The rites recorded in the deity chapels represent the first complete form known of the Daily Ritual, which was performed daily in temples across Egypt throughout the pharaonic period. At the back of the temple is an enigmatic structure known as the Osireion, which served as a cenotaph for Seti-Osiris, and is thought to be connected with the worship of Osiris as an "Osiris tomb".<ref>Caulfield, Temple of the Kings</ref> It is possible that from those chambers was led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Merenptah.<ref>Murray, The Osireion at Abydos</ref> The temple was originally {{convert|550|ft|m|abbr=on}} long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part still in good condition is about
{{convert|250|ft|m|abbron}} long and {{convert|350|ft|m|abbron}} wide, including the wing at the side.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=82}} Magazines for food and offerings storage were built to either side of the forecourts, as well as a small palace for the king and his retinue, to the southeast of the first forecourt (Ghazouli, The Palace and Magazines Attached to the Temple of Sety I at Abydos and the Facade of This Temple. ASAE 58 (1959)).
Except for the list of pharaohs and a panegyric on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical, but religious in nature, dedicated to the transformation of the king after his death. The temple reliefs are celebrated for their delicacy and artistic refinement, utilizing both the archaism of earlier dynasties with the vibrancy of late 18th Dynasty reliefs. The sculptures had been published mostly in hand copy, not facsimile, by Auguste Mariette in his Abydos, I. The temple has been partially recorded epigraphically by Amice Calverley and Myrtle Broome in their 4 volume publication of The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos (1933–1958).
King's List
{{Main|Abydos King List}}In The Gallery of Ancestors, also referred to as The Gallery of the List, one can find the Abydos King List. This list is depicted in low relief, carved under the reign of Seti I, and it shows Seti and Ramesses making offerings to their royal ancestors.<ref>Kemp, Barry. “The Intellectual Foundations of the Early State.” In Ancient Egypt:, 3rd ed., 1: 60. Routledge, 2018. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351166485-3</nowiki>.</ref><ref name":4">Baines, J. (1984). Abydos, Temple of Sethos I: Preliminary Report. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 70(1), 13. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/030751338407000103</nowiki></ref> These royal ancestors are the past kings of Egypt. Notably, some rulers, like the 15th Dynasty Hyksos that ruled Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period 1650-1550 BCE and the reign of the 18th Dynasty heretic Akhenaten of the New Kingdom 1550-1069, were omitted from the list, possibly due to being associated with periods of internal weakness and divisions.<ref>Verner, Miroslav, and Anna Bryson-Gustová, Temple of the World: Sanctuaries, Cults, and Mysteries of Ancient Egypt (Cairo, 2013; online edn, Cairo Scholarship Online, 18 Sept. 2014), <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.5743/cairo/9789774165634.001.0001</nowiki>, accessed 24 Sept. 2024.</ref> The Gallery of Ancestors led into the storerooms and the desert behind the temple. Osireion
{{Main| Osireion}}
The Osirion or Osireon, meaning "Menmaatre beneficial to Osiris" sometimes called the Osiris Complex, is an ancient Egyptian temple.<ref>O’Connor, David. “The Temple of Seti I.” In Egypt’s First Pharaohs and the Cult of Osiris, 95. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2009.</ref> It is located to the rear of the temple of Seti I. It is an integral part of Seti I's funeral complex and is built to resemble an 18th Dynasty Valley of the Kings tomb.<ref>{{cite book | last Bard| first Katheryn |title Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt | url https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00bard| url-access limited| publisher Routledge | year 1999 | isbn 0-415-18589-0|page[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00bard/page/n166 114]}}</ref> This was possibly used in ritual purposes with the growing of barely that allowed for the symbolic representation of the resurrection of Osiris. Today parts of the Osierion contain water due to the Aswan Dam and rising floodwaters. Helicopter hieroglyphs
{{Main|Helicopter hieroglyphs}}
Some of the hieroglyphs carved over an arch on the site have been interpreted in esoteric and "ufological" circles as depicting modern technology, having been the subject of pyramidology.
The "helicopter" image is the result of carved stone being re-used over time. The initial carving was made during the reign of Seti I and translates to "He who repulses the nine [enemies of Egypt]". This carving was later filled in with plaster and re-carved during the reign of Ramesses II with the title "He who protects Egypt and overthrows the foreign countries". Over time, the plaster has eroded away, leaving both inscriptions partially visible and creating a palimpsest-like effect of overlapping hieroglyphs.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.finart.be/UfocomHq/usabydos.htm|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050728103638/http://www.finart.be/UfocomHq/usabydos.htm|titleThe Abydos temple "helicopter"|archive-date28 July 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://raincool.blogspot.nl/2010/05/helicopter-hieroglyphs-explained.html|titleHelicopter Hieroglyphs Explained|workraincool.blogspot.nl|date23 May 2010 }}</ref>
Ramesses II temple
The adjacent temple of Ramesses II was much smaller and simpler in plan, but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside that lauded his achievements, of which the lower parts remain. The outside of the temple was decorated with scenes of the Battle of Kadesh. His list of pharaohs, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}} King's List {{Main|Abydos King List (Ramesses II)}}Inside the temple once stood another Gallery of Ancestors. This list is also depicted in low relief, carved under the reign of Ramesses II, but is more damaged. The surviving fragments were removed by the French consul in 1837 and sold to the British Museum.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}}
Umm El Qa'ab
{{Main|Umm El Qa'ab|Tomb of Anedjib}}
of Nesnubhotep, top of a limestone chapel monument. A scarab and adoring baboons in relief. Dynasty XXVI, Abydos, Egypt. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London]]
bead found in Abydos, tomb 197, thought to have been imported from the Indus Valley civilisation through Mesopotamia, in an example of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations. Late Middle Kingdom of Egypt. London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, ref. UC30334.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Grajetzki |first1Wolfram |titleTomb 197 at Abydos, Further Evidence for Long Distance Trade in the Middle Kingdom |journalÄgypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |volume24 |date2014 |pages159–170 |jstor43553796 |doi10.1553/s159 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Stevenson |first1Alice |titlePetrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections |date2015 |publisherUCL Press |isbn9781910634042 |page54 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDEZLDwAAQBAJ&pgPT54 |languageen}}</ref>]]
The royal necropolises of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile into the great desert plain, in a place now known as Umm El Qa'ab "The Mother of Pots" because of the shards remaining from all of the devotional objects left by religious pilgrims.
The earliest burial is about {{convert|10|x|20|ft|m|abbron}} inside, a pit lined with brick walls and originally roofed with timber and matting. Other tombs also built before Menes are {{convert|15|x|25|ft|m|abbron}}. The probable tomb of Menes is of the latter size. Afterwards, the tombs increased in size and complexity. The tomb-pit was surrounded by chambers to hold offerings, the sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small pits, tombs for the servants of the pharaoh, surrounded the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=82}} Some of the offerings included sacrificed animals, such as the asses found in the tomb of Merneith. Evidence of human sacrifice exists in the early tombs, such as the 118 servants in the tomb of Merneith, but this practice was changed later into symbolic offerings.
By the end of the Second Dynasty the type of tomb constructed changed to a long passage with chambers on either side, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies, covered a space of over {{convert|3000|m2|acre|abbroff}}, however it is possible for this to have been several tombs which abutted one another during construction; the Egyptians had no means of mapping the positioning of the tombs.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2016}} The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; but enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointments, and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The seals of various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements.<ref>Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii.</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=82}}
A cemetery for private persons was put into use during the First Dynasty, with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties, and members of later dynasties continued to bury their dead here until the Roman period. Many hundreds of funeral steles were removed by Auguste Mariette's workmen, without any details of the burials being noted.<ref>Mariette, Abydos, ii. and iii.</ref> Later excavations have been recorded by Edward R. Ayrton, Abydos, iii.; MacIver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Garstang, El Arabah.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}} "Forts" Some of the tomb structures, referred to as "forts" by modern researchers, lay behind the town. Known as Shunet ez Zebib, it is about {{convert|450|x|250|ft|m|abbron}} over all, and one still stands {{convert|30|ft|m|abbron}} high. It was built by Khasekhemwy, the last pharaoh of the Second Dynasty. Another structure nearly as large adjoined it, and probably is older than that of Khasekhemwy. A third "fort" of a squarer form is now occupied by a convent of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria; its age cannot be ascertained.<ref>Ayrton, Abydos, iii.</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p82}}
Kom El Sultan
{{Main| Kom El Sultan}}
The area now known as Kom El Sultan is a big mudbrick structure, the purpose of which is not clear and thought to have been at the original settlement area, dated to the Early Dynastic Period. The structure includes the early temple of Osiris.
See also
{{Portal|Ancient Egypt}}
* List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities
* S 9 (Abydos)
* S 10 (Abydos)
* Mahat chapel of Mentuhotep II
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
* {{EB1911|wstitleAbydos (Egypt)|displayAbydos|volume1|pages81–82}}
* {{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNF0LAAAAIAAJ |lastAyrton |firstEdward Russell |author2William Matthew Flinders Petrie |titleAbydos |volumeiii |publisherOffices of the Egypt Exploration Fund |year=1904}}
* {{cite journal |titleNew Evidence at Abydos for Ahmose's funerary cult |lastHarvey| firstStephen |publisherEES |journalEgyptian Archaeology |volume24 |date=Spring 2004}}
* {{cite book |lastMurray |firstMargaret Alice |author2Joseph Grafton Milne|author3Walter Ewing Crum |titleThe Osireion at Abydos|volumeii. and iii. |publisherB. Quaritch |editionreprint edition, June 1989 |year1904 |isbn978-1-85417-041-5}}
* {{cite book |lastWilkinson |firstToby A. H. |titleEarly Dynastic Egypt |publisherRoutledge |year=1999}}
* Mariette, Auguste, Abydos, ii. and iii.
* William Flinders Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.
* William Flinders Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii.
External links
{{Wikivoyage|Abydos}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite web|urlhttp://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/index.html|titleAbydos|access-date2008-01-15|workDigital Egypt|publisherUCL| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080115185541/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/abydos/index.html| archive-date15 January 2008 | url-status live}}
* Encyclopædia Britannica Online, "Abydos" search: [http://www.britannica.com/search?queryAbydos&ct EncBrit-Abydos], importance of Abydos
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202308/http://www.charlesmiller.co.uk/fla/templans/abydos.htm The Mortuary Temple of Seti I at Abydos]
* [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/aamw/resources/fieldwork/#Abydos%20%28Egypt%29 University of Pennsylvania Museum excavations at Abydos]
{{Egyptian Cities}}
{{Landmarks of Abydos}}
{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Populated places established in the 4th millennium BC
Category:Populated places disestablished in the 4th century BC
Category:Cities in ancient Egypt
Category:Populated places in Sohag Governorate
Category:Former populated places in Egypt
Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt
Category:Naqada III | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.928349 |
1441 | Abydos (Hellespont) | {{Short description|Ancient city in Turkey}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Abydos
| native_name = Ἄβυδος {{in lang|grc}}
| alternate_name | image Gold stater reverse Philippos CdM Paris FG1973-1-71.jpg
| alt | caption Macedonian gold stater, Abydos mint. 323–317 or 297 BC.
| image_size = 300px
| map_type = Turkey Marmara
| map_alt | map_size 300
| relief = yes
| coordinates {{coord|40|11|43|N|26|24|18|E|displayit}}
| location = Çanakkale, Çanakkale Province, Turkey
| map_dot_label = Abydos
| region = Mysia
| type = Settlement
| part_of | length
| width | area
| height | builder
| material | built {{Circa|670 BC}}<ref name="Hansen993" />
| abandoned {{Circa|1304}}-1310/1318<ref name"Leveniotis13-14"/>
| epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
| cultures | dependency_of
| occupants | event
| excavations | archaeologists
| condition | ownership
| management | public_access Restricted
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| notes =
}}
Abydos ({{langx|grc|Ἄβυδος}}, {{langx|la|Abydus}}) was an ancient city and bishopric in Mysia.{{refn|Abydos is placed either within Mysia,<ref>For Abydos within Mysia, see
*Grainger (1997), p. 675
*Allen & Neil (2003), p. 189
*Bean (1976), p. 5
</ref> or the Troad.<ref name"Brill"/>|groupnb}} It was located at the Nara Burnu promontory on the Asian coast of the Hellespont (the straits of Dardanelles), opposite the ancient city of Sestos, and near the city of Çanakkale in Turkey. Abydos was founded in {{Circa|670 BC}} at the most narrow point in the straits,<ref name"Hansen993" /> and thus was one of the main crossing points between Europe and Asia, until its replacement by the crossing between Lampsacus and Kallipolis in the 13th century,<ref name"Kazhdan_Kallipolis"/> and the abandonment of Abydos in the early 14th century.<ref name="Leveniotis13-14"/>
In Greek mythology, Abydos is presented in the myth of Hero and Leander as the home of Leander.<ref>Hopkinson (2012)</ref> The city is also mentioned in Rodanthe and Dosikles, a novel written by Theodore Prodromos, a 12th-century writer, in which Dosikles kidnaps Rodanthe at Abydos.<ref>Kazhdan & Wharton (1985), p. 202</ref>
Archaeology
In 1675, the site of Abydos was first identified, and was subsequently visited by numerous classicists and travellers, such as Robert Wood, Richard Chandler, and Lord Byron.<ref name"Gunter">Gunter (2015), p. 1</ref> The city's acropolis is known in Turkish as Mal Tepe.<ref name"Bean"/>
Following the city's abandonment, the ruins of Abydos were scavenged for building materials from the 14th to the 19th century,<ref>Leveniotis (2017), p. 3</ref> and remains of walls and buildings continued to be reported until at least the 19th century, however, little remains and the area was declared a restricted military zone in the early 20th century, thus little to no excavation has taken place.<ref name"Gunter"/><ref>[http://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/PLACES/Bosphorus-BlackSea/ChersonneseThracian-Gazetteer.pdf Archivum Callipolitanum II]. A Catalogue of Ancient Ports and Harbours</ref>HistoryClassical periodAbydos is mentioned in the Iliad as a Trojan ally,<ref name"Mitchell">Mitchell (2005)</ref> and, according to Strabo, was occupied by Bebryces and later Thracians after the Trojan War.<ref>Leveniotis (2017), p. 4</ref> It has been suggested that the city was originally a Phoenician colony as there was a temple of Aphrodite Porne (Aphrodite the Harlot) within Abydos.<ref>Miller (2014), p. 20</ref><ref>Gorman (2001), p. 243</ref> Abydos was settled by Milesian colonists contemporaneously with the foundation of the cities of Priapos and Prokonnesos in {{circa|670 BC}}.<ref name"Hansen993">Hansen & Nielsen (2004), p. 993</ref> Strabo related that Gyges, King of Lydia, granted his consent to the Milesians to settle Abydos;<ref name"Bean">Bean (1976), p. 5</ref> it is argued that this was carried out by Milesian mercenaries to act as a garrison to prevent Thracian raids into Asia Minor.<ref>Fine (1983), p. 80</ref> The city became a thriving centre for tuna exportation as a result of the high yield of tuna in the Hellespont.<ref>Roesti (1966), p. 82</ref>
Abydos was ruled by Daphnis, a pro-Persian tyrant, in the 520s BC,<ref name"Hansen1003">Hansen & Nielsen (2004), p. 1003</ref> but was occupied by the Persian Empire in 514.<ref name"Mitchell"/> Darius I destroyed the city following his Scythian campaign in 512.<ref name"Hansen1003"/> Abydos participated in the Ionian Revolt in the early 5th century BC,<ref name"Brill"/> however, the city returned briefly to Persian control as, in 480, at the onset of the Second Persian invasion of Greece, Xerxes I and the Persian army passed through Abydos on their march to Greece crossing the Hellespont on Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges.<ref name"Mitchell"/> After the failed Persian invasion, Abydos became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League,<ref name"Mitchell"/> and was part of the Hellespontine district.<ref name"Hansen1003"/> Ostensibly an ally, Abydos was hostile to Athens throughout this time,<ref name"Bean"/> and contributed a phoros of 4-6 talents.<ref name"Brill"/> Xenophon documented that Abydos possessed gold mines at Astyra or Kremaste at the time of his writing.<ref name"Bean"/>
During the Second Peloponnesian War, a Spartan expedition led by Dercylidas arrived at Abydos in early May 411 BC and successfully convinced the city to defect from the Delian League and fight against Athens,<ref>Kagan (2013), p. 102</ref> at which time he was made harmost (commander/governor) of Abydos.<ref name"Hodkinson ">Hodkinson (2005)</ref> A Spartan fleet was defeated by Athens at Abydos in the autumn of 411 BC.<ref>Westlake (1985), p. 313</ref> Abydos was attacked by the Athenians in the winter of 409/408 BC, but was repelled by a Persian force led by Pharnabazus, satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia.<ref>Kagan (2013), p. 276</ref> Dercylidas held the office of harmost of Abydos until at least {{circa|407}}.<ref name"Hodkinson " /> According to Aristotle, Abydos had an oligarchic constitution at this time.<ref name"Hansen1003"/> At the beginning of the Corinthian War in 394 BC, Agesilaus II, King of Sparta, passed through Abydos into Thrace.<ref name"Phang"/> Abydos remained an ally of Sparta throughout the war and Dercylidas served as harmost of the city from 394 until he was replaced by Anaxibius in {{circa|390}}; the latter was killed in an ambush near Abydos by the Athenian general Iphicrates in {{circa|389/388}}.<ref name"Phang">Phang et al. (2016), p. 57</ref> At the conclusion of the Corinthian War, under the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC, Abydos was annexed to the Persian Empire.<ref name"Bean"/> Within the Persian Empire, Abydos was administered as part of the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia,<ref>Jacobs (2011)</ref> and was ruled by the tyrant Philiscus in 368.<ref>Fine (1983), p. 584</ref><ref>Maffre (2007), p. 129</ref> In {{circa|360 BC}}, the city came under the control of the tyrant Iphiades.<ref name"Hansen1003"/>Hellenistic periodAbydos remained under Persian control until it was seized by a Macedonian army led by Parmenion, a general of Philip II, in the spring of 336 BC.<ref name"Ashley">Ashley (2004), p. 187</ref> In 335, whilst Parmenion besieged the city of Pitane, Abydos was besieged by a Persian army led by Memnon of Rhodes, forcing Parmenion to abandon his siege of Pitane and march north to relieve Abydos.<ref>Freely (2010), pp. 55-56</ref> Alexander ferried across from Sestos to Abydos in 334 and travelled south to the city of Troy, after which he returned to Abydos.<ref name"Ashley" /> The following day, Alexander left Abydos and led his army north to Percote.<ref name"Ashley" /> Alexander later established a royal mint at Abydos, as well as at other cities in Asia Minor.<ref>Dmitriev (2011), p. 429</ref>
After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Abydos, as part of the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, came under the control of Leonnatus as a result of the Partition of Babylon.<ref>Roberts (2007)</ref> At the Partition of Triparadisus in 321 BC, Arrhidaeus succeeded Leonnatus as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.<ref>Roisman (2012), p. 174</ref>
In 302, during the Fourth War of the Diadochi, Lysimachus, King of Thrace, crossed over into Asia Minor and invaded the kingdom of Antigonus I.<ref name"Magie89">Magie (2015), p. 89</ref> Unlike the neighbouring cities of Parium and Lampsacus which surrendered, Abydos resisted Lysimachus and was besieged.<ref name"Magie89" /> Lysimachus was forced to abandon the siege, however, after the arrival of a relief force sent by Demetrius, son of King Antigonus I.<ref name"Magie89" /> According to Polybius, by the third century BC, the neighbouring city of Arisbe had become subordinate to Abydos.<ref>Spawforth (2015)</ref> The city of Dardanus also came under the control of Abydos at some point in the Hellenistic period.<ref name"Mackay">Mackay (1976), p. 258</ref> Abydos became part of the Seleucid Empire after 281 BC.<ref name="Brill">[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/abydus-e101490 Abydus]. Brill Reference Online</ref> The city was conquered by Ptolemy III Euergetes, King of Egypt, in 245 BC,<ref>Grainger (1997), p. 675</ref> and remained under Ptolemaic control until at least 241, as Abydos had become part of the Kingdom of Pergamon by c. 200 BC.<ref>[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/pergamum-e913440#p9091 Pergamum]. Brill Reference Online</ref>
tetradrachm of Abydos, with the legend ΑΒΥΔΗΝΩΝ ("of the Abydenes")]]
During the Second Macedonian War, Abydos was besieged by Philip V, King of Macedonia, in 200 BC,<ref name"Jaques">Jaques (2007), p. 4</ref> during which many of its citizens chose to commit suicide rather than surrender.<ref>Magie (2015), pp. 15-16</ref> Marcus Aemilius Lepidus met with Philip V during the siege to deliver an ultimatum on behalf of the Roman senate.<ref>Briscoe (2015)</ref> Ultimately, the city was forced to surrender to Philip V due to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name"Jaques"/> The Macedonian occupation ended after the Peace of Flamininus at the end of the war in 196 BC.<ref name="Jaques"/> At this time, Abydos was substantially depopulated and partially ruined as a result of the Macedonian occupation.<ref>Grainger (2002), p. 70</ref>
In the spring of 196 BC, Abydos was seized by Antiochus III, Megas Basileus of the Seleucid Empire,<ref>Magie (2015), p. 17</ref> who refortified the city in 192/191 BC.<ref name"Phang"/> Antiochus III later withdrew from Abydos during the Roman-Seleucid War, thus allowing for the transportation of the Roman army into Asia Minor by October 190 BC.<ref>Errington (1989), p. 286</ref> Dardanus was subsequently liberated from Abydene control,<ref name"Mackay" /> and the Treaty of Apamea of 188 BC returned Abydos to the Kingdom of Pergamon.<ref>Errington (1989), pp. 287-288</ref> A gymnasium was active at Abydos in the 2nd century BC.<ref>[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/education-culture-e217200#p2560 Education / Culture]. Brill Reference Online</ref>
Roman period
Attalus III, King of Pergamon, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome upon his death in 133 BC, and thus Abydos became part of the province of Asia.<ref>Dmitriev (2005), p. 7</ref> The gold mines of Abydos at Astyra or Kremaste were near exhaustion at the time was Strabo was writing.<ref name"Bean"/> The city was counted amongst the telonia (custom houses) of the province of Asia in the lex portorii Asiae of 62 AD,<ref>Leveniotis (2017), p. 11</ref> and formed part of the conventus iuridicus Adramytteum.<ref name"Leveniotis8" /> Abydos is mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana and Antonine Itinerary.<ref>Magie (2017), p. 41</ref> The mint of Abydos ceased to function in the mid-3rd century AD.<ref name="Leveniotis8">Leveniotis (2017), p. 8</ref>
It is believed that Abydos, with Sestos and Lampsacus, is referred to as one of the "three large capital cities" of the Roman Empire in Weilüe, a 3rd-century AD Chinese text.<ref>Leslie & Gardiner (1995), p. 67</ref> The city was the centre for customs collection at the southern entrance of the Sea of Marmara,<ref name"Foss">Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy01.rhul.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-0024?rskey9rYfUw&result1 Abydos]" (C. Foss), pp. 8–9</ref> and was administered by a komes ton Stenon (count of the Straits) or an archon from the 3rd century to the 5th century AD.<ref name"Leveniotis12" >Leveniotis (2017), p. 12</ref>
Medieval period
Pope Martin I rested at Abydos in the summer of 653 whilst en route to Constantinople.<ref>McCormick (2001), pp. 485-486</ref> As a result of the administrative reforms of the 7th century, Abydos came to be administered as part of the theme of Opsikion.<ref>Lampakis (2008)</ref> The office of kommerkiarios of Abydos is first attested in the mid-7th century, and was later sometimes combined with the office of paraphylax, the military governor of the fort, introduced in the 8th century, at which time the office of komes ton stenon is last mentioned.<ref name="Nesbitt ">Nesbitt & Oikonomides (1996), pp. 73-74</ref>
After the 7th century AD, Abydos became a major seaport.<ref name"Kazhdan_Ports">Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-4429 Ports]" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1706–1707</ref> Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, during his campaign against Constantinople, crossed over into Thrace at Abydos in July 717.<ref>Venning & Harris (2006), p. 196</ref> The office of archon at Abydos was restored in the late 8th century and endured until the early 9th century.<ref name"Leveniotis12"/> In 801, Empress Irene reduced commercial tariffs collected at Abydos.<ref name"Foss"/> Emperor Nikephoros I, Irene's successor, introduced a tax on slaves purchased beyond the city.<ref name"Hollingsworth">Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-3803 Nikephoros I]" (P. A. Hollingsworth), pp. 1476–1477</ref> The city later also became part of the theme of the Aegean Sea and was the seat of a tourmarches.<ref name="Nesbitt "/>
Abydos was sacked by an Arab fleet led by Leo of Tripoli in 904 AD whilst en route to Constantinople.<ref name"Kazhdan_Leo">Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-3097 Leo of Tripoli]" (A. Kazhdan), p. 1216</ref> The revolt of Bardas Phokas was defeated by Emperor Basil II at Abydos in 989 AD.<ref>Evans & Wixom (1997), p. 19</ref> In 992, the Venetians were granted reduced commercial tariffs at Abydos as a special privilege.<ref name"Foss"/> In the early 11th century, Abydos became the seat of a separate command and the office of strategos (governor) of Abydos is first mentioned in 1004 with authority over the northern shore of the Hellespont and the islands of the Sea of Marmara.<ref name="Nesbitt "/>
In 1024, a Rus' raid led by a certain Chrysocheir defeated the local commander at Abydos and proceeded to travel south through the Hellespont.<ref>Wortley (2010), p. 347</ref> Following the Battle of Manzikert, Abydos was seized by the Seljuk Turks, but was recovered in 1086 AD,<ref>Haldon & Davis (2002), p. 95</ref> in which year Leo Kephalas was appointed katepano of Abydos.<ref>Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy01.rhul.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-2828. Kephalas]" (A. Kazhdan)</ref> Abydos' population likely increased at this time as a result of the arrival of refugees from northwestern Anatolia who had fled the advance of the Turks.<ref name"Leveniotis13-14"/> In 1092/1093, the city was attacked by Tzachas, a Turkish pirate.<ref name"Brand">Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-5634 Tzachas]" (Ch. M. Brand), p. 2134</ref> Emperor Manuel I Komnenos repaired Abydos' fortifications in the late 12th century.<ref name="Nesbitt "/>
By the 13th century AD, the crossing from Lampsacus to Kallipolis had become more common and largely replaced the crossing from Abydos to Sestos.<ref name"Kazhdan_Kallipolis">Kazhdan (1991) "[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-2725 Kallipolis]" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1094–1095</ref> During the Fourth Crusade, in 1204, the Venetians seized Abydos,<ref name"Foss"/> and, following the Sack of Constantinople and the formation of the Latin Empire later that year, Emperor Baldwin granted the land between Abydos and Adramyttium to his brother Henry of Flanders.<ref>Van Tricht (2011), p. 106</ref> Henry of Flanders passed through Abydos on 11 November 1204 and continued his march to Adramyttium.<ref>Korobeinikov (2014), p. 54</ref> Abydos was seized by the Empire of Nicaea, a successor state of the Eastern Roman Empire, during its offensive in 1206–1207, but was reconquered by the Latin Empire in 1212–1213.<ref>Van Tricht (2011), pp. 109-110</ref> The city was later recovered by Emperor John III Vatatzes.<ref name"Foss"/> Abydos declined in the 13th century, and was eventually abandoned between 1304 and 1310/1318 due to the threat of Turkish tribes and disintegration of Roman control over the region.<ref name"Leveniotis13-14"/>
Ecclesiastical history
{{Main|Diocese of Abydos|Roman Catholic Diocese of Abydus}}
The bishopric of Abydus appears in all the Notitiae Episcopatuum of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the mid-7th century until the time of Andronikos III Palaiologos (1341), first as a suffragan of Cyzicus and then from 1084 as a metropolitan see without suffragans. The earliest bishop mentioned in extant documents is Marcian, who signed the joint letter of the bishops of Hellespontus to Emperor Leo I in 458, protesting about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria. A letter of Peter the Fuller (471–488) mentions a bishop of Abydus called Pamphilus. Ammonius signed the decretal letter of the Council of Constantinople in 518 against Severus of Antioch and others. Isidore was at the Third Council of Constantinople (680–681), John at the Trullan Council (692), Theodore at the Second Council of Nicaea (787). An unnamed bishop of Abydus was a counsellor of Emperor Nikephoros II in 969.<ref>Michel Lequien. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0agp0mJFG_sC Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus]. Paris. 1740, Vol. I, coll. 773-776.</ref><ref>Sophrone Pétridès. v. Abydus, in [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6562709t/f125.image ''Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques], vol. I. Paris. 1909. coll. 209-210.</ref>
Seals attest Theodosius as bishop of Abydos in the 11th century,<ref>[http://www.doaks.org/resources/seals/byzantine-seals/BZS.1958.106.373/view Theodosios monk and bishop of Abydos (eleventh century)].Dumbarton Oaks</ref> and John as metropolitan bishop of Abydos in the 11/12th century.<ref>[http://doaks.org/resources/seals/byzantine-seals/BZS.1951.31.5.307 John proedros (metropolitan) of Abydos (eleventh/twelfth century)]. Dumbarton Oaks</ref> Abydos remained a metropolitan see until the city fell to the Turks in the 14th century.<ref name"Nesbitt "/> The diocese is currently a titular see of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and Gerasimos Papadopoulos was titular Bishop of Abydos from 1962 until his death in 1995.<ref>[https://www.goarch.org/-/gerasimos-papadopoulos-bishop-of-abydos-the-wise-abba-of-america Gerasimos Papadopoulos: Bishop of Abydos, the Wise Abba of America]. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America</ref> Simeon Kruzhkov was bishop of Abydos from May to September 1998.<ref>Rimestad (2014), p. 299, p. 309</ref> Kyrillos Katerelos was consecrated bishop of Abydos in 2008.<ref>[https://www.patriarchate.org/-/abydou-k-kyrillos Kyrillos of Abydos]''. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople {{in lang|el}}</ref>
In 1222, during the Latin occupation, the papal legate Giovanni Colonna united the dioceses of Abydos and Madytos and placed the see under direct Papal authority.<ref name"Leveniotis13-14">Leveniotis (2017), pp. 13-14</ref> No longer a residential bishopric, Abydus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.See also* List of ancient Greek citiesReferences
Notes
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
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{{div col end}}
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Category:History of Çanakkale Province | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abydos_(Hellespont) | 2025-04-05T18:25:39.951244 |
1442 | August 15 | {{other uses}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 636 &ndash; Arab–Byzantine wars: The Battle of Yarmouk between the Byzantine Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate begins.
* 717 &ndash; Arab–Byzantine wars: Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik begins the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople, which will last for nearly a year.
* 718 &ndash; Arab–Byzantine wars: Raising of the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople.
*747 &ndash; Carloman, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, renounces his position as majordomo and retires to a monastery near Rome. His brother, Pepin the Short, becomes the sole ruler (de facto) of the Frankish Kingdom.
* 778 &ndash; The Battle of Roncevaux Pass takes place between the army of Charlemagne and a Basque army.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://militaryhistory.about.com/od/battleswarsto1000/p/roncevaux.htm|titleCharlemagne: Battle of Roncevaux Pass|lastHickman|firstKennedy|publisherMilitary History|access-date15 August 2019|archive-date24 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151224163706/http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/battleswarsto1000/p/roncevaux.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 805 &ndash; Noble Erchana of Dahauua grants the Bavarian town of Dachau to the Diocese of Freising
* 927 &ndash; The Saracens conquer and destroy Taranto.
* 982 &ndash; Holy Roman Emperor Otto II is defeated by the Saracens in the Battle of Capo Colonna, in Calabria.
*1018 &ndash; Byzantine general Eustathios Daphnomeles blinds and captures Ibatzes of Bulgaria by a ruse, thereby ending Bulgarian resistance against Emperor Basil II's conquest of Bulgaria.
*1038 &ndash; King Stephen I, the first king of Hungary, dies; his nephew, Peter Orseolo, succeeds him.
*1057 &ndash; King Macbeth is killed at the Battle of Lumphanan by the forces of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada.
*1070 &ndash; The Pavian-born Benedictine Lanfranc is appointed as the new Archbishop of Canterbury in England.
*1096 &ndash; Starting date of the First Crusade as set by Pope Urban II.<ref>{{citation|lastHallam|firstElizabeth|year1989|titleChronicles of the Crusades: Eye-witness Accounts of the Wars Between Christianity and Islam|publisherBramley|isbn9781858335896|page=63}}</ref>
*1185 &ndash; The cave city of Vardzia is consecrated by Queen Tamar of Georgia.
*1224 &ndash; The Livonian Brothers of the Sword, a Catholic military order, occupy Tarbatu (today Tartu) as part of the Livonian Crusade.<ref>Tarvel, Enn (ed.). Henriku Liivimaa kroonika. Heinrici Chronicon Livoniae. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, 1982. (in Estonian)</ref><ref>Vahtre, Sulev. Muinasaja loojang Eestis : vabadusvõitlus 1208–1227.Tallinn: Olion, 1990. (in Estonian)</ref>
*1237 &ndash; Spanish Reconquista: The Battle of the Puig between the Moorish forces of Taifa of Valencia against the Kingdom of Aragon culminates in an Aragonese victory.
*1248 &ndash; The foundation stone of Cologne Cathedral, built to house the relics of the Three Wise Men, is laid. (Construction is eventually completed in 1880.)
*1261 &ndash; Michael VIII Palaiologos is crowned as the first Byzantine emperor in fifty-seven years.
*1281 &ndash; Mongol invasion of Japan: The Mongolian fleet of Kublai Khan is destroyed by a "divine wind" for the second time in the Battle of Kōan.
*1310 &ndash; The city of Rhodes surrenders to the forces of the Knights of St. John, completing their conquest of Rhodes. The knights establish their headquarters on the island and rename themselves the Knights of Rhodes.
*1430 &ndash; Francesco Sforza, lord of Milan, conquers Lucca.
*1461 &ndash; The Empire of Trebizond surrenders to the forces of Sultan Mehmed II. This is regarded by some historians as the real end of the Byzantine Empire. Emperor David is exiled and later murdered.
*1483 &ndash; Pope Sixtus IV consecrates the Sistine Chapel.
*1511 &ndash; Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Malacca, the capital of the Malacca Sultanate.
*1517 &ndash; Seven Portuguese armed vessels led by Fernão Pires de Andrade meet Chinese officials at the Pearl River estuary.
*1519 &ndash; Panama City, Panama is founded.
*1534 &ndash; Ignatius of Loyola and six classmates take initial vows, leading to the creation of the Society of Jesus in September 1540.
*1537 &ndash; Asunción, Paraguay is founded.
*1540 &ndash; Arequipa, Peru is founded.
*1549 &ndash; Jesuit priest Francis Xavier comes ashore at Kagoshima (Traditional Japanese date: 22 July 1549).
*1592 &ndash; Imjin War: At the Battle of Hansan Island, the Korean Navy, led by Yi Sun-sin, Yi Eok-gi, and Won Gyun, decisively defeats the Japanese Navy, led by Wakisaka Yasuharu.<ref>{{citation|lastHawley|firstSamuel|year2005|titleThe Imjin War|publisherThe Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch/UC Berkeley Press|isbn89-954424-2-5 |page=239}}</ref>
*1599 &ndash; Nine Years' War: Battle of Curlew Pass: Irish forces led by Hugh Roe O'Donnell successfully ambush English forces, led by Sir Conyers Clifford, sent to relieve Collooney Castle.
1601–1900
*1695 &ndash; French forces end the bombardment of Brussels.
*1760 &ndash; Seven Years' War: Battle of Liegnitz: Frederick the Great's victory over the Austrians under Ernst Gideon von Laudon.
*1824 &ndash; The Marquis de Lafayette, the last surviving French general of the American Revolutionary War, arrives in New York and begins a tour of 24 states.
*1843 &ndash; The Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace in Honolulu, Hawaii is dedicated. Now the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu, it is the oldest Roman Catholic cathedral in continuous use in the United States.
* 1843 &ndash; Tivoli Gardens, one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opens in Copenhagen, Denmark.
*1863 &ndash; The Anglo-Satsuma War begins between the Satsuma Domain of Japan and the United Kingdom (Traditional Japanese date: July 2, 1863).
*1893 &ndash; Ibadan area becomes a British Protectorate after a treaty signed by Fijabi, the Baale of Ibadan with the British acting Governor of Lagos, George C. Denton.
*1899 &ndash; Fratton Park football ground in Portsmouth, England is officially first opened.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.aroundthegrounds.org/grounds-hub/fratton-park/|title Fratton Park the home of Portsmouth}}</ref>
1901–present
*1907 &ndash; Ordination in Constantinople of Fr. Raphael Morgan, the first African-American Orthodox priest, "Priest-Apostolic" to America and the West Indies.
*1914 &ndash; A servant of American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, sets fire to the living quarters of Wright's Wisconsin home, Taliesin, and murders seven people there.
* 1914 &ndash; The Panama Canal opens to traffic with the transit of the cargo ship {{SS|Ancon|1901|6}}.
* 1914 &ndash; World War I: The First Russian Army, led by Paul von Rennenkampf, enters East Prussia.
* 1914 &ndash; World War I: Beginning of the Battle of Cer, the first Allied victory of World War I.
*1915 &ndash; A story in New York World newspaper reveals that the Imperial German government had purchased excess phenol from Thomas Edison that could be used to make explosives for the war effort and diverted it to Bayer for aspirin production.
*1920 &ndash; Polish–Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw, so-called Miracle at the Vistula.
*1935 &ndash; Will Rogers and Wiley Post are killed after their aircraft develops engine problems during takeoff in Barrow, Alaska.
*1939 &ndash; Twenty-six Junkers Ju 87 bombers commanded by Walter Sigel meet unexpected ground fog during a dive-bombing demonstration for Luftwaffe generals at Neuhammer. Thirteen of them crash and burn.
* 1939 &ndash; The Wizard of Oz premieres at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California.<ref>{{cite web | titleNo Place Like Home: 'Wizard of Oz' premiered here 70 years ago | url http://host.madison.com/article_5c61ec86-41d1-5eef-a2da-e2ad874a4aeb.html | dateAugust 18, 2009 | first Katjusa | lastCisar | publisher Madison.com | access-dateOctober 21, 2011 | archive-date August 25, 2017 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170825104341/http://host.madison.com/article_5c61ec86-41d1-5eef-a2da-e2ad874a4aeb.html | url-status live }}</ref>
*1940 &ndash; An Italian submarine torpedoes and sinks the {{ship|Greek cruiser|Elli|1912|6}} at Tinos harbor during peacetime, marking the most serious Italian provocation prior to the outbreak of the Greco-Italian War in October.
*1941 &ndash; Corporal Josef Jakobs is executed by firing squad at the Tower of London at 07:12, making him the last person to be executed at the Tower for espionage.
*1942 &ndash; World War II: Operation Pedestal: The oil tanker {{SS|Ohio}} reaches the island of Malta barely afloat carrying vital fuel supplies for the island's defenses.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: Battle of Trahili: Superior German forces surround Cretan partisans, who manage to escape against all odds.
*1944 &ndash; World War II: Operation Dragoon: Allied forces land in southern France.
*1945 &ndash; Emperor Hirohito broadcasts his declaration of surrender following the effective surrender of Japan in World War II; Korea gains independence from the Empire of Japan.
*1947 &ndash; India gains independence from British rule after near 190 years of British company and crown rule and joins the Commonwealth of Nations.
* 1947 &ndash; Founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah is sworn in as first Governor-General of Pakistan in Karachi.
*1948 &ndash; The First Republic of Korea (South Korea) is established in the southern half of the peninsula.
*1950 &ndash; Measuring {{M|w|linky}} 8.6, the largest earthquake on land occurs in the Assam-Tibet-Myanmar border, killing 4,800.<ref>{{cite web |titleM 8.6 – 1950 Assam-Tibet Earthquake |urlhttps://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official19500815140934_30/executive |websiteearthquake.usgs.gov |publisherUSGS |access-date14 August 2021}}</ref>
*1952 &ndash; A flash flood drenches the town of Lynmouth, England, killing 34 people.
*1954 &ndash; Alfredo Stroessner begins his dictatorship in Paraguay.
*1959 &ndash; American Airlines Flight 514, a Boeing 707, crashes near the Calverton Executive Airpark in Calverton, New York, killing all five people on board.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 707-123 N7514A Calverton-Peconic River Airport, NY (CTO) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19590815-0 |access-date2022-04-13 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) becomes independent from France.
*1961 &ndash; Border guard Conrad Schumann flees from East Germany while on duty guarding the construction of the Berlin Wall.
*1962 &ndash; James Joseph Dresnok defects to North Korea after running across the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Dresnok died in 2016.
*1963 &ndash; Execution of Henry John Burnett, the last man to be hanged in Scotland.
* 1963 &ndash; President Fulbert Youlou is overthrown in the Republic of the Congo, after a three-day uprising in the capital.
*1965 &ndash; The Beatles play to nearly 60,000 fans at Shea Stadium in New York City, an event later regarded as the birth of stadium rock.
*1969 &ndash; The Woodstock Music & Art Fair opens in Bethel, New York, featuring some of the top rock musicians of the era.
*1970 &ndash; Patricia Palinkas becomes the first woman to play professionally in an American football game.
*1971 &ndash; President Richard Nixon completes the break from the gold standard by ending convertibility of the United States dollar into gold by foreign investors.
* 1971 &ndash; Bahrain gains independence from the United Kingdom.
*1973 &ndash; Vietnam War: The USAF bombing of Cambodia ends.
*1974 &ndash; Yuk Young-soo, First Lady of South Korea, is killed during an apparent assassination attempt upon President Park Chung Hee.
*1975 &ndash; Bangladeshi leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman is killed along with most members of his family during a military coup.
* 1975 &ndash; Takeo Miki makes the first official pilgrimage to Yasukuni Shrine by an incumbent prime minister on the anniversary of the end of World War II.
*1976 &ndash; SAETA Flight 232 crashes into the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador, killing all 59 people on board; the wreckage is not discovered until 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRanter|firstHarro|titleASN Aircraft accident Vickers 785D Viscount HC-ARS Chimborazo Volcano|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19760815-0|url-statuslive|access-date2021-12-27|websiteaviation-safety.net|publisherAviation Safety Network|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051109171533/http://www.aviation-safety.net:80/database/record.php?id19760815-0 |archive-date2005-11-09 }}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; The Big Ear, a radio telescope operated by Ohio State University as part of the SETI project, receives a radio signal from deep space; the event is named the "Wow! signal" from the notation made by a volunteer on the project.
*1984 &ndash; The Kurdistan Workers' Party in Turkey starts a campaign of armed attacks upon the Turkish Armed Forces with an attack on police and gendarmerie bases in Şemdinli and Eruh.
*1985 &ndash; Signing of the Assam Accord, an agreement between representatives of the Government of India and the leaders of the Assam Movement to end the movement.
*1989 &ndash; China Eastern Airlines Flight 5510 crashes after takeoff from Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport, killing 34 of the 40 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web |titleASN Aircraft accident Antonov An-24RV B-3417 Shanghai-Hongqiao Airport (SHA) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19890815-1 |access-date2023-02-02 |website=aviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; In South Carolina, Shannon Faulkner becomes the first female cadet matriculated at The Citadel (she drops out less than a week later).
* 1995 &ndash; Tomiichi Murayama, Prime Minister of Japan, releases the Murayama Statement, which formally expresses remorse for Japanese war crimes committed during World War II.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/press/pm/murayama/9508.html|titleMOFA: Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama "On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the war's end" (15 August 1995)|websitewww.mofa.go.jp|access-date2020-01-24}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Northern Ireland: Omagh bombing takes place; 29 people (including a woman pregnant with twins) killed and some 220 others injured.<ref>{{cite web |titleOmagh bomb: Bell tolls to mark 20th anniversary |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-45144511 |websiteBBC News |access-date2 February 2023 |date=15 August 2018}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Apple introduces the iMac computer.<ref>{{cite web|titleApple Fast Facts|websiteCNN|dateJuly 2014|access-dateJanuary 12, 2022|url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/07/01/business/apple-fast-facts/index.html}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Beni Ounif massacre in Algeria: Some 29 people are killed at a false roadblock near the Moroccan border, leading to temporary tensions with Morocco.
*2005 &ndash; Israel's unilateral disengagement plan to evict all Israelis from the Gaza Strip and from four settlements in the northern West Bank begins.
* 2005 &ndash; The Helsinki Agreement between the Free Aceh Movement and the Government of Indonesia was signed, ending almost three decades of fighting.
*2007 &ndash; An 8.0-magnitude earthquake off the Pacific coast devastates Ica and various regions of Peru killing 514 and injuring 1,090.
*2013 &ndash; At least 27 people are killed and 226 injured in an explosion in southern Beirut near a complex used by Lebanon's militant group Hezbollah in Lebanon. A previously unknown Syrian Sunni group claims responsibility in an online video.
* 2013 &ndash; The Smithsonian announces the discovery of the olinguito, the first new carnivorous species found in the Americas in 35 years.
*2015 &ndash; North Korea moves its clock back half an hour to introduce Pyongyang Time, 8{{frac|1|2}} hours ahead of UTC.
*2020 &ndash; Russia begins production on the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine.<ref>{{cite web|titleRussia Fast Facts|websiteCNN|date29 October 2013|access-dateJanuary 11, 2022|url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/29/world/russia-fast-facts/index.html}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Kabul falls into the hands of the Taliban as Ashraf Ghani flees Afghanistan along with local residents and foreign nationals, effectively reestablishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
Births
Pre-1600
*1013 &ndash; Teishi, empress of Japan (d. 1094)
*1171 &ndash; Alfonso IX, king of León and Galicia (d. 1230)
*1195 &ndash; Anthony of Padua, Portuguese priest and saint (d. 1231)
*1385 &ndash; Richard de Vere, 11th Earl of Oxford, English commander (d. 1417)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Ross |first1James |titleVere, Richard de, eleventh earl of Oxford (1385–1417), magnate and soldier |date5 January 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/101270}}</ref>
*1432 &ndash; Luigi Pulci, Italian poet (d. 1484)
*1455 &ndash; George, duke of Bavaria (d. 1503)
*1507 &ndash; George III, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, German prince (d. 1553)
*1575 &ndash; Bartol Kašić, Croatian linguist and lexicographer (d. 1650)
*1589 &ndash; Gabriel Báthory, Prince of Transylvania (d. 1613)
1601–1900
*1607 &ndash; Herman IV, landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg (d. 1658)
*1608 &ndash; Henry Howard, 22nd Earl of Arundel, English politician (d. 1652)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Goodwin |first1Gordon |last2Peacey |first2J. T. |titleHoward, Henry Frederick, fifteenth earl of Arundel, fifth earl of Surrey, and second earl of Norfolk (1608–1652), nobleman |date28 September 2006 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/13915}}</ref>
*1613 &ndash; Gilles Ménage, French lawyer, philologist, and scholar (d. 1692)
*1615 &ndash; Marie de Lorraine, duchess of Guise (d. 1688)
*1652 &ndash; John Grubb, American politician (d. 1708)
*1702 &ndash; Francesco Zuccarelli, Italian painter and Royal Academician (d. 1788)<ref>{{cite journal |last1West |first1Shearer |titleZuccarelli, Francesco |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T093658|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 }}</ref>
*1717 &ndash; Blind Jack, English engineer (d. 1810)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Hallas |first1Christine S. |titleMetcalf, John [called Blind Jack of Knaresborough] (1717–1810), road builder and surveyor |date2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/18616}}</ref>
*1736 &ndash; Johann Christoph Kellner, German organist and composer (d. 1803)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Fellerer |first1Karl Gustav |titleKellner, Johann Christoph |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14851}}</ref>
*1740 &ndash; Matthias Claudius, German poet and author (d. 1815)
*1769 &ndash; Napoleon Bonaparte, French general and emperor (d. 1821)<ref>{{cite book |titleBonaparte |first1Eugene Viktorovich |last1Tarlé |page13 |date1937 |publisherKnight Publications |locationNew York |translator-first1John |translator-last1Cournos |viaInternet Archive |urlhttps://archive.org/details/bonaparte00tarl |access-date28 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
*1771 &ndash; Walter Scott, Scottish novelist, playwright, and poet (d. 1832)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Wainwright |first1Clive |titleScott, Sir Walter |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T077153}}</ref>
*1785 &ndash; Thomas De Quincey, English journalist and author (d. 1859)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Lindop |first1Grevel |titleQuincey, Thomas Penson De (1785–1859), essayist |date2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/7524}}</ref>
*1787 &ndash; Eliza Lee Cabot Follen, American writer, editor, abolitionist (d. 1860)<ref name"Hannan2008">{{cite book|lastHannan|firstCaryn|titleMassachusetts Biographical Dictionary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNtj6SFIEKoEC&pgPA165|date2008|publisherState History Publications|isbn978-1-878592-66-8|pages=165–}}</ref>
*1798 &ndash; Sangolli Rayanna, Indian warrior (d. 1831)
*1807 &ndash; Jules Grévy, French lawyer and politician, 4th President of the French Republic (d. 1891)
*1810 &ndash; Louise Colet, French poet (d. 1876)<ref>{{cite web |titleLouise Colet {{!}} French writer {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Louise-Colet |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date26 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1824 &ndash; John Chisum, American businessman (d. 1884)
*1839 &ndash; Antonín Petrof, Czech piano maker (d. 1915)
*1844 &ndash; Thomas-Alfred Bernier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician (d. 1908)
*1845 &ndash; Walter Crane, English artist and book illustrator (d. 1915)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Newall |first1Christopher |titleCrane, Walter |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T020135}}</ref>
*1856 &ndash; Keir Hardie, Scottish politician and trade unionist (d. 1915)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Morgan |first1Kenneth O. |titleHardie, (James) Keir [formerly James Kerr] (1856–1915), founder of the Labour Party |date6 January 2011 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/33696}}</ref>
*1857 &ndash; Albert Ballin, German businessman (d. 1918)
*1858 &ndash; E. Nesbit, English author and poet (d. 1924)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Briggs |first1Julia |titleNesbit [married name Bland], Edith (1858–1924), writer |date2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/31919}}</ref>
*1859 &ndash; Charles Comiskey, American baseball player and manager (d. 1931)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Lindberg |first1Richard C. |titleComiskey, Charles Albert (1859–1931), professional baseball player and team owner |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1900263}}</ref>
*1860 &ndash; Florence Harding, American publisher, 31st First Lady of the United States (d. 1924)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Gutin |first1Myra G. |titleHarding, Florence Mabel Kling DeWolfe (1860–1924), first lady of the United States |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0600764}}</ref>
*1863 &ndash; Aleksey Krylov, Russian mathematician and engineer (d. 1945)
*1865 &ndash; Mikao Usui, Japanese spiritual leader, founded Reiki (d. 1926)
*1866 &ndash; Italo Santelli, Italian fencer (d. 1945)
*1872 &ndash; Sri Aurobindo, Indian guru, poet, and philosopher (d. 1950)
*1873 &ndash; Ramaprasad Chanda, Indian archaeologist and historian (d. 1942)
*1875 &ndash; Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, English pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 1912)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Banfield |first1Stephen |titleColeridge-Taylor, Samuel |date16 October 2013 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2248993}}</ref>
*1876 &ndash; Stylianos Gonatas, Greek colonel and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1966)
*1877 &ndash; Tachiyama Mineemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 22nd Yokozuna (d. 1941)
*1879 &ndash; Ethel Barrymore, American actress (d. 1959)
*1881 &ndash; Alfred Wagenknecht, German-American activist and politician (d. 1956)
*1882 &ndash; Marion Bauer, American composer and critic (d. 1955)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Edwards |first1J. Michele |titleBauer, Marion Eugénie |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.02353}}</ref>
* 1882 &ndash; Gisela Richter, English archaeologist and art historian (d. 1972)
*1883 &ndash; Ivan Meštrović, Croatian sculptor and architect (d. 1962)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Mikuž |first1Jure |titleMeštrović, Ivan |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T057367}}</ref>
*1885 &ndash; Edna Ferber, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1968)<ref>{{cite book|firstKirstin|lastOlsen|titleChronology of Women's History|locationWestport|publisherGreenwood Press|year1994|page191|isbn978-0-31328-803-6}}</ref>
*1886 &ndash; Bill Whitty, Australian cricketer (d. 1974)
*1890 &ndash; Jacques Ibert, French composer and educator (d. 1962)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Laederich |first1Alexandra |titleIbert, Jacques |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13675}}</ref>
*1892 &ndash; Louis de Broglie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Abragam |first1Anatole |titleLouis Victor Pierre Raymond De Broglie, 15 August 1892 – 19 March 1987 |journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |dateDecember 1988 |volume34 |pages21–41 |doi10.1098/rsbm.1988.0002}}</ref>
* 1892 &ndash; Abraham Wachner, New Zealand politician, 35th Mayor of Invercargill (d. 1950)
*1893 &ndash; Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and academic (d. 1950)
*1896 &ndash; Gerty Cori, Czech-American biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Ihde |first1Aaron J. |titleCori, Carl Ferdinand (1896–1984), biochemists |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1302062}}</ref>
* 1896 &ndash; Catherine Doherty, Russian-Canadian activist, founded the Madonna House Apostolate (d. 1985)
* 1896 &ndash; Paul Outerbridge, American photographer and educator (d. 1958)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Fontanella |first1Lee |journalOxford Art Online |titleOuterbridge, Paul (Everard), jr |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T064301}}</ref>
*1898 &ndash; Jan Brzechwa, Polish author and poet (d. 1966)
*1900 &ndash; Estelle Brody, American silent film actress (d. 1995)
* 1900 &ndash; Jack Tworkov, Polish-American painter and educator (d. 1982)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Bryant |first1Edward |titleTworkov, Jack |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T086738}}</ref>
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Arnulfo Arias Madrid, Panamanian politician, 21st President of Panamá (d. 1988)
* 1901 &ndash; Pyotr Novikov, Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1975)
*1902 &ndash; Jan Campert, Dutch journalist and critic (d. 1943)
*1904 &ndash; George Klein, Canadian inventor, invented the motorized wheelchair (d. 1992)<ref>{{cite book |last1Bourgeois-Doyle |first1Richard I. |titleGeorge J. Klein: The Great Inventor |date2004 |publisherNRC Press |locationOttawa |isbn9780660193229 |page13}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Hugo Winterhalter, American composer and bandleader (d. 1973)
*1912 &ndash; Julia Child, American chef and author (d. 2004)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Deutsch |first1Tracey |titleChild, Julia (1912–2004), cookbook author and television chef |dateOctober 2013 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1603573}}</ref>
* 1912 &ndash; Wendy Hiller, English actress (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite news |titleDame Wendy Hiller |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/may/16/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=16 May 2003}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; Paul Rand, American graphic designer and art director (d. 1996)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Barlow |first1Margaret |titleRand, Paul |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T070729}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; Signe Hasso, Swedish-American actress (d. 2002)
*1916 &ndash; Aleks Çaçi, Albanian journalist and author (d. 1989)
*1917 &ndash; Jack Lynch, Irish footballer and politician, 5th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 1999)
* 1917 &ndash; Óscar Romero, Salvadoran archbishop (d. 1980)
*1919 &ndash; Huntz Hall, American actor (d. 1999)<ref>{{cite news |last1Vallance |first1Tom |titleObituary: Huntz Hall |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-huntz-hall-1068351.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=3 February 1999}}</ref>
* 1919 &ndash; Benedict Kiely, Irish journalist and author (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite news |last1Pine |first1Richard |last2Gillan |first2P. J. |titleBenedict Kiely |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/feb/12/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=12 February 2007}}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; Judy Cassab, Austrian-Australian painter (d. 2008)
*1921 &ndash; August Kowalczyk, Polish actor and director (d. 2012)
*1922 &ndash; Leonard Baskin, American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2000)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Jaffe |first1Irma B. |titleBaskin, Leonard |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T006734}}</ref>
* 1922 &ndash; Giorgos Mouzakis, Greek trumpet player and composer (d. 2005)
* 1922 &ndash; Sabino Barinaga, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 1988)
*1923 &ndash; Rose Marie, American actress and singer (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleRose Marie obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/jan/02/rose-marie-obituary |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=2 January 2018}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Robert Bolt, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 1995)<ref>{{cite news |last1Calder |first1John |titleObituary : Robert Bolt |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-robert-bolt-1574410.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=23 February 1995}}</ref>
* 1924 &ndash; Hedy Epstein, German-American Holocaust survivor and activist (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite news |last1Grimes |first1William |titleHedy Epstein, Rights Activist and Holocaust Survivor, Dies at 91 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/29/us/hedy-epstein-rights-activist-and-holocaust-survivor-dies-at-91.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=28 May 2016}}</ref>
* 1924 &ndash; Yoshirō Muraki, Japanese production designer, art director, and fashion designer (d. 2009)
* 1924 &ndash; Phyllis Schlafly, American lawyer, writer, and political activist (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite news |last1Martin |first1Douglas |titlePhyllis Schlafly, 'First Lady' of a Political March to the Right, Dies at 92 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/06/obituaries/phyllis-schlafly-conservative-leader-and-foe-of-era-dies-at-92.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=5 September 2016}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; Mike Connors, American actor and producer (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Grode |first1Eric |titleMike Connors, Long-Running TV Sleuth in 'Mannix,' Dies at 91 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/27/arts/mike-connors-mannix-dies.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=27 January 2017}}</ref>
* 1925 &ndash; Rose Maddox, American singer-songwriter and fiddle player (d. 1998)<ref>{{cite news |last1Wadey |first1Paul |titleObituary: Rose Maddox |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-rose-maddox-1161000.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=5 May 1998}}</ref>
* 1925 &ndash; Oscar Peterson, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Dobbins |first1Bill |titlePeterson, Oscar |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.21443}}</ref>
* 1925 &ndash; Bill Pinkney, American singer (d. 2007)
* 1925 &ndash; Erik Schmidt, Swedish-Estonian painter and author (d. 2014)
*1926 &ndash; Julius Katchen, American pianist and composer (d. 1969)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Morrison |first1Bryce |titleKatchen, Julius |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14758}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Eddie Little Sky, American actor (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite book |last1Berumen |first1Frank Javier Garcia |titleAmerican Indian Image Makers of Hollywood |date2020 |publisherMcFarland |isbn9781476636474 |pages=192–193}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Sami Michael, Iraqi-Israeli author and playwright (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite news |last1Berger |first1Joseph |titleSami Michael, Israeli Novelist With Arabic Roots, Dies at 97 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/05/books/sami-michael-idead.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=5 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; John Silber, American philosopher and academic (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite news |last1McFadden |first1Robert D. |titleJohn Silber Dies at 86; Led Boston University |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/28/us/john-r-silber-who-led-boston-universitys-renaissance-dies-at-86.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=27 September 2012}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Konstantinos Stephanopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician, 6th President of Greece (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer Greek President Constantine Stephanopoulos dies at 90 |urlhttps://www.denverpost.com/2016/11/20/former-greek-president-stephanopoulos-dies-at-90/ |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Denver Post |agencyThe Associated Press |date21 November 2016}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Eddie Leadbeater, English cricketer (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite news |last1Frith |first1David |titleEddie Leadbeater obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jun/09/eddie-leadbeater-obituary |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=9 June 2011}}</ref>
* 1927 &ndash; Oliver Popplewell, English cricketer and judge (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bowcott |first1Owen |titleSir Oliver Popplewell obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/law/2024/jun/11/sir-oliver-popplewell-obituary |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=11 June 2024}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Carl Joachim Classen, German scholar and academic (d. 2013)
* 1928 &ndash; Malcolm Glazer, American businessman (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Goldstein |first1Richard |titleMalcolm Glazer, Owner of Buccaneers and Manchester United, Is Dead at 85 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/29/sports/malcolm-glazer-owner-of-buccaneers-and-manchester-united-is-dead-at-85.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=29 May 2014}}</ref>
* 1928 &ndash; Nicolas Roeg, English director and cinematographer (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite news |last1Baxter |first1Brian |titleNicolas Roeg obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/nov/25/nicolas-roeg-obituary |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=25 November 2018}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; Ernest C. Brace, American captain and pilot (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Martin |first1Douglas |titleErnest Brace, Civilian Pilot Held as P.O.W. in Vietnam, Dies at 83 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/09/us/ernest-brace-civilian-pilot-held-as-pow-in-vietnam-dies-at-83.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=9 December 2014}}</ref>
* 1931 &ndash; Richard F. Heck, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Colacot |first1Thomas |titleRichard F. Heck (1931–2015) |journalAngewandte Chemie International Edition |date21 December 2015 |volume54 |issue52 |pages15611–15612 |doi10.1002/anie.201510300|pmid26644371 }}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Abby Dalton, American actress (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite news |last1Barnes |first1Mike |titleAbby Dalton, Actress on 'Falcon Crest' and 'The Joey Bishop Show,' Dies at 88 |urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/abby-dalton-dead-actress-falcon-crest-joey-bishop-show-was-88-1305960/ |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Hollywood Reporter |date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
* 1932 &ndash; Robert L. Forward, American physicist and engineer (d. 2002)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Benford|first1Gregory|last2Benford|first2James|date2003-08-01|titleRobert Lull Forward|journalPhysics Today|volume56|issue8|pages66–67|doi10.1063/1.1611362|bibcode2003PhT....56h..66B|issn0031-9228|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
* 1932 &ndash; Jim Lange, American game show host and DJ (d. 2014)<ref>{{Cite news|lastFox|firstMargalit|date2014-02-28|titleJim Lange, Genial Host of 'Dating Game,' Dies at 81|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/28/arts/television/jim-lange-genial-host-of-dating-game-dies-at-81.html|access-date2021-07-21|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140407064111/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/28/arts/television/jim-lange-genial-host-of-dating-game-dies-at-81.html?_r0|archive-date2014-04-07|issn0362-4331}}</ref>
* 1932 &ndash; Johan Steyn, Baron Steyn, South African-English lawyer and judge (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Childs |first1Martin |titleLord Steyn: Judge who opposed Tony Blair and George Bush over Iraq war and Guantanamo |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-lord-steyn-died-judge-who-opposed-iraq-war-and-guantanamo-blair-bush-a8089426.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=3 December 2017}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Bobby Helms, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1997)
* 1933 &ndash; Stanley Milgram, American social psychologist (d. 1984)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Russell |first1Nestar John Charles |titleMilgram's obedience to authority experiments: Origins and early evolution |journalBritish Journal of Social Psychology |dateMarch 2011 |volume50 |issue1 |pages140–162 |doi10.1348/014466610X492205|pmid21366616 }}</ref>
* 1933 &ndash; Mike Seeger, American folk musician and folklorist (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Allen |first1Ray |titleSeeger, Mike |date31 January 2014 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2258158}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; Bobby Byrd, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite news |last1Clayson |first1Alan |titleBobby Byrd |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/oct/09/guardianobituaries.obituaries |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=9 October 2007}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Purushottam Upadhyay, Indian musician, singer and composer (d. 2024)<ref name":0">{{Cite web |lastMule |firstBalkrishna Madhavrao |titleઉપાધ્યાય, પુરુષોત્તમ |urlhttps://gujarativishwakosh.org/%E0%AA%89%E0%AA%AA%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A7%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AF-%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B7%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%AE/ |access-date2024-12-19 |websiteGujarati Vishwakosh |languagegu}}</ref><ref name":1">{{Cite news |date2024-12-11 |titleLegendary Gujarati singer Purushottam Upadhyay passes away at 90, PM Narendra Modi expresses condolences |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/music/legendary-gujarati-singer-purushottam-upadhyay-passes-away-at-90-pm-narendra-modi-expresses-condolences/articleshow/116223361.cms |access-date2024-12-19 |workThe Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Reginald Scarlett, Jamaican cricketer and coach (d. 2019)
* 1934 &ndash; Darrell K. Sweet, American illustrator (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite web|titleSweet, Darrell|websiteEncyclopedia of Science Fiction|dateSeptember 12, 2022|accessdateFebruary 17, 2024|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/sweet_darrell}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Valentin Varlamov, Soviet pilot and cosmonaut instructor (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite book |last1Burgess |first1Colin |last2Hall |first2Rex |titleThe First Soviet Cosmonaut Team: Their Lives, Legacy, and Historical Impact |date2009 |publisherSpringer |locationBerlin |isbn9780387848235 |page70 |lccn=2008935694}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; Jim Dale, English actor, narrator, singer, director, and composer<ref>{{cite web|lastMcFarlane|firstBrian|titleDale, Jim (1935-)|websiteBFI Screenonline|date2014|access-date18 August 2018|urlhttp://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/471643/index.html|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastBlackwell|firstEarl|titleEarl Blackwell's Celebrity Register|locationDetroit, Mich.|publisherGale Research|date1990|isbn9780810368750|page[https://archive.org/details/earlblackwellsce0000unse/page/107 107]|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlblackwellsce0000unse/page/107}}</ref>
* 1935 &ndash; Régine Deforges, French author, playwright, and director (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |titleRégine Deforges – obituary |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/10909581/Regine-Deforges-obituary.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Telegraph |date18 June 2014 |languageen}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Pat Priest, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Rita Shane, American soprano and educator (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Ellison |first1Cori |titleShane, Rita |date2002 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O009241}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Stephen Breyer, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
* 1938 &ndash; Stix Hooper, American jazz drummer<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Mattingly |first1Rick |titleHooper, Stix |date2003 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.J207200}}</ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Pran Kumar Sharma, Indian cartoonist (d. 2014)
* 1938 &ndash; Maxine Waters, American educator and politician<ref>{{CongBio |idW000187 |nameWATERS, Maxine |inline=YES}}</ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Janusz Zajdel, Polish engineer and author (d. 1985)
*1940 &ndash; Gudrun Ensslin, German militant leader, founded Red Army Faction (d. 1977)
*1941 &ndash; Jim Brothers, American sculptor (d. 2013)
* 1941 &ndash; Don Rich, American country musician (d. 1974)
*1942 &ndash; Pete York, English rock drummer<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1943 &ndash; Eileen Bell, Northern Irish civil servant and politician, 2nd Speaker of the Northern Ireland Assembly
*1944 &ndash; Dimitris Sioufas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Health (d. 2019)
*1945 &ndash; Khaleda Zia, Bangladeshi politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh<ref>{{cite web |titleKhaleda Zia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/explore/100women/profiles/khaleda-zia |websiteBritannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers |access-date27 July 2021 |languageen |date25 February 2020}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Jimmy Webb, American singer-songwriter and pianist<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Simonot |first1Colette |titleWebb, Jimmy |date20 January 2016 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2289683}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Rakhee Gulzar, Indian film actress<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.bollywoodbubble.com/features/you-will-be-amazed-to-know-the-controversial-off-screen-life-of-this-on-screen-mother/|title You will be amazed to know the controversial off-screen life of this on-screen mother|date = 28 September 2015}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Patsy Gallant, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress
* 1948 &ndash; Tom Johnston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1949 &ndash; Phyllis Smith, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1950 &ndash; Tommy Aldridge, American drummer
* 1950 &ndash; Tess Harper, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1950 &ndash; Tom Kelly, American baseball player
* 1950 &ndash; Anne, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |titlePrincess Anne, daughter of Queen Elizabeth II |urlhttps://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/royals/princess-anne-daughter-of-queen-elizabeth-ii |websiteWestminster Abbey |access-date8 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Ann Biderman, American screenwriter and producer
* 1951 &ndash; Bobby Caldwell, American singer-songwriter (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |last1Williams |first1Alex |titleBobby Caldwell, Silky-Voiced R&B Crooner, Dies at 71 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/15/arts/music/bobby-caldwell-dead.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=15 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; John Childs, English cricketer
*1952 &ndash; Chuck Burgi, American drummer
*1953 &ndash; Carol Thatcher, English journalist and author
* 1953 &ndash; Mark Thatcher, English businessman
* 1953 &ndash; Wolfgang Hohlbein, German author
*1954 &ndash; Stieg Larsson, Swedish journalist and author (d. 2004)
*1956 &ndash; Lorraine Desmarais, Canadian pianist and composer<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Miller |first1Mark |titleDesmarais, Lorraine |date2003 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.J554000}}</ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Freedom Neruda, Ivorian journalist
* 1956 &ndash; Robert Syms, English businessman and politician
*1957 &ndash; Željko Ivanek, Slovenian-American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1958 &ndash; Simon Baron-Cohen, English-Canadian psychiatrist and author
* 1958 &ndash; Craig MacTavish, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1958 &ndash; Simple Kapadia, Indian actress and costume designer (d. 2009)
* 1958 &ndash; Victor Shenderovich, Russian journalist and radio host
* 1958 &ndash; Rondell Sheridan, American actor and comedian<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1959 &ndash; Scott Altman, American captain, pilot, and astronaut
*1961 &ndash; Ed Gillespie, American political strategist
* 1961 &ndash; Matt Johnson, English singer-songwriter and musician<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1961 &ndash; Gary Kubiak, American football player and coach
* 1961 &ndash; Suhasini Maniratnam, Indian actress and screenwriter
*1962 &ndash; Tom Colicchio, American chef and author
* 1962 &ndash; Rıdvan Dilmen, Turkish footballer and manager
* 1962 &ndash; Inês Pedrosa, Portuguese writer
* 1962 &ndash; Vilja Savisaar-Toomast, Estonian lawyer and politician
*1963 &ndash; Alejandro González Iñárritu, Mexican director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1963 &ndash; Simon Hart, Welsh soldier and politician
* 1963 &ndash; Jack Russell, England cricketer and coach
*1964 &ndash; Jane Ellison, English lawyer and politician
* 1964 &ndash; Melinda Gates, American businesswoman and philanthropist, co-founded the Gates Foundation<ref>{{cite news |titleProfile: Melinda Gates |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/nov/26/theobserver |access-date13 August 2020 |workThe Guardian |date26 November 2006 |languageen}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Rob Thomas, American author, screenwriter, and producer
*1966 &ndash; Scott Brosius, American baseball player and coach
* 1966 &ndash; Dimitris Papadopoulos, Greek basketball player and coach
*1967 &ndash; Tony Hand, Scottish ice hockey player and coach
* 1967 &ndash; Peter Hermann, American actor<ref>{{Cite web |date2021-08-09 |titleCelebrity birthdays for the week of Aug. 15–21 |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory/celebrity-birthdays-week-aug-15-21-79362885 |access-date2022-03-26 |websiteABC News |languageen}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Debra Messing, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1969 &ndash; Bernard Fanning, Australian singer-songwriter
* 1969 &ndash; Carlos Roa, Argentine footballer
*1970 &ndash; Anthony Anderson, American comedian, actor, and producer<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1970 &ndash; Ben Silverman, American actor, producer, and screenwriter, founded Electus Studios
*1971 &ndash; Adnan Sami, Indian singer, musician, music composer, pianist and actor
*1972 &ndash; Ben Affleck, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1972 &ndash; Jennifer Alexander, Canadian ballerina (d. 2007)
* 1972 &ndash; Mikey Graham, Irish singer<ref>{{Cite web|agencyAssociated Press|date2021-08-15|titleToday in History |urlhttps://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/08/15/metro/today-history/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210816034628/https://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/08/15/metro/today-history/|archive-date2021-08-16|access-date2021-08-16|websiteThe Boston Globe|languageen-US}}</ref>
*1974 &ndash; Natasha Henstridge, Canadian model and actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Tomasz Suwary, Polish footballer
*1975 &ndash; Bertrand Berry, American football player and radio host
* 1975 &ndash; Vijay Bharadwaj, Indian cricketer and coach
* 1975 &ndash; Brendan Morrison, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1975 &ndash; Kara Wolters, American basketball player
*1976 &ndash; Boudewijn Zenden, Dutch footballer and manager
*1977 &ndash; Martin Biron, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1977 &ndash; Anthony Rocca, Australian footballer and coach
*1978 &ndash; Waleed Aly, Australian journalist and television host<ref>[https://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/aly_waleed,15569.html Waleed Aly, profile] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180903094158/https://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/aly_waleed,15569.html |date2018-09-03 }}, Gallery of Australian Biographies, Civics and Citizenship Education, Education Services Australia; [https://www.theaustralian.com.au/life/weekend-australian-magazine/waleed-aly-why-all-the-haters/news-story/231adcd9faf13e305af52c03a5d5e0d5 "Waleed Aly: why all the haters?"] by John Lyons, The Australian, 23 April 2016</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Lilia Podkopayeva, Ukrainian gymnast
* 1978 &ndash; Stavros Tziortziopoulos, Greek footballer
* 1978 &ndash; Kerri Walsh Jennings, American volleyball player
*1979 &ndash; Carl Edwards, American race car driver
*1980 &ndash; Fiann Paul, Icelandic explorer<ref>{{Cite web|titleYoungest person to row three different oceans|urlhttps://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/527576-youngest-person-to-row-three-different-oceans|access-date2021-08-09|websiteGuinness World Records|date5 June 2016 |languageen-GB}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Brendan Hansen, American swimmer
* 1981 &ndash; Óliver Pérez, American baseball player
*1982 &ndash; Casey Burgener, American weightlifter
* 1982 &ndash; Germán Caffa, Argentine footballer
* 1982 &ndash; David Harrison, American basketball player
*1983 &ndash; Siobhan Chamberlain, English association football goalkeeper
* 1983 &ndash; Rachel Haot, American businesswoman<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2014/10/06/rachel-haot.html |titleThe CNBC Next List: Rachel Haot |dateOctober 6, 2014 |publisherCNBC}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; Jarrod Dyson, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJarrod Dyson |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/jarrod-dyson-502481 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date14 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Emily Kinney, American actress and singer-songwriter<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 15, 2022 includes celebrities Jennifer Lawrence, Joe Jonas |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-15-2022-includes-celebrities-jennifer-lawrence-joe-jonas.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date14 August 2023 |date=15 August 2022}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Nipsey Hussle, American rapper (d. 2019)
*1987 &ndash; Ryan D'Imperio, American football player
* 1987 &ndash; Michel Kreder, Dutch cyclist
* 1987 &ndash; Sean McAllister, English footballer
*1988 &ndash; Oussama Assaidi, Moroccan footballer
*1989 &ndash; Joe Jonas, American singer-songwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Ryan McGowan, Australian footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Carlos PenaVega, American actor and singer<ref>{{Cite web|lastRentería|firstMelissa|date2009-11-25|titlePlans change as Pena lands co-starring role in Nickelodeon's 'Big Time Rush'|urlhttps://www.mysanantonio.com/sacultura/conexion/article/Plans-change-as-Pena-lands-co-starring-role-in-857714.php|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190702212459/https://www.mysanantonio.com/sacultura/conexion/article/Plans-change-as-Pena-lands-co-starring-role-in-857714.phpChange-Last-Name.htm|archive-date2019-07-02|access-date2021-06-14|websitemySA|language=en-US}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Jordan Rapana, New Zealand rugby league player
*1990 &ndash; Jennifer Lawrence, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1991 &ndash; Petja Piiroinen, Finnish snowboarder
*1992 &ndash; Baskaran Adhiban, Indian chess player
* 1992 &ndash; Matthew Judon, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleMatthew Judon |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/3961466/matthew-judon |publisherESPN |access-date14 August 2023}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Rieah Holder, Barbadian netball player<ref>{{cite web |titleNetball {{!}} Athlete Profile: Rieah Holder – Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games |urlhttps://results.gc2018.com/en/netball/athlete-profile-n6004125-rieah-holder.htm |websiteresults.gc2018.com |access-date18 October 2020}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Clinton N'Jie, Cameroonian footballer
* 1993 &ndash; Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, English footballer
*1994 &ndash; Lasse Vigen Christensen, Danish footballer
* 1994 &ndash; Kosuke Hagino, Japanese swimmer
*1995 &ndash; Chief Keef, American rapper<ref>{{cite web |lastBuyanovsky |firstDan |dateMay 6, 2013 |urlhttp://www.xxlmag.com/news/2013/05/from-the-mag-chief-keef-at-home/ |titleFrom The Mag: Chief Keef At Home |websiteXXL |publisherTownsquare Media |access-dateMay 10, 2013}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Setyana Mapasa, Indonesian-Australian badminton player<ref>{{cite web|titleSetyana MAPASA I Profile|urlhttps://bwfworldtourfinals.bwfbadminton.com/player/77441/setyana-mapasa|websiteBWF World Tour Finals|publisherBWF|access-date=2 December 2023}}</ref> <!-- please archive this -->
*1999 &ndash; Paola Reis, BMX rider<ref>{{cite web |titleCycling BMX {{!}} Athlete Profile: Reis Paola – Pan American Games Lima 2019 |urlhttps://wrsd.lima2019.pe/panam/en/results/cycling-bmx/athlete-profile-n1144541-reis-paola.htm |websitewrsd.lima2019.pe |access-date30 May 2020}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 398 &ndash; Lan Han, official of the Xianbei state Later Yan
* 423 &ndash; Honorius, Roman emperor (b. 384)
* 465 &ndash; Libius Severus, Roman emperor (b. 420)
* 698 &ndash; Theodotus of Amida, Syrian Orthodox holy man<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |firstJack |lastTannous |titleTheodotos of Amid |encyclopediaGorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1Sebastian P. Brock |editor2Aaron M. Butts |editor3George A. Kiraz |editor4Lucas Van Rompay |urlhttps://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/entry/Theodotos-of-Amid |publisherGorgias Press |year2011 |postscript. Published online by Beth Mardutho in 2018.}}</ref>
*767 &ndash; Abu Hanifa, Iraqi scholar and educator (b. 699)<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttp://www.islamicinformationcentre.co.uk/alsunna.htm |titleUnderstanding the Ahle al-Sunnah: Traditional Scholarship & Modern Misunderstandings |lastAmmar |firstAbu |publisherIslamic Information Centre |year2001 |chapterCriticism levelled against Imam Abu Hanifah |access-date2018-06-13 |chapter-urlhttp://www.islamicinformationcentre.co.uk/alsunna7.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://habibur.com/hijri/150/7/ |titleIslamic Hijri Calendar For Rajab - 150 Hijri |websitehabibur.com |access-date=2018-06-13}}</ref>
* 778 &ndash; Roland, Frankish military leader
* 873 &ndash; Yi Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 833)
* 874 &ndash; Altfrid, bishop of Hildesheim
* 912 &ndash; Han Jian, Chinese warlord (b. 855)
* 932 &ndash; Ma Xisheng, Chinese governor and king (b. 899)
* 955 &ndash; Bulcsú, Hungarian tribal chieftain (harka)<ref name"kristo1985">{{cite book |lastKristó |firstGyula |year1985 |titleAz augsburgi csata [The Battle of Augsburg] |publisherAkadémiai Kiadó |isbn963-05-3838-5|languagehu |page=94}}</ref>
* 955 &ndash; Lehel, Hungarian tribal chieftain<ref name="kristo1985"/>
* 955 &ndash; Súr, Hungarian tribal chieftain<ref name="kristo1985"/>
* 978 &ndash; Li Yu, ruler ('king') of Southern Tang
* 986 &ndash; Minnborinus, Irish missionary and abbot<ref>{{cite book |last1Hogan |first1J.F. |titleIrish Monasteries in Germany |date1898 |publisherIrish Ecclesiastical Record, 4th series, Vol. 3 |pages526–535}}</ref>
*1022 &ndash; Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos, Byzantine rebel
*1038 &ndash; Stephen I, Hungarian king (b. 975)
*1057 &ndash; Macbeth, King of Scotland
*1118 &ndash; Alexios I Komnenos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1048)
*1196 &ndash; Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (b. 1173)
*1224 &ndash; Marie of France, Duchess of Brabant (b. 1198)
*1257 &ndash; Saint Hyacinth of Poland
*1274 &ndash; Robert de Sorbon, French theologian and educator, founded the College of Sorbonne (b. 1201)
*1275 &ndash; Lorenzo Tiepolo, Doge of Venice
*1328 &ndash; Yesün Temür, emperor of the Yuan dynasty (b. 1293)
*1369 &ndash; Philippa of Hainault, Queen consort of Edward III of England (b. 1314)
*1388 &ndash; Adalbertus Ranconis de Ericinio, Bohemian theologian and rector of the University of Paris (b. circa 1320)
*1399 &ndash; Ide Pedersdatter Falk, Danish noblewoman (b. 1358)
*1496 &ndash; Infanta Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile and León (b. 1428)
*1506 &ndash; Alexander Agricola, Flemish composer (b. c. 1445)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Wegman |first1Rob C. |last2Fitch |first2Fabrice |last3Lerner |first3Edward R. |titleAgricola [Ackerman], Alexander |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52210}}</ref>
*1507 &ndash; John V, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (b. 1439)
*1528 &ndash; Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec, French general (b. 1485)
*1552 &ndash; Hermann of Wied, German archbishop (b. 1477)
*1594 &ndash; Thomas Kyd, English playwright (b. 1558)
1601–1900
*1621 &ndash; John Barclay, Scottish poet and author (b. 1582)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Royan |first1Nicola |titleBarclay, John (1582–1621), writer |date3 January 2008 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/1342}}</ref>
*1666 &ndash; Johann Adam Schall von Bell, German missionary and astronomer (b. 1591)<ref>{{cite book |last1MacDonnell |first1Joseph F. |chapterSchall von Bell, Johann Adam |titleThe Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |date2007 |pages1017–1018 |doi10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_1225|isbn978-0-387-31022-0 }}</ref>
*1714 &ndash; Constantin Brâncoveanu, Romanian prince (b. 1654)
*1728 &ndash; Marin Marais, French viol player and composer (b. 1656)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Gorce |first1Jérôme De La |last2Milliot |first2Sylvette |titleMarais, Marin |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.17702}}</ref>
*1758 &ndash; Pierre Bouguer, French mathematician, geophysicist, and astronomer (b. 1698)<ref>{{cite book |last1Débarbat |first1Suzanne |chapterBouguer, Pierre |titleThe Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |date2007 |pages154–155 |doi10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_186|isbn978-0-387-31022-0 }}</ref>
*1799 &ndash; Giuseppe Parini, Italian poet and author (b. 1729)
*1844 &ndash; José María Coppinger, governor of Spanish East Florida (b. 1733)<ref name"Cortadellas1979">{{cite book|authorRafael Nieto y Cortadellas|titleGenealogías Habaneras|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6azEkZpg7v8C|access-date7 July 2013|date1 January 1979|publisherEdiciones Hidalguia|isbn978-84-00-04474-9|pages214–215}}</ref>
*1852 &ndash; Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist, physicist, and mineralogist (b. 1760)
*1859 &ndash; Nathaniel Claiborne, American farmer and politician (b. 1777)<ref>{{CongBio |idC000405 |nameCLAIBORNE, Nathaniel Herbert |inlineYES}}</ref>1901–present*1907 &ndash; Joseph Joachim, Hungarian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1831)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Borchard |first1Beatrix |titleJoachim, Joseph |date2001 |doi10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14322}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Euclides da Cunha, Brazilian sociologist and journalist (b. 1866)
*1917 &ndash; Thomas J. Higgins, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1831)
*1925 &ndash; Konrad Mägi, Estonian painter and educator (b. 1878)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Kuznetsov |first1Sergey |titleMägi, Konrad |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T053121}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Anatole von Hügel, Italian ethnologist and academic, co-founded St Edmund's College, Cambridge (b. 1854)
*1935 &ndash; Wiley Post, American pilot (b. 1898)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Norris |first1Vincent P. |titlePost, Wiley (1899-1935), aviator |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.2000813}}</ref>
* 1935 &ndash; Will Rogers, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter (b. 1879)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Rollins |first1Peter C. |titleRogers, Will (04 November 1879–15 August 1935), entertainer and social commentator |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1800998}}</ref>
* 1935 &ndash; Paul Signac, French painter and author (b. 1863)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Rapetti |first1Rodolphe |titleSignac, Paul |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T078644}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Grazia Deledda, Italian novelist and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1871)<ref>{{cite book |last1Wood |first1Sharon |titleThe Challenge of the Modern: Essays on Grazia Deledda |date2007 |publisherTroubador publ |locationLeicester |isbn9781906221676 |page31}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Mahadev Desai, Indian activist and author (b. 1892)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Desai |first1Narayan |titleMahadev Desai: "Mahadev, Arise Mahadev!" |journalIndian Literature |date2004 |volume48 |issue1 (219) |pages114–124 |jstor23341431 |issn0019-5804}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; Korechika Anami, Japanese general and politician, 54th Japanese Minister of the Army (b. 1887)
* 1945 &ndash; Fred Hockley, English lieutenant and pilot (b. 1923)
*1951 &ndash; Artur Schnabel, Polish pianist and composer (b. 1882)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Glock |first1William |last2Plaistow |first2Stephen |titleSchnabel, Artur |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24970}}</ref>
*1953 &ndash; Ludwig Prandtl, German physicist and engineer (b. 1875)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Busemann |first1A. |titleLudwig Prandtl, 1875-1953 |journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |dateFebruary 1960 |volume5 |pages193–205 |doi10.1098/rsbm.1960.0015}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Lei Feng, Chinese soldier (b. 1940)
*1967 &ndash; René Magritte, Belgian painter (b. 1898)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Wijnbeek |first1Anneke E. |titleMagritte, René(-François-Ghislain) |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T053159}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Paul Lukas, Hungarian-American actor (b. 1887)<ref>{{cite news |titlePaul Lukas, 1943 Oscar Winner, Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1971/08/17/archives/paul-lukas-1943-oscarwinne-des.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=17 August 1971}}</ref>
*1974 &ndash; Clay Shaw, American businessman (b. 1913)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bird |first1David |titleClay Shaw Is Dead at 60; Freed in Kennedy 'Plot' |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1974/08/16/archives/clay-shaw-is-dead-at-60-freed-in-kennedy-plot-new-orleans.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=16 August 1974}}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Bangladeshi politician, 1st President of Bangladesh (b. 1920)<ref>{{cite news |titleWho was Sheikh Mujibur Rahman? Architect of independent Bangladesh |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/who-was-sheikh-mujibur-rahman-architect-of-independent-bangladesh-sheikh-hasina-protest-unrest-resignation/articleshow/112306676.cms |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Times of India |date=6 August 2024}}</ref>
* 1975 &ndash; Harun Karadeniz, Turkish political activist and author (b. 1942)
*1981 &ndash; Carol Ryrie Brink, American author (b. 1895)<ref>{{cite book|first1Bernice E.|last1Cullinan|first2Diane Goetz|last2Person|titleThe Continuum Encyclopedia of Children's Literature|locationNew York|publisherContinuum|year2005|page112|isbn978-0-82641-778-7}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Jørgen Løvset, Norwegian gynaecologist and academic (b. 1896)
*1982 &ndash; Ernie Bushmiller, American cartoonist (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite news |last1Daley |first1Suzanne |titleERNIE BUSHMILLER, 76, IS DEAD; DREW 'NANCY' FOR HALF CENTURY |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/17/obituaries/ernie-bushmiller-76-is-dead-drew-nancy-for-half-century.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=17 August 1982}}</ref>
* 1982 &ndash; Jock Taylor, Scottish motorcycle sidecar racer (b. 1954)<ref>{{cite news |titleMotorcyclist Dies Of Crash Injuries |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/16/sports/motorcyclist-dies-of-crash-injuries.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=16 August 1982}}</ref>
* 1982 &ndash; Hugo Theorell, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Dalziel |first1Keith |titleAxel Hugo Theodor Theorell, 6 July 1903 - 15 August 1982 |journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |dateNovember 1983 |volume29 |pages584–621 |doi10.1098/rsbm.1983.0021}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Minoru Genda, Japanese general, pilot, and politician (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite news |last1Flint |first1Peter B. |titleGENERAL MINORU GENDA, 84, DIES: PLANNED ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/17/obituaries/general-minoru-genda-84-dies-planned-attack-on-pearl-harbor.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=17 August 1989}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1897)
*1990 &ndash; Viktor Tsoi, Russian musician and actor (b. 1962)<ref>{{cite news |last1Watrous |first1Peter |titleViktor Tsoi, Singer And Songwriter, 28; Star of Soviet Rock |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/22/obituaries/viktor-tsoi-singer-and-songwriter-28-star-of-soviet-rock.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=22 August 1990}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Linda Laubenstein, American physician and academic (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite news |last1Lambert |first1Bruce |titleLinda Laubenstein, 45, Physician And Leader in Detection of AIDS |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/17/nyregion/linda-laubenstein-45-physician-and-leader-in-detection-of-aids.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=17 August 1992}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Wout Wagtmans, Dutch cyclist (b. 1929)
*1995 &ndash; John Cameron Swayze, American journalist and actor (b. 1906)<ref>{{cite news |last1Kennedy |first1Randy |titleJohn Cameron Swayze, 89, Journalist and TV Pitchman |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/17/obituaries/john-cameron-swayze-89-journalist-and-tv-pitchman.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=17 August 1995}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Ida Gerhardt, Dutch poet and educator (b. 1905)
*1999 &ndash; Hugh Casson, English architect and interior designer (b. 1910)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Powers |first1Alan |titleCasson, Sir Hugh |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T014611|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 }}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Lancelot Ware, English barrister and biochemist, co-founder of Mensa (b. 1915)<ref nameGuardian18082000>{{Cite news|titleObituary: Lancelot Ware|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/aug/18/guardianobituaries|lastBarker|firstDennis|date18 August 2000|work=The Guardian}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Yavuz Çetin, Turkish singer-songwriter (b. 1970)
* 2001 &ndash; Richard Chelimo, Kenyan runner (b. 1972)<ref>{{cite news |last1Nichols |first1Pete |titleRichard Chelimo |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/aug/29/guardianobituaries.athletics |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=29 August 2001}}</ref>
* 2001 &ndash; Kateryna Yushchenko, Ukrainian computer scientist and academic (b. 1919)<ref>{{cite journal|lastPerevozchikova |firstO. L. |titleEkaterina Logvinovna Yushchenko |journalCybernetics and Systems Analysis |volume45 |number6 | year2009| page843|doi10.1007/s10559-009-9161-x |s2cid116901283 }}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Sune Bergström, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916)
* 2004 &ndash; Amarsinh Chaudhary, Indian politician, 8th Chief Minister of Gujarat (b. 1941)<ref>{{cite news |titleCong leader Amarsinh Chaudhary dead |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cong-leader-amarsinh-chaudhary-dead/articleshow/815802.cms |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Times of India |agencyPTI |date15 August 2004}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; Bendapudi Venkata Satyanarayana, Indian dermatologist and academic (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Rao |first1G. Raghurama |titleObituary-Prof. Dr. BV Satyanarayana (30-1-1927-15-8-2005). |journalIndian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology |dateNov–Dec 2005 |volume71 |issue6 |page454}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Te Atairangikaahu, New Zealand queen (b. 1931)<ref>{{cite news |titleDame Te Atairangikaahu |urlhttps://www.economist.com/obituary/2006/08/31/dame-te-atairangikaahu |access-date14 August 2024 |newspaperThe Economist |date=31 August 2006}}</ref>
* 2006 &ndash; Rick Bourke, Australian rugby league player (b. 1955)
* 2006 &ndash; Coenraad Bron, Dutch computer scientist and academic (b. 1937)
* 2006 &ndash; Faas Wilkes, Dutch footballer and manager (b. 1923)
*2007 &ndash; Richard Bradshaw, English conductor and director (b. 1944)<ref>{{cite news |last1Millington |first1Barry |titleRichard Bradshaw |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/aug/29/guardianobituaries.obituaries |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=29 August 2007}}</ref>
* 2007 &ndash; John Gofman, American biologist, chemist, and physicist (b. 1918)<ref>{{cite news |last1Pearce |first1Jeremy |titleJohn W. Gofman, 88, Scientist and Advocate for Nuclear Safety, Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/us/26gofman.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=26 August 2007}}</ref>
* 2007 &ndash; Geoffrey Orbell, New Zealand physician (b. 1908)
* 2007 &ndash; Sam Pollock, Canadian businessman (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news |titleCanadiens' architect Sam Pollock dies |urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/canadiens-architect-sam-pollock-dies-1.677254 |access-date14 August 2024 |workCBC Sports |date=15 August 2007}}</ref>
*2008 &ndash; Vic Toweel, South African-Australian boxer (b. 1929)
* 2008 &ndash; Jerry Wexler, American journalist and producer (b. 1917)<ref>{{cite news |titleJerry Wexler, famed record producer, dies at 91 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/world/americas/15iht-obit.5.15340565.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=15 August 2008}}</ref>
*2011 &ndash; Rick Rypien, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1984)<ref>{{cite news |last1Kelly |first1Malcolm |last2Labby |first2Bryan |titleNHLer Rypien remembered at funeral |urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/nhler-rypien-remembered-at-funeral-1.992850 |access-date14 August 2024 |workCBC Sports |date=20 August 2011}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Bob Birch, American bass player and saxophonist (b. 1956)
* 2012 &ndash; Altamiro Carrilho, Brazilian flute player and composer (b. 1924)
* 2012 &ndash; Harry Harrison, American author and illustrator (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news |last1Priest |first1Christopher |titleHarry Harrison obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/aug/15/harry-harrison |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=15 August 2012}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Rosalía Mera, Spanish businesswoman, co-founded Inditex and Zara (b. 1944)<ref>{{cite news |last1Eaude |first1Michael |titleRosalía Mera obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2013/aug/21/rosalia-mera |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=21 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Sławomir Mrożek, Polish-French author and playwright (b. 1930)<ref>{{cite news |last1Coveney |first1Michael |titleSławomir Mrozek obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/21/slawomir-mrozek |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=21 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Marich Man Singh Shrestha, Nepali politician, 28th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1942)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer Nepal PM Shrestha dies at age 71 |urlhttps://apnews.com/8cf580a64c2049f598c415b45ce33275 |access-date14 August 2024 |workAP News |date=15 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; August Schellenberg, Canadian actor (b. 1936)<ref>{{Cite news|lastGarcia|firstUriel J.|date2013-08-18|titleAugust Schellenberg, who acted in 'Free Willy' films, dies at 77|languageen-US|newspaperThe Washington Post|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/august-schellenberg-who-acted-in-free-willy-films-dies-at-77/2013/08/18/faa45a70-0759-11e3-9259-e2aafe5a5f84_story.html|access-date2021-05-07|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; Licia Albanese, Italian-American soprano and actress (b. 1909)<ref>{{cite news |last1Blyth |first1Alan |titleLicia Albanese obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/aug/18/licia-albanese |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=18 August 2014}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Julian Bond, American academic, leader of the civil rights movement, and politician (b. 1940)<ref>{{cite news |last1Reed |first1Roy |titleJulian Bond, Charismatic Civil Rights Leader, Dies at 75 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/17/us/julian-bond-former-naacp-chairman-and-civil-rights-leader-dies-at-75.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=16 August 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Hamid Gul, Pakistani general (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite news |last1Legg |first1Paul |titleHamid Gul obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/27/hamid-gul |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=27 August 2015}}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; Gunnar Birkerts, Latvian-American architect (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news |last1Grimes |first1William |titleGunnar Birkerts, Architect, Dies at 92; Gave Shape to the Unexpected |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/arts/design/architect-gunnar-birkerts-is-dead.html |access-date14 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=17 August 2017}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Robert Trump, American real-estate developer, business executive (b. 1948)<ref>{{Cite news|lastKarni|firstAnnie|date2020-08-16|titleRobert S. Trump, the President's Younger Brother, Dies at 71|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html|access-date2021-06-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200819163842/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html|archive-date2020-08-19|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastMustian|firstJim|date2020-08-15|titleRobert Trump, the president's brother, dead at 71|urlhttps://www.ctvnews.ca/world/robert-trump-the-president-s-brother-dead-at-71-1.5066234|url-statuslive|access-date2021-06-29|websiteCTV News|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200816131157/https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/robert-trump-the-president-s-brother-dead-at-71-1.5066234 |archive-date2020-08-16 }}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Gerd Müller, German footballer (b. 1945)<ref>{{Cite web|agencyAssociated Press|date2021-08-15|titleGerd Müller, 'the best striker in history,' dies at 75|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory/gerd-mller-best-striker-history-dies-75-79469152|url-statuslive|access-date2021-08-17|websiteABC News|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210815203244/https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory/gerd-mller-best-striker-history-dies-75-79469152 |archive-date2021-08-15 }}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Peter Marshall, American game show host, performer, and singer (b. 1926)<ref>{{Cite news |lastSlotnik |firstDaniel E. |date2024-08-15 |titlePeter Marshall, Longtime Host of 'The Hollywood Squares,' Dies at 98 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/15/arts/television/peter-marshall-dead.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240815200213/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/15/arts/television/peter-marshall-dead.html |archive-date2024-08-15 |access-date2024-08-15 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
* Armed Forces Day (Poland)
* Christian feast day:
** Altfrid
** Alypius of Thagaste
** Feast day of the Assumption of Mary, one of the Catholic holy days of obligation (a public holiday in Austria, Belgium, Benin, Bosnia, Burundi, Cameroon, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, France, some states in Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Italy, Ivory Coast, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malta, Mauritius, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Senegal, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Togo, and Vanuatu); and its related observances:
*** Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches)
*** Ferragosto (Italy)
*** Lady's Day (Ireland)
*** Māras (Latvia)
*** Mother's Day (Antwerp and Costa Rica)
*** National Acadian Day (Acadians)
***Navy Day (Romania)
*** Virgin of Candelaria, patron of the Canary Islands. (Tenerife, Spain)
**San La Muerte (Paraguayan Folk Catholicism)
**Santa Muerte (Mexican Folk Catholicism)
** Tarcisius
** August 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Constitution Day (Equatorial Guinea)
* Founding of Asunción (Paraguay)
* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Korea from Japan in 1945:
** Gwangbokjeol, "Independence Day" (South Korea)
** Jogukhaebangui nal, "Fatherland Liberation Day" (North Korea)
* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of India from the United Kingdom in 1947.
* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of the Republic of the Congo from France in 1960.
* National Day (Liechtenstein)
* National Day of Mourning (Bangladesh)
* The first day of Flooding of the Nile, or Wafaa El-Nil (Egypt and Coptic Church)
* The main day of Bon Festival (Japan), and its related observances:
** Awa Dance Festival (Tokushima Prefecture)
* Victory over Japan Day (United Kingdom), and its related observances:
** End-of-war Memorial Day, when the National Memorial Service for War Dead is held (Japan)
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/15 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day15}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/15 |titleHistorical Events on August 15 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 15}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_15 | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.050141 |
1445 | Acacia sensu lato | {{Short description|Genus of legumes}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Acacia s.l.
| image = Acacia greggii thorns.jpg
| image_caption = Senegalia greggii (syn. A. greggii)
| taxon = Acacia
| authority = Mill.<ref>[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?26 Genus: Acacia Mill.] – Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)</ref><!---1754--->
| type_species = Acacia nilotica (until 2005)<br />Acacia penninervis (post 2005)
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
About 1,300; see list of Acacia species
}}
Acacia s.l. (pronounced {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|eɪ|ʃ|ə}} or {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|eɪ|s|i|ə}}), known commonly as mimosa, acacia, thorntree or wattle,<ref namecarr>{{cite journal |last1Carruthers |first1Jane |last2Robin |first2Libby |titleTaxonomic imperialism in the battles for Acacia: Identity and science in South Africa and Australia |journalTransactions of the Royal Society of South Africa|dateFebruary 2010 |volume65 |issue1 |pages48–64 |doi10.1080/00359191003652066 |bibcode2010TRSSA..65...48C |s2cid83630585 |doi-access=free }}</ref> is a polyphyletic genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. It was described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773 based on the African species Acacia nilotica. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not. All species are pod-bearing, with sap and leaves often bearing large amounts of tannins and condensed tannins that historically found use as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.
The genus Acacia constitutes, in its traditional circumspection, the second largest genus in Fabaceae<ref name"thie">{{cite journal |last1Thiele |first1Kevin R. |last2Fnk |first2Vicki A. |last3Iwatsuki |first3Kunio |last4Morat |first4Philippe |last5Peng |first5Ching-I |last6Raven |first6Peter |last7Sarukhán |first7José |last8Seberg |first8Ole |titleThe controversy over the retypification of Acacia Mill. with an Australian type: A pragmatic view |journalTaxon |volume60 |issue1 |pages194–198 |issn0040-0262 |urlhttp://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_2011/Acacia_pragm.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_2011/Acacia_pragm.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |dateFebruary 2011 |access-date6 November 2015|doi10.1002/tax.601017 }}</ref> (Astragalus being the largest), with roughly 1,300 species, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas (see List of Acacia species). The genus was divided into five separate genera under the tribe "Acacieae". The genus now called Acacia represents the majority of the Australian species and a few native to southeast Asia, Réunion, and Pacific Islands. Most of the species outside Australia, and a small number of Australian species, are classified into Vachellia and Senegalia. The two final genera, Acaciella and Mariosousa, each contain about a dozen species from the Americas (but see "Classification" below for the ongoing debate concerning their taxonomy).
Desert of southern Israel]]
), the floral emblem of Australia]]]]
Classification
{{see also|List of Acacia species}}
English botanist and gardener Philip Miller adopted the name Acacia in 1754. The generic name is derived from {{lang|el|ἀκακία}} ({{transl|el|akakia}}), the name given by early Greek botanist-physician Pedanius Dioscorides (middle to late first century) to the medicinal tree A.&nbsp;nilotica in his book Materia Medica.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Acacia-nilotica.htm |titleAcacia nilotica (acacia) |workPlants & Fungi |publisherRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date28 January 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100112043913/http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Acacia-nilotica.htm |archive-date2010-01-12 |url-statusdead }}</ref> This name derives from the Ancient Greek word for its characteristic thorns, {{lang|el|ἀκίς}} ({{transl|el|akis}}; "thorn").<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idesMPU5DHEGgC |firstUmberto |lastQuattrocchi |titleCRC World Dictionary of Plant Names |volume1 A-C |year2000 |publisherCRC Press |isbn978-0-8493-2675-2 |page6}}</ref> The species name nilotica'' was given by Linnaeus from this tree's best-known range along the Nile river. This became the type species of the genus.
The traditional circumscription of Acacia eventually contained approximately 1,300 species. However, evidence began to accumulate that the genus as described was not monophyletic. Queensland botanist Leslie Pedley proposed the subgenus Phyllodineae be renamed Racosperma and published the binomial names.<ref namemaslin>{{cite book |last1Maslin |first1Bruce R.|titleClassification and phylogeny of Acacia. In: Evolution of ecological and behavioural diversity: Australian Acacia thrips as model organisms. |date2004 |publisherAustralian Biological Resources Study and Australian National Insect Collection, CSIRO |pages97–112 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/265445928 |access-date5 November 2015}}</ref><ref namebol>{{cite book |last1Boland |first1D. J. |titleForest trees of Australia |date2006 |publisherCSIRO Publ. [u.a.] |locationCollingwood, Vic. |isbn978-0-643-06969-5 |page127 |edition5th}}</ref> This was taken up in New Zealand but generally not followed in Australia, where botanists declared more study was needed.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2023}}
Eventually {{When|reasonThis whole paragraph needs to be accurately dated|dateFebruary 2025}}, consensus emerged that Acacia needed to be split as it was not monophyletic. This led to Australian botanists Bruce Maslin and Tony Orchard pushing for the retypification of the genus with an Australian species instead of the original African type species, an exception to traditional rules of priority that required ratification by the International Botanical Congress.<ref nameSmith>{{cite journal |author1Gideon F. Smith |author2Estrela Figueiredo |year2011 |titleConserving Acacia Mill. with a conserved type: What happened in Melbourne? |journalTaxon |volume60 |issue5 |pages1504–1506|hdl2263/17733 |doi10.1002/tax.605033 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref> That decision has been controversial,<ref namethie/><ref nameKull>{{cite journal|author1Christian Kull |author2Haripriya Rangan |year2012 |titleScience, sentiment and territorial chauvinism in the acacia name change debate |journalTerra Australis |volume34 |pages197–219 |urlhttp://press.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/ch091.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://press.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/ch091.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-dateSeptember 29, 2015}}</ref> and debate continued, with some taxonomists (and many other biologists) deciding to continue to use the traditional Acacia sensu lato circumscription of the genus,<ref nameSmith/> in defiance of decisions by an International Botanical Congress.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Anders Backlund |author2Kåre Bremer |year1998 |titleTo be or not to be – principles of classification and monotypic plant families |journalTaxon |volume47 |issue2 |pages391–400 |jstor1223768 |doi10.2307/1223768}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorAnastasia Thanukos |year2009 |titleA name by any other tree |journalEvolution: Education and Outreach |volume2 |issue2 |pages303–309 |doi10.1007/s12052-009-0122-7|doi-accessfree }}</ref> However, a second International Botanical Congress has now confirmed the decision to apply the name Acacia to the mostly Australian plants, which some had been calling Racosperma, and which had formed the overwhelming majority of Acacia sensu lato.<ref name"acacia">{{cite web |titleWattles – genus Acacia |urlhttp://www.anbg.gov.au/acacia/ |publisherAustralian National Herbarium |access-dateOctober 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180802223141/http://www.anbg.gov.au/acacia/ |archive-dateAugust 2, 2018 |url-statusdead |dfmdy-all }}</ref><ref name"acaciaresolution1">{{cite web |titleThe Acacia debate |urlhttp://worldwidewattle.com/infogallery/nomenclature/nameissue/melbourne-ibc-2011-congress-news-tuesday-26-july.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://worldwidewattle.com/infogallery/nomenclature/nameissue/melbourne-ibc-2011-congress-news-tuesday-26-july.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |publisherIBC2011 Congress News |access-dateMay 5, 2016}}</ref><ref name"acaciaresolution2">{{cite web |titleConserving Acacia Mill. with a conserved type: What happened in Melbourne? |urlhttp://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2011/00000060/00000005/art00033 |publisherTaxon |access-dateMay 5, 2016}}</ref> Debate continues regarding the traditional acacias of Africa, possibly placed in Senegalia and Vachellia, and some of the American species, possibly placed in Acaciella and Mariosousa.
Acacias belong to the subfamily Mimosoideae, the major clades of which may have formed in response to drying trends and fire regimes that accompanied increased seasonality during the late Oligocene to early Miocene (~25&nbsp;mya).<ref namebouch>{{cite journal |last1Bouchenak-Khelladi |first1Yanis |last2Maurin |first2Olivier |last3Hurter |first3Johan |last4van der Bank |first4Michelle |titleThe evolutionary history and biogeography of Mimosoideae (Leguminosae): An emphasis on African acacias |journalMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |dateNovember 2010 |volume57 |issue2 |pages495–508 |doi10.1016/j.ympev.2010.07.019 |pmid20696261 |bibcode2010MolPE..57..495B }}</ref> Pedley (1978), following Vassal (1972), viewed Acacia as comprising three large subgenera, but subsequently (1986) raised the rank of these groups to genera Acacia, Senegalia (s.l.) and Racosperma,<ref namemaslin /><ref namebol /> which was underpinned by later genetic studies.
In common parlance, the term "acacia" is occasionally applied to species of the genus Robinia, which also belongs in the pea family. Robinia pseudoacacia, an American species locally known as black locust, is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in the United Kingdom and throughout Europe.
Description
seedling in the transitional stage between pinnate leaves and phyllodes]]
The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific Islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks (petioles) become vertically flattened in order to serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as "phyllodes". The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight since with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light as fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as Acacia glaucoptera) lack leaves or phyllodes altogether but instead possess cladodes, modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves.
The small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense, globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, or even purple (Acacia purpureopetala) or red (Acacia leprosa'' 'Scarlet Blaze'). Acacia flowers can be distinguished from those of a large related genus, Albizia, by their stamens, which are not joined at the base. Also, unlike individual Mimosa flowers, those of Acacia have more than ten stamens.<ref>{{cite book|lastSingh|firstGurcharan|titlePlant Systematics: An Integrated Approach|publisherScience Publishers|year2004|page445|isbn978-1-57808-351-0|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C}}</ref>
The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches that have become short, hard, and pungent, though they sometimes represent leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the kangaroo-thorn of Australia, and Acacia erioloba (syn. Acacia eriolobata) is the camelthorn of Africa.
Acacia seeds can be difficult to germinate. Research has found that immersing the seeds in various temperatures (usually around 80&nbsp;°C (176&nbsp;°F)) and manual seed coat chipping can improve growth to around 80%.<ref>{{cite journal |author1J Clemens |author2PG Jones |author3NH Gilbert |year1977|titleEffect of seed treatments on germination in Acacia|journalAustralian Journal of Botany |volume25 |issue3 |pages269–276 |doi10.1071/BT9770269|bibcode1977AuJB...25..269C }}</ref>Symbiosis
stipules]]
. An entry hole can be seen at the base of one of the spines of the largest domatia. From the MHNT]]
In the Central American bullthorn acacias—Acacia sphaerocephala, Acacia cornigera and Acacia collinsii — some of the spiny stipules are large, swollen and hollow. These afford shelter for several species of Pseudomyrmex'' ants, which feed on extrafloral nectaries on the leaf-stalk and small lipid-rich food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets called Beltian bodies. In return, the ants add protection to the plant against herbivores.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Heil |firstMartin |author2Sabine Greiner |author3Harald Meimberg |author4Ralf Krüger |author5Jean-Louis Noyer |author6Günther Heubl |author7K. Eduard Linsenmair |author8Wilhelm Boland |year2004 |titleEvolutionary change from induced to constitutive expression of an indirect plant resistance |urlhttp://agritrop.cirad.fr/520973/ |journalNature |volume430 |issue6996 |pages205–208 |bibcode2004Natur.430..205H |doi10.1038/nature02703 |pmid15241414 |s2cid4416036}}</ref> Some species of ants will also remove competing plants around the acacia, cutting off the offending plants' leaves with their jaws and ultimately killing them. Other associated ant species appear to do nothing to benefit their hosts.
Similar mutualisms with ants occur on Acacia trees in Africa, such as the whistling thorn acacia. The acacias provide shelter for ants in similar swollen stipules and nectar in extrafloral nectaries for their symbiotic ants, such as Crematogaster mimosae. In turn, the ants protect the plant by attacking large mammalian herbivores and stem-boring beetles that damage the plant.<ref>{{cite journal|lastPalmer|firstT.M.|author2M.L. Stanton|author3T.P. Young|author4J.R. Goheen|author5R.M Pringle|author6R. Karban|s2cid32467164|titleBreakdown of an ant-plant mutualism following the loss of large herbivores from an African savanna|journalScience|volume319|issue5860|pages192–195|doi10.1126/science.1151579|pmid18187652|dateJanuary 2008|bibcode = 2008Sci...319..192P }}</ref>
The predominantly herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi, which is found in Central America and Mexico, feeds on nubs at the tips of the acacia leaves, known as Beltian bodies, which contain high concentrations of protein. These nubs are produced by the acacia as part of a symbiotic relationship with certain species of ant, which also eat them.<ref>Meehan, Christopher J.; Olson, Eric J.; Curry, Robert L. (21 August 2008): [http://eco.confex.com/eco/2008/techprogram/P12401.HTM Exploitation of the Pseudomyrmex–Acacia mutualism by a predominantly vegetarian jumping spider (Bagheera kiplingi)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191201153140/https://eco.confex.com/eco/2008/techprogram/P12401.HTM |date2019-12-01 }}. The 93rd ESA Annual Meeting.</ref>
Pests
In Australia, Acacia species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus including A.&nbsp;ligniveren. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which have been recorded feeding on Acacia include brown-tail, Endoclita malabaricus and turnip moth. The leaf-mining larvae of some bucculatricid moths also feed on Acacia; Bucculatrix agilis feeds exclusively on Acacia horrida and Bucculatrix flexuosa feeds exclusively on Acacia nilotica.
Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals.<ref name"chem">{{cite web |urlhttp://uvalde.tamu.edu/pdf/chemtdaf.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110515034950/http://uvalde.tamu.edu/pdf/chemtdaf.pdf |archive-dateMay 15, 2011 |url-statusdead |titleChemistry of Acacia's from South Texas |author1T. D. A. Forbes |author2B. A. Clement |publisherTexas A&M University |access-dateJune 12, 2013}}</ref>
Uses
Use as human food
seeds]]
Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products.
In Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand, the feathery shoots of Acacia pennata (common name cha-om, ชะอม and su pout ywet in Burmese) are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries.
Gum
Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of Acacia senegal, abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria.
Acacia nilotica (syn. Acacia arabica'') is the gum arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum arabic. Gum arabic is used in a wide variety of food products, including some soft drinks<ref nametest>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.wegmans.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/ProductDisplay?langId-1&storeId10052&catalogId1&productId480288 |titlePowerade Ion4 Sports Drink, B Vitamin Enhanced, Strawberry Lemonade |publisherWegmans |access-date2013-03-06 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120215194222/https://www.wegmans.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/ProductDisplay?langId-1&storeId10052&catalogId1&productId480288 |archive-date2012-02-15 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and confections.
The ancient Egyptians used acacia gum in paints.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.amazon.ca/dp/product-description/0609803670 |titleExcerpt from A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Fifth Edition (Paperback) Amazon.com |publisherAmazon.ca |access-date2013-03-06}}</ref>
]]
The gum of Acacia xanthophloea and Acacia karroo has a high sugar content and is sought out by the lesser bushbaby. Acacia karroo gum was once used for making confectionery and traded under the name "Cape Gum". It was also used medicinally to treat cattle suffering poisoning by Moraea species.<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/acaciakar.htm | titleVachellia karroo {{pipe}} PlantZAfrica.com | access-date2015-05-20 | archive-date2015-09-24 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924074115/http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/acaciakar.htm | url-statusdead }}</ref>
Uses in folk medicine
Acacia species have possible uses in folk medicine. A 19th-century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species (known as grar) mixed with the root of the tacha, then boiled, as a cure for rabies.<ref>Richard Pankhurst, An Introduction to the Medical History of Ethiopia (Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1990), p. 97</ref>
An astringent medicine high in tannins, called catechu or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from Senegalia catechu (syn. Acacia catechu), by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/usdisp/uncaria-gamb.html |titleAn OCR'd version of the US Dispensatory by Remington and Wood, 1918 |publisherHenriettesherbal.com |access-date2013-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/V8879E/v8879e05.htm |titleCutch and catechu plant origin from the Food and Agriculture (FAO) department of the United Nations. Document repository accessed November 5, 2011 |access-dateNovember 5, 2011 |archive-dateFebruary 10, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190210133448/http://www.fao.org/docrep/V8879e/V8879e05.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref> The catechu extract from A. catechu figures in the history of chemistry in giving its name to the catechin, catechol, and catecholamine chemical families ultimately derived from it.
Ornamental uses
A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is A. dealbata (silver wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus Mimosa.
Another ornamental acacia is the fever tree. Southern European florists use A. baileyana, A. dealbata, A. pycnantha and A. retinodes as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.worldwidewattle.com/schools/uses.php |titleWorld Wide Wattle |publisherWorld Wide Wattle |date2009-09-07 |access-date=2013-03-06}}</ref>
Ornamental species of acacias are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security. The sharp thorns of some species are a deterrent to trespassing, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a reasonable alternative to constructed fences and walls.
Perfume
]]
Acacia farnesiana is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries.
Symbolism and ritual
]]
Egyptian mythology has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the tree of life, such as in the Myth of Osiris and Isis.
Several parts (mainly bark, root, and resin) of Acacia'' species are used to make incense for rituals. Acacia is used in incense mainly in India, Nepal, and China including in its Tibet region. Smoke from acacia bark is thought to keep demons and ghosts away and to put the gods in a good mood. Roots and resin from acacia are combined with rhododendron, acorus, cytisus, salvia, and some other components of incense. Both people and elephants like an alcoholic beverage made from acacia fruit.<ref name="fachforum">[https://web.archive.org/web/20100105094521/http://www.naturheilpraxis.de/exclusiv/nh-online/2005/nhp05/a_nh-ff02.html Naturheilpraxis Fachforum (German)]</ref>
According to Easton's Bible Dictionary, the acacia tree may be the "burning bush" (Exodus 3:2) which Moses encountered in the desert.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://eastonsbibledictionary.com/b/bush.htm |titleEaston's Bible Dictionary: Bush |publisherEastonsbibledictionary.com |access-date2013-03-06}}</ref> Also, when God gave Moses the instructions for building the Tabernacle, he said to "make an ark" and "a table of acacia wood" (Exodus 25:10 & 23, Revised Standard Version). Also, in the Christian tradition, Christ's crown of thorns is thought to have been woven from acacia.<ref>Dictionary of Symbols.Chevalier and Gheerbrant. Penguin Reference.1996.</ref>
Acacia was used for Zulu warriors' iziQu (or isiKu) beads, which passed on through Robert Baden-Powell to the Scout movement's Wood Badge training award.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://members.scouts.org.uk/factsheets/FS145001.pdf|titleThe Origins of the Wood Badge|websiteThe Scout Association|access-date16 February 2019|archive-date6 October 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131006110557/https://members.scouts.org.uk/factsheets/FS145001.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In Russia, Italy, and other countries, it is customary to present women with yellow mimosas (among other flowers) on International Women's Day (March 8). These "mimosas" may be from A. dealbata (silver wattle).
In 1918, May Gibbs, the popular Australian children's author, wrote the book 'Wattle Babies', in which a third-person narrator describes the lives of imaginary inhabitants of the Australian forests (the 'bush'). The main characters are the Wattle Babies, who are tiny people that look like acacia flowers and who interact with various forest creatures. Gibbs wrote "Wattle Babies are the sunshine of the Bush. In Winter, when the sky is grey and all the world seems cold, they put on their yellowest clothes and come out, for they have such cheerful hearts."<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://digital.sl.nsw.gov.au/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?embeddedtrue&toolbarfalse&dps_pidIE3751321|titleMay Gibbs' 'Wattle Babies'|publisher Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales|access-date30 May 2019}}</ref> Gibbs was referring to the fact that an abundance of acacias flower in August in Australia, in the midst of the southern hemisphere winter.<ref>{{cite book|lastCostermans|firstLeon F.|titleNative Trees and Shrubs of South-Eastern Australia: Includes Addendum of Change and New Species|year1981|location Adelaide, South Australia|publisherRigby|isbn 0727017993}}</ref>
Tannin
The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include A. pycnantha (golden wattle), A. decurrens (tan wattle), A. dealbata (silver wattle) and A. mearnsii (black wattle).
Black wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa and South America. The pods of A. nilotica (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species, are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. In Yemen, the principal tannin substance was derived from the leaves of the salam-tree (Acacia etbaica), a tree known locally by the name qaraẓ (garadh).<ref>R. Moses b. Maimon RESPONSA (ed. Jehoshua Blau), vol. 2, responsum # 253, Rubin Mass Ltd.: Jerusalem 1989, p. 298 (s.v. Judeo-Arabic original, אלקרץ).</ref><ref>James P. Mandaville, Bedouin Ethnobotany – Plant Concepts and Uses in a Desert Pastoral World, University of Arizona Press 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?idrRZm5-e486wC&dqacacia+etbaica+schweinf&pgPA140 p. 140] ({{ISBN|978-0-8165-2900-1}})</ref> A bath solution of the crushed leaves of this tree, into which raw leather had been inserted for prolonged soaking, would take only 15 days for curing. The water and leaves, however, required changing after seven or eight days, and the leather needed to be turned over daily.Wood
wood]]
Some Acacia species are valuable as timber, such as A. melanoxylon (blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and A. omalophylla (myall wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber used for ornaments. A. seyal is thought to be the shittah-tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. According to the Book of Exodus, this was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant. A. koa from the Hawaiian Islands and A. heterophylla from Réunion are both excellent timber trees. Depending on abundance and regional culture, some Acacia species (e.g. A. fumosa) are traditionally used locally as firewoods.<ref>{{cite web|authorMaugh, T.H. II |urlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-sci-tree25-2009apr25,0,402549.story |titleNew species of tree identified in Ethiopia |workLos Angeles Times |date2009-04-24 |access-date2008-04-24}}</ref> It is also used to make homes for different animals.
Pulpwood
In Indonesia (mainly in Sumatra) and in Malaysia (mainly in Sabah), plantations of A. mangium are being established to supply pulpwood to the paper industry.
Acacia wood pulp gives high opacity and below average bulk paper. This is suitable in lightweight offset papers used for Bibles and dictionaries. It is also used in paper tissue where it improves softness.
Land reclamation
Acacias can be planted for erosion control, especially after mining or construction damage.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Barr, D. A. |author2Atkinson, W. J.|year1970 |titleStabilization of coastal sands after mining|journalJ. Soil Conserv. Serv. N.S.W. |volume26 |pages89–105 }}</ref>Ecological invasionFor the same reasons it is favored as an erosion-control plant, with its easy spreading and resilience, some varieties of acacia are potentially invasive species. At least fourteen Acacia species introduced to South Africa are categorized as invasive, due to their naturally aggressive propagation.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastvan Wilgen|firstBrian|date2011|titleNational-scale strategic approaches for managing introduced plants: Insights from Australian acacias in South Africa.|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/41242842|journalDiversity and Distributions|volume17|issue5|pages1060–1075|doi10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00785.x|jstor41242842|bibcode2011DivDi..17.1060V |hdl10019.1/112287|s2cid85828367 |hdl-accessfree}}</ref>{{citation needed|dateMay 2012}} One of the most globally significant invasive acacias is black wattle A. mearnsii'', which is taking over grasslands and abandoned agricultural areas worldwide, especially in moderate coastal and island regions where mild climate promotes its spread. Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment gives it a "high risk, score of 15" rating and it is considered one of the world's 100 most invasive species.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hear.org/pier/species/acacia_mearnsii.htm |titleAcacia mearnsii (PIER species info) |publisherHear.org |access-date2013-03-06 |archive-date2010-09-08 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100908105244/http://www.hear.org/pier/species/acacia_mearnsii.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Extensive ecological studies should be performed before further introduction of acacia varieties, as this fast-growing genus, once introduced, spreads quickly and is extremely difficult to eradicate.
Phytochemistry
Cyanogenic glycosides
Nineteen different species of Acacia in the Americas contain cyanogenic glycosides, which, if exposed to an enzyme which specifically splits glycosides, can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the "leaves".<ref>{{cite journal | doi 10.2307/3671484 | volume32 | titleCyanogenic Glycosides in Ant-Acacias of Mexico and Central America | year1987 | journalThe Southwestern Naturalist | last1 Seigler | first1 David S.| issue4 | pages499–503 | jstor3671484 | bibcode=1987SWNat..32..499S }}</ref> This sometimes results in the poisoning death of livestock.
If fresh plant material spontaneously produces 200 ppm or more HCN, then it is potentially toxic. This corresponds to about 7.5 μmol HCN per gram of fresh plant material. It turns out that, if acacia "leaves" lack the specific glycoside-splitting enzyme, then they may be less toxic than otherwise, even those containing significant quantities of cyanic glycosides.<ref name"chemotaxonomie">{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYpnboQBbw7EC&qacacia+tryptamine&pgPA336 |titleChemotaxonomie der Pflanzen By Robert Hegnauer |date1996-01-01|access-date2013-03-06|isbn9783764351656|last1Hegnauer |first1R. |publisherSpringer }}</ref>
Some Acacia species containing cyanogens include Acacia erioloba, A. cunninghamii, A. obtusifolia, A. sieberiana, and A. sieberiana var. woodii<ref name"juliflora">[http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad317e/AD317E05.htm FAO Kamal M. Ibrahim, The current state of knowledge on Prosopis juliflora...] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018104128/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad317e/AD317E05.htm |dateOctober 18, 2012 }}</ref>Famous acaciasThe Arbre du Ténéré in Niger was the most isolated tree in the world, about {{convert|400|km|0|abbron}} from any other tree. The tree was knocked down by a truck driver in 1973.<ref>Michael Palin, Sahara, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, {{ISBN|978-0-2978-6359-5}}</ref>
In Nairobi, Kenya, the Thorn Tree Café is named after a Naivasha thorn tree (Acacia xanthophloea)<ref name"Hemsing1974">{{cite book|authorJan Hemsing|titleOld Nairobi and the New Stanley Hotel|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL3QMAQAAIAAJ|year1974|publisherChurch, Raitt, and Associates|page53}}</ref> in its centre. Travelers used to pin notes to others to the thorns of the tree. The current tree is the third of the same variety.
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Further reading
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal | last1 Clement | first1 B.A. | last2 Goff | first2 C.M. | last3 Forbes | first3 T.D.A. | year 1998 | title Toxic Amines and Alkaloids from Acacia rigidula | journal Phytochemistry | volume 49 | issue 5| pages 1377–1380 | doi10.1016/s0031-9422(97)01022-4| bibcode 1998PChem..49.1377C }}
* {{citation|doi10.1016/S0140-1963(03)00020-X|titleLong-term effects of roller chopping on antiherbivore defenses in three shrub species|journalJournal of Arid Environments|volume56|issue1|pages181–192|year2004|last1Schindler|first1Jason R.|last2Fulbright|first2Timothy E.|last3Forbes|first3T.D.A|bibcode2004JArEn..56..181S}}
* Shulgin, Alexander and Ann, TiHKAL the Continuation. Transform Press, 1997. {{ISBN|978-0-9630096-9-2}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{wikispecies|Acacia}}
* [http://www.worldwidewattle.com/ World Wide Wattle]
* [http://www.acacia-world.net/ Acacia-world]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151110064020/http://waynesword.palomar.edu/plaug99.htm Wayne's Word] on "The Unforgettable Acacias"
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090401222429/http://mulga.yage.net/acacia/ The genus Acacia and Entheogenic Tryptamines, with reference to Australian and related species, by mulga]
* [http://www.bookofherbs.com/a/Acacia_ruggs.htm A description of Acacia from Pomet's 1709 reference book, History of Druggs] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100111043040/http://www.bookofherbs.com/a/Acacia_ruggs.htm |date2010-01-11 }}
* [http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ Dr. Duke's] Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101227113726/http://www.flora.sa.gov.au/id_tool/acacia.html#Keys Flora identification tools from the State Herbarium of South Australia]
* [http://www.biochemj.org/bj/078/0834/0780834.pdf Tannins in Some Interrelated Wattles]
* [http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/cgi/b98_list?genusAcacia&species List of Acacia Species in the U.S.]{{Dead link|dateJuly 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/V5360E/v5360e0f.htm FAO Timber Properties of Various Acacia Species]
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad317e/AD317E05.htm FAO Comparison of Various Acacia Species as Forage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070614021602/http://www.afip.org/vetpath/WSC/wsc98/98wsc21.htm Vet. Path. ResultsAFIP Wednesday Slide Conference – No. 21 February 24, 1999]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070921100707/http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/Fulldocs/Browse_in_Africa/Chapter33.htm Acacia cyanophylla lindl as supplementary feed/for small stock in Libya]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012200235/http://smallstock.info/research/reports/R5732/NR08UE/B1701_2.HTM Description of Acacia Morphology]
<!-- http://www.aciar.gov.au/web.nsf/att/JFRN-6BN9EE/$file/mn115part2.pdf 404 page not found -->
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160208042613/http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/619/mn115part1.pdf Nitrogen Fixation in Acacias]
* {{cite journal|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3671484 |titleCyanogenic Glycosides in Ant-Acacias of Mexico and Central America|journalThe Southwestern Naturalist|volume32|number4|date9 December 1987|pages499–503|jstor3671484 |last1Seigler |first1David S. |last2Ebinger |first2John E. |doi10.2307/3671484 |bibcode1987SWNat..32..499S }}
* [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12717361.200-antelope-activate-the-acacias-alarm-system-.html Acacia Alarm System]
{{WestAfricanPlants|Acacia}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAcacia|shortx}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q21823316}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Excipients
Category:Medicinal plants
Category:Medicinal plants of Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_sensu_lato | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.077907 |
1446 | Acapulco | {{Short description|City in the Mexican state of Guerrero}}
{{Other uses}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Acapulco de Juárez
| name = Acapulco
| other_name | native_name <!-- for cities whose native name is not in English -->
| nickname | settlement_type City
| total_type | motto
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = center
| perrow = 1/3/2/2
| image1 = Acapulco3.jpg
| caption1 = Acapulco skyline
| image2 = LA DIANA CAZADORA DE ACAPULCO (3099407706).jpg
| caption2 = Diana Fountain
| image3 = Skyscrapers in Acapulco Diamante.jpg
| caption3 = Skyscrapers in Diamante
| image4 = Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, Acapulco, Guerrero (24297257883).jpg
| caption4 = Acapulco Cathedral
| image5 = Museo_Fuerte_de_San_Diego.jpg
| caption5 = Fort of San Diego
| image6 = La Quebrada, Acapulco, Guerrero (24685190940).jpg
| caption6 = La Quebrada
| image7 = La Roqueta Island in Acapulco, Mexico.jpg
| caption7 = La Roqueta Island
| image8 = JLNYCAcapulcoBay.jpg
| caption8 = Puerto Marqués
| color = white
}}
| image_flag | image_seal
| image_shield = Escudo de Acapulco.svg
| image_map | mapsize 270px
| map_caption = Location of Acapulco within Guerrero
| pushpin_map = Mexico Guerrero#Mexico
| pushpin_mapsize = 270
| pushpin_map_caption =
<!-- Location ------------------>
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = Mexico
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = Guerrero
| subdivision_type2 = Municipality
| subdivision_name2 = Acapulco, Guerrero
| government_footnotes | government_type
| leader_party = <small></small>
| leader_title = Municipal president
| leader_name = Abelina López
| leader_title1 = <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager -->
| leader_name1 | leader_title2
| leader_name2 | established_title Founded
| established_date = March 12, 1550
| established_title2 = Municipal status
| established_date2 | established_title3
| established_date3 =
<!-- Area --------------------->
| area_magnitude | area_footnotes
| area_total_km2 = 1880.60
| area_land_km2 | area_water_km2
| area_water_percent | area_urban_km2 85
| area_metro_km2 = 3538.5
<!-- Population ----------------------->
| population_as_of = 2020 census
| population_footnotes | population_note
| population_total = 658609
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro = 852,622
| population_demonyms = Acapulqueño (a)<br />Porteño (a)
<!-- GDP --------------->
| demographics_type1 = GDP (PPP, constant 2015 values)
| demographics1_footnotes | demographics1_title1 Year
| demographics1_info1 = 2023
| demographics1_title2 = Total
| demographics1_info2 $10.3&nbsp;billion<ref name"TelluBase">{{cite web|urlhttps://tellusant.com/repo/tb/tellubase_factsheet_mex.pdf|publisherTellusant|titleTelluBase—Mexico Fact Sheet (Tellusant Public Service Series)| access-date 2024-01-11}}</ref>
| demographics1_title3 = Per capita
| demographics1_info3 = $10,100
<!-- General information --------------->
| timezone = CST
| utc_offset = −6
| coordinates {{coord|16|51|49|N|99|52|57|W|region:MX|displayinline,title}}
| elevation_point = of seat
| elevation_m = 30
<!-- Area/postal codes & others -------->
| postal_code_type = Postal codes
| postal_code = 39300–39937
| area_code = 744
| website = {{Official website|http://www.acapulco.gob.mx}} {{in lang|es}}
| footnotes =
}}
Acapulco de Juárez ({{IPA|es|akaˈpulko ðe ˈxwaɾes|lang|Acapulco de Juárez - es - mx.ogg}}), commonly called Acapulco ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|k|ə|ˈ|p|ʊ|l|k|oʊ}} {{respell|AK|ə|PUUL|koh}},<ref name"Collins">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/acapulco |titleAcapulco |workCollins English Dictionary |publisherHarperCollins |access-date28 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Acapulco |titleAcapulco |dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary |publisherOxford University Press |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200115030247/https://www.lexico.com/definition/acapulco |archive-date2020-01-15}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˌ|ɑː|k|-}} {{respell|AHK|-}};<ref name"Collins"/> {{langx|nah|Acapolco}}), is a city and major seaport in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, {{convert|380|km}} south of Mexico City. Located on a deep, semicircular bay, Acapulco has been a port since the early colonial period of Mexico's history.<ref name"encmuc">{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/municipios/12001a.htm |titleEstado de Guerrero: Acapulco de Juárez |encyclopediaEnciclopedia de los Municipios de México |publisherINAFED |locationMexico |languagees |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930033438/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/municipios/12001a.htm |archive-dateSeptember 30, 2007}}</ref> It is a port of call for shipping and cruise lines running between Panama and San Francisco, California, United States.<ref name"apiacapulco">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.apiacapulcoport.com/historia-de-api-acapulco/ |titleHistory of API Acapulco, Guerrero |websiteAdministracion Portuaria Integral |locationAcapulco, Guerrero |languagees |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160409155933/http://www.apiacapulcoport.com/historia-de-api-acapulco/ |archive-dateApril 9, 2016}}</ref> The city of Acapulco is the largest in the state, far larger than the state capital Chilpancingo. Acapulco is also Mexico's largest beach and balneario resort city.<ref name"INEGI">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/sistemas/conteo2005/localidad/iter/ |titleINEGI Census 2005 |languagees |access-date2010-01-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110613183420/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/sistemas/conteo2005/localidad/iter/ |archive-dateJune 13, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Acapulco de Juárez, Guerrero is the municipal seat of the municipality of Acapulco, Guerrero.
The city is one of Mexico's oldest beach resorts, coming into prominence in the 1940s through the 1960s as a getaway for Hollywood stars and millionaires.<ref>{{cite book |firstLee |lastStacy |date2003 |titleMexico and the United States |locationNew York |publisherMarshall Cavendish Publishing |page16 |isbn978-0-7614-7403-6}}</ref> Acapulco was once a popular tourist resort, but due to a massive upsurge in gang violence and homicide numbers since 2014, Acapulco no longer attracts many foreign tourists, and most now only come from within Mexico itself. It is both the ninth deadliest city in Mexico and the tenth-deadliest city in the world as of 2022;<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/picture-gallery/travel/news/2019/07/24/most-dangerous-cities-world-tijuana-caracas-cape-town/1813211001/ |title50 of the most dangerous cities in the world |dateAugust 14, 2019 |newspaperUSA Today}}</ref> the US government has warned its citizens not to travel there.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAcapulco, Guerrero: The resort killed by drugs, guns and gangs |urlhttps://news.sky.com/story/acapulco-the-resort-killed-by-drugs-guns-and-gangs-11250906 |firstStuart |lastRamsay |date26 February 2018 |websiteSky News |access-date2022-11-25 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleMexico Travel Advisory |urlhttps://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/mexico-travel-advisory.html |access-date2023-01-24 |websitetravel.state.gov}}</ref> In 2016 there were 918 murders,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/world/how-acapulco-became-mexicos-murder-capital/ |titleAcapulco is Now Mexico's Murder Capital |firstJoshua |lastPartlow |dateAugust 24, 2017 |newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref> and the homicide rate was one of the highest in the world: 103 in every 100,000.<ref>{{Cite news |lastBonello |firstDeborah |date2018-09-26 |titleMarines swoop on Acapulco as entire police force in faded resort city infiltrated by cartels |languageen-GB |newspaperThe Daily Telegraph |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/26/marines-swoop-acapulco-entire-citys-police-force-placed-investigation/ |access-date2022-11-25 |issn0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/entire-acapulco-police-force-disarmed-due-links-drug-gangs-n913231 |titleEntire Acapulco police force disarmed due to links to drug gangs |dateSeptember 26, 2018 |websiteNBC News |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180926224615/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/entire-acapulco-police-force-disarmed-due-links-drug-gangs-n913231 |archive-dateSeptember 26, 2018}}</ref> In September 2018, the city's entire police force was disarmed by the military, due to suspicions that it had been infiltrated by drug gangs.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2018/09/26/americas/mexico-authorities-raid-acapulco-police-force/index.html |titleMexican authorities seize control of Acapulco police force |first1Mitchell |last1McCluskey |first2Natalie |last2Gallón |name-list-styleamp |dateSeptember 26, 2018 |websiteCNN |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180927001543/https://www.cnn.com/2018/09/26/americas/mexico-authorities-raid-acapulco-police-force/index.html |archive-dateSeptember 27, 2018}}</ref>
The resort area is divided into three parts: the north end of the bay and beyond is the "traditional" area, which encompasses the area from Parque Papagayo through the {{Lang|es|Zócalo|italicno}} and onto the beaches of Caleta and Caletilla, the main part of the bay known as "{{Lang|es|Zona Dorada|italicno}}" ('golden zone' in Spanish), where the famous in the mid-20th century vacationed, and the south end, "{{Lang|es|Diamante|italic=no}}" ('diamond' in Spanish), which is dominated by newer luxury high-rise hotels and condominiums.
The name "Acapulco, Guerrero" comes from Nahuatl language Aca-pōl-co, and means "where the reeds were destroyed or washed away"<ref name"robelo">{{cite book |titleDiccionario de Aztequismos |lastRobelo |firstCecelio A. |year1912 |publisherImp. del Museo N. de Arquelogía, Historia y Etnología |locationMexico |pages43–44 |languagees}}</ref> or "at the big reeds",<ref>Nahuatl -pōl- is an augmentative suffix, and it also is a verb root meaning "destroy".</ref> which inspired the city's seal, which is an Aztec-type glyph showing two hands breaking reeds.<ref name"encmuc" />
The "de Juárez" was added to the official name in 1885 to honor Benito Juárez, former president of Mexico (1806–1872). The island and municipality of Capul, in the Philippines, derives its name from Acapulco, Guerrero. Acapulco, Guerrero was the eastern end of the trans-Pacific sailing route from Acapulco to Manila, in what was then a Spanish colony.
History
{{See also|Timeline of Acapulco}}
Pre-Columbian
.]]
By the 8th century, around the Acapulco Bay area, there was a small culture which would first be dominated by the Olmecs, then by a number of others during the pre-Hispanic period before it ended in the 1520s. At Acapulco Bay itself, there were two Olmec sites, one by Playa Larga and the other on a hill known as El Guitarrón. Olmec influence caused the small spread-out villages here to coalesce into larger entities and build ceremonial centers.<ref name="encmuc" />
Later, Teotihuacan influence came to the area via Cuernavaca and Chilpancingo. Then Mayan influence arrived from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and through what is now Oaxaca. This history is known through the archaeological artifacts that have been found here, especially at Playa Hornos, Pie de la Cuesta, and Tambuco.<ref name="encmuc" />
In the 11th century, new waves of migration of Nahuas, including the Coixcas, came through here. These people were the antecedents of the Aztecs. In the later 15th century, after four years of military struggle, Acapulco became part of the Aztec Empire during the reign of Ahuizotl (1486–1502). It was annexed to a tributary province named Tepecuacuilco. However, this was only transitory, as the Aztecs could only establish an unorganized military post at the city's outskirts. The city was in territory under control of the Yopis, who continued defending it and living there until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s.<ref name"encmuc" /><ref>{{cite book |lastCabrera Guerrero |firstMartha Eugenia |date1990 |titleLos pobladores prehispánicos de Acapulco |languagees |publisherInstituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia |isbn968-6487-44-1}}</ref>
16th century
: "Acapulco's Yope Indian, at the South Sea".]]
There are two stories about how Acapulco bay was discovered by Europeans. The first states that two years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés sent explorers west to find gold. The explorers had subdued this area after 1523, and Captain Saavedra Cerón was authorized by Cortés to found a settlement here. The other states that the bay was discovered on December 13, 1526, by a small ship named the El Tepache Santiago captained by Santiago Guevara.<ref name="encmuc" />
The first encomendero was established in 1525 at Cacahuatepec, which is still part of the modern Acapulco municipality. In 1531, a number of Spaniards, most notably Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, left the Oaxaca coast and founded the village of Villafuerte where the city of Acapulco now stands. Villafuerte was unable to subdue the local native peoples, and this eventually resulted in the Yopa Rebellion in the region of Cuautepec. Hernán Cortés was obligated to send Vasco Porcayo to negotiate with the indigenous people giving concessions. The province of Acapulco became the encomendero of Rodriguez de Villafuerte who received taxes in the form of cocoa, cotton and corn.<ref name="encmuc" />
Cortés established Acapulco as a major port by the early 1530s, with the first major road between Mexico City and the port constructed by 1531. The wharf, named Marqués, was constructed by 1533 between Bruja Point and Diamond Point. Soon after, the area was made an "alcadia" (major province or town).<ref name="encmuc" />
.]]
Spanish trade in the Far East would give Acapulco a prominent position in the economy of New Spain. In 1550, thirty Spanish families were sent to live here from Mexico City to have a permanent base of European residents.<ref name"encmuc" /> Galleons started arriving in Acapulco from Asia by 1565. Acapulco would become the second most important port, after Veracruz, due to its direct trade with the Philippines. This trade would focus on the yearly Manila-Acapulco Galleon trade, which was the nexus of all kinds of communications between New Spain, Europe and Asia. In 1573, the port was granted the monopoly of the Manila trade.<ref name"apiacapulco" />
17th–19th centuries
; the Japanese samurai who led the delegation to Mexico.]]
.]]
On January 25, 1614, a delegation led by samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga, which included over one hundred Japanese Christians as well as twenty-two samurai under the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu, arrived from Japan to Acapulco as part of a mission to form closer relations with Catholic Europe. A fight soon broke out in which a Japanese samurai stabbed a Spanish colonial soldier in Acapulco. This was witnessed and recorded by historian Chimalpahin, who was the grandson of an Aztec nobleman. Some of Tsunenaga's delegation would stay and marry with the locals.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Unknown Story of the Samurai Who Traveled to Mexico Hundreds of Years Ago |urlhttps://curiosmos.com/the-unknown-story-of-the-samurai-who-traveled-to-mexico-hundreds-of-years-ago/ |firstIvan |lastPetricevic |date10 February 2020 |websiteCuriosmos |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref>
The galleon trade made its yearly run from the mid-16th century until the early 19th. The luxury items it brought to New Spain attracted the attention of English and Dutch pirates, such as Francis Drake, Henry Morgan and Thomas Cavendish, who called it "The Black Ship". A Dutch fleet invaded Acapulco in 1615, destroying much of the town before being driven off. The Fort of San Diego was built the following year to protect the port and the cargo of arriving ships. The fort was destroyed by an earthquake in 1776 and was rebuilt between 1778 and 1783.
At the beginning of the 19th century, King Charles IV declared Acapulco a Ciudad Official and it became an essential part of the Spanish Crown. However, not long after, the Mexican War of Independence began. In 1810, José María Morelos y Pavón attacked and burnt down the city, after he defeated royalist commander Francisco Parés at the Battle of Tres Palos.<ref name"encmuc" /> The independence of Mexico in 1821 ended the run of the Manila Galleon. Acapulco's importance as a port recovered during the California Gold Rush in the mid-19th-century, with ships going to and coming from Panama stopping here. This city was besieged on 19 April 1854 by Antonio López de Santa Anna after Guerrero's leadership had rebelled by issuing the Plan de Ayutla. After an unsuccessful week of fighting, Santa Anna retreated.<ref>{{cite book |firstWill |lastFowler |date2007 |titleSanta Anna of Mexico |locationLincoln, NE |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |page313 |isbn978-0-803211209}}</ref> 20th century In 1911, revolutionary forces took over the main plaza of Acapulco.<ref name"encmuc" /> In 1920, the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII) visited the area. Impressed by what he saw, he recommended the place to his compatriots in Europe, making it popular with the elite there.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQmHTDgAAQBAJ&pgPA7 |lastEchenberg |firstMyron J. |titleHumboldt's Mexico: In the Footsteps of the Illustrious German Scientific Traveller |publisherMcGill–Queen's University Press |isbn978-0-773549401 |year2017 |page7}}</ref> Much of the original hotel and trading infrastructure was built by a businessman named Albert B. Pullen from Corrigan, Texas, in the area now known as Old Acapulco. In 1933, Carlos Barnard started the first section of Hotel El Mirador, with 12 rooms on the cliffs of La Quebrada.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idT3PVNpNF0yoC&pgPA49 |lastDelgado |firstKevin |titleExplorer's Guide Acapulco: A Great Destination |publisherCountryman Press |isbn978-1-581571158 |year2010 |page49}}</ref> Albert Pullen built the Las Americas Hotel.<ref name"Husband 2022 m216">{{cite web | lastHusband | firstStuart | titleThe Magic Down There | websiteThe Rake | dateJune 8, 2022 | urlhttps://therake.com/stories/the-magic-down-there | access-dateMarch 18, 2024}}</ref><ref name"Snow_1955">{{cite news |last1Snow |first1Virginia |date1955-01-30 |titleMexican Parade |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-austin-american-mexican-parade/143609037/ |workThe Austin American |locationAustin, Texas, USA |access-date2024-03-18}}</ref> In the late 1930s, “La Fraccionadora de Acapulco, S.A.” (FASA), consisting of William Pullen, Anacleto Martínez, Juan M. Salcedo, and Wolf Schoenburg, who was especially instrumental,<ref name"Severo 1972 p369">{{cite web | lastSevero | firstRichard | titleFor the Rich, Acapulco Isn't What It Used to Be | websiteThe New York Times | dateJanuary 2, 1972 | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1972/01/02/archives/for-the-rich-acapulco-isnt-what-it-used-to-be.html | access-dateMarch 18, 2024}}</ref> started tourism development in earnest.<ref name"Flynn_2020">{{cite thesis |last1Flynn |first1Mariana Ávila |dateMay 2020 |titleRecovering the Ideals of a Former Paradise:Preservation Approaches for Modern Acapulco |urlhttps://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d8-kkvt-0317/download |degreeMS |chapter1 |publisherColumbia University |doi10.7916/d8-kkvt-0317 |access-date2024-03-18}}</ref>
In the mid-1940s, the first commercial wharf and warehouses were built.<ref name="apiacapulco" /> In the early 1950s, President Miguel Alemán Valdés upgraded the port's infrastructure, installing electrical lines, drainage systems, roads and the first highway to connect the port with Mexico City.
The economy grew and foreign investment increased with it. During the 1950s, Acapulco became the fashionable place for millionaire Hollywood stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Eddie Fisher and Brigitte Bardot. The 1963 Hollywood movie Fun in Acapulco, starring Elvis Presley, is set in Acapulco although the filming took place in the United States. Former swing musician Teddy Stauffer, the so-called "Mister Acapulco", was a hotel manager ("Villa Vera", "Casablanca"), who attracted many celebrities to Acapulco.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://stockpress.de/2010/08/05/teddy-stauffer-der-swingkonig-im-paradies/ |titleTeddy Stauffer: Der Swingkönig im Paradies |firstWolfgang |lastStock |date5 August 2010 |websiteStockpress.de |languagede |access-dateAugust 22, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100924204842/http://stockpress.de/2010/08/05/teddy-stauffer-der-swingkonig-im-paradies/ |archive-dateSeptember 24, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>
From a population of only 4,000 or 5,000 in the 1940s, by the early 1960s, Acapulco had a population of about 50,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |date1967 |titleAcapulco |encyclopediaWorld Book Encyclopedia |volume1 |publisherField Enterprises |page19}}</ref> In 1958, the Diocese of Acapulco was created by Pope Pius XII. It became an archdiocese in 1983.<ref name"arquid">{{cite web |titleHistoria de la Arquidiócesis |urlhttp://www.arquidiocesisacapulco.org/ |websiteArchdiocese of Acapulco |locationAcapulco, Guerrero |languagees |trans-titleHistory of the Archdiocese |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100106163237/http://www.arquidiocesisacapulco.org/ |archive-dateJanuary 6, 2010 |access-date=January 10, 2010}}</ref>
During the 1960s and 1970s, new hotel resorts were built, and accommodation and transport were made cheaper. It was no longer necessary to be a millionaire to spend a holiday in Acapulco; the foreign and Mexican middle class could now afford to travel here. However, as more hotels were built in the south part of the bay, the old hotels of the 1950s lost their grandeur.<ref name"lacey">{{cite news |titleAcapulco, Long Dotted With Tourists, Is Now Home to Drug War |firstMarc |lastLacey |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/09/world/americas/09mexico.html |newspaperThe New York Times |dateJune 8, 2009 |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140912135617/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/09/world/americas/09mexico.html |archive-dateSeptember 12, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> For the 1968 Summer Olympics in neighboring Mexico City, Acapulco hosted the sailing (then yachting) events.
In the 1970s, there was a significant expansion of the port.<ref name="apiacapulco" />
The Miss Universe 1978 pageant took place in the city.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5fxjDwAAQBAJ&pgPA174 |editor1-lastMor |editor1-firstJessica Stites |editor2-lastSuescun Pozas |editor2-firstMaria del Carmen |titleThe Art of Solidarity: Visual & Performative Politics in Cold War Latin America |publisherUniversity of Texas Press |isbn978-1-477316405 |year2018 |page174}}</ref> In 1983, singer-songwriter Juan Gabriel wrote the song "Amor eterno", which pays homage to Acapulco. The song was first and most famously recorded by Rocío Dúrcal. Additionally, Acapulco is the hometown of actress, singer, and comedian Aída Pierce, who found fame during the 1980s, 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century.
The tollway known as the Ruta del Sol was built during the 1990s, crossing the mountains between Mexico City and Acapulco. The journey takes only about three-and-a-half hours, making Acapulco a favorite weekend destination for Mexico City inhabitants. It was in that time period that the economic impact of Acapulco as a tourist destination increased positively, and as a result new types of services emerged, such as the Colegio Nautilus. This educational project, backed by the state government, was created for the families of local and foreign investors and businessmen living in Acapulco who were in need of a bilingual and international education for their children.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}
The port continued to grow and in 1996, a new private company, API Acapulco, was created to manage operations. This consolidated operations and now Acapulco is the major port for car exports to the Pacific.<ref name="apiacapulco" />
The city was devastated by Hurricane Pauline in 1997. The storm stranded tourists and left more than 100 dead in the city. Most of the victims were from the shantytowns built on steep hillsides that surround the city. Other victims were swept away by thirty-foot (9&nbsp;m) waves and {{convert|150|mph|-1|abbron}} winds. The main road, Avenida Costera, became a fast-moving river of sludge {{convert|3|ft|m|spellin}} in depth.<ref name"davison">{{cite news |title109 dead as Hurricane Pauline batters Mexico |firstPhil |lastDavison |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/109-dead-as-hurricane-pauline-batters-mexico-1234952.html |newspaperThe Independent |locationLondon |dateOctober 10, 1997 |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120204083527/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/109-dead-as-hurricane-pauline-batters-mexico-1234952.html |archive-dateFebruary 4, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
21st century
.]]
In the 21st century, the Mexican Drug War has had a negative effect on tourism in Acapulco as rival drug traffickers fight each other for the Guerrero coast route that brings drugs from South America as well as soldiers that have been fighting the cartels since 2006.
A major gun battle between 18 gunmen and soldiers took place in the summer of 2009 in the Old Acapulco seaside area, lasting hours and killing 16 of the gunmen and two soldiers.<ref name"lacey" /><ref name"ellingwood">{{cite news |titleAcapulco shootout leaves 18 dead |firstKen |lastEllingwood |urlhttps://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-shootout8-2009jun08,0,7718575.story |newspaperLos Angeles Times |locationLos Angeles |dateJune 8, 2009 |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100728094530/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-shootout8-2009jun08,0,7718575.story |archive-dateJuly 28, 2010 |url-statuslive}}</ref> This came after the 2009 swine flu pandemic outbreak earlier in the year nearly paralyzed the Mexican economy, forcing hotels to give discounts to bring tourists back.<ref name"ellingwood" /> However, hotel occupancy for 2009 was down five percent from the year before.<ref name"ajuarez">{{cite news |titleDesciende ocupación |firstAlfonso |lastJuárez |newspaperReforma |locationMexico City |dateJanuary 6, 2010 |page12 |languagees |trans-titleOccupation falls}}</ref> The death of Arturo Beltrán Leyva in December 2009 resulted in infighting among different groups within the Beltrán Leyva cartel.<ref name"washingtonpost.com">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/americas/5-decapitated-bodies-2-scalped-found-in-popular-acapulco-spots/2011/08/20/gIQAbnAASJ_story.html?hpidz4 |title5 decapitated bodies found in popular Acapulco spots; 9 bodies found in other Mexican state |dateAugust 20, 2011 |newspaperThe Washington Post |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110822055953/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/americas/5-decapitated-bodies-2-scalped-found-in-popular-acapulco-spots/2011/08/20/gIQAbnAASJ_story.html |archive-date=2011-08-22}}</ref>
Gang violence continued to plague Acapulco through 2010 and into 2011, most notably with at least 15 dying in drug-related violence on March 13, 2010, and another 15 deaths on January 8, 2011. Among the first incident's dead were six members of the city police and the brother of an ex-mayor.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ww4report.com/node/8451 |titleMexico: Guerrero narco-violence breaks grisly record |dateMarch 14, 2010 |websiteww4report.com |access-dateMarch 15, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100618061411/http://ww4report.com/node/8451 |archive-dateJune 18, 2010 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In the second incident, the headless bodies of 15 young men were found dumped near the Plaza Sendero shopping center.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12143227 |workBBC News |titleMexico violence: Headless bodies found in Acapulco |dateJanuary 8, 2011 |access-dateJune 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180802005030/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12143227 |archive-dateAugust 2, 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref> On August 20, 2011, Mexican authorities reported that five headless bodies were found in Acapulco, three of which were placed in the city's main tourist area and two of which were cut into multiple pieces.<ref name="washingtonpost.com" />
On February 4, 2013, six Spanish men were tied up and robbed and the six Spanish women with them were gang-raped by five masked gunmen who stormed a beach house on the outskirts of Acapulco, though after these accusations, none of the victims decided to press charges.<ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttp://world.time.com/2013/02/06/mexico-seeks-culprits-in-rape-of-6-spaniards/ |titleMexico Seeks Culprits in Rape of 6 Spaniards |first1Bertha |last1Ramos |first2Mark |last2Stevenson |name-list-styleamp |dateFebruary 6, 2013 |magazineTIME |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130209185221/http://world.time.com/2013/02/06/mexico-seeks-culprits-in-rape-of-6-spaniards/ |archive-dateFebruary 9, 2013}}</ref> On September 28, 2014, Mexican politician Braulio Zaragoza was gunned down at the El Mirador hotel in the city. He was the leader of the conservative opposition National Action Party (PAN) in southern Guerrero state. Several politicians have been targeted by drug cartels operating in the area. Investigations are under way, but no arrests have yet been made as of September 29.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-29404297 |titleMexico politician Braulio Zaragoza gunned down in Acapulco |workBBC News |dateSeptember 29, 2014 |access-dateSeptember 29, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140929080158/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-29404297 |archive-dateSeptember 29, 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref>{{update inline|dateDecember 2023}} The insecurity due to individuals involved with drug cartels has cost the city of Acapulco its popularity among national and international tourists. It was stated by the Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil that the number of international flyers coming to Acapulco decreased from 355,760 flyers registered in 2006 to 52,684 flyers in the year 2015, the number of international tourists flying to Acapulco dropped 85% in the interval of nine years.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/empresas/acapulco-pierde-85-turistas-internacionales-en-anos.html |titlePor inseguridad, Acapulco pierde 85% de turistas internacionales en 9 años |firstEverardo |lastMartínez |dateApril 28, 2016 |newspaperEl Financiero |languagees |access-dateMarch 11, 2017}}</ref> In 2018, the Mexican Armed Forces entered the city, placing it under occupation. The police department was disarmed after allegations of the latter being linked to the cartels.Hurricane OtisOn October 25, 2023, Hurricane Otis, a Category&nbsp;5 hurricane with 1-minute sustained winds of {{convert|160|mph|km/h|round10|abbron}},<ref>{{Cite web |titleHurricane OTIS |urlhttps://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2023/ep18/ep182023.update.10250359.shtml |access-date2023-11-27 |websitewww.nhc.noaa.gov}}</ref> caused widespread devastation throughout the city while making landfall nearby.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Jornada |first1La |last2Becerril |first2Andrea |date2023-10-28 |titleSuman 220 mil 305 viviendas afectadas en Acapulco; evaluación continúa |urlhttps://www.jornada.com.mx/noticia/2023/10/28/politica/suman-220-mil-35-viviendas-afectadas-en-acapulco-evaluacion-continua-9939 |access-date2023-11-27 |websiteLa Jornada |language=es}}</ref>
{{CSS image crop
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|oTop = 150
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|Description = Panoramic view of the bay.
}}
Hurricane John
Hurricane John struck Acapulco and Mexico's Pacific coast in late September 2024 as a Category 3 hurricane, delivering powerful winds and extreme rainfall that led to widespread flooding and significant damage. Acapulco<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2024/09/26/americas/hurricane-john-mexico-intl-latam/index.html |titleHurricane John brings devastating floods to Mexico’s Pacific Coast |authorMichael Rios and Verónica Caledrón |date2024-09-26 |websiteCNN |publisherCable News Network |access-date2024-10-30 }}</ref> experienced nearly one meter of rainfall, resulting in submerged neighborhoods and serious disruptions. Roads became impassable due to landslides, and extensive power outages left tens of thousands without electricity across Guerrero and Oaxaca. Around 40,000 homes were damaged impacting over 150,000 residents.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/mexico-acapulco-flooding-hurricane-john-aa0ed47dad2d51c54c3814f34b4a7876 |titleHurricane John leaves Acapulco flooded and battered |lastAssociated Press |date2024-09-30 |websiteAP News |publisherAssociated Press |access-date2024-10-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://mexiconewsdaily.com/news/hurricane-john-impact/ |titleGovernment announces US $400M in aid for southwestern states hit by Hurricane John |lastMND Staff |date2024-10-29 |websiteMexico News Daily |publisher Mexico News Daily |access-date2024-10-30}}</ref> Geography
.]]
The city, located on the Pacific coast of Mexico in the state of Guerrero, is classified as one of the state's seven regions, dividing the rest of the Guerrero coast into the Costa Grande and the Costa Chica.<ref name"regionalizacion">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_guerrero |titleRegionalización |year2010 |workEnciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México |publisherINAFED Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal SEGOB Secretaría de Gobernación |locationMexico |languagees |trans-titleRegions |access-dateApril 18, 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120306003153/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_guerrero |archive-dateMarch 6, 2012}}</ref> Forty percent of the municipality is mountainous terrain; another forty percent is semi-flat; and the other twenty percent is flat. Elevation varies from sea level to {{convert|1699|m|ft|0|abbroff}}. The highest peaks are Potrero, San Nicolas, and Alto Camarón. One major river runs through the municipality, the Papagayo, along with a number of arroyos (streams). There are also two small lagoons, Tres Palos and Coyuca, along with a number of thermal springs.<ref>{{cite map |author1Comisión de estudios del territorio nacional (CETENAL) |author2Instituto nacional de estadística geografía e informática (INEGI) |year1991 |titleAcapulco: Guerrero |editionPrimera |scale1:50,000 |publisherCETENAL, INEGI |oclc494416658}}</ref>
Climate
Acapulco features a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen: Aw): hot with distinct wet and dry seasons, with more even temperatures between seasons than resorts farther north in Mexico, but this varies depending on altitude. The warmest areas are next to the sea where the city is. Pacific hurricanes and tropical storms are threats from May through November; notably, the city was struck directly by Category&nbsp;5 Hurricane Otis on October 25, 2023, which caused extensive damage.<ref>{{cite news |last1Antonio Rivera |first1José |last2Verza |first2María |titleHurricane Otis now a catastrophic Category 5 storm off Mexico's Pacific coast nearing Acapulco |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/hurricane-otis-mexico-acapulco-993f639be22b1013e3faf0c5828da078 |access-dateOctober 25, 2023 |workAP News |publisherThe Associated Press |dateOctober 24, 2023 |languageen}}</ref> The forested area tends to lose leaves during the winter dry season, with evergreen pines in the highest elevations. Fauna consists mostly of deer, small mammals, a wide variety of both land and seabirds, and marine animals such as turtles.<ref name"encmuc" /> Oddly enough, January, its coolest month, also features its all-time record high.
{{Clear}}
{{Weather box
|location = Acapulco (1991–2020)
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|temperature colour |Jan record high C 39.5
|Feb record high C = 35.5
|Mar record high C = 35.5
|Apr record high C = 37.0
|May record high C = 38.0
|Jun record high C = 36.0
|Jul record high C = 37.5
|Aug record high C = 37.5
|Sep record high C = 36.0
|Oct record high C = 36.0
|Nov record high C = 35.5
|Dec record high C = 36.5
|year record high C = 39.5
|Jan high C = 30.3
|Feb high C = 30.4
|Mar high C = 30.5
|Apr high C = 30.8
|May high C = 31.8
|Jun high C = 32.1
|Jul high C = 32.5
|Aug high C = 32.5
|Sep high C = 31.9
|Oct high C = 31.8
|Nov high C = 31.6
|Dec high C = 30.8
|year high C = 31.4
|Jan mean C = 26.8
|Feb mean C = 26.8
|Mar mean C = 26.9
|Apr mean C = 27.2
|May mean C = 28.4
|Jun mean C = 28.6
|Jul mean C = 28.8
|Aug mean C = 28.7
|Sep mean C = 28.2
|Oct mean C = 28.3
|Nov mean C = 28.1
|Dec mean C = 27.3
|year mean C = 27.8
|Jan low C = 23.2
|Feb low C = 23.3
|Mar low C = 23.3
|Apr low C = 23.7
|May low C = 25.0
|Jun low C = 25.1
|Jul low C = 25.1
|Aug low C = 25.0
|Sep low C = 24.5
|Oct low C = 24.8
|Nov low C = 24.7
|Dec low C = 23.9
|year low C |Jan record low C 18.5
|Feb record low C = 19.5
|Mar record low C = 17.0
|Apr record low C = 16.0
|May record low C = 19.0
|Jun record low C = 18.0
|Jul record low C = 19.0
|Aug record low C = 19.0
|Sep record low C = 20.5
|Oct record low C = 16.0
|Nov record low C = 20.0
|Dec record low C = 20.0
|year record low C = 16.0
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 9.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 5.5
|Mar precipitation mm = 5.4
|Apr precipitation mm = 1.9
|May precipitation mm = 41.0
|Jun precipitation mm = 265.4
|Jul precipitation mm = 237.7
|Aug precipitation mm = 302.8
|Sep precipitation mm = 346.7
|Oct precipitation mm = 187.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 24.2
|Dec precipitation mm = 8.4
|year precipitation mm |unit precipitation days 0.1 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 0.7
|Feb precipitation days = 0.4
|Mar precipitation days = 0.3
|Apr precipitation days = 0.1
|May precipitation days = 2.7
|Jun precipitation days = 11.3
|Jul precipitation days = 11.7
|Aug precipitation days = 13.8
|Sep precipitation days = 15.9
|Oct precipitation days = 8.7
|Nov precipitation days = 1.7
|Dec precipitation days = 0.6
|year precipitation days = 67.8
|Jan humidity = 77.3
|Feb humidity = 77.1
|Mar humidity = 77.0
|Apr humidity = 76.8
|May humidity = 77.2
|Jun humidity = 78.8
|Jul humidity = 78.6
|Aug humidity = 79.1
|Sep humidity = 81.4
|Oct humidity = 82.0
|Nov humidity = 80.6
|Dec humidity = 78.5
|year humidity = 78.7
|Jan sun = 266.9
|Feb sun = 266.6
|Mar sun = 275.8
|Apr sun = 294.3
|May sun = 273.4
|Jun sun = 231.2
|Jul sun = 253.4
|Aug sun = 243.1
|Sep sun = 203.7
|Oct sun = 246.6
|Nov sun = 271.1
|Dec sun = 266.4
|year sun = 3092.5
|source 1 Servicio Meteorológico Nacional<ref nameSMN>{{cite web
| url = https://smn.conagua.gob.mx/tools/RESOURCES/Normales_Climatologicas/Normales9120/gro/nor9120_12142.txt
| title = Estado de Aguasalientes-Estacion: ACAPULCO DE JUAREZ (SMN)
| work = Normales Climatologicas 1991–2020
| publisher = Servicio Meteorológico Nacional
| language = es
| access-date 15 February 2025}}</ref><ref nameobs>{{cite web |urlhttp://smn.cna.gob.mx/observatorios/historica/acapulco.pdf |titleNORMALES CLIMATOLÓGICAS 1981–2000 |publisherServicio Meteorológico Nacional |languagees |access-dateApril 25, 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150425170752/http://www.smn.cna.gob.mx/observatorios/historica/acapulco.pdf |archive-dateApril 25, 2015}}</ref>
|source 2 NCEI<ref nameWMOCLINO>{{cite web
| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-4-WMO-Normals-9120/Mexico/CSV/Acapulco_76805.csv
| title World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020: Chihuahua |formatCSV | publisher National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | access-date 2 August 2023}}</ref>
}}
{|class="wikitable"
|+Acapulco mean sea temperature<ref name"Seatemperature">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.seatemperature.org/central-america/mexico/acapulco-de-juarez-december.htm |titleMonthly Acapulco de Juárez water temperature chart |websiteSeaTemperatures.org |access-date2014-01-20 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151223235709/http://www.seatemperature.org/central-america/mexico/acapulco-de-juarez-december.htm |archive-dateDecember 23, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
|-
|{{convert|28.1|°C}}
|{{convert|28.2|°C}}
|{{convert|27.6|°C}}
|{{convert|28.6|°C}}
|{{convert|29.4|°C}}
|{{convert|29.7|°C}}
|{{convert|29.9|°C}}
|{{convert|30.0|°C}}
|{{convert|29.9|°C}}
|{{convert|29.5|°C}}
|{{convert|29.1|°C}}
|{{convert|28.7|°C}}
|}
The temperature of the sea is quite stable, with lows of {{convert|82|°F|°C|abbron}} between January – March, and a high of {{convert|86|°F|°C|abbron}} in August.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.seatemperature.org/central-america/mexico/acapulco-de-juarez-december.htm |titleAcapulco de Juárez Sea Temperature December Average, Mexico |authorGlobal Sea Temperatures (A-Connect Ltd) |websiteWorld Sea Temperatures |access-dateDecember 23, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151223235709/http://www.seatemperature.org/central-america/mexico/acapulco-de-juarez-december.htm |archive-dateDecember 23, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref> These sea surface temperatures are much warmer than those further north along the Pacific coast, and indeed warmer than most places further south, as sea surface temperatures begin to decline with proximity to the Southern Hemisphere's Humboldt Current.
Government
{{Main|Acapulco (municipality)}}
As the seat of a municipality, the city of Acapulco is the government authority for over 700 other communities,<ref name"INEGI" /> which together have a territory of 1,880.60&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name"encmuc" /> This municipality borders the municipalities of Chilpancingo, Juan R Escudero (Tierra Colorada), San Marcos, Coyuca de Benítez with the Pacific Ocean to the south.
The metropolitan area is made up of the municipalities of Acapulco de Juárez and Coyuca de Benitez. The area has a population ({{as of|2005|lcy}}) of 786,830.<ref name"zmpdf">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/geografia/publicaciones/delimex05/DZMM-2005_17.pdf |titleDelimitación de las zonas metropolitanas de México 2005 |year2005 |websiteINEGI |locationMexico City |languagees |trans-titleDefining metropolitan areas of Mexico 2005 |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722203110/http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/geografia/publicaciones/delimex05/DZMM-2005_17.pdf |archive-date=July 22, 2011}}</ref>
For the names and terms of some Acapulco mayors, you can check a List of municipal presidents of Acapulco.
Demographics
Population
Acapulco is the most populated city in the state of Guerrero, according to the results of the II Population and Housing Census 2010 carried out by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) with a census date of June 12, 2010, The city had until then a total population of 673,479 inhabitants, of that amount, 324,746 were men and 348,733 women. It is considered the twenty-second most populous city in Mexico and the tenth most populous metropolitan area in Mexico. It is also the city with the highest concentration of population of the homonymous municipality, representing 85.25 percent of the 789,971 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/consulta_resultados/zip/iter2010/iter_12xls10.zip |titlePrincipales resultados por localidad 2010 (ITER) – Guerrero |websiteInstituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120113182613/http://www.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/consulta_resultados/zip/iter2010/iter_12xls10.zip |archive-dateJanuary 13, 2012 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In the 2020 census of 658,609 people where counted in the locality and 779,566 in the municipality of Acapulco, a small drop from the last census.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLocalities in Acapulco de Juárez (Guerrero, Mexico) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map, Location, Weather and Web Information |urlhttps://www.citypopulation.de/en/mexico/guerrero/12001__acapulco_de_ju%C3%A1rez/ |access-date2024-02-01 |website=www.citypopulation.de}}</ref>
The metropolitan area of Acapulco is made up of six towns in the municipality of Acapulco de Juárez and four in the municipality of Coyuca de Benítez. In agreement with the last count and official delimitation realized in 2010 altogether by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography, the National Council of Population and the Secretariat of Social Development, the metropolitan area of Acapulco grouped a total of 863,431 inhabitants in a surface of 3,538.5&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, which placed it as the tenth most populated district in Mexico.
{{Historical populations
| tipo = MX
| fuente [http://www.microrregiones.gob.mx/zap/default.aspx?entranacion www.inegi.org.mx]
| titulo = Censos
| porcentajes = si
| 1900 | 4932
| 1910 | 5900
| 1921 | 5768
| 1930 | 6529
| 1940 | 9993
| 1950 | 28512
| 1960 | 49149
| 1970 | 174378
| 1980 | 301902
| 1990 | 515374
| 2000 | 620656
| 2010 | 673479
|2020|658609}}
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{{smalldiv|1=
:Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía
:*Population census (1895 – 1990, 2000 and 2010)<ref name"Censos y Conteos">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/2010/ |titleCenso y Conteos de Población y Vivienda |websiteInstituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181114112706/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/2010/ |archive-dateNovember 14, 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
:*Population Counts (1995 and 2005)<ref name="Censos y Conteos"/>
}}
{{Reflist|group"/"}} Economy Tourism is the main economic activity of the municipality and most of this is centered on Acapulco Bay. About seventy-three percent of the municipality's population is involved in commerce, most of it related to tourism and the port. Mining and manufacturing employ less than twenty percent and only about five percent is dedicated to agriculture. Industrial production is limited mostly to bottling, milk products, cement products, and ice and energy production. Agricultural products include tomatoes, corn, watermelon, beans, green chili peppers, and melons.<ref name"encmuc" />
Tourism
{{see also|Port of Acapulco}}
Acapulco is one of Mexico's oldest coastal tourist destinations, reaching prominence in the 1950s as the place where Hollywood stars and millionaires vacationed on the beach in an exotic locale.<ref name"devlin">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mexconnect.com/articles/439-walking-the-walk-talking-the-talk-cita-with-the-shady-lady-on-acapulco |titleWalking the walk, talking the talk – cita with the shady 'lady' in Acapulco |firstWendy |lastDevlin |dateFebruary 16, 2007 |websiteMexConnect |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20100204075643/http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/439-walking-the-walk-talking-the-talk-cita-with-the-shady-lady-on-acapulco |archive-dateFebruary 4, 2010 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In modern times, tourists in Acapulco have been facing problems with corrupt local police who steal money by extortion and intimidate visitors with threats of jail.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.realacapulco.com/en/article/dealing-with-the-police |websiteReal Acapulco |titleDealing with the Police |access-dateFebruary 23, 2011 |dateJanuary 25, 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110715161255/http://www.realacapulco.com/en/article/dealing-with-the-police |archive-dateJuly 15, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.lonelyplanet.com/thorntree/thread.jspa?threadID1703088&start15 |websiteLonely Planet |titleCorrupt Mexican police story |access-dateFebruary 23, 2011 |dateJanuary 5, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tripadvisor.in/ShowTopic-g150787-i177-k434754-Beware_of_Police_Corruption-Acapulco_Pacific_Coast.html |websiteTrip Advisor |titleBeware of Police Corruption |access-dateFebruary 23, 2011 |date=January 30, 2006}}</ref>
The city is divided into three tourist areas.
Traditional Acapulco is the old part of the port, where hotels like Hotel Los Flamingos, owned by personalities Johnny Weissmuller and John Wayne are located, is on the northern end of the bay. Anchored by attractions such as the beaches of Caleta and Caletilla, the cliff divers of La Quebrada, and the city square, known as El Zocalo. The heyday of this part of Acapulco ran from the late 1930s until the 1960s, with development continuing through the 1980s.<ref name"salvar">{{cite news |titleConfían en salvar temporada turística |firstAlfonso |lastJuarez |newspaperReforma |locationMexico City |dateDecember 30, 2009 |page12 |languagees |trans-titleTrusting in saving the tourist season}}</ref><ref name"devlin" /> This older section of town now caters to a mostly middle-class, almost exclusively Mexican clientele, while the glitzier newer section caters to the Mexican upper classes, many of whom never venture into the older, traditional part of town.<ref name"devlin" />
Acapulco Dorado had its development between the 1950s and the 1970s, and is about 25 minutes from the Acapulco International Airport. It is the area that presents the most tourist influx in the port, runs through much of the Acapulco bay, from Icacos, passing through Costera Miguel Aleman Avenue, which is the main one, to Papagayo Park. It has several hotels,
Acapulco Diamante, also known as Punta Diamante, is the newest and most developed part of the port, with investment having created one of the greatest concentrations of luxury facilities in Mexico, including exclusive hotels and resorts of international chains, residential complexes, luxury condominiums and private villas, spas, restaurants, shopping areas and a golf course. Starting at the Scenic Highway in Las Brisas, it includes Puerto Marqués and Punta Diamante and extends to Barra Vieja Beach. It is 10 minutes from the Acapulco International Airport. In this area, all along Boulevard de las Naciones, almost all transportation is by car, limousine or golf cart.<ref name="salvar" />
Acapulco's reputation of a high-energy party town and the nightlife have long been draws of the city for tourists. From November to April, luxury liners stop here daily and include ships such as the {{MS|Queen Victoria}}, the {{MS|Rotterdam}}, Crystal Harmony, and all the Princess line ships. Despite Acapulco's international fame, most of its visitors are from central Mexico, especially the affluent from Mexico City.<ref name"salvar" /> Acapulco is one of the embarkation ports for the Mexican cruise line Ocean Star Cruises.<ref name"OSC-Acapulco">{{cite web |urlhttp://oceanstar.com.mx/los-destinos/acapulco |titleAcapulco |websiteOcean Star Cruises |languagees |access-dateAugust 5, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111110160352/http://oceanstar.com.mx/los-destinos/acapulco |archive-dateNovember 10, 2011}}</ref>
For the Christmas season of 2009, Acapulco received 470,000 visitors, most of whom are Mexican nationals, adding 785 million pesos to the economy. Eighty percent arrive by land and eighteen percent by air.<ref name"AgUni">{{cite news |titleGuerrero-Turismo |agencyAgencia el Universal |newspaperEl Universal |locationMexico City |dateJanuary 4, 2010 |page12 |languagees |trans-titleGuerrero-Tourism}}</ref> The area has over 25,000 condominiums, most of which function as second homes for their Mexican owners.<ref name"salvar" /> Acapulco is still popular with Mexican celebrities and the wealthy, such as Luis Miguel and Plácido Domingo, who maintain homes there.
Problems
From the latter 20th century on, the city has also taken on other less-positive reputations. Some consider it a passé resort, eclipsed by the newer Cancún and Cabo San Lucas.{{citation needed|dateDecember 2018}} Over the years, a number of problems have developed here, especially in the bay and the older sections of the city. The large number of wandering vendors on the beaches, who offer everything from newspapers to massages, are a recognized problem. It is a bother to tourists who simply want to relax on the beach, but the government says it is difficult to eradicate, as there is a lot of unemployment and poverty in the city.<ref name"ambulantaje">{{cite news |titleCombaten ambulantaje en Acapulco |firstAlfonso |lastJuarez |newspaperReforma |locationMexico City |dateDecember 30, 2009 |page12 |languagees |trans-title=Combating wandering vendors in Acapulco}}</ref> Around the city are many small shantytowns that cling to the mountainsides, populated by migrants who have come to the city looking for work. In the last decade, drug-related violence has caused massive problems for the local tourism trade.
Another problem is the garbage that has accumulated in the bay. Although 60.65 tons have recently been extracted from the bays of Acapulco and nearby Zihuatanejo, more needs to be done. Most of trash removal during the off seasons is done on the beaches and in the waters closest to them. However, the center of the bay is not touched. The reason trash winds up in the bay is that it is common in the city to throw it in streets, rivers and the bay itself. The most common items cleaned out of the bay are beer bottles and car tires.<ref name"limpiar">{{cite news |titleBuscan en Guerrero limpiar fondo de mar |firstAlfonso |lastJuarez |newspaperReforma |locationMexico City |dateDecember 28, 2009 |page8 |languagees |trans-titleSeeking to clean the bottom of the sea in Guerrero}}</ref> Acapulco has seen some success in this area, having several beaches receiving the high "blue flag" certifications for cleanliness and water quality.<ref>{{cite web |titleBlue Flag |urlhttps://www.blueflag.global/ |websiteBlue Flag |publisherFoundation for Environmental Education |access-date15 June 2020}}</ref> Cuisine Acapulco's cuisine is very rich. The following are typical dishes from the region: Relleno is baked pork with a variety of vegetables and fruits such as potatoes, raisins, carrots and chiles. It is eaten with bread called bolillo. Pozole is a soup with a salsa base (it can be white, red or green), hominy, meat that can be either pork or chicken and it is accompanied with antojitos (snacks) like tostadas, tacos and tamales. This dish is served as part of a weekly Thursday event in the city and the state, with many restaurants offering the meal with special entertainment, from bands to dancers to celebrity impersonators.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/travel/article/DESTINATION-MEXICO-Acapulco-after-the-jet-2579720.php |titleDestination Mexico / Acapulco after the jet setters / Resort is now a truly Mexican experience |last1Palmerlee |first1Danny |date2003-11-02 |newspaperSan Francisco Chronicle |access-date2020-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idT3PVNpNF0yoC&qpozole+acapulco+thursday+night+special+event&pgPA160 |titleExplorer's Guide Acapulco: A Great Destination (Explorer's Great Destinations) |lastDelgado |firstKevin |date2010-12-06 |publisherThe Countryman Press |isbn978-1-58157-856-0 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://travelsquire.com/acapulco-mexicos-hall-of-fame/ |titleAcapulco, Mexico's Hall of Fame |lastMeintel |firstThom |date2013-11-04 |websiteTravel Squire |languageen-US |access-date2020-01-22}}</ref> Attractions |italicno}} in the background.]]
Acapulco's main attraction is its nightlife, as it has been for many decades.<ref name"nightfromm">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.frommers.com/destinations/acapulco/0036010030.html |titleNightlife |websiteFrommer's Guides |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110607055512/http://www.frommers.com/destinations/acapulco/0036010030.html |archive-dateJune 7, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Nightclubs change names and owners frequently.
For example, Baby 'O has been open to the national and international public since 1976 and different celebrities have visited their installations such as Mexican singer Luis Miguel, Bono from U2 and Sylvester Stallone. Another nightclub is Palladium, located in the Escénica Avenue, the location gives the nightclub a view of the Santa Lucia Bay at night. Various DJs have had performances in Palladium among them DVBBS, Tom Swoon, Nervo and Junkie KID.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}
Informal lobby or poolside cocktail bars often offer free live entertainment. In addition, there is the beach bar zone, where younger crowds go. These are located along the Costera road, face the ocean and feature techno or alternative rock. Most are concentrated between the Fiesta Americana and Continental Plaza hotels. These places tend to open earlier and have more informal dress. There is a bungee jump in this area as well.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/paradisebungyacaoficial/ |titleParadise Bungy Acapulco |websiteFacebook.com |languageen |access-date=2017-09-11}}</ref>
.]]
Another attraction at Acapulco is the La Quebrada Cliff Divers.<ref name"atrfromm" /> The tradition started in the 1930s when young men casually competed against each other to see who could dive from the highest point into the sea below. Eventually, locals began to ask for tips for those coming to see the men dive.<ref name"guaddive">{{cite web |urlhttp://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fxevent&event_id44994 |titleDay of the Virgin of Guadalupe Cliff Diving |websiteFrommer's Guides |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101213013817/http://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fxevent&event_id44994 |archive-dateDecember 13, 2010}}</ref> Today the divers are professionals,<ref name"guaddive" /> diving from heights of {{convert|40|m|ft|abbroff}} into an inlet that is only {{convert|7|m|ft}} wide and {{convert|4|m|ft}} deep, after praying first at a shrine to the Virgin of Guadalupe.<ref name"atrfromm" /> On the evening before December 12, the feast day of this Virgin, freestyle cliff divers jump into the sea to honor her. Dives range from the simple to the complicated and end with the "Ocean of Fire" when the sea is lit with gasoline, making a circle of flames which the diver aims for.<ref name"guaddive" /> The spectacle can be seen from a public area which charges a small fee or from the Hotel Plaza Las Glorias/El Mirador from its bar or restaurant terrace.<ref name"atrfromm">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.frommers.com/destinations/acapulco/0036010029.html |titleAttractions |websiteFrommer's Guides |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100104213117/http://www.frommers.com/destinations/acapulco/0036010029.html |archive-dateJanuary 4, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>
There are a number of beaches in the Acapulco Bay and the immediate coastline. In the bay proper there are the La Angosta (in the Quebrada), Caleta, Caletilla, Dominguillo, Tlacopanocha, Hornos, Hornitos, Honda, Tamarindo, Condesa, Guitarrón, Icacos, Playuela, Playuelilla and Playa del Secreto. In the adjoining, smaller Bay of Puerto Marqués there is Pichilingue, Las Brisas, and Playa Roqueta. Facing open ocean just northwest of the bays is Pie de la Cuesta and southeast are Playa Revolcadero, Playa Aeromar, Playa Encantada and Barra Vieja. Two lagoons are in the area, Coyuca to the northwest of Acapulco Bay and Tres Palos to the southeast. Both lagoons have mangroves and offer boat tours. Tres Palos also has sea turtle nesting areas which are protected.<ref name"rutaguer">{{cite journal |editor1-firstBeatriz |editor1-lastQuintanar Hinojosa |dateMay 2007 |titleAcapulco más brillante de nunca |trans-titleAcapulco, more brilliant than ever |journalMexico Desconocido Rutas Turisticas Guerrero el Destino del Mundo |volume135 |pages8–26 |publisherGrupo Editorial Impresiones Aéreas |locationMexico City |issn0188-5146 |language=es}}</ref>
In addition to sunbathing, the beaches around the bay offer a number of services, such as boat rentals, boat tours, horseback riding, scuba diving and other aquatic sports. One popular cruise is from Caletilla Beach to Roqueta Island, which has places to snorkel, have lunch, and a lighthouse. There is also an underwater statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe here, created in 1958 by Armando Quesado in memory of a group of divers who died here. Many of the scuba-diving tours come to this area as well, where there are sunken ships, sea mountains, and cave rock formations.<ref name"pursfromm">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.frommers.com/destinations/acapulco/0036010020.html |titleActive Pursuits & Acapulco Historical Museum |websiteFrommer's Guides |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091211224718/http://www.frommers.com/destinations/acapulco/0036010020.html |archive-dateDecember 11, 2009 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Another popular activity is deep-sea fishing. The major attraction is sail fishing. Fish caught here have weighed between 89 and 200&nbsp;pounds. Sailfish are so plentiful that boat captains have been known to bet with a potential customer that if he does not catch anything, the trip is free.<ref name="pursfromm" />
In the old part of the city, there is a traditional main square called the Zócalo, lined with shade trees, cafés and shops. At the north end of the square is Nuestra Señora de la Soledad cathedral, with blue onion-shaped domes and Byzantine towers. The building was originally constructed as a movie set, but was later adapted into a church.<ref name"pursfromm" /> Acapulco's most historic building is the Fort of San Diego, located east of the main square and originally built in 1616 to protect the city from pirate attacks.<ref name"atrfromm" /> The fort was built by a Dutch engineer and finished in 1617 then destroyed in 1776 by an earthquake. It was rebuilt by 1783 and this is the building that can be seen today, unchanged except for renovations done to it in 2000. Parts of the moats remain as well as the five bulwarks and the battlements.<ref name"diegofromm">{{cite web |urlhttp://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fxevent&event_id93584 |titleSan Diego Fort & Acapulco Historical Museum |websiteFrommer's Guides |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110711045257/http://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fxevent&event_id93584 |archive-dateJuly 11, 2011}}</ref><ref name"oliver">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mexconnect.com/articles/704-dynamic-women-of-acapulco |titleDynamic women of Acapulco |first1Mike |last1Oliver |first2Rita |last2Oliver |dateJanuary 1, 2001 |websiteMexConnect |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010}}</ref> Today the fort serves as the Museo Histórico de Acapulco (Acapulco Historical Museum), which shows the port's history from the pre-Hispanic period until independence. There are temporary exhibits as well.<ref name"atrfromm" /> For many years tourists could ride around the city in colorful horse-drawn carriages known as calandrias, but the practice ended in February 2020 due to concerns about mistreatment of the animals.<ref>{{cite web |website24 Morelos |dateJanuary 30, 2020 |languagees |titleSe despiden los caballos de calandrias en Acapulco |urlhttps://www.24morelos.com/se-despiden-los-caballos-de-calandrias-en-acapulco/ |trans-title=Calandry horses say goodbye in Acapulco}}</ref>
The El Rollo Acapulco is a sea-life and aquatic park located on Costera Miguel Aleman. It offers wave pools, water slides and water toboggans. There are also dolphin shows daily and a swim with dolphins program. The center mostly caters to children.<ref name"atrfromm" /><ref name"rutaguer" /> Another place that is popular with children is the Parque Papagayo: a large family park which has a life-sized replica of a Spanish galleon, three artificial lakes, an aviary, a skating rink, rides, go-karts and more.<ref name="rutaguer" />
The Dolores Olmedo House is located in the traditional downtown of Acapulco and is noted for the murals by Diego Rivera that adorn it. Olmedo and Rivera had been friend since Olmedo was a child and Rivera spent the last two years of his life here. During that time, he painted nearly nonstop and created the outside walls with tile mosaics, featuring Aztec deities such as Quetzalcoatl. The interior of the home is covered in murals. The home is not a museum, so only the outside murals can be seen by the public.<ref name="oliver" />
There is a small museum called Casa de la Máscara (House of Masks) which is dedicated to masks, most of them from Mexico, but there are examples from many parts of the world. The collection contains about one thousand examples and is divided into seven rooms called Masks of the World, Mexico across History, The Huichols and the Jaguar, Alebrijes, Dances of Guerrero, Devils and Death, Identity and Fantasy, and Afro-Indian masks.<ref name="rutaguer" />
The Botanical Garden of Acapulco is a tropical garden located on lands owned by the Universidad Loyola del Pacífico. Most of the plants here are native to the region, and many, such as the Peltogyne mexicana or purple stick tree, are in danger of extinction.<ref name="rutaguer" />
One cultural event that is held yearly in Acapulco is the Festival Internacional de la Nao, which takes place in the Fort of San Diego, located near the Zócalo in downtown of the city. The Festival honors the remembrance of the city's interaction and trades with Oriental territories which started back in the Sixteenth Century. The Nao Festival consists of cultural activities with the support of organizations and embassies from India, China, Japan, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and South Korea. The variety of events go from film projections, musical interpretations and theatre to gastronomical classes, some of the events are specifically for kids.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://acapulco.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/LaNao2016_Programa.pdf |titleLa Nao Programa |date2016 |websiteAcapulco Municipal Government |languagees |access-dateMarch 13, 2017 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170314063356/http://acapulco.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/LaNao2016_Programa.pdf |archive-date=March 14, 2017}}</ref>
The annual French Festival takes place throughout Acapulco city and offers a multitude of events that cement cultural links between Mexico and France. The main features are a fashion show and a gourmet food fair. The Cinépolis Galerías Diana and the Teatro Juan Ruíz de Alarcón present French and French literary figures who give talks on their specialised subjects. Even some of the local nightclubs feature French DJs.<ref name"frenfromm">{{cite web |urlhttp://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fxevent&event_id158831 |titleAcapulco French Festival |websiteFrommer's Guides |access-dateJanuary 10, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110711045317/http://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fxevent&event_id158831 |archive-dateJuly 11, 2011}}</ref> Other festivals celebrated here include Carnival, the feast of San Isidro Labrador on 15 May, and in November, a crafts and livestock fair called the Nao de China.<ref name="encmuc" />
There are a number of golf courses in Acapulco including the Acapulco Princess and the Pierre Marqués course, the latter designed by Robert Trent Jones in 1972 for the World Cup Golf Tournament. The Mayan Palace course was designed by Pedro Guericia and an economical course called the Club de Golf Acapulco is near the convention center. The most exclusive course is that of the Tres Vidas Golf Club, designed by Robert von Hagge. It is located next to the ocean and is home to flocks of ducks and other birds.<ref name="pursfromm" />
Another famous sport tournament that has been held in Acapulco since 1993 is the Mexican Open tennis tournament, an ATP 500 event that currently takes place at the Arena GNP Seguros. Initially it was played in clay courts but it changed to hard court. The event has gained popularity within the passing of the years, attracting some of the top tennis players in the world including Novak Djokovic, Rafael Nadal and Marin Cilic. The total prize money is US$250,000.00 for WTA (women) and US$1,200,000.00 for ATP (men).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.abiertomexicanodetenis.com/en/ |titleHome |websiteAbierto Mexicano de Tenis |access-dateMarch 12, 2017 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170308154749/http://abiertomexicanodetenis.com/en/ |archive-date=March 8, 2017}}</ref>
Acapulco also has a bullring, called the Plaza de Toros, near Caletilla Beach. The season runs during the winter and is called the Fiesta Brava.<ref name="pursfromm" />
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Spring break
Before 2010, over 100,000 American teenagers and young adults traveled to resort areas and balnearios throughout Mexico during spring break each year.<ref name"stategov">{{cite web |urlhttps://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/spring_break_mexico/spring_break_mexico_2812.html |titleSpring Break In Mexico – "Know Before You Go!" |websiteU.S. State Department |access-dateJanuary 11, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080625203348/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/spring_break_mexico/spring_break_mexico_2812.html |archive-dateJune 25, 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref> The main reason students head to Mexico is the drinking age of 18 years (versus 21 for the United States), something that has been marketed by tour operators along with the sun and ocean. This has become attractive since the 1990s, especially since more traditional spring break places such as Daytona Beach, Florida, have enacted restrictions on drinking and other behaviors. This legislation has pushed spring break tourism to various parts of Mexico, with Acapulco as one of the top destinations.<ref name"leinwand">{{cite news |titleAlcohol-soaked spring break lures students abroad |firstDonna |lastLeinwand |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-01-05-spring-break-usat_x.htm |newspaperUSA Today |dateJanuary 5, 2003 |access-dateJanuary 11, 2010}}</ref>
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Cancún had been favored as the spring break destination of choice. However, Cancún has taken some steps to control the reckless behavior associated with the event, and students have been looking for someplace new. This led many more to choose Acapulco, in spite of the fact that for many travelers, the flight is longer and more expensive than to Cancún. Many were attracted by the glitzy hotels on the south side and Acapulco's famous nightlife.<ref name"msnbc">{{cite news |titleAcapulco heat for spring-break |firstWill |lastWeissert |urlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/id/7119929 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131217074925/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7119929/ |url-statusdead |archive-dateDecember 17, 2013 |newspaperMSNBC |dateMarch 7, 2005 |access-dateJanuary 11, 2010}}</ref> In 2008, 22,500 students came to Acapulco for spring break. Hotels did not get that many in 2009, due mostly to the economic situation in the United States,<ref name"crisis">{{cite news |titleSpringbreak baja por crisis, no por violencia: hoteleros |urlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/583257.html |newspaperEl Universal |locationMexico City |dateMarch 12, 2009 |access-dateJanuary 11, 2010 |languagees |trans-titleSpring Break lower because of crisis, not violence: hotel managers |archive-dateAugust 13, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130813025132/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/583257.html |url-statusdead }}</ref> and partially because of scares of drug-related violence.<ref nameautogenerated1>{{cite news |titleAt Spring Break in Mexico, Revelry Mixes With New Caution |firstMarc |lastLacey |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/11/world/americas/11cancun.html?_r1 |newspaperThe New York Times |locationNew York, NY |dateMarch 10, 2009 |access-dateJanuary 11, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140708193736/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/11/world/americas/11cancun.html?_r1 |archive-dateJuly 8, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In February 2009, the US State Department issued a travel alert directed at college students planning spring break trips to Acapulco.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/pa/pa_3028.html |titleTravel Alert |dateFebruary 20, 2009 |websiteU.S. State Department |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090320162337/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/pa/pa_3028.html |archive-dateMarch 20, 2009 }}</ref> The warning—a result of violent activity springing from Mexico's drug cartel débâcle—took college campuses by storm, with some schools going so far as to warn their students about the risks of travel to Mexico over spring break. Bill O'Reilly devoted a segment of his show, ''The O'Reilly Factor'', to urge students to stay away from Acapulco.<ref nameautogenerated1/> In June 2009, a number of incidents occurred between the drug cartel and the government. These included coordinated attacks on police headquarters and open battles in the streets, involving large-caliber weapons and grenades.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/06/08/mexico.violence/index.html |websiteCNN |title3 Mexican officers killed in Acapulco |access-dateApril 23, 2010 |dateJune 8, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090717132048/http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/06/08/mexico.violence/index.html |archive-dateJuly 17, 2009 |url-statuslive}}</ref> However, no incidents of violence against travelers on spring break were reported.
Transportation
.]]
Nine passenger airlines, including four international ones, fly to Acapulco International Airport. In the city, there are many buses and taxi services one can take to get from place to place, but most of the locals choose to walk to their destinations. However, an important mode of transportation is the government-subsidized 'Colectivo' cab system. These cabs cost 13 pesos per person to ride,{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} but they are not private. The driver will pick up more passengers as long as seats are available, and will transport them to their destination based on first-come, first-served rules. The colectivos each travel a designated area of the city, the three main ones being Costera, Colosio, Coloso, or a mixture of the three. Coloso cabs travel mainly to old Acapulco. Colosio cabs travel through most of the tourist area of Acapulco. Costera cabs drive up and down the coast of Acapulco, where most of the hotels for visitors are located, but which includes some of old Acapulco. Drivers have discretion over destinations; some are willing to travel to the other designated areas, especially during slow periods of the day.
The bus system is highly complex and can be rather confusing to an outsider. As far as transportation goes, it is the cheapest form, other than walking, in Acapulco. The most expensive buses have air conditioning, while the cheaper buses do not. For tourists, the Acapulco city government has established a system of yellow buses with Acapulco painted on the side of them. These buses are not for tourists only, but are certainly the nicest and most uniform of the bus systems. These buses travel the tourist section of Acapulco, driving up and down the coast. There are buses with specific routes and destinations, generally written on their windshields or shouted out by a barker riding in the front seat. Perhaps the most unusual thing about the privately operated buses is the fact that they are all highly decorated and personalized, with decals and home-made interior designs that range from comic book scenes, to pornography, and even to "Hello Kitty" themes.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}
The bus network was simplified on 25 June 2016 with the implementation of the {{ill|Acabús|es}}. The bus rapid transit system spans {{convert|36.2|km|abbroff}}, with 16 stations spread throughout the city of Acapulco along five routes. Boarding is sped by pre- payment at stations. International relations Consulates {| class"wikitable" style="text-align:left; background:white; width:50%;"
|- style="color:white;"
!style="background:#810541;"|Country
!style="background:#810541;"|Type
!style="background:#810541;"|Ref.
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|Canada
|Consular agency
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id66:25&catid35 |titleCanadá |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308194550/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id66:25&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|United States
|Consular agency
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id84:44&catid35 |titleEstados Unidos |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308194823/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id84:44&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|The Russian Federation
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id87:47&catid35 |titleFederación de Rusia |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130329105625/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id87:47&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 29, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|Finland
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id89:49&catid35 |titleFinlandia |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308194908/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id89:49&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|France
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id90:50&catid35 |titleFrancia |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308194913/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id90:50&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|Philippines
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id88:48&catid35 |titleFilipinas |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308194859/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id88:48&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|Poland
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id133:99&catid35 |titlePolonia |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308195443/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id133:99&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|Spain
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id83:43&catid35 |titleEspaña |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308194812/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id83:43&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="background:lemonchiffon;"|United Kingdom
|Honorary consul
|<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id135:172&catid35 |titleReino Unido |websiteSecretaría de Relaciones Exteriores |access-dateApril 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130308195456/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acreditadas/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id135:172&catid35 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}
Twin towns and partner cities
International
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* {{flagicon|Philippines}} Manila, 1969<ref name"Acapulco sister cities">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.museovirtualdeacapulco.com/#!ciudades-hermanas-de-acapulco/c1dlg |titleAcapulco sister cities |websiteMuseo Virtual de Acapulco |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181122005448/http://www.museovirtualdeacapulco.com/#!ciudades-hermanas-de-acapulco/c1dlg |archive-dateNovember 22, 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Israel}} Netanya, 1980<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|Japan}} Sendai, 1983<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|China}} Qingdao, 1985<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|Canada}} Quebec City, 1986<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|Italy}} Naples, 1986<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|United States}} Beverly Hills, 1988<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|Japan}} Onjuku, 1988<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|France}} Cannes, 1994<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|United States}} McAllen, 1997<ref name"Mcallen">{{cite web |urlhttp://suracapulco.mx/archivoelsur/archivos/227902 |titleAcapulco y McAllen fortalecen sus lazos de intercambio |dateJune 12, 2004 |websiteSur Acapulco |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181122092312/https://suracapulco.mx/archivoelsur/archivos/227902 |archive-dateNovember 22, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Colombia}} Santa Marta, 2005<ref name"Sistercities">{{cite web |urlhttp://el-suracapulco.com.mx/anterior/2005/noviembre/22/acapulco.htm |titleSister Cities |websiteEl Sur Acapulco |access-dateOctober 7, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927074855/http://el-suracapulco.com.mx/anterior/2005/noviembre/22/acapulco.htm |archive-dateSeptember 27, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Ecuador}} Manta, 2005<ref name="Sistercities"/>
* {{flagicon|Spain}} Ordizia, 2008<ref name="Acapulco sister cities"/>
* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} Yalta, 2012<ref name"Yalta Sosua">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2009-2012/2012/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_IV_Vol.IV.pdf |titleYalta Sosua |websiteAcapulco Municipal Government |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903080201/http://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2009-2012/2012/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_IV_Vol.IV.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} Sosúa, 2012<ref name="Yalta Sosua"/>
* {{flagicon|Bahamas}} Nassau, 2012<ref name"Nassau">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.purposegames.com/game/6a533cdfac |titleSister cities of Nassau, Bahamas |websitePurpose Games |access-dateJuly 28, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131218132233/http://www.purposegames.com/game/6a533cdfac |archive-dateDecember 18, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Peru}} Callao, 2014<ref name"Callao">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.novedadesacapulco.mx/el-callao-ciudad-hermana |titleSister cities of Callao |websiteNovedades Acapulco |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304091023/http://www.novedadesacapulco.mx/el-callao-ciudad-hermana |archive-dateMarch 4, 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Colombia}} Cartagena, 2017<ref name"Cartagena">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.digitalguerrero.com.mx/principales/firma-evodio-velazquez-convenio-de-hermanamiento-entre-acapulco-y-cartagena-de-indias/ |titleSister cities of Cartagena |websiteDigital Guerrero |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181122092213/https://www.digitalguerrero.com.mx/principales/firma-evodio-velazquez-convenio-de-hermanamiento-entre-acapulco-y-cartagena-de-indias/ |archive-dateNovember 22, 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Israel}} Eilat, 2017<ref name"Eilat">{{cite web |urlhttp://coctelacapulco.com/portal/firman-hermanamiento-entre-acapulco-y-eilat-israel/ |titleFirman hermanamiento entre Acapulco y Eilat, Israel |dateJuly 18, 2017 |websiteCoctel Acapulco |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181122005721/http://coctelacapulco.com/portal/firman-hermanamiento-entre-acapulco-y-eilat-israel/ |archive-dateNovember 22, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col end}}
Domestic
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} Teocaltiche, 2005<ref name="Sistercities"/>
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} Dolores Hidalgo, 2009<ref name"Dolores Hidalgo">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2009-2012/2009/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_I_Vol.VI.pdf |titleGACETA MUNICIPAL AÑO I VOL. VI |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903074158/http://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2009-2012/2009/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_I_Vol.VI.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} Guanajuato City, 2010<ref name"Guanajuato City">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2009-2012/2010/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_II_Vol.III.pdf |titleGACETA MUNICIPAL AÑO II VOL. III |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903073929/http://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2009-2012/2010/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_II_Vol.III.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} Boca del Río, 2012<ref name"Boca del Río">{{cite web |urlhttp://lasintesisacapulco.blogspot.mx/2012/03/acapulco-y-boca-del-rio-veracruz.html |titleAcapulco y Boca del Río, Veracruz, Ciudades Hermanas |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170918022253/http://lasintesisacapulco.blogspot.mx/2012/03/acapulco-y-boca-del-rio-veracruz.html |archive-dateSeptember 18, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} Morelia, 2013<ref name"Morelia">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2012-2015/2013/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_I_Vol.III.pdf |titleGACETA MUNICIPAL AÑO I VOL. III |access-dateNovember 21, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903080021/http://www.acapulco.gob.mx/transparencia/wp-content/uploads/cabildo/gaceta/2012-2015/2013/Gaceta_A%C3%B1o_I_Vol.III.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref>UNESCO World Heritage Site nominations
In 2014, the idea to nominate the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route was initiated by the Mexican ambassador to UNESCO with the Filipino ambassador to UNESCO.
An Experts' Roundtable Meeting was held at the University of Santo Tomas (UST) on April 23, 2015, as part of the preparation of the Philippines for the possible transnational nomination of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route to the World Heritage List. The nomination will be made jointly with Mexico.
The following are the experts and the topics they discussed during the roundtable meeting: Dr. Celestina Boncan on the Tornaviaje; Dr. Mary Jane A. Bolunia on Shipyards in the Bicol Region; Mr. Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, and Ligaya Lacsina on Underwater Archaeology; Dr. Leovino Garcia on Maps and Cartography; Fr. Rene Javellana, S.J. on Fortifications in the Philippines; Felice Sta. Maria on Food; Dr. Fernando Zialcita on Textile; and Regalado Trota Jose on Historical Dimension. The papers presented and discussed during the roundtable meeting will be synthesized into a working document to establish the route's Outstanding Universal Value.<ref name"gov.ph">{{citation-attribution|1{{cite news |urlhttps://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2015/04/28/ph-mexico-push-to-nominate-manila-acapulco-galleon-trade-route-to-world-heritage-list/ |titlePH, Mexico push to nominate Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route to World Heritage List |newspaperOfficial Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |date28 April 2015 |access-date=14 December 2017}}}}</ref>
The Mexican side reiterated that they will also follow suit with the preparations for the route's nomination.
Spain has also backed the nomination of the Manila-Acapulco Trade Route in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list and has also suggested the Archives of the Manila-Acapulco Galleons to be nominated as part of a separate UNESCO list, the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.philstar.com/headlines/2015/07/05/1473367/spain-backs-inclusion-galleon-trade-route-world-heritage-list |titleSpain backs inclusion of galleon trade route to World Heritage List |websiteThe Philippine STAR |access-dateDecember 20, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171214072025/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2015/07/05/1473367/spain-backs-inclusion-galleon-trade-route-world-heritage-list |archive-dateDecember 14, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable" style"font-size:95%; background:#fdfdfd;"
|-
! scope"col" style"background:#ffdead;"| Type {{small|(criteria)}}
! scope"col" style"background:#ffdead; width:12.5em;"| Site
! scope"col" style"background:#ffdead;"| Location
! scope"col" style"background:#ffdead;"| Description
! scope"col" style"background:#ffdead;"| Image
! scope"col" style"background:#ffdead;"| {{abbr|Ref|Reference(s)}}
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" | Mixed
| style="font-weight:bold;" | The Historic Manila{{nbhyph}}Acapulco Galleon Trade Route
| Philippines {{small|and}} Mexico
| <!-- Description -->
|
|<ref name="gov.ph"/>
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See also
{{Portal|Mexico}}
* Acapulco (municipality)
* Acapulco Chair
* Triangle of the Sun
* Loco in Acapulco
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
{{See also|Timeline of Acapulco#Bibliography|l1Bibliography of the history of Acapulco}} External links
* {{Official website|http://www.acapulco.gob.mx|Official city government website}} {{in lang|es}}
{{Guerrero}}
{{Subject bar|autoy|commonsCategory:Acapulco|d=y}}
{{Authority control}}
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Category:1550 establishments in the Spanish Empire
Category:Populated coastal places in Mexico
Category:Beaches of Guerrero
Category:Populated places established in 1525
Category:Populated places in Guerrero
Category:Port cities and towns on the Mexican Pacific coast
Category:Seaside resorts in Mexico | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acapulco | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.125344 |
1448 | August 16 | {{pp-pc1}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
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Events
Pre-1600
*1 BC &ndash; Wang Mang consolidates his power in China and is declared marshal of state. Emperor Ai of Han, who died the previous day, had no heirs.
* 942 &ndash; Start of the four-day Battle of al-Mada'in, between the Hamdanids of Mosul and the Baridis of Basra over control of the Abbasid capital, Baghdad.<ref>{{cite book | editor1-last Amedroz | editor1-first Henry F. | editor1-link Henry Frederick Amedroz | editor2-last Margoliouth | editor2-first David S. | title The Eclipse of the 'Abbasid Caliphate. Original Chronicles of the Fourth Islamic Century, Vol. V: The concluding portion of The Experiences of Nations by Miskawaihi, Vol. II: Reigns of Muttaqi, Mustakfi, Muzi and Ta'i | publisher Basil Blackwell | location Oxford | year 1921 | url https://archive.org/details/eclipseofabbasid05ameduoft | pages=30–32}}</ref>
* 963 &ndash; Nikephoros II Phokas is crowned emperor of the Byzantine Empire.
*1328 &ndash; The House of Gonzaga seizes power in the Duchy of Mantua, and will rule until 1708.
*1513 &ndash; Battle of the Spurs (Battle of Guinegate): King Henry VIII of England and his Imperial allies defeat French Forces who are then forced to retreat.<ref>{{cite book |lastOman |firstSir Charles W. C. |year1998 |titleHistory of the Art of War in the 16th Century |editionreprint |publisherGreenhill Books |isbn0-947898-69-7|page293}}</ref>
*1570 &ndash; The Principality of Transylvania is established after John II Zápolya renounces his claim as King of Hungary in the Treaty of Speyer.<ref name"MacCulloch">Diarmaid MacCulloch, [https://books.google.com/books?idrE7uAAAAMAAJ The Reformation], Viking, 2004, p. 443</ref>
1601–1900
*1652 &ndash; Battle of Plymouth: Inconclusive naval action between the fleets of Michiel de Ruyter and George Ayscue in the First Anglo-Dutch War.
*1777 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: The Americans led by General John Stark rout British and Brunswick troops under Friedrich Baum at the Battle of Bennington in Walloomsac, New York.
*1780 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden: The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina.
*1792 &ndash; Maximilien de Robespierre presents the petition of the Commune of Paris to the Legislative Assembly, which demanded the formation of a revolutionary tribunal.
*1793 &ndash; French Revolution: A levée en masse is decreed by the National Convention.
*1812 &ndash; War of 1812: American General William Hull surrenders Fort Detroit without a fight to the British Army.
*1819 &ndash; Peterloo Massacre: Seventeen people die and over 600 are injured in cavalry charges at a public meeting at St. Peter's Field, Manchester, England.
*1841 &ndash; U.S. President John Tyler vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Enraged Whig Party members riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
*1844 &ndash; Governor-general of the Philippines Narciso Claveria, signs a decree to reform the country's calendar by skipping Tuesday, December 31, as a solution to anomalies that had existed since Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in 1521.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://thephilippinestoday.com/claverias-reform/|titleClaveria's Reform|publisherThe Philippines Today|authorBerto|dateJuly 28, 2022|access-dateMarch 18, 2023}}</ref>
*1858 &ndash; U.S. President James Buchanan inaugurates the new transatlantic telegraph cable by exchanging greetings with Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. However, a weak signal forces a shutdown of the service in a few weeks.
*1859 &ndash; The Grand Duchy of Tuscany formally deposes the exiled House of Lorraine.
*1863 &ndash; The Dominican Restoration War begins when Gregorio Luperón raises the Dominican flag in Santo Domingo after Spain had recolonized the country.
*1869 &ndash; Battle of Acosta Ñu: A Paraguayan battalion largely made up of children is massacred by the Brazilian Army during the Paraguayan War.<ref>Hooker, T.D., 2008, The Paraguayan War, Nottingham: Foundry Books, {{ISBN|1901543153}} p. 104</ref>
*1870 &ndash; Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Mars-la-Tour is fought, resulting in a Prussian victory.
*1876 &ndash; Richard Wagner's Siegfried, the penultimate opera in his Ring cycle, is premiered at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus.<ref>{{Cite web |date9 May 2008 |titleRichard Wagner |urlhttp://opera.stanford.edu/Wagner/main.html |access-date17 August 2022 |website=OperaGlass}}</ref>
*1891 &ndash; The Basilica of San Sebastian, Manila, the first all-steel church in Asia, is officially inaugurated and blessed.
*1896 &ndash; Skookum Jim Mason, George Carmack and Dawson Charlie discover gold in a tributary of the Klondike River in Canada, setting off the Klondike Gold Rush.
*1900 &ndash; The Battle of Elands River during the Second Boer War ends after a 13-day siege is lifted by the British. The battle had begun when a force of between 2,000 and 3,000 Boers had surrounded a force of 500 Australians, Rhodesians, Canadians and British soldiers at a supply dump at Brakfontein Drift.
1901–present
*1906 &ndash; The 8.2 {{M|w|link=y}} Valparaíso earthquake hits central Chile, killing 3,882 people.
*1913 &ndash; Tōhoku Imperial University of Japan (modern day Tohoku University) becomes the first university in Japan to admit female students.
* 1913 &ndash; Completion of the Royal Navy battlecruiser {{HMS|Queen Mary}}.
*1916 &ndash; The Migratory Bird Treaty between Canada and the United States is signed.
*1918 &ndash; The Battle of Lake Baikal was fought between the Czechoslovak Legion and the Red Army.
*1920 &ndash; Ray Chapman of the Cleveland Indians is hit on the head by a fastball thrown by Carl Mays of the New York Yankees. Next day, Chapman will become the second player to die from injuries sustained in a Major League Baseball game.
* 1920 &ndash; The congress of the Communist Party of Bukhara opens. The congress would call for armed revolution.
* 1920 &ndash; Polish–Soviet War: The Battle of Radzymin concludes; the Soviet Red Army is forced to turn away from Warsaw.
*1923 &ndash; The United Kingdom gives the name "Ross Dependency" to part of its claimed Antarctic territory and makes the Governor-General of the Dominion of New Zealand its administrator.
*1927 &ndash; The Dole Air Race begins from Oakland, California, to Honolulu, Hawaii, during which six out of the eight participating planes crash or disappear.
*1929 &ndash; The 1929 Palestine riots break out in Mandatory Palestine between Palestinian Arabs and Jews and continue until the end of the month. In total, 133 Jews and 116 Arabs are killed.
*1930 &ndash; The first color sound cartoon, Fiddlesticks, is released by Ub Iwerks.
* 1930 &ndash; The first British Empire Games are opened in Hamilton, Ontario, by the Governor General of Canada, the Viscount Willingdon.
*1933 &ndash; Christie Pits riot takes place in Toronto, Ontario.<ref>Cyril H. Levitt and William Shaffir, The Riot at Christie Pits, Toronto: Lester & Orpen Denys, 1987</ref>
*1942 &ndash; World War II: US Navy L-class blimp L-8 drifts in from the Pacific and eventually crashes in Daly City, California. The two-man crew cannot be found.
*1944 &ndash; First flight of a jet with forward-swept wings, the Junkers Ju 287.
*1945 &ndash; The National Representatives' Congress, the precursor of the current National Assembly of Vietnam, convenes in Sơn Dương.
*1946 &ndash; Mass riots in Kolkata begin; more than 4,000 people would be killed in 72 hours.
* 1946 &ndash; The All Hyderabad Trade Union Congress is founded in Secunderabad.
*1954 &ndash; The first issue of Sports Illustrated is published.
*1960 &ndash; Cyprus gains its independence from the United Kingdom.
* 1960 &ndash; Joseph Kittinger parachutes from a balloon over New Mexico, United States, at {{convert|102800|ft|m}}, setting three records that held until 2012: High-altitude jump, free fall, and highest speed by a human without an aircraft.
*1964 &ndash; Vietnam War: A ''coup d'état'' replaces Dương Văn Minh with General Nguyễn Khánh as President of South Vietnam. A new constitution is established with aid from the U.S. Embassy.
*1966 &ndash; Vietnam War: The House Un-American Activities Committee begins investigations of Americans who have aided the Viet Cong. The committee intends to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 people are arrested.
*1972 &ndash; In an unsuccessful coup d'état attempt, the Royal Moroccan Air Force fires upon Hassan II of Morocco's plane while he is traveling back to Rabat.
*1975 &ndash; Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam symbolically hands over land to the Gurindji people after the eight-year Wave Hill walk-off, a landmark event in the history of Indigenous land rights in Australia, commemorated in a 1991 song by Paul Kelly and an annual celebration.<ref nametimeline>{{cite web | last1Lawford | first1Elliana | last2Zillman | first2Stephanie | titleTimeline: From Wave Hill protest to land handbacks | websiteABC News | date18 August 2016 | urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-18/timeline-of-wave-hill-land-rights/7760300 | access-date9 August 2020}}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Northwest Airlines Flight 255, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82, crashes after takeoff in Detroit, Michigan, killing 154 of the 155 on board, plus two people on the ground.
*1989 &ndash; A solar particle event affects computers at the Toronto Stock Exchange, forcing a halt to trading.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com//article/mg12316812.400-solar-storms-halt-stock-market-as-computers-crash|titleSolar storms halt stock market as computers crash|lastDayton|firstLeigh|date1989-09-09|websiteNew Scientist|access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Indian Airlines Flight 257, a Boeing 737-200, crashes during approach to Imphal Airport, killing all 69 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19910816-1|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-2A8 Advanced VT-EFL Imphal Municipal Airport (IMF)|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; West Caribbean Airways Flight 708, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82, crashes in Machiques, Venezuela, killing all 160 people on board.
*2008 &ndash; The Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago is topped off at {{convert|1389|ft|m}}, at the time becoming the world's highest residence above ground-level.
*2010 &ndash; AIRES Flight 8250 crashes at Gustavo Rojas Pinilla International Airport in San Andrés, San Andrés y Providencia, Colombia, killing two people.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-73V (WL) HK-4682 San Andres Island-Gustavo Rojas Pinilla Airport (ADZ) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20100816-0 |access-date2022-08-10 |website=aviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; South African police fatally shoot 34 miners and wound 78 more during an industrial dispute at Marikana near Rustenburg.
*2013 &ndash; The ferry St. Thomas Aquinas collides with a cargo ship and sinks at Cebu, Philippines, killing 61 people with 59 others missing.
*2015 &ndash; More than 96 people are killed and hundreds injured following a series of air-raids by the Syrian Arab Air Force on the rebel-held market town of Douma.
* 2015 &ndash; Trigana Air Flight 267, an ATR 42, crashes in Oksibl, Bintang Mountains Regency, killing all 54 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20150816-0|titleASN Aircraft accident ATR 42-300 PK-YRN Oksibil Airport (OKL)|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-07-21}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; The August Complex fire in California burns more than one million acres of land.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://krcrtv.com/north-coast-news/eureka-local-news/tuesday-update-on-the-august-complex-fire-in-mendocino-county|titleTuesday update on the August Complex in Mendocino County|dateAugust 18, 2020|access-dateDecember 18, 2020|websiteabc7 KRCR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://wildfiretoday.com/2020/12/18/more-acres-burned-on-usfs-lands-this-year-since-1910-says-agency-chief/|titleMore acres burned on USFS lands this year since 1910, says agency Chief|websiteWildfire Today|date18 December 2020 |access-dateDecember 19, 2020}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
*1355 &ndash; Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster (d. 1382)
*1378 &ndash; Hongxi Emperor of China (d. 1425)
*1401 &ndash; Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut (d. 1436)
*1557 &ndash; Agostino Carracci, Italian painter and etcher (d. 1602)
*1565 &ndash; Christina, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (d. 1637)
*1573 &ndash; Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland (d. 1598)
1601–1900
*1637 &ndash; Countess Emilie Juliane of Barby-Mühlingen (d. 1706)
*1645 &ndash; Jean de La Bruyère, French philosopher and author (d. 1696)
*1650 &ndash; Vincenzo Coronelli, Italian monk, cosmographer, and cartographer (d. 1718)
*1682 &ndash; Louis, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1712)
*1744 &ndash; Pierre Méchain, French astronomer and surveyor (d. 1804)
*1761 &ndash; Yevstigney Fomin, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1800)
*1815 &ndash; John Bosco, Italian priest and educator (d. 1888)
*1816 &ndash; Octavia Taylor, daughter of Zachary Taylor (d. 1820)
*1816 &ndash; Sara Prinsep, British salon organiser (d. 1959)<ref namesadrb>{{Citation |lastDakers |firstCaroline |titlePrinsep [née Pattle], Sara Monckton (1816–1887), creator and host of the Little Holland House salon |date2024-05-09 |workOxford Dictionary of National Biography |urlhttps://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-90000382464 |access-date2024-11-06 |publisherOxford University Press |languageen |doi10.1093/odnb/9780198614128.013.90000382464 |isbn978-0-19-861412-8}}</ref>
*1820 &ndash; Andrew Rainsford Wetmore, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of New Brunswick (d. 1892)
*1821 &ndash; Arthur Cayley, English mathematician and academic (d. 1895)
*1824 &ndash; John Chisum, American cattle baron (d. 1884)<ref>{{cite web |titleTexas State Historical Society: Chisum, John Simpson (1824–1884) |urlhttps://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/chisum-john-simpsom |websitewww.tshaonline.org |access-date11 May 2024}}https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/chisum-john-simpson</ref>
*1831 &ndash; John Jones Ross, Canadian lawyer and politician, 7th Premier of Quebec (d. 1901)
*1832 &ndash; Wilhelm Wundt, German physician, psychologist, and physiologist (d. 1920)
*1842 &ndash; Jakob Rosanes, Ukrainian-German mathematician, chess player, and academic (d. 1922)
*1845 &ndash; Gabriel Lippmann, Luxembourger-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1921)
*1848 &ndash; Vladimir Sukhomlinov, Russian general (d. 1926)
*1855 &ndash; James McGowen, Australian politician, 18th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1922)
*1856 &ndash; Aparicio Saravia, Uruguayan general and politician (d. 1904)
*1858 &ndash; Arthur Achleitner, German author (d. 1927)
*1860 &ndash; Martin Hawke, 7th Baron Hawke, English-Scottish cricketer (d. 1938)
* 1860 &ndash; Jules Laforgue, Uruguayan-French poet and author (d. 1887)
*1862 &ndash; Amos Alonzo Stagg, American baseball player and coach (d. 1965)
*1864 &ndash; Elsie Inglis, Scottish surgeon and suffragette (d. 1917)<ref>{{cite web |titleElsie Inglis: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland |urlhttps://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/i/elsieinglis.html |websitewww.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk |access-date11 February 2020}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; Mary Gilmore, Australian socialist, poet and journalist (d. 1962)
*1868 &ndash; Bernarr Macfadden, American bodybuilder and publisher, founded Macfadden Publications (d. 1955)
*1876 &ndash; Ivan Bilibin, Russian illustrator and stage designer (d. 1942)
*1877 &ndash; Roque Ruaño, Spanish priest and engineer (d. 1935)
*1882 &ndash; Désiré Mérchez, French swimmer and water polo player (d. 1968)
*1884 &ndash; Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourger-American author and publisher (d. 1967)
*1888 &ndash; T. E. Lawrence, British colonel, diplomat, writer and archaeologist (d. 1935)
* 1888 &ndash; Armand J. Piron, American violinist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1943)
*1892 &ndash; Hal Foster, Canadian-American author and illustrator (d. 1982)
* 1892 &ndash; Otto Messmer, American cartoonist and animator, co-created Felix the Cat (d. 1983)
*1894 &ndash; George Meany, American plumber and labor leader (d. 1980)
*1895 &ndash; Albert Cohen, Greek-Swiss author and playwright (d. 1981)
* 1895 &ndash; Liane Haid, Austrian-Swiss actress and singer (d. 2000)
* 1895 &ndash; Arthur Rose Eldred, First Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts of America (d. 1951)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.eaglescout.org/history/first_eagle.html |titleThe BSA's First Eagle Scout Arthur Rose Eldred |lastTwite |firstGreg |dateFebruary 2005 |websiteBSA's First Eagle Scout |publisherEagleScout.org |access-dateAugust 16, 2023}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Ida Browne, Australian geologist and palaeontologist (d. 1976)<ref>{{cite book |last1Bailey Ogilvie |first1Marilyn |last2Harvey| first2Joy |titleThe Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid-20th Century, Volume 1 |year2000 | locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-41592-039-1 |page191}}</ref>
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Georgette Heyer, English author (d. 1974)<ref>{{cite book|titleContemporary Popular Writers|publisherSt. James Press|year1997|isbn9781558622166|page=197}}</ref>
* 1902 &ndash; Wallace Thurman, American author and playwright (d. 1934)
*1904 &ndash; Minoru Genda, Japanese general, pilot, and politician (d. 1989)
* 1904 &ndash; Wendell Meredith Stanley, American biochemist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
*1908 &ndash; Orlando Cole, American cellist and educator (d. 2010)
* 1908 &ndash; William Keepers Maxwell, Jr., American editor, novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 2000)
*1909 &ndash; Paul Callaway, American organist and conductor (d. 1995)
*1910 &ndash; Gloria Blondell, American actress (d. 1986)
* 1910 &ndash; Mae Clarke, American actress (d. 1992)
*1911 &ndash; E. F. Schumacher, German economist and statistician (d. 1977)
*1912 &ndash; Ted Drake, English footballer and manager (d. 1995)
*1913 &ndash; Menachem Begin, Belarusian-Israeli politician, Prime Minister of Israel, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)<ref>{{cite web |titleMenachem Begin {{!}} prime minister of Israel |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Menachem-Begin |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date6 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; Al Hibbler, American baritone singer (d. 2001)
*1916 &ndash; Iggy Katona, American race car driver (d. 2003)
*1917 &ndash; Matt Christopher, American author (d. 1997)
* 1917 &ndash; Roque Cordero, Panamanian composer and educator (d. 2008)
*1919 &ndash; Karl-Heinz Euling, German captain (d. 2014)
*1920 &ndash; Charles Bukowski, German-American poet, novelist, and short story writer (d. 1994)<ref>{{cite web |titleCharles Bukowski {{!}} Biography, Books, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Bukowski |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date6 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; James Casey, English comedian, radio scriptwriter and producer (d. 2011)
* 1922 &ndash; Ernie Freeman, American pianist and bandleader (d. 2001)
*1923 &ndash; Millôr Fernandes, Brazilian journalist and playwright (d. 2012)
*1924 &ndash; Fess Parker, American actor (d. 2010)
* 1924 &ndash; Inez Voyce, American baseball player (d. 2022)
*1925 &ndash; Willie Jones, American baseball player (d. 1983)
* 1925 &ndash; Mal Waldron, American pianist and composer (d. 2002)
*1927 &ndash; Lois Nettleton, American actress (d. 2008)
*1928 &ndash; Ann Blyth, American actress and singer
* 1928 &ndash; Eydie Gormé, American singer (d. 2013)
* 1928 &ndash; Ara Güler, Turkish photographer and journalist (d. 2018)
* 1928 &ndash; Eddie Kirkland, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011)
* 1928 &ndash; Wyatt Tee Walker, American pastor, theologian, and activist (d. 2018)
*1929 &ndash; Bill Evans, American pianist and composer (d. 1980)
* 1929 &ndash; Helmut Rahn, German footballer (d. 2003)
* 1929 &ndash; Fritz Von Erich, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1997)
*1930 &ndash; Robert Culp, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)
* 1930 &ndash; Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015)
* 1930 &ndash; Leslie Manigat, Haitian educator and politician, 43rd President of Haiti (d. 2014)
* 1930 &ndash; Flor Silvestre, Mexican singer and actress (d. 2020)<ref name"border crossing" >{{cite web|titleGuillermina Jimenez-Chabolla, 'United States, Border Crossings from Mexico to United States, 1903–1957'|urlhttps://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/XLGT-DZ5|websiteFamilySearch|access-date=30 May 2013}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Reiner Kunze, German poet and translator
* 1933 &ndash; Tom Maschler, English author and publisher (d. 2020)
* 1933 &ndash; Julie Newmar, American actress<ref name="AP"/>
* 1933 &ndash; Stuart Roosa, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1994)
*1934 &ndash; Angela Buxton, British tennis player (d. 2020)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/26/sports/tennis/angela-buxton-dead.html|titleAngela Buxton, Half of an Outcast Duo in Tennis History, Dies at 85|firstKatharine Q.|lastSeelye|newspaperThe New York Times |dateAugust 28, 2020}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Diana Wynne Jones, English author (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite web |titleDiana Wynne Jones {{!}} British writer {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Diana-Wynne-Jones |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Douglas Kirkland, Canadian-American photographer (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/09/arts/douglas-kirkland-dead.html|titleDouglas Kirkland, Who Took Portraits of Movie Stars, Dies at 88|lastSandomir|firstRichard|newspaperThe New York Times|dateOctober 9, 2022|accessdate=October 9, 2022}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Ketty Lester, American singer and actress<ref name="AP"/>
* 1934 &ndash; Pierre Richard, French actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1934 &ndash; John Standing, English actor<ref>{{cite book|titleWho's who|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmK4KawdOUDMC|year1968|publisherA. & C. Black|page1800}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Sam Trimble, Australian cricketer (d. 2019)
*1935 &ndash; Cliff Fletcher, Canadian businessman
* 1935 &ndash; Andreas Stamatiadis, Greek footballer and coach
*1936 &ndash; Anita Gillette, American actress and singer<ref name="AP"/>
* 1936 &ndash; Alan Hodgkinson, English footballer and coach (d. 2015)
*1937 &ndash; David Anderson, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician
* 1937 &ndash; David Behrman, American composer and producer
* 1937 &ndash; Ian Deans, Canadian politician (d. 2016)
* 1937 &ndash; Boris Rõtov, Estonian chess player (d. 1987)
*1939 &ndash; Seán Brady, Irish cardinal
* 1939 &ndash; Trevor McDonald, Trinidadian-English journalist and academic
* 1939 &ndash; Billy Joe Shaver, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020)
* 1939 &ndash; Eric Weissberg, American singer, banjo player, and multi-instrumentalist (d. 2020)
*1940 &ndash; Bruce Beresford, Australian director and producer
*1942 &ndash; Lesley Turner Bowrey, Australian tennis player
* 1942 &ndash; Barbara George, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 2006)
* 1942 &ndash; Robert Squirrel Lester, American soul singer (d. 2010)
*1943 &ndash; Woody Peoples, American football player (d. 2010)
*1944 &ndash; Kevin Ayers, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)
*1945 &ndash; Bob Balaban, American actor, director, and producer<ref name="AP"/>
* 1945 &ndash; Russell Brookes, English race car driver (d. 2019)
* 1945 &ndash; Suzanne Farrell, American ballerina and educator<ref name="AP"/>
* 1945 &ndash; Gary Loizzo, American guitarist, singer, recording engineer, and record producer (d. 2016)
* 1945 &ndash; Nigel Terry, British stage and film actor (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news|titleNigel Terry, actor – obituary|workThe Daily Telegraph|date8 May 2015|access-date18 August 2018|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/11592626/Nigel-Terry-actor-obituary.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/11592626/Nigel-Terry-actor-obituary.html |archive-date2022-01-12 |url-accesssubscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Masoud Barzani, Iranian-Kurdish politician, President of Iraqi Kurdistan
* 1946 &ndash; Lesley Ann Warren, American actress<ref name="AP"/>
*1947 &ndash; Carol Moseley Braun, American lawyer and politician, United States Ambassador to New Zealand
* 1947 &ndash; Katharine Hamnett, English fashion designer
*1948 &ndash; Earl Blumenauer, American politician, U.S. Representative from Oregon
* 1948 &ndash; Barry Hay, Indian-born Dutch rock musician
* 1948 &ndash; Mike Jorgensen, American baseball player and manager
* 1948 &ndash; Pierre Reid, Canadian educator and politician (d. 2021)
* 1948 &ndash; Joey Spampinato, American singer-songwriter and bass player<ref name="AP"/>
*1949 &ndash; Scott Asheton, American drummer (d. 2014)
* 1949 &ndash; Paul Pasqualoni, American football player and coach
* 1949 &ndash; Bill Spooner, American guitarist and songwriter
*1950 &ndash; Hasely Crawford, Trinidadian runner
* 1950 &ndash; Marshall Manesh, Iranian-American actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1950 &ndash; Jeff Thomson, Australian cricketer
*1951 &ndash; Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, Nigerian businessman and politician, 13th President of Nigeria (d. 2010)
*1952 &ndash; Reginald VelJohnson, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
*1953 &ndash; Kathie Lee Gifford, American talk show host, singer, and actress<ref name="AP"/>
* 1953 &ndash; James "J.T." Taylor, American R&B singer-songwriter<ref name="AP"/>
*1954 &ndash; James Cameron, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"/>
* 1954 &ndash; George Galloway, Scottish-English politician and broadcaster
*1955 &ndash; Jeff Perry, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1955 &ndash; James Reilly, Irish surgeon and politician, Minister for Children and Youth Affairs
*1956 &ndash; Vahan Hovhannisyan, Armenian soldier and politician (d. 2014)
*1957 &ndash; Laura Innes, American actress and director<ref name="AP"/>
* 1957 &ndash; R. R. Patil, Indian lawyer and politician, Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2015)
*1958 &ndash; Madonna, American singer-songwriter, producer, actress, and director<ref>{{cite web |last1Morley |first1Paul |titleMadonna and Prince hit 50 this year. No need not to celebrate, says Paul Morley |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/mar/16/features.musicmonthly23 |websiteThe Observer |access-date28 June 2020 |date=16 March 2008}}</ref>
* 1958 &ndash; Angela Bassett, American actress<ref name="AP"/>
* 1958 &ndash; Anne L'Huillier, French physicist<ref>{{Cite web |titleAnne L'Huillier – Facts |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2023/lhuillier/facts/ |access-date11 March 2024 |websiteNobelPrize.org}}</ref>
* 1958 &ndash; José Luis Clerc, Argentinian tennis player and coach
*1959 &ndash; Marc Sergeant, Belgian cyclist and manager
*1960 &ndash; Rosita Baltazar, Belizean choreographer, dancer, and dance instructor (d. 2015)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://amandala.com.bz/news/iconic-belizean-dancer-rosita-baltazar-55-laid-rest-friday/|titleIconic Belizean dancer, Rosita Baltazar, 55, to be laid to rest Friday|date2015-07-10|websiteAmandala Newspaper|languageen-US|access-date2019-01-02}}</ref>
* 1960 &ndash; Timothy Hutton, American actor, producer and director<ref name="AP"/>
* 1960 &ndash; Franz Welser-Möst, Austrian-American conductor and director
*1961 &ndash; Christian Okoye, American football player
*1962 &ndash; Steve Carell, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1963 &ndash; Aloísio Pires Alves, Brazilian footballer and manager
* 1963 &ndash; Christine Cavanaugh, American voice artist (d. 2014)<ref>{{Cite web |lastHayward, Anthony |dateJanuary 5, 2015 |titleChristine Cavanaugh: Voice Actor Behind the Eponymous Pig in "Babe" and the Worrisome Toddler Chuckie in "Rugrats" |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/christine-cavanaugh-voice-actor-behind-the-enponymous-pig-in-babe-and-the-worrisome-chuckie-9957883.html |website=The Independent}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Jimmy Arias, American tennis player and sportscaster
*1966 &ndash; Eddie Olczyk, American ice hockey player, coach, and commentator
*1967 &ndash; Mark Coyne, Australian rugby league player
* 1967 &ndash; Ulrika Jonsson, Swedish journalist, actress, and author
*1968 &ndash; Arvind Kejriwal, Indian civil servant and politician, 7th Chief Minister of Delhi
* 1968 &ndash; Andy Milder, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1968 &ndash; Mateja Svet, Slovenian skier
* 1968 &ndash; Wolfgang Tillmans, German photographer
*1970 &ndash; Bonnie Bernstein, American journalist and sportscaster
* 1970 &ndash; Manisha Koirala, Nepalese actress in Indian films
* 1970 &ndash; Seth Peterson, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
*1971 &ndash; Stefan Klos, German footballer
*1972 &ndash; Stan Lazaridis, Australian footballer<ref>{{NFT player|id=444}}</ref>
* 1972 &ndash; Emily Strayer, American singer and musician<ref name="AP"/>
*1974 &ndash; Shivnarine Chanderpaul, Guyanese cricketer<ref>{{cite book | last Lynch | first Steven | title The Wisden Guide to International Cricket 2012 | publisher Bloomsbury Pub | location London | year 2011 | isbn 9781408165300 | page34}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Didier Cuche, Swiss skier<ref>{{Citation|titleBehind the scenes with Didier Cuche {{!}} FIS Alpine|urlhttps://www.fis-ski.com/en/alpine-skiing/alpine-news-multimedia/news-multimedia/videos/2021/8/behind-the-scenes-with-didier-cuche-fis-alpine-KW8C1z4Hvqw|languageen|access-date2021-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleDidier CUCHE|urlhttps://olympics.com/en/athletes/didier-cuche|access-date2021-08-22|websiteOlympics.com}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Krisztina Egerszegi, Hungarian swimmer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.fina.org/athletes/1063728/krisztina-egerszegi/profile|titleKrisztina Egerszegi profile|websiteFINA|access-dateAugust 16, 2021}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Iván Hurtado, Ecuadorian footballer and politician<ref>{{NFT|2038}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Ryan Longwell, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleRyan Longwell |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/1328 |publisherESPN |access-date14 August 2023}}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Didier Agathe, French footballer
* 1975 &ndash; Jonatan Johansson, Finnish footballer, coach, and manager<ref>{{NFT player|id=2372}}</ref>
* 1975 &ndash; George Stults, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1975 &ndash; Taika Waititi, New Zealand director, screenwriter and actor<ref>{{Cite web |titleInterview with 'Boy' writer/director/actor Taika – YTread |urlhttps://youtuberead.com/interview-boy-writer-director-actor-taika-waititi |access-date2023-04-02 |websiteyoutuberead.com |language=en}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Paul Gallacher, Scottish footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Ian Moran, Australian cricketer
*1980 &ndash; Vanessa Carlton, American singer-songwriter<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 16, 2022 includes celebrities James Cameron, Steve Carell |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-16-2022-includes-celebrities-james-cameron-steve-carell.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date14 August 2023 |date=16 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Bob Hardy, English bass player
* 1980 &ndash; Emerson Ramos Borges, Brazilian footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Piet Rooijakkers, Dutch cyclist
*1981 &ndash; Roque Santa Cruz, Paraguayan footballer
*1982 &ndash; Cam Gigandet, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1982 &ndash; Joleon Lescott, English footballer
*1983 &ndash; Nikolaos Zisis, Greek basketball player
*1984 &ndash; Matteo Anesi, Italian speed skater
* 1984 &ndash; Candice Dupree, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleCandice Dupree at the EuroLeague Women 2018–19 |urlhttps://www.fiba.basketball/euroleaguewomen/18-19/player/Candice-Dupree |websiteFIBA.basketball |access-date11 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Konstantin Vassiljev, Estonian footballer
*1985 &ndash; Cristin Milioti, American actress<ref name="AP"/>
*1986 &ndash; Yu Darvish, Japanese baseball player
* 1986 &ndash; Martín Maldonado, Puerto Rican baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleMartín Maldonado |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/martin-maldonado-455117 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date14 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1986 &ndash; Shawn Pyfrom, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
*1987 &ndash; Carey Price, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleCarey Price {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/carey-price |websitewww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |access-date11 February 2020}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Eri Kitamura, Japanese voice actress and singer.<ref name"doi1">{{Cite web |lastDoi |firstHitoshi |urlhttp://www.usagi.org/doi/seiyuu/kitamura-eri/ |titleKitamura Eri |workSeiyuu Database |access-dateJanuary 13, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120406075638/http://www.usagi.org/doi/seiyuu/kitamura-eri/ |archive-dateApril 6, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Ismaïl Aissati, Moroccan footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Ryan Kerrigan, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleRyan Kerrigan |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/13973/ryan-kerrigan |publisherESPN |access-date14 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Rumer Willis, American actress<ref name="AP"/>
*1989 &ndash; Cedric Alexander, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |titleCedric Alexander |urlhttps://www.espn.com/wwe/story/_/id/17598489/wwe-profile-page-cedric-alexander |publisherESPN |access-date14 August 2023 |date=20 December 2020}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Wang Hao, Chinese race walker
* 1989 &ndash; Moussa Sissoko, French footballer
*1990 &ndash; Godfrey Oboabona, Nigerian footballer
*1991 &ndash; José Eduardo de Araújo, Brazilian footballer
* 1991 &ndash; Evanna Lynch, Irish actress<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_6890000/newsid_6896300/6896311.stm|titleHarry Potter Actors: Evanna Lynch (Luna Lovegood)|date12 July 2007|workCBBC Newsround|publisherBBC|access-date31 March 2022}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Young Thug, American rapper, singer and songwriter<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://dailyrapfacts.com/15101/young-thug-announcing-slime-language-2/ |titleYoung Thug deleted tweet announcing 'Slime Language 2,' August 16 |websiteDaily Rap Facts |dateAugust 7, 2020 |access-date=April 7, 2021}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Diego Schwartzman, Argentinian tennis player<ref>{{cite web |titleTennis Diego Schwartzman |urlhttp://m.espn.com/general/tennis/playercard?playerId2324&srcdesktop |websitem.espn.com |access-date28 June 2020 |language=EN}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Cameron Monaghan, American actor and model<ref>{{cite news|titleToday in History |workThe Associated Press|dateAugust 16, 2018|access-dateAugust 18, 2018|url=http://www.ledger.news/news/today-in-history-august/article_87772480-a13a-11e8-b210-8fe911193901.html}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Caeleb Dressel, American swimmer<ref>{{cite web |titleCaeleb Dressel Bio, Stats, and Results |urlhttps://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/dr/caeleb-dressel-1.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200417225645/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/dr/caeleb-dressel-1.html |url-statusdead |archive-date17 April 2020 |websiteOlympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date11 February 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Greyson Chance, American musician<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/articles/news/956138/21-under-21-greyson-chance|title21 Under 21: Greyson Chance|magazineBillboard|dateSeptember 23, 2010|access-date=January 2, 2011}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Karen Chen, American figure skater<ref>{{cite web |titleKaren Chen – Olympic |urlhttps://www.olympic.org/karen-chen |websiteInternational Olympic Committee |access-date11 February 2020 |languageen |date28 June 2018}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Jannik Sinner, Italian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleJannik Sinner {{!}} Overview {{!}} ATP Tour {{!}} Tennis |urlhttps://www.atptour.com/en/players/jannik-sinner/s0ag/overview |access-date2024-12-02 |websiteATP Tour |language=en}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not rely on "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*AD 79 &ndash; Empress Ma, Chinese Han dynasty consort (b. 40)
* 856 &ndash; Theutbald I, bishop of Langres
* 963 &ndash; Marianos Argyros, Byzantine general (b. 944)
*1027 &ndash; George I of Georgia (b. 998)
*1153 &ndash; Bernard de Tremelay, fourth Grand Master of the Knights Templar
*1225 &ndash; Hōjō Masako, Japanese regent and onna-bugeisha (b. 1156)
*1258 &ndash; Theodore II Laskaris, Byzantine-Greek emperor (b. 1222)
*1285 &ndash; Philip I, Count of Savoy (b. 1207)
*1297 &ndash; John II of Trebizond (b. 1262)
*1327 &ndash; Roch, French saint (b. 1295)
*1339 &ndash; Azzone Visconti, founder of the state of Milan (b. 1302)
*1358 &ndash; Albert II, Duke of Austria (b. 1298)
*1419 &ndash; Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia (b. 1361)
*1443 &ndash; Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1434)
*1492 &ndash; Beatrice of Silva, Dominican nun<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.concepcionistastoledo.org/Santa%20Beatriz.htm|titleSanta Beatriz de Silva: Aprobación de la Orden|workOrden de la Inmaculada Concepción, Casa Madre OIC de Toledo|languagees|access-date2018-08-07|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150814010054/http://concepcionistastoledo.org/Santa%20Beatriz.htm|archive-date2015-08-14|url-statusdead}}</ref>
*1518 &ndash; Loyset Compère, French composer (b. 1445)
*1532 &ndash; John, Elector of Saxony (b. 1468)
1601–1900
*1661 &ndash; Thomas Fuller, English historian and author (b. 1608)
*1678 &ndash; Andrew Marvell, English poet and author (b. 1621)
*1705 &ndash; Jacob Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and theorist (b. 1654)
*1733 &ndash; Matthew Tindal, English philosopher and author (b. 1657)
*1791 &ndash; Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (b. 1719)
*1836 &ndash; Marc-Antoine Parseval, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1755)
*1855 &ndash; Henry Colburn, English publisher (b. 1785)
*1861 &ndash; Ranavalona I, Queen consort of Kingdom of Madagascar and then sovereign (b. 1778)<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlKtBAAAAIAAJ|titleMadagascar: An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and Its Former Dependencies|date1886|publisherMacmillan|pages87}}</ref>
*1878 &ndash; Richard Upjohn, English-American architect (b. 1802)
*1886 &ndash; Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Indian mystic and philosopher (b. 1836)
*1887 &ndash; Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (b. 1837)
*1888 &ndash; John Pemberton, American pharmacist and chemist, invented Coca-Cola (b. 1831)
*1893 &ndash; Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist and academic (b. 1825)
*1899 &ndash; Robert Bunsen, German chemist and academic (b. 1811)<ref>{{cite journal |author1Roscoe, Henry |author-linkHenry Roscoe (chemist) |titleBunsen Memorial Lecture |journalJournal of the Chemical Society, Transactions |date1900 |volume77 |pages513 |doi10.1039/CT9007700513|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1874777 }}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; José Maria de Eça de Queirós, Portuguese journalist and author (b. 1845)
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Prentiss Ingraham, American soldier and author (b. 1843)
*1911 &ndash; Patrick Francis Moran, Irish-Australian cardinal (b. 1830)
*1914 &ndash; Carl Theodor Schulz, German-Norwegian gardener (b. 1835)
*1916 &ndash; George Scott, English footballer (b. 1885)
*1920 &ndash; Henry Daglish, Australian politician, Premier of Western Australia (b. 1866)<ref>{{cite web |last1Gibbney |first1H. J. |titleHenry Daglish (1866–1920) |urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/daglish-henry-5862 |websiteAustralian Dictionary of Biography |publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University |access-date27 August 2024 |languageen}}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; Peter I of Serbia (b. 1844)
*1938 &ndash; Andrej Hlinka, Slovak priest, journalist, and politician (b. 1864)
* 1938 &ndash; Robert Johnson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1911)
*1945 &ndash; Takijirō Ōnishi, Japanese admiral (b. 1891)
*1948 &ndash; Babe Ruth, American baseball player and coach (b. 1895)
*1949 &ndash; Margaret Mitchell, American journalist and author (b. 1900)
*1952 &ndash; Lydia Field Emmet, American painter and academic (b. 1866)
*1956 &ndash; Bela Lugosi, Hungarian-American actor (b. 1882)
*1957 &ndash; Irving Langmuir, American chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
*1958 &ndash; Jacob M. Lomakin, Soviet Consul General in New York City, journalist and economist (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1958/08/18/archives/jacob-m-lomakin-soviet-aide-dies-official-at-peiping-embassy-was.html |titleJacob M. Lomakin, Soviet Aide, Dies Official at Peiping Embassy Was Consul Here in 1948 During Kasenkina Case |workThe New York Times |date18 August 1958 |access-date23 August 2021 |url-accesssubscription}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; William Halsey, Jr., American admiral (b. 1882)
* 1959 &ndash; Wanda Landowska, Polish-French harpsichord player (b. 1879)
*1961 &ndash; Abdul Haq, Pakistani linguist and scholar (b. 1870)
*1963 &ndash; Joan Eardley, British artist (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite ODNB |id40309 |titleEardley, Joan Kathleen Harding}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Spyros Skouras, Greek-American businessman (b. 1893)
*1972 &ndash; Pierre Brasseur, French actor and screenwriter (b. 1905)
*1973 &ndash; Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-American biochemist and microbiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888)
*1977 &ndash; Elvis Presley, American singer and actor (b. 1935)<ref>{{cite book |last1McCall |first1Michael |last2Rumble |first2John |last3Kingsbury |first3Paul |titleThe Encyclopedia of Country Music |date1 February 2012 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-992083-9 |page420 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtLZz02EzmBYC&pgPA420 |language=en}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Alidius Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer, Dutch soldier and politician, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (b. 1888)
*1979 &ndash; John Diefenbaker, Canadian lawyer and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1895)
*1983 &ndash; Earl Averill, American baseball player (b. 1902)
*1984 &ndash; Duško Radović, Serbian children's writer, poet, journalist, aphorist and TV editor (b. 1922)
*1986 &ndash; Ronnie Aird, English cricketer and administrator (b. 1902)
* 1986 &ndash; Jaime Sáenz, Bolivian author and poet (b. 1921)
*1989 &ndash; Amanda Blake, American actress (b. 1929)
*1990 &ndash; Pat O'Connor, New Zealand wrestler and trainer (b. 1925)
*1991 &ndash; Luigi Zampa, Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1905)
*1992 &ndash; Mark Heard, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1951)
*1993 &ndash; Stewart Granger, English-American actor (b. 1913)
*1997 &ndash; Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Pakistani musician and Qawwali singer (b. 1948)
* 1997 &ndash; Sultan Ahmad Nanupuri, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and teacher (b. 1914)<ref>{{Cite book |last1Ahmadullah |first1Hafez |titleমাশায়েখে চাটগাম |last2Qadir |first2Ridwanul |publisherAhmad Publication |year2018 |isbn978-984-92106-4-1 |locationDhaka |pages162–185|languagebn |trans-titleMashayekh-e Chatgam}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Phil Leeds, American actor (b. 1916)
* 1998 &ndash; Dorothy West, American journalist and author (b. 1907)
*2002 &ndash; Abu Nidal, Palestinian terrorist leader (b. 1937)
* 2002 &ndash; Jeff Corey, American actor (b. 1914)
* 2002 &ndash; John Roseboro, American baseball player and coach (b. 1933)
*2003 &ndash; Idi Amin, Ugandan field marshal and politician, 3rd President of Uganda (b. 1928)
*2004 &ndash; Ivan Hlinka, Czech ice hockey player and coach (b. 1950)
* 2004 &ndash; Balanadarajah Iyer, Sri Lankan journalist and poet (b. 1957)
* 2004 &ndash; Carl Mydans, American photographer and journalist (b. 1907)
* 2004 &ndash; Robert Quiroga, American boxer (b. 1969)
*2005 &ndash; Vassar Clements, American fiddler (b. 1928)
* 2005 &ndash; Tonino Delli Colli, Italian cinematographer (b. 1922)
* 2005 &ndash; William Corlett, English novelist and playwright (b. 1938)
* 2005 &ndash; Frère Roger, Swiss monk and mystic (b. 1915)
*2006 &ndash; Alfredo Stroessner, Paraguayan general and dictator; 46th President of Paraguay (b. 1912)
*2007 &ndash; Bahaedin Adab, Iranian engineer and politician (b. 1945)
*2008 &ndash; Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1914)
* 2008 &ndash; Ronnie Drew, Irish musician, folk singer and actor (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/news/dubliners-singer-ronnie-drew-dies-at-73-1.827387 |titleDubliners singer Ronnie Drew dies at 73 |newspaperThe Irish Times |date16 August 2008 |access-date23 August 2021 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806165922/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/dubliners-singer-ronnie-drew-dies-at-73-1.827387 |archive-date2020-08-06 }}</ref>
* 2008 &ndash; Masanobu Fukuoka, Japanese farmer and author (b. 1913)
*2010 &ndash; Dimitrios Ioannidis, Greek general (b. 1923)
*2011 &ndash; Mihri Belli, Turkish activist and politician (b. 1916)
*2012 &ndash; Princess Lalla Amina of Morocco (b. 1954)
* 2012 &ndash; Martine Franck, Belgian photographer and director (b. 1938)
* 2012 &ndash; Abune Paulos, Ethiopian patriarch (b. 1935)
* 2012 &ndash; William Windom, American actor (b. 1923)
*2013 &ndash; David Rees, Welsh mathematician and academic (b. 1918)
*2014 &ndash; Patrick Aziza, Nigerian general and politician, Governor of Kebbi State (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite web |lastGodwin |firstAmeh Comrade |date2014-08-16 |titleUrhobo Union leader, General Patrick Aziza dies at 67 |urlhttps://dailypost.ng/2014/08/16/urhobo-union-leader-aziza-dies-67/ |access-date2023-08-08 |websiteDaily Post Nigeria |languageen-US}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Vsevolod Nestayko, Ukrainian author (b. 1930)<ref>{{Cite web |date2019-01-31 |titleBeloved Ukrainian Children's Author Vsevolod Nestayko Would Be 89 |urlhttps://uatv.ua/en/vsevolod-nestayko-urns-89/ |access-date2023-08-08 |websiteFreedom |languageen-US}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Mario Oriani-Ambrosini, Italian-South African lawyer and politician (b. 1960)<ref>{{Cite web |date2014-08-16 |titleIFP MP Mario Oriani-Ambrosini dies |urlhttps://mg.co.za/article/2014-08-16-ifp-mp-mario-oriani-ambrosini-dies/ |access-date2023-08-08 |websiteThe Mail & Guardian |languageen-ZA}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Peter Scholl-Latour, German journalist, author, and academic (b. 1924)<ref>{{Cite web |titleMiddle East analyst dies – DW – 08/16/2014 |urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/german-middle-east-analyst-scholl-latour-dies/a-17858529 |access-date2023-08-08 |websitedw.com |language=en}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Jacob Bekenstein, Mexican-American physicist, astronomer, and academic (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite news |date2015-08-21 |titleJacob Bekenstein, Physicist Who Revolutionized Theory of Black Holes, Dies at 68 (Published 2015) |workThe New York Times |languageen |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/22/science/space/jacob-bekenstein-physicist-who-revolutionized-theory-of-black-holes-dies-at-68.html |access-date2023-08-08 |last1Overbye |first1Dennis }}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Anna Kashfi, British actress (b. 1934)<ref>{{Cite news |date2015-08-25 |titleAnna Kashfi, Actress Who Was Brando's First Wife, Dies at 80 (Published 2015) |workThe New York Times |languageen |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/26/movies/anna-kashfi-actress-who-was-brandos-first-wife-dies-at-80.html |access-date2023-08-08 |last1Weber |first1Bruce }}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Shuja Khanzada, Pakistani colonel and politician (b. 1943)<ref>{{Cite news |date2015-08-16 |titlePunjab minister Shuja Khanzada killed in Pakistan blast |languageen-GB |workBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-33952413 |access-date2023-08-08}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Mile Mrkšić, Serb general (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite news |date2015-08-18 |titleMile Mrksic, a Serb Army Officer Convicted of War Crimes, Dies at 68 (Published 2015) |workThe New York Times |languageen |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/18/world/europe/mile-mrksic-a-serb-army-officer-convicted-of-war-crimes-dies-at-68.html |access-date2023-08-08}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; João Havelange, Brazilian water polo player, lawyer, and businessman (b. 1916)<ref>{{Cite news |titleEx-Fifa president Havelange dies at 100 |languageen-GB |workBBC Sport |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/sport/football/37097423 |access-date=2023-08-08}}</ref>
* 2016 &ndash; John McLaughlin, American television personality (b. 1927)<ref>{{Cite web |date2016-08-16 |titleLegendary Talk Show Host John McLaughlin Dies |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/legendary-talk-show-host-john-mclaughlin-dies-n632131 |access-date2023-08-08 |websiteNBC News |languageen}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; Aretha Franklin, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2018/08/16/entertainment/aretha-franklin-dead/index.html|titleAretha Franklin, the Queen of Soul, has died|newspaperCNN|date16 August 2018 |departmentObituraries|access-date2020-01-28 }}</ref>
* 2018 &ndash; Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian prime minister (b. 1924)<ref>{{Cite news |titleModi Pays Last Respects to Atal Bihari Vajpayee at His Residence, Says Lost a Father Figure{{!}} Live Updates |urlhttps://www.news18.com/news/india/modi-pays-last-respects-to-atal-bihari-vajpayee-at-his-residence-says-lost-a-father-figure-live-updates-1845937.html |websitenews18.com |date16 August 2018 |access-date=6 December 2021}}</ref>
* 2018 &ndash; Wakako Yamauchi, American-Japanese writer (b. 1924)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/obituaries/notable-deaths.html|titleNotable Deaths 2018|newspaperThe New York Times|date3 August 2018 |departmentObituraries|access-date2018-09-12 }}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Peter Fonda, American actor, director, and screenwriter. (b. 1940)<ref>{{cite web|date17 August 2019|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-49379130?intlink_from_urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/topics/cywd23g0g3wt/obituaries&link_locationlive-reporting-storyl|titlePeter Fonda, star of Easy Rider, dies aged 79|websiteBBC News|departmentObituraries|access-date2019-10-06}}</ref>
* 2019 &ndash; Richard Williams, Canadian-British animator (b. 1933)<ref>{{Cite web|lastHaring|firstBruce|date2019-08-17|titleRichard Williams Dies: Animator For "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" Was 86|urlhttps://deadline.com/2019/08/richard-williams-dies-who-framed-roger-rabbit-1202670528/|access-date2021-08-02|websiteDeadline|languageen-US}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Sean Lock, English comedian and actor (b. 1963)<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastJones |firstMarcus |date2021-08-18 |titleSean Lock, British comedian and '8 Out of 10 Cats' star, dies at 58 |urlhttps://ew.com/tv/sean-lock-dead-british-comedian-dies-58/ |url-statuslive |magazineEntertainment Weekly |languageen |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210819124246/https://ew.com/tv/sean-lock-dead-british-comedian-dies-58/ |archive-date2021-08-19 |access-date=2021-08-20}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Howard S. Becker, American sociologist (b. 1928)<ref>{{Cite web |titleUn très grand sociologue nous quitte. Bye Howard S. Becker (1928–2023) |trans-titleA very great sociologist is leaving us. Bye Howard S. Becker (1928–2023) |urlhttps://twitter.com/afs_socio/status/1692093102150897935?s20 |access-date2023-08-21 |websiteTwitter |language=fr}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not rely on "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States)
*Children's Day (Paraguay)
*Christian feast day:
** Ana Petra Pérez Florido
** Armel (Armagillus)
** Diomedes of Tarsus
**Roch
**Stephen I of Hungary
**Translation of the Acheiropoietos icon from Edessa to Constantinople. (Eastern Orthodox Church)
**August 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan)
*National Airborne Day (United States)
*Restoration Day (Dominican Republic)
*The first day of the Independence Days, celebrates the independence of Gabon from France in 1960.
*Xicolatada (Palau-de-Cerdagne, France)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/16 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
*{{NYT On this day|month08|day16}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/16 |titleHistorical Events on August 16 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 16}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_16 | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.196994 |
1449 | Alan Kay | {{Short description|American computer scientist (born 1940)}}
{{Other people}}
{{distinguish|Allan K.}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{BLP sources|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Alan Kay
| birth_name = Alan Curtis Kay
| image = Alan Kay and the prototype of the Dynabook (3009206205).jpg
| caption = Alan Kay holding the prototype of the Dynabook
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1940|05|17}}
| birth_place = Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.
| death_date = <!--{{death date and age |202y|mm|dd |1940|05|17}} (death date then birth date)-->
| death_place | fields Computer science
| workplaces = Xerox PARC<br/>Stanford University<br/>Atari Inc.<br/>Apple Inc. ATG<br/>Walt Disney Imagineering<br/>UCLA<br/>Kyoto University<br/>MIT<br/>Viewpoints Research Institute<br/>Hewlett-Packard Labs
| education = University of Colorado at Boulder (BS)<br>University of Utah College of Engineering (MS, PhD)
| thesis_title = FLEX: A Flexible Extendable Language
| thesis_url = https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD0761962.pdf
| thesis_year = 1968
| doctoral_advisors = David C. Evans<br/>Robert S. Barton
| academic_advisors | doctoral_students
| notable_students = David Canfield Smith
| known_for = Dynabook<br/>Object-oriented programming<br/>Smalltalk<br/>Desktop metaphor <br/>Graphical user interface<br/>Windows
| influences | influenced
| awards = ACM Turing Award (2003)<br/>Kyoto Prize<br/>Charles Stark Draper Prize
| spouse = Bonnie MacBird
| signature = <!-- Filename only -->
| footnotes =
}}
Alan Curtis Kay (born May 17, 1940)<ref name"turingaward">{{cite web |urlhttp://amturing.acm.org/award_winners/kay_3972189.cfm |titleACM Turing Award |year2003}} published by the Association for Computing Machinery 2012</ref> is an American computer scientist who pioneered work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface (GUI) design. At Xerox PARC he led the design and development of the first modern windowed computer desktop interface. There he also led the development of the influential object-oriented programming language Smalltalk, both personally designing most of the early versions of the language and coining the term "object-oriented."
He has been elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Royal Society of Arts.<ref>{{cite speech |lastKay |firstAlan |year1997 |urlhttp://www.stanford.edu/class/ee380/9697spr/node10.html |titleThe Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet}}</ref> He received the Turing Award in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAlan Kay {{!}} Biography, Inventions, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alan-Kay |access-date2023-05-01 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref>
Early life and work
In an interview on education in America with the Davis Group Ltd., Kay said:
{{Blockquote|I had the misfortune or the fortune to learn how to read fluently starting about the age of three, so I had read maybe 150 books by the time I hit first grade, and I already knew the teachers were lying to me.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://vimeo.com/20673320 |titleInterview with Alan Kay on education |workThe Generational Divide |publisherThe Davis Group |access-date=5 March 2011}}</ref>}}
Originally from Springfield, Massachusetts, Kay's family relocated several times due to his father's career in physiology before ultimately settling in the New York metropolitan area.
He attended Brooklyn Technical High School. Having accumulated enough credits to graduate, he then attended Bethany College in Bethany, West Virginia, where he majored in biology and minored in mathematics.
Kay then taught guitar in Denver, Colorado for a year. He was drafted in the United States Army, then qualified for officer training in the United States Air Force, where he became a computer programmer after passing an aptitude test.
After his discharge, he enrolled at the University of Colorado Boulder and earned a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in mathematics and molecular biology in 1966.
In the autumn of 1966, he began graduate school at the University of Utah College of Engineering. He earned a Master of Science in electrical engineering in 1968, then a Doctor of Philosophy in computer science in 1969. His doctoral dissertation, FLEX: A Flexible Extendable Language, described the invention of a computer language named FLEX.<ref>{{cite web |lastKay |firstAlan |year1968 |urlhttp://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/761962.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170208052455/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/761962.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-dateFebruary 8, 2017 |titleFLEX: A Flexible Extendable Language |websiteUniversity of Utah}}</ref><ref name"H. Peter Alesso, C.F. Smith">{{cite book |last1Alesso |first1H. Peter |last2Smith |first2C.F. |year2008 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDxGyOaAyd6gC&qConnections:+Patterns+of+Discovery |titleConnections: Patterns of Discovery |page61 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-0-470-11881-8 |seriesWiley Series on Systems Engineering and Analysis, 29 |access-dateAugust 15, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastBarnes |firstS. B. |urlhttp://ethw.org/images/2/23/Barnes.pdf |titleAlan Kay: Transforming the Computer Into a Communication Medium |publisherEngineering & Technology History Wiki |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160701083057/http://ethw.org/Images/2/23/Barnes.pdf |archive-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref> While there, he worked with "fathers of computer graphics" David C. Evans (who had recently been recruited from the University of California, Berkeley to start Utah's computer science department) and Ivan Sutherland (best known for writing such pioneering programs as Sketchpad). Kay credits Sutherland's 1963 thesis for influencing his views on objects and computer programming. As he grew busier with research for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), he ended his musical career.
In 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the programming language Logo, a dialect of Lisp optimized for educational purposes. This led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and of constructionist learning, further influencing his professional orientation. On December 9 of that same year he was present in San Francisco for the Mother of all Demos, a landmark computer demonstration by Douglas Engelbart. Even though he was sick with a high fever on that day, the event was very influential in Kay's career. He recalled later: "It was one of the greatest experiences in my life".<ref>{{Cite book |lastKennedy |firstPagan |titleInventology: How we dream up things that change the world |publisherMariner Books |year2016 |isbn9780544811928 |locationBoston |pages115}}</ref>
In 1969, Kay became a visiting researcher at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in anticipation of accepting a professorship at Carnegie Mellon University. Instead, in 1970, he joined the Xerox PARC research staff in Palo Alto, California. Through the decade, he developed prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk.
Along with some colleagues at PARC, Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming (OOP), which he named.<ref name"Ram 2003 Kay on objects">{{cite web | lastRam | firstStefan L. | titleDr. Alan Kay on the Meaning of "Object-Oriented Programming" (document) | publisherStefan L. Ram, Berlin, Germany. | date2003-07-23 | urlhttps://www.purl.org/stefan_ram/pub/doc_kay_oop_en | access-date2024-02-15}}</ref> Some original object-oriented concepts, including the use of the words 'object' and 'class', had been developed for Simula 67 at the Norwegian Computing Center. Kay said:
<blockquote>I'm sorry that I long ago coined the term "objects" for this topic because it gets many people to focus on the lesser idea. The big idea is "messaging".<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://lists.squeakfoundation.org/pipermail/squeak-dev/1998-October/017019.html |titleAlanKayOnMessaging}}</ref></blockquote>
While at PARC, Kay conceived the Dynabook concept, a key progenitor of laptop and tablet computers and the e-book. He is also the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface (GUI).<ref>{{Cite book | last1Bergin | first1Thomas J. Jr. | last2Gibson | first2Richard G. Jr. |placeNew York, NY |year1996 |publisherACM Press, Addison-Wesley |titleHistory of Programming Languages II |urlhttp://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id234286 | isbn978-0-201-89502-5 | doi10.1145/234286}}</ref> Because the Dynabook was conceived as an educational platform, he is considered one of the first researchers into mobile learning; many features of the Dynabook concept have been adopted in the design of the One Laptop Per Child educational platform,<ref>{{citation|urlhttp://www.laptop.org/en/vision/project/index.shtml|titleHistory|publisherOne Laptop Per Child|access-dateJuly 18, 2020|archive-dateJuly 6, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200706231744/http://laptop.org/en/vision/project/index.shtml|url-statusdead}}</ref> with which Kay is actively involved. Subsequent work From 1981 to 1984, Kay was Chief Scientist at Atari. In 1984, he became an Apple Fellow. After the closure of the Apple Advanced Technology Group in 1997,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.i-programmer.info/history/8-people/438-alan-kay.html?start1 |titleAlan Kay |dateNovember 13, 2009 |workI Programmer}}</ref> he was recruited by his friend Bran Ferren, head of research and development at Disney, to join Walt Disney Imagineering as a Disney Fellow. He remained there until Ferren left to start Applied Minds Inc with Imagineer Danny Hillis, leading to the cessation of the Fellows program.
In 2001, Kay founded Viewpoints Research Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to children, learning, and advanced software development. For their first ten years, Kay and his Viewpoints group were based at Applied Minds in Glendale, California, where he and Ferren worked on various projects. Kay served as president of the Institute until its closure in 2018.
In 2002 Kay joined HP Labs as a senior fellow,<ref>{{cite news |last1Fordahl |first1Matthew |titleComputer Pioneer Has Joined HP Labs |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-nov-26-fi-hp26-story.html |access-date18 October 2022 |workLos Angeles Times |date26 November 2002}}</ref> departing when HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20, 2005.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://svextra.com/blogs/gmsv/2005/07/hp_converting_s.html |titleHP converting storied garage into recycling center |lastPaczkowski |firstJohn |dateJuly 21, 2005 |workGood Morning Silicon Valley |publisherMedia News Group |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070626093934/http://svextra.com/blogs/gmsv/2005/07/hp_converting_s.html |archive-date=June 26, 2007}}</ref>
He has been an adjunct professor of computer science at the University of California, Los Angeles, a visiting professor at Kyoto University, and an adjunct professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Kay served on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard.
Squeak, Etoys, and Croquet
In December 1995, while still at Apple, Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source Squeak version of Smalltalk. As part of this effort, in November 1996, his team began research on what became the Etoys system. More recently he started, with David A. Smith, David P. Reed, Andreas Raab, Rick McGeer, Julian Lombardi, and Mark McCahill, the Croquet Project, an open-source networked 2D and 3D environment for collaborative work.
Tweak
In 2001, it became clear that the Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do. Andreas Raab, a researcher in Kay's group then at Hewlett-Packard, proposed defining a "script process" and providing a default scheduling mechanism that avoided several more general problems.<ref>{{cite web |lastRaab |firstAndreas |author-linkAndreas Raab |urlhttp://tweakproject.org/ABOUT/FAQ/OriginalTweakMemo/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111002012532/http://tweakproject.org/ABOUT/FAQ/OriginalTweakMemo/ |archive-dateOctober 2, 2011 |titleEvents, Scripts & Multiple Processes |dateJuly 6, 2001 |access-dateJune 7, 2009}}</ref> The result was a new user interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://tweakproject.org/TECHNOLOGY/Whitepapers/ |titleTweak: Whitepapers |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111002012629/http://tweakproject.org/TECHNOLOGY/Whitepapers/ |archive-dateOctober 2, 2011}}</ref> Its underlying object system is class-based, but to users (during programming) it acts as if it were prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows. The Children's Machine In November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new laptop computer for educational use around the world. It has many names, including the $100 Laptop, the One Laptop per Child program, the Children's Machine, and the XO-1. The program was founded and is sustained by Kay's friend Nicholas Negroponte, and is based on Kay's Dynabook ideal. Kay is a prominent co-developer of the computer, focusing on its educational software using Squeak and Etoys. Reinventing programming
Kay has lectured extensively on the idea that the computer revolution is very new, and all of the good ideas have not been universally implemented. His lectures at the OOPSLA 1997 conference, and his ACM Turing Award talk, "The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet", were informed by his experiences with Sketchpad, Simula, Smalltalk, and the bloated code of commercial software.
On August 31, 2006, Kay's proposal to the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) was granted, funding Viewpoints Research Institute for several years. The proposal title was "STEPS Toward the Reinvention of Programming: A compact and Practical Model of Personal Computing as a Self-exploratorium".<ref>{{cite web |last1Kay |first1Alan |last2Ingalls |first2Dan |author2-linkDan Ingalls |last3Ohshima |first3Yoshiki |last4Piumarta |first4Ian |last5Raab |first5Andreas |author5-linkAndreas Raab |urlhttp://www.vpri.org/html/work/NSFproposal.pdf |titleSteps Toward The Reinvention of Programming – A Compact And Practical Model of Personal Computing As A Self-Exploratorium |access-dateMarch 23, 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130508090431/http://www.vpri.org/html/work/NSFproposal.pdf|archive-dateMay 8, 2013|url-statusdead}} Proposal to NSF – Granted on August 31, 2006</ref> STEPS is a recursive acronym that stands for "STEPS Toward Expressive Programming Systems". A sense of what Kay is trying to do comes from this quote, from the abstract of a seminar at Intel Research Labs, Berkeley: "The conglomeration of commercial and most open source software consumes in the neighborhood of several hundreds of millions of lines of code these days. We wonder: how small could be an understandable practical 'Model T' design that covers this functionality? 1M lines of code? 200K LOC? 100K LOC? 20K LOC?"<ref>{{Cite web |lastKay |firstAlan |titleHow Simply and Understandably Could The "Personal Computing Experience" Be Programmed? |urlhttp://www.intel-research.net/berkeley/viewseminarabstract.asp?index605 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070625105727/http://www.intel-research.net/berkeley/viewseminarabstract.asp?index605 |archive-dateJune 25, 2007 |dateNovember 27, 2006}}</ref>Personal life
Kay is a former professional jazz guitarist, composer, and theatrical designer.
He also is an amateur classical pipe organist.<ref>{{cite book |isbn978-0974313115 |languageen |author1Vint Cerf |author2Bran Ferren |author3Greg Harrold |author4Quincy Jones |author5Gordon Bell | display-authorsetal |author1-linkVint Cerf |author2-linkBran Ferren |author4-linkQuincy Jones |author5-linkGordon Bell |titlePoints of View — a tribute to Alan Kay |urlhttps://users.cs.duke.edu/~rodger/articles/AlanKay70thpoints-of-view.pdf |publisherViewpoints Research Institute, Inc., Glendale, California |access-date5 November 2024 |pages173,190-191,205-216,218,228-229 |date2010}}</ref>
Awards and honors
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 240
| header = Alan Kay receiving awards
| image1 = Alan Kay - Receiving the Kyoto Prize.jpg
| caption1 = Kyoto Prize
| image2 = Alan Kay receiving the Turing Award.jpg
| caption2 = Turing Award
}}
Kay has received many awards and honors, including:
* UdK 01-Award in Berlin, Germany for pioneering the GUI;<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.udk-berlin.de/doku/award.html |titleUdK 01-Award |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050528012338/http://www.udk-berlin.de/doku/award.html |archive-date=May 28, 2005}}</ref> J-D Warnier Prix D'Informatique; NEC C&C Prize (2001)
* Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado (2002)
* ACM Turing Award "For pioneering many of the ideas at the root of contemporary object-oriented programming languages, leading the team that developed Smalltalk, and for fundamental contributions to personal computing"<ref name="turingaward"/> (2003)
* Kyoto Prize; Charles Stark Draper Prize with Butler W. Lampson, Robert W. Taylor and Charles P. Thacker<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nae.edu/Activities/Projects/Awards/DraperPrize/PastWinners/page20048879.aspx |title2004 Recipients of the Charles Stark Draper Prize |workNational Academy of Engineering |publisherNational Academy of Sciences}}</ref> (2004)
* UPE Abacus Award, for individuals who have provided extensive support and leadership for student-related activities in the computing and information disciplines (2012)
* Honorary doctorates:
:– Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (Royal Institute of Technology) in Stockholm<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.kth.se/om/fame/hedersdoktorer/1.3974?len |titleHedersdoktorer 2008-1995, inklusive ämnesområden |publisherKTH |languagesv |access-dateJune 7, 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090109102006/http://www.kth.se/om/fame/hedersdoktorer/1.3974?len |archive-dateJanuary 9, 2009}}</ref> (2002)
:– Georgia Institute of Technology<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.whistle.gatech.edu/archives/05/dec/19/dec19.pdf |titleTech forms dual-degree program with Chinese university |dateDecember 19, 2005 |workThe Whistle |publisherGeorgia Institute of Technology|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160701235129/http://www.whistle.gatech.edu/archives/05/dec/19/dec19.pdf|archive-dateJuly 1, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> (2005)
:– Columbia College Chicago awarded Doctor of Humane Letters, Honoris Causa<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://web3.colum.edu/press_releases/archives/005315.php |titleColumbia College Chicago Announces 2005 Commencement Ceremonies |dateMay 10, 2005 |publisherColumbia College Chicago |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120320164915/http://web3.colum.edu/press_releases/archives/005315.php |archive-date=March 20, 2012}}</ref> (2005)
:– Laurea Honoris Causa in Informatica, Università di Pisa, Italy (2007)
:– University of Waterloo<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://newsrelease.uwaterloo.ca/news.php?id4973 |titleUW's convocation graduates 4,378 students, awards 10 honorary degrees |publisherUniversity of Waterloo |dateJune 10, 2008 |access-dateJune 7, 2009}}</ref> (2008)
:– Kyoto University (2009)
:– Universidad de Murcia<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.um.es/informatica/index.php?paginadoctor_honoris_causa_alan_kay |workFacultad de Informática, Universidad de Murcia|titleAlan Curtis Kay: Doctor Honoris Causa|year=2010}}</ref> (2010)
:– University of Edinburgh<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ed.ac.uk/informatics/news-events/stories/alan-kay-receives-honorary-degree-from-informatics |workSchool of Informatics, University of Edinburgh|titleAlan Kay receives an honorary degree from the School of Informatics|year2017}}</ref> (2017)
* <!-- 2004? --> Honorary Professor, Berlin University of the Arts
* Elected fellow of:
:– American Academy of Arts and Sciences
:– National Academy of Engineering for inventing the concept of portable personal computing. (1997)
:– Royal Society of Arts
:– Computer History Museum "for his fundamental contributions to personal computing and human-computer interface development."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.computerhistory.org/fellowawards/hall/bios/Alan,Kay/ |titleAlan Kay: 1999 Fellow Awards Recipient |publisherComputer History Museum |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121003012618/http://www.computerhistory.org/fellowawards/hall/bios/Alan,Kay/ |archive-dateOctober 3, 2012}}</ref> (1999)
:– Association for Computing Machinery "For fundamental contributions to personal computing and object-oriented programming."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://awards.acm.org/award_winners/kay_3972189 |titleACM Fellows|publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery|year2008}}</ref> (2008)
:– Hasso Plattner Institute<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/news/beitrag/-9f25d717d8.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110724070627/http://www.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/news/beitrag/-9f25d717d8.html|archive-dateJuly 24, 2011|url-statusdead|titleAlan Kay as HPI fellow appreciated |dateJuly 21, 2011|languagede}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://tele-task.de/archive/video/flash/14029/ |titleProgramming and Scaling |last1Kay |first1Alan |dateJuly 21, 2011 |publisherHPI Potsdam |locationGermany, Potsdam, Hasso-Plattner Institute}}</ref> (2011)
His other honors include the J-D Warnier Prix d'Informatique, the ACM Systems Software Award, the NEC Computers & Communication Foundation Prize, the Funai Foundation Prize, the Lewis Branscomb Technology Award, and the ACM SIGCSE Award for Outstanding Contributions to Computer Science Education.
See also
* List of pioneers in computer science
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{Sister project links|commonsCategory:Alan Kay|qAlan Kay|vno|wiktno|s=no}}
* [http://www.vpri.org/ Viewpoints Research Institute]
* {{TED speaker}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XnFWlU5Gv8A "There is no information content in Alan Kay" 2012]
* [http://forth.org/POL.pdf Programming a problem-oriented language], an unpublished book, by Charles H. Moore, June 1970
{{Smalltalk programming language}}
{{Turing award}}
{{Charles Stark Draper Prize}}
{{Software engineering}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kay, Alan}}
Category:1940 births
Category:American computer programmers
Category:American computer scientists
Category:Apple Inc. employees
Category:Apple Fellows
Category:Atari people
Category:American computer science educators
Category:Draper Prize winners
Category:Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Category:2008 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Category:Hewlett-Packard people
Category:Human–computer interaction researchers
Category:Living people
Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Category:Open source advocates
Category:Scientists from Springfield, Massachusetts
Category:Programming language designers
Category:Scientists at PARC (company)
Category:Turing Award laureates
Category:University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Category:University of Colorado Boulder alumni
Category:University of Utah alumni
Category:Kyoto laureates in Advanced Technology
Category:Academic staff of the Berlin University of the Arts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Kay | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.210353 |
1451 | APL (programming language) | {{Short description|Functional programming language for arrays}}
{{Distinguish|Address (programming language)}}
{{Infobox programming language
| name = APL
| logo = APL (programming language) logo.svg
| logo size = 130px
| paradigm = Array, functional, structured, modular
| designer = Kenneth E. Iverson
| developer = Larry Breed, Dick Lathwell, Roger Moore, others
| year {{Start date and age|1966|11|27}}<ref name"Birthdate"/>
| latest release version = ISO/IEC 13751:2001
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2001|02|01}}
| typing = Dynamic
| platform = Cross-platform
| license = Proprietary, open source
| website = {{url|https://aplwiki.com/}}
| implementations = {{startflatlist}}
* APL\360
* APL\1130
* APL*Plus
* Sharp APL
* APL2
* Dyalog APL
* NARS2000
* APLX
* GNU APL
{{endflatlist}}
| influenced by = Mathematical notation
| influenced =
{{startflatlist}}
* A and A+
* C++<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/algorithm/iota |titlestd::iota |work=cppreference.com}}</ref>
* FP
* J
* K
* MATLAB
* Nial
* PPL
* Python
* q (kdb)
* S
* Snap!
* Speakeasy
* Wolfram Language
{{endflatlist}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|APL}}
APL (named after the book A Programming Language)<ref name"aplbook">{{Cite Q|Q105954505|urlhttps://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/APROGRAMMING%20LANGUAGE|access-date2023-08-06}}</ref> is a programming language developed in the 1960s by Kenneth E. Iverson. Its central datatype is the multidimensional array. It uses a large range of special graphic symbols<ref>{{cite journal |last1McIntyre |first1Donald B. |titleLanguage as an Intellectual Tool: From Hieroglyphics to APL |journalIBM Systems Journal |date1991 |volume30 |issue4 |pages554–581 |doi10.1147/sj.304.0554 |urlhttp://domino.research.ibm.com/tchjr/journalindex.nsf/e90fc5d047e64ebf85256bc80066919c/9c834f5a16efa82085256bfa00685c72!OpenDocument |access-dateJanuary 9, 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304051735/http://domino.research.ibm.com/tchjr/journalindex.nsf/e90fc5d047e64ebf85256bc80066919c/9c834f5a16efa82085256bfa00685c72!OpenDocument|archive-dateMarch 4, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> to represent most functions and operators, leading to very concise code. It has been an important influence on the development of concept modeling, spreadsheets, functional programming,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id0703524&srtall&aw140&aoAMTURING |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080212043802/https://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id0703524&srtall&aw140&aoAMTURING |archive-dateFebruary 12, 2008 |titleACM Award Citation&nbsp;– John Backus |publisherAwards.acm.org |date1977 |access-dateFebruary 3, 2010}}</ref> and computer math packages.<ref name"mworks"/> It has also inspired several other programming languages.<ref name"jinsp"/><ref name"kinsp"/> History Mathematical notationA mathematical notation for manipulating arrays was developed by Kenneth E. Iverson, starting in 1957 at Harvard University. In 1960, he began work for IBM where he developed this notation with Adin Falkoff and published it in his book A Programming Language in 1962.<ref name"aplbook"/> The preface states its premise:
{{blockquote|Applied mathematics is largely concerned with the design and analysis of explicit procedures for calculating the exact or approximate values of various functions. Such explicit procedures are called algorithms or programs. Because an effective notation for the description of programs exhibits considerable syntactic structure, it is called a programming language.
}}
This notation was used inside IBM for short research reports on computer systems, such as the Burroughs B5000 and its stack mechanism when stack machines versus register machines were being evaluated by IBM for upcoming computers.
Iverson also used his notation in a draft of the chapter A Programming Language, written for a book he was writing with Fred Brooks, Automatic Data Processing, which would be published in 1963.<ref>Iverson, Kenneth E., [http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/Iverson-AutomaticDataProcessing-bilevel.pdf/view "Automatic Data Processing: Chapter 6: A programming language"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090604091847/http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/Iverson-AutomaticDataProcessing-bilevel.pdf/view |dateJune 4, 2009}}, 1960, Draft copy for Brooks and Iverson 1963 book, Automatic Data Processing.</ref><ref>Brooks, Fred; Iverson, Kenneth, (1963), Automatic Data Processing, John Wiley & Sons Inc.</ref>
In 1979, Iverson received the Turing Award for his work on APL.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id9147499&srtall&aw140&aoAMTURING |titleTuring Award Citation 1979 |publisherAwards.acm.org |access-dateFebruary 3, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091223064709/http://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id9147499&srtall&aw140&aoAMTURING |archive-date2009-12-23 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Development into a computer programming language
As early as 1962, the first attempt to use the notation to describe a complete computer system happened after Falkoff discussed with William C. Carter his work to standardize the instruction set for the machines that later became the IBM System/360 family.
In 1963, Herbert Hellerman, working at the IBM Systems Research Institute, implemented a part of the notation on an IBM 1620 computer, and it was used by students in a special high school course on calculating transcendental functions by series summation. Students tested their code in Hellerman's lab. This implementation of a part of the notation was called Personalized Array Translator (PAT).<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hellerman |first1H. |titleExperimental Personalized Array Translator System |journalCommunications of the ACM |volume7 |issue7 |pages433–438 |dateJuly 1964 |doi10.1145/364520.364573 |s2cid2181070 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 1963, Falkoff, Iverson, and Edward H. Sussenguth Jr., all working at IBM, used the notation for a formal description of the IBM System/360 series machine architecture and functionality, which resulted in a paper published in IBM Systems Journal in 1964. After this was published, the team turned their attention to an implementation of the notation on a computer system. One of the motivations for this focus of implementation was the interest of John L. Lawrence who had new duties with Science Research Associates, an educational company bought by IBM in 1964. Lawrence asked Iverson and his group to help use the language as a tool to develop and use computers in education.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Falkoff |first1Adin D. |author1-linkAdin Falkoff |last2Iverson |first2Kenneth E. |author2-linkKenneth E Iverson |dateAugust 1978 |urlhttp://www.jsoftware.com/papers/APLEvol.htm |titleThe Evolution of APL |journalACM SIGPLAN Notices |volume13|issue8 |pages47–57 |doi10.1145/960118.808372 }}</ref>
After Lawrence M. Breed and Philip S. Abrams of Stanford University joined the team at IBM Research, they continued their prior work on an implementation programmed in FORTRAN IV for a part of the notation which had been done for the IBM 7090 computer running on the IBSYS operating system. This work was finished in late 1965 and later named IVSYS (for Iverson system). The basis of this implementation was described in detail by Abrams in a Stanford University Technical Report, "An Interpreter for Iverson Notation" in 1966. The academic aspect of this was formally supervised by Niklaus Wirth.<ref>Abrams, Philip S., [http://infolab.stanford.edu/TR/CS-TR-66-47.html An interpreter for "Iverson notation"], Technical Report: CS-TR-66-47, Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, August 1966;</ref> Like Hellerman's PAT system earlier, this implementation omitted the APL character set, but used special English reserved words for functions and operators. The system was later adapted for a time-sharing system and, by November 1966, it had been reprogrammed for the IBM System/360 Model 50 computer running in a time-sharing mode and was used internally at IBM.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Haigh |first1Thomas |year2005 |titleBiographies: Kenneth E. Iverson |journalIEEE Annals of the History of Computing |doi10.1109/MAHC.2005.4}}</ref>
Hardware
A key development in the ability to use APL effectively, before the wide use of cathode-ray tube (CRT) terminals, was the development of a special IBM Selectric typewriter interchangeable typing element with all the special APL characters on it. This was used on paper printing terminal workstations using the Selectric typewriter and typing element mechanism, such as the IBM 1050 and IBM 2741 terminal. Keycaps could be placed over the normal keys to show which APL characters would be entered and typed when that key was struck. For the first time, a programmer could type in and see proper APL characters as used in Iverson's notation and not be forced to use awkward English keyword representations of them. Falkoff and Iverson had the special APL Selectric typing elements, 987 and 988, designed in late 1964, although no APL computer system was available to use them.<ref name"APLQQ91">Breed, Larry, [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id138094.140933 "The First APL Terminal Session"], APL Quote Quad, Association for Computing Machinery, Volume 22, Number 1, September 1991, p. 2–4.</ref> Iverson cited Falkoff as the inspiration for the idea of using an IBM Selectric typing element for the APL character set.<ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/tdih/?setdate=December 19, 2009 Adin Falkoff] – Computer History Museum. "Iverson credited him for choosing the name APL and the introduction of the IBM golf-ball typewriter with the replacement typehead, which provided the famous character set to represent programs."</ref>
Many APL symbols, even with the APL characters on the Selectric typing element, still had to be typed in by over-striking two extant element characters. An example is the grade up character, which had to be made from a delta (shift-H) and a Sheffer stroke (shift-M). This was necessary because the APL character set was much larger than the 88 characters allowed on the typing element, even when letters were restricted to upper-case (capitals).
Commercial availability
The first APL interactive login and creation of an APL workspace was in 1966 by Larry Breed using an IBM 1050 terminal at the IBM Mohansic Labs near Thomas J. Watson Research Center, the home of APL, in Yorktown Heights, New York.<ref name="APLQQ91"/>
IBM was chiefly responsible for introducing APL to the marketplace. The first publicly available version of APL was released in 1968 for the IBM 1130. IBM provided APL\1130 for free but without liability or support.<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v223/APL_1130.htm |titleHow We Got to APL\1130 |last1Breed |first1Larry |author-linkLarry Breed |journalVector (British APL Association) |volume22 |issue3 |dateAugust 2006 |issn0955-1433 |access-date2007-04-02 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512031437/http://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v223/APL_1130.htm |archive-date2008-05-12 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>[http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/1130/lang/1130-03.3.001_APL_1130_May69.pdf APL\1130 Manual] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110221034650/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/1130/lang/1130-03.3.001_APL_1130_May69.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/1130/lang/1130-03.3.001_APL_1130_May69.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |date=2011-02-21}}, May 1969</ref> It would run in as little as 8k 16-bit words of memory, and used a dedicated 1 megabyte hard disk.
APL gained its foothold on mainframe timesharing systems from the late 1960s through the early 1980s, in part because it would support multiple users on lower-specification systems that had no dynamic address translation hardware.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.quadibloc.com/comp/aplint.htm |titleRemembering APL |publisherQuadibloc.com |access-dateJune 17, 2013}}</ref> Additional improvements in performance for selected IBM System/370 mainframe systems included the APL Assist Microcode in which some support for APL execution was included in the processor's firmware, as distinct from being implemented entirely by higher-level software. Somewhat later, as suitably performing hardware was finally growing available in the mid- to late-1980s, many users migrated their applications to the personal computer environment.
Early IBM APL interpreters for IBM 360 and IBM 370 hardware implemented their own multi-user management instead of relying on the host services, thus they were their own timesharing systems. First introduced for use at IBM in 1966, the APL\360<ref name"IBM APL\360 1968">Falkoff, Adin; Iverson, Kenneth E., [http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/apl/APL_360_Users_Manual_Aug68.pdf "APL\360 Users Guide"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120229200744/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/apl/APL_360_Users_Manual_Aug68.pdf |date2012-02-29}}, IBM Research, Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, August 1968.</ref><ref>[http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/apl/APL_360_Terminal_System_Mar67.pdf "APL\360 Terminal System"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100711092528/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/apl/APL_360_Terminal_System_Mar67.pdf |date2010-07-11}}, IBM Research, Thomas J. Watson Research Center, March 1967.</ref><ref name"apl360">{{cite book |last1Pakin |first1Sandra |titleAPL\360 Reference Manual |publisherScience Research Associates, Inc. |year1968 |isbn978-0-574-16135-2}}</ref> system was a multi-user interpreter. The ability to programmatically communicate with the operating system for information and setting interpreter system variables was done through special privileged "I-beam" functions, using both monadic and dyadic operations.<ref>Falkoff, Adin D.; Iverson, Kenneth E.,[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/174/ibmrd1704F.pdf The Design of APL], IBM Journal of Research and Development, Volume 17, Number 4, July 1973. "These environmental defined functions were based on the use of still another class of functions—called "I-beams" because of the shape of the symbol used for them—which provide a more general facility for communication between APL programs and the less abstract parts of the system. The I-beam functions were first introduced by the system programmers to allow them to execute System/360 instructions from within APL programs, and thus use APL as a direct aid in their programming activity. The obvious convenience of functions of this kind, which appeared to be part of the language, led to the introduction of the monadic I-beam function for direct use by anyone. Various arguments to this function yielded information about the environment such as available space and time of day."</ref>
In 1973, IBM released APL.SV, which was a continuation of the same product, but which offered shared variables as a means to access facilities outside of the APL system, such as operating system files. In the mid-1970s, the IBM mainframe interpreter was even adapted for use on the IBM 5100 desktop computer, which had a small CRT and an APL keyboard, when most other small computers of the time only offered BASIC. In the 1980s, the VSAPL program product enjoyed wide use with Conversational Monitor System (CMS), Time Sharing Option (TSO), VSPC, MUSIC/SP, and CICS users.
In 1973–1974, Patrick E. Hagerty directed the implementation of the University of Maryland APL interpreter for the 1100 line of the Sperry UNIVAC 1100/2200 series mainframe computers.<ref>{{cite report |last1Minker |first1Jack |titleBeginning of Computing and Computer Sciences at the University of Maryland |urlhttp://www.cs.umd.edu/department/dept-history/minker-report.pdf |publisherUniversity of Maryland |access-dateMay 23, 2011 |section2.3.4 Computer Software Developments in the CSC, 1962–1973 |page38 |dateJanuary 2004 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110610064807/http://www.cs.umd.edu/department/dept-history/minker-report.pdf |archive-dateJune 10, 2011}}</ref> In 1974, student Alan Stebbens was assigned the task of implementing an internal function.<ref>{{cite web |last1Stebbens |first1Alan |titleHow it all began |urlhttp://lathwellproductions.ca/wordpress/film |access-date2011-05-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304000314/http://lathwellproductions.ca/wordpress/film |archive-date2016-03-04 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Xerox APL was available from June 1975 for Xerox 560 and Sigma 6, 7, and 9 mainframes running CP-V and for Honeywell CP-6.<ref>{{cite web |titleXerox APL Language and Operations Reference Manual |urlhttp://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/197506_Xerox%20APL%20Language%20and%20Operations%20Reference%20Manual_90131C.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/197506_Xerox%20APL%20Language%20and%20Operations%20Reference%20Manual_90131C.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In the 1960s and 1970s, several timesharing firms arose that sold APL services using modified versions of the IBM APL\360<ref name="apl360"/> interpreter. In North America, the better-known ones were IP Sharp Associates, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation (STSC), Time Sharing Resources (TSR), and The Computer Company (TCC). CompuServe also entered the market in 1978 with an APL Interpreter based on a modified version of Digital Equipment Corp and Carnegie Mellon's, which ran on DEC's KI and KL 36-bit machines. CompuServe's APL was available both to its commercial market and the consumer information service. With the advent first of less expensive mainframes such as the IBM 4300, and later the personal computer, by the mid-1980s, the timesharing industry was all but gone.
Sharp APL was available from IP Sharp Associates, first as a timesharing service in the 1960s, and later as a program product starting around 1979. Sharp APL was an advanced APL implementation with many language extensions, such as packages (the ability to put one or more objects into a single variable), a file system, nested arrays, and shared variables.
APL interpreters were available from other mainframe and mini-computer manufacturers also, notably Burroughs, Control Data Corporation (CDC), Data General, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Harris, Hewlett-Packard (HP), Siemens, Xerox and others.
Garth Foster of Syracuse University sponsored regular meetings of the APL implementers' community at Syracuse's Minnowbrook Conference Center in Blue Mountain Lake, New York. In later years, Eugene McDonnell organized similar meetings at the Asilomar Conference Grounds near Monterey, California, and at Pajaro Dunes near Watsonville, California. The SIGAPL special interest group of the Association for Computing Machinery continues to support the APL community.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/ |titleSIGAPL |publisherSigapl.org |access-dateJune 17, 2013}}</ref>
Microcomputers
On microcomputers, which became available from the mid-1970s onwards, BASIC became the dominant programming language.<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://time.com/69316/basic/|titleFifty Years of BASIC, the Programming Language That Made Computers Personal|dateApril 29, 2014|magazineTime |access-dateApril 29, 2018}}</ref> Nevertheless, some microcomputers provided APL instead – the first being the Intel 8008-based MCM/70 which was released in 1974<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c346 |titleMCM Computers M70/M700|websiteold-computers.com|access-dateApril 8, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180403063223/http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c346|archive-dateApril 3, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1Stachniak|first1Stachniak |date2011|titleInventing the PC: The MCM/70 Story|publisherMcGill Queens's University Press |isbn978-0-7735-3852-8|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcyWOA2FED7EC}}</ref> and which was primarily used in education.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Miller |first1Michael |dateDecember 17, 2014 |titlePCs That Paved the Way for the Altair |urlhttp://uk.pcmag.com/opinion/38348/opinion/pcs-that-paved-the-way-for-the-altair |magazinePC Magazine|publisherZiff Davis |access-dateApril 29, 2018}}</ref> Another machine of this time was the VideoBrain Family Computer, released in 1977, which was supplied with its dialect of APL called APL/S.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idOQEAAAAAMBAJ&qvideobrain+family+computer+apl%2Fs&pg=PA133/s "VideoBrain Family Computer"], Popular Science, November 1978, advertisement.</ref>
The Commodore SuperPET, introduced in 1981, included an APL interpreter developed by the University of Waterloo.<ref>{{cite magazine |dateDecember 1981 |titleA Look at SuperPet |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/1981-12-compute-magazine/Compute_Issue_019_1981_Dec#page/n131/mode/2up |magazineCompute! |publisherSmall System Services Inc |access-dateApril 29, 2018}}</ref>
In 1976, Bill Gates claimed in his Open Letter to Hobbyists that Microsoft Corporation was implementing APL for the Intel 8080 and Motorola 6800 but had "very little incentive to make [it] available to hobbyists" because of software piracy.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Gates |first1Bill |dateJanuary 31, 1976 |titleAn Open Letter to Hobbyists |magazineHomebrew Computer Club Newsletter |urlhttp://www.digibarn.com/collections/newsletters/homebrew/V2_01/index.html |access-dateApril 29, 2018}}</ref> It was never released. APL2 Starting in the early 1980s, IBM APL development, under the leadership of Jim Brown, implemented a new version of the APL language that contained as its primary enhancement the concept of nested arrays, where an array can contain other arrays, and new language features which facilitated integrating nested arrays into program workflow. Ken Iverson, no longer in control of the development of the APL language, left IBM and joined I. P. Sharp Associates, where one of his major contributions was directing the evolution of Sharp APL to be more in accord with his vision.<ref>{{cite web |last1Hui |first1Roger |titleRemembering Ken Iverson |urlhttp://keiapl.org/rhui/remember.htm|websitekeiapl.org|publisherKEIAPL |access-dateJanuary 10, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |websiteACM A.M. Turing Award |titleKenneth E. Iverson |urlhttp://amturing.acm.org/award_winners/iverson_9147499.cfm |publisherACM |access-dateJanuary 10, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAPL2: The Early Years: Can you and should you compromise on technical issues? |websiteSIGPLAN Chapter on Array-Programming Languages |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/Articles/JimBrown-TechCompromise.php |publisherACM |access-dateJanuary 10, 2015}}</ref> APL2 was first released for CMS and TSO in 1984.<ref name"FalkoffIBMFamily">{{cite journal |titleThe IBM family of APL systems |first1Adin D. |last1Falkoff |s2cid19030940 |year1991 |journalIBM Systems Journal |volume30 |issue4 |pages416–432 |doi10.1147/sj.304.0416}}</ref> The APL2 Workstation edition (Windows, OS/2, AIX, Linux, and Solaris) followed later.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.edm2.com/index.php/IBM_APL2 |titleIBM APL2 |websiteEDM2 |date2019-10-09 |access-date2021-11-17 |archive-date2021-11-17 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211117121942/http://www.edm2.com/index.php/IBM_APL2 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAPL2: What's New |urlhttp://www-01.ibm.com/support/docview.wss?uidswg22012321 |websiteibm.com |publisherIBM |access-date=April 22, 2018}}</ref>
As other vendors were busy developing APL interpreters for new hardware, notably Unix-based microcomputers, APL2 was almost always the standard chosen for new APL interpreter developments. Even today, most APL vendors or their users cite APL2 compatibility as a selling point for those products.<ref>{{cite web|last1Micro APL|titleOverview of the APL System |urlhttps://microapl.com/apl/apl_concepts_chapter1.html |websitemicroapl.com|publisherMicro APL|access-dateJanuary 10, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Robertson |first1Graeme |titleA Personal View of APL2010 |urlhttp://archive.vector.org.uk/art10500450|websitearchive.vector.org.uk |publisherVector – Journal of the British APL Association |access-dateJanuary 10, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402093211/http://archive.vector.org.uk/art10500450 |archive-dateApril 2, 2015 |url-statusdead}}</ref> IBM cites its use for problem solving, system design, prototyping, engineering and scientific computations, expert systems,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Rodriguez |first1P. |last2Rojas |first2J. |last3Alfonseca |first3M. |last4Burgos |first4J. I. |titleAn Expert System in Chemical Synthesis written in APL2/PC |journalACM SIGAPL APL Quote Quad |date1989 |volume19 |issue4 |pages299–303 |doi10.1145/75144.75185 |s2cid16876053}}</ref> for teaching mathematics and other subjects, visualization and database access.<ref>{{cite web |titleAPL2: A Programming Language for Problem Solving, Visualization and Database Access|urlhttp://www-03.ibm.com/software/products/en/apl2|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131122133145/http://www-03.ibm.com/software/products/en/apl2|url-statusdead|archive-dateNovember 22, 2013|websitewww-03.ibm.com|publisherIBM|access-dateJanuary 10, 2015}}</ref>
Modern implementations
Various implementations of APL by APLX, Dyalog, et al., include extensions for object-oriented programming, support for .NET, XML-array conversion primitives, graphing, operating system interfaces, and lambda calculus expressions. Freeware versions include GNU APL for Linux and NARS2000 for Windows (which also runs on Linux under Wine). Both of these are fairly complete versions of APL2 with various language extensions.
Derivative languages
APL has formed the basis of, or influenced, the following languages:{{citation needed|reasonNot contesting these statements at all; some of them are nearly self-evident (J and K, for example), but still, WP quality standards require sources|dateFebruary 2020}}
* A and A+, an alternative APL, the latter with graphical extensions.
* FP, a functional programming language.
* Ivy, an interpreter for an APL-like language developed by Rob Pike, and which uses ASCII as input.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://godoc.org/robpike.io/ivy |titleIvy |last1Pike |first1Rob |date2018-03-25 |websiteGoDoc |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190813210651/https://godoc.org/robpike.io/ivy|archive-date2019-08-13}}</ref>
* J, which was also designed by Iverson, and which uses ASCII with digraphs instead of special symbols.<ref name"jinsp">{{cite web |last1Hui |first1Roger |urlhttp://www.jsoftware.com/jwiki/Essays/Bibliography |titleA Bibliography of APL and J |websitejsoftware.com/jwiki |access-date=March 2, 2010}}</ref>
* K, a proprietary variant of APL developed by Arthur Whitney.<ref name"kinsp">{{cite web |urlhttp://kx.com/Company/press-releases/arthur-interview.php |titleAn Interview with Arthur Whitney |publisherKx Systems |dateJanuary 4, 2004 |access-dateMarch 2, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090404064737/http://kx.com/Company/press-releases/arthur-interview.php |archive-date=April 4, 2009}}</ref>
* MATLAB, a numerical computation tool.<ref name"mworks">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mathworks.com/company/newsletters/news_notes/clevescorner/jan06.pdf |titleThe Growth of MATLAB |last1Moler |first1Cleve |access-dateFebruary 3, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090411120119/http://www.mathworks.com/company/newsletters/news_notes/clevescorner/jan06.pdf |archive-date=April 11, 2009}}</ref>
* Nial, a high-level array programming language with a functional programming notation.
* Polymorphic Programming Language, an interactive, extensible language with a similar base language.
* S, a statistical programming language (usually now seen in the open-source version known as R).
* Snap!, a low-code block-based programming language, born as an extended reimplementation of Scratch
* Speakeasy, a numerical computing interactive environment.
* Wolfram Language, the programming language of Mathematica.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.wolfram.com/language/faq/|titleWolfram Language FAQ|quoteLISP and APL were two early influences|publisherWolfram|access-dateFebruary 20, 2020}}</ref> Language characteristics Character set {{Main|APL (codepage)|APL syntax and symbols#Monadic functions|l2syntax and symbols}}
APL has been criticized and praised for its choice of a unique character set. In the 1960s and 1970s, few terminal devices or even displays could reproduce the APL character set. The most popular ones employed the IBM Selectric print mechanism used with a special APL type element. One of the early APL line terminals (line-mode operation only, not full screen) was the Texas Instruments TI Model 745 ({{circa|1977}}) with the full APL character set<ref>{{cite journal |author1Texas Instruments |titleTI 745 full page ad: Introducing a New Set of Characters |journalComputerworld |date1977 |volume11 |issue27 |page32 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwMe6erbb5V4C&qapl%20terminal%20%22texas%20instruments%22&pgPA32 |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015}}</ref> which featured half and full duplex telecommunications modes, for interacting with an APL time-sharing service or remote mainframe to run a remote computer job, remote job entry (RJE).
Over time, with the universal use of high-quality graphic displays, printing devices and Unicode support, the APL character font problem has largely been eliminated. However, entering APL characters requires the use of input method editors, keyboard mappings, virtual/on-screen APL symbol sets,<ref name"FontsKeys">{{cite web |author1<!-- Unstated --> |date2004–2024 |titleAPL Fonts and Keyboards |urlhttps://www.dyalog.com/apl-font-keyboard.htm |websiteDyalog, Ltd. |access-dateNovember 1, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Smith |first1Bob |urlhttp://www.sudleyplace.com/APL/Keyboard.ahtml |titleNARS2000 Keyboard |websitewww.sudleyplace.com |publisherBob Smith; NARS2000 |access-dateJanuary 19, 2015}}</ref> or easy-reference printed keyboard cards which can frustrate beginners accustomed to other programming languages.<ref>{{cite web |titleIntroduction to APL – APL Symbols |websitewww.microapl.co.uk |publisherMicroAPL Ltd |urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/apl/introduction_chapter1.html |access-dateJanuary 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Brown |first1James A. |last2Hawks |first2Brent |last3Trimble |first3Ray |date1993 |titleExtending the APL character set |journalACM SIGAPL APL Quote Quad |volume24 |issue1 |pages41–46 |doi10.1145/166198.166203}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Kromberg |first1Morten |titleUnicode Support for APL |urlhttp://archive.vector.org.uk/art10500090 |websitearchive.vector.org.uk |publisherVector, Journal of the British APL Association |access-dateJanuary 8, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150120194338/http://archive.vector.org.uk/art10500090|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2015 |url-statusdead}}</ref> With beginners who have no prior experience with other programming languages, a study involving high school students found that typing and using APL characters did not hinder the students in any measurable way.<ref>{{cite web |last1Hsu |first1Aaron |titleComputer Science Outreach and Education with APL |urlhttp://video.dyalog.com/Dyalog13/?vkIItfQJEVdM |publisherDyalog, Ltd. |access-dateJuly 15, 2016 |archive-dateAugust 17, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160817061145/http://video.dyalog.com/Dyalog13/?vkIItfQJEVdM |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In defense of APL, it requires fewer characters to type, and keyboard mappings become memorized over time. Special APL keyboards are also made and in use today, as are freely downloadable fonts for operating systems such as Microsoft Windows.<ref name"FontsKeys"/> The reported productivity gains assume that one spends enough time working in the language to make it worthwhile to memorize the symbols, their semantics, keyboard mappings, and many idioms for common tasks.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2015}}
Design
Unlike traditionally structured programming languages, APL code is typically structured as chains of monadic or dyadic functions, and operators<ref name"MicroAOL_Operators">{{cite web|last1MicroAPL|titleOperators|urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/apl/apl_concepts_chapter5.html|websitewww.microapl.co.uk|publisherMicroAPL|access-dateJanuary 12, 2015}}</ref> acting on arrays.<ref>{{cite web|last1Primitive Functions|titlePrimitive Functions|urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/apl_help/ch_020_010_140.htm|websitewww.microapl.co.uk/|access-dateJanuary 1, 2015}}</ref> APL has many nonstandard primitives (functions and operators) that are indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols. All primitives are defined to have the same precedence, and always associate to the right. Thus, APL is read or best understood from right-to-left.
Early APL implementations ({{circa|1970}} or so) had no programming loop control flow structures, such as <code>do</code> or <code>while</code> loops, and <code>if-then-else</code> constructs. Instead, they used array operations, and use of structured programming constructs was often unneeded, since an operation could be performed on a full array in one statement. For example, the <code>iota</code> function (<code>ι</code>) can replace for-loop iteration: ιN when applied to a scalar positive integer yields a one-dimensional array (vector), 1 2 3&nbsp;... N. Later APL implementations generally include comprehensive control structures, so that data structure and program control flow can be clearly and cleanly separated.
The APL environment is called a workspace. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e., the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can also manipulate the data without having to define a program.<ref>{{cite web|last1Workspace|titleThe Workspace|urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/apl/apl_concepts_chapter2.html|websitewww.microapl.co.uk|access-date=January 1, 2015}}</ref> In the examples below, the APL interpreter first types six spaces before awaiting the user's input. Its own output starts in column one.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| width"240pt" | <syntaxhighlight lang"apl"> n ← 4 5 6 7</syntaxhighlight>
| Assigns vector of values, {4 5 6 7}, to variable <code>n</code>, an array create operation. An equivalent yet more concise APL expression would be <syntaxhighlight lang="apl" inline>n ← 3 + ⍳4</syntaxhighlight>. Multiple values are stored in array <code>n</code>, the operation performed without formal loops or control flow language.
|-
| <syntaxhighlight lang="apl"> n
4 5 6 7</syntaxhighlight>
| Display the contents of <code>n</code>, currently an array or vector.
|-
| <syntaxhighlight lang="apl"> n+4
8 9 10 11</syntaxhighlight>
| 4 is now added to all elements of vector <code>n</code>, creating a 4-element vector {8 9 10 11}.<br/> As above, APL's interpreter displays the result because the expression's value was not assigned to a variable (with a <code>←</code>).
|-
| <syntaxhighlight lang="apl"> +/n
22</syntaxhighlight>
| APL displays the sum of components of the vector <code>n</code>, i.e., <code>22 (= 4 + 5 + 6 + 7)</code> using a very compact notation: read +/ as "plus, over..." and a slight change would be "multiply, over..."
|-
| <syntaxhighlight lang="apl"> m ← +/3+⍳4
m
22</syntaxhighlight>
| These operations can be combined into one statement, remembering that APL evaluates expressions right to left: first <syntaxhighlight lang"apl" inline>⍳4</syntaxhighlight> creates an array, <syntaxhighlight lang"apl" inline>[1,2,3,4]</syntaxhighlight>, then 3 is added to each component, which are summed together and the result stored in variable <code>m</code>, finally displayed. In normal mathematical notation, it is equivalent to: <math>\displaystyle m\sum\limits_{i1}^4 (i+3)</math>. Recall that mathematical expressions are not read or evaluated from right-to-left.
|}
The user can save the workspace with all values, programs, and execution status.
APL uses a set of non-ASCII symbols, which are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. Having single character names for single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector functions is one way that APL enables compact formulation of algorithms for data transformation such as computing Conway's Game of Life in one line of code.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://catpad.net/michael/apl |titleexample |publisherCatpad.net |access-dateJune 17, 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130708114840/http://catpad.net/michael/apl/ |archive-dateJuly 8, 2013}}</ref> In nearly all versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is, in one line of code.{{citation needed|dateMay 2021}}
Due to the unusual character set, many programmers use special keyboards with APL keytops to write APL code.<ref>{{cite web|titleEntering APL Symbols |urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/apl/introduction_chapter2.html |websitewww.microapl.co.uk|access-dateJanuary 1, 2015}}</ref> Although there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters,<ref>{{cite web |last1Dickey |first1Lee |urlhttp://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/apl_archives/apl/translit.schemes |titleA list of APL Transliteration Schemes |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060929174125/http://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/apl_archives/apl/translit.schemes |archive-date2006-09-29 |date1993}}</ref> in practice it is almost never done. (This may be thought to support Iverson's thesis about notation as a tool of thought.<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.jsoftware.com/papers/tot.htm |last1Iverson |first1K.E. |titleNotation as a Tool of Thought |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130920071911/http://www.jsoftware.com/papers/tot.htm |archive-date2013-09-20 |journalCommunications of the ACM |volume23 |pages444–465 |dateAugust 1980|issue8 |doi=10.1145/358896.358899}}</ref>) Most if not all modern implementations use standard keyboard layouts, with special mappings or input method editors to access non-ASCII characters. Historically, the APL font has been distinctive, with uppercase italic alphabetic characters and upright numerals and symbols. Most vendors continue to display the APL character set in a custom font.
Advocates of APL{{Who|dateMarch 2015}} claim that the examples of so-called write-only code (badly written and almost incomprehensible code) are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language. Advocates also claim that they are far more productive with APL than with more conventional computer languages, and that working software can be implemented in far less time and with far fewer programmers than using other technology.{{citation needed|dateDecember 2019}}
They also may claim that because it is compact and terse, APL lends itself well to larger-scale software development and complexity, because the number of lines of code can be reduced greatly. Many APL advocates and practitioners also view standard programming languages such as COBOL and Java as being comparatively tedious. APL is often found where time-to-market is important, such as with trading systems.<ref>{{cite web |last1Batenburg |titleAPL Efficiency |urlhttp://www.ekevanbatenburg.nl/PRVAPL.HTML |websitewww.ekevanbatenburg.nl |access-dateJanuary 1, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Vaxman |titleAPL Great Programming |urlhttp://www.vaxman.de/publications/apl_slides.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.vaxman.de/publications/apl_slides.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websitewww.vaxman.de |access-dateJanuary 1, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Janko |first1Wolfgang |titleInvestigation into the efficiency of using APL for the programming of an inference machine |journalACM SIGAPL APL Quote Quad|dateMay 1987 |volume17 |issue4 |pages450–456 |doi10.1145/384282.28372}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Borealis |titleWhy APL? |urlhttp://www.aplborealis.com/whyapl.html |websitewww.aplborealis.com |access-dateJanuary 1, 2015}}</ref> Terminology APL makes a clear distinction between functions and operators.<ref name"MicroAOL_Operators"/><ref>{{cite web |last1Iverson |first1Kenneth E. |author-linkKenneth E. Iverson |year1987 |titleA Dictionary of APL |urlhttp://www.jsoftware.com/papers/APLDictionary.htm |websitewww.jsoftware.com |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015}}</ref> Functions take arrays (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return arrays as results. Operators (similar to higher-order functions) take functions or arrays as arguments, and derive related functions. For example, the sum function is derived by applying the reduction operator to the addition function. Applying the same reduction operator to the maximum function (which returns the larger of two numbers) derives a function which returns the largest of a group (vector) of numbers. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms verb for function and adverb or conjunction for operator.
APL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as primitives. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some versions of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment.
Some words used in APL literature have meanings that differ from those in both mathematics and the generality of computer science.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Terminology of APL operators
|-
!scope="col"| Term
!scope="col"| Description
|-
!scope="row"| function
| operation or mapping that takes zero, one (right) or two (left & right) arguments which may be scalars, arrays, or more complicated structures, and may return a similarly complex result. A function may be:
* Primitive: built-in and represented by a single glyph;<ref name"aplxch6">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/APL/apl_concepts_chapter6.html |titleAPL concepts |publisherMicroapl.co.uk |access-date=February 3, 2010}}</ref>
* Defined: as a named and ordered collection of program statements;<ref name="aplxch6"/>
* Derived: as a combination of an operator with its arguments.<ref name="aplxch6"/>
|-
!scope="row"| array
| data valued object of zero or more orthogonal dimensions in row-major order in which each item is a primitive scalar datum or another array.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nial.com/ArrayTheory.html |titleNested array theory |publisherNial.com |access-dateFebruary 3, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110709072354/http://www.nial.com/ArrayTheory.html |archive-date2011-07-09 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"| niladic
| not taking or requiring any arguments, nullary<ref name="Bohman_Froberg">"Programmera i APL", Bohman, Fröberg, Studentlitteratur, {{ISBN|91-44-13162-3}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"| monadic
| requiring only one argument; on the right for a function, on the left for an operator, unary<ref name="Bohman_Froberg"/>
|-
!scope="row"| dyadic
| requiring both a left and a right argument, binary<ref name="Bohman_Froberg"/>
|-
!scope="row"| ambivalent<br/>or&nbsp;monadic
| capable of use in a monadic or dyadic context, permitting its left argument to be elided{{Definition needed|dateFebruary 2024}}<ref name"aplxch6"/>
|-
!scope="row"| operator
| operation or mapping that takes one (left) or two (left & right) function or array valued arguments (operands) and derives a function. An operator may be:
* Primitive: built-in and represented by a single glyph;<ref name="aplxch6"/>
* Defined: as a named and ordered collection of program statements.<ref name="aplxch6"/>
|}
Syntax
{{Main|APL syntax and symbols}}
APL has explicit representations of functions, operators, and syntax, thus providing a basis for the clear and explicit statement of extended facilities in the language, and tools to experiment on them.<ref>{{cite web |last1Iverson |first1Kenneth E. |author-linkKenneth E. Iverson |titleAPL Syntax and Semantics |urlhttp://www.jsoftware.com/papers/APLSyntaxSemantics.htm |websitewww.jsoftware.com |date1983 |publisherI. P. Sharp Associates |access-dateJanuary 11, 2015}}</ref> Examples Hello, world
This displays "Hello, world":
<syntaxhighlight lang="apl">
'Hello, world'
</syntaxhighlight>
A design theme in APL is to define default actions in some cases that would produce syntax errors in most other programming languages.
The 'Hello, world' string constant above displays, because display is the default action on any expression for which no action is specified explicitly (e.g. assignment, function parameter).
Exponentiation
Another example of this theme is that exponentiation in APL is written as {{code|2*3}}, which indicates raising 2 to the power 3 (this would be written as {{code|2^3}} or {{code|2**3}} in some languages, or relegated to a function call such as {{code|pow(2, 3);}} in others). Many languages use {{code|*}} to signify multiplication, as in {{code|2*3}}, but APL chooses to use {{code|2×3}}. However, if no base is specified (as with the statement {{code|*3}} in APL, or {{code|^3}} in other languages), most programming languages one would see this as a syntax error. APL, however, assumes the missing base to be the natural logarithm constant e, and interprets {{code|*3}} as {{code|2.71828*3}}.
Simple statistics
Suppose that {{code|X}} is an array of numbers. Then {{code|(+/X)÷⍴X}} gives its average. Reading right-to-left, {{code|⍴X}} gives the number of elements in X, and since {{code|÷}} is a dyadic operator, the term to its left is required as well. It is surrounded by parentheses since otherwise X would be taken (so that the summation would be of {{code|X÷⍴X}}—each element of X divided by the number of elements in X), and {{code|+/X}} gives the sum of the elements of X. Building on this, the following expression computes standard deviation: {{sxhl|2=apl|((+/((X - (+/X)÷⍴X)*2))÷⍴X)*0.5}}
Naturally, one would define this expression as a function for repeated use rather than rewriting it each time. Further, since assignment is an operator, it can appear within an expression, so the following would place suitable values into T, AV and SD: {{sxhl|2apl|SD←((+/((X - AV←(T←+/X)÷⍴X)*2))÷⍴X)*0.5}} Pick 6 lottery numbers
This following immediate-mode expression generates a typical set of Pick 6 lottery numbers: six pseudo-random integers ranging from 1 to 40, guaranteed non-repeating, and displays them sorted in ascending order:
<syntaxhighlight lang="apl">
x[⍋x←6?40]
</syntaxhighlight>
The above does a lot, concisely, although it may seem complex to a new APLer. It combines the following APL functions (also called primitives<ref>{{cite web|last1MicroAPL|titleAPL Primitives |urlhttp://www.microapl.co.uk/apl_help/ch_020_020.htm |websitewww.microapl.co.uk |publisherMicroAPL |access-dateJanuary 11, 2015}}</ref> and glyphs<ref>{{cite web |titleAPL Font – Extra APL Glyphs |websitewiki.nars2000.org |urlhttp://wiki.nars2000.org/index.php/APL_Font |publisherNARS2000 |access-date=January 11, 2015}}</ref>):
* The first to be executed (APL executes from rightmost to leftmost) is dyadic function <code>?</code> (named <code>deal</code> when dyadic) that returns a vector consisting of a select number (left argument: 6 in this case) of random integers ranging from 1 to a specified maximum (right argument: 40 in this case), which, if said maximum ≥ vector length, is guaranteed to be non-repeating; thus, generate/create 6 random integers ranging from 1 to 40.<ref>{{cite web |last1Fox |first1Ralph L. |titleSystematically Random Numbers |publisherSIGAPL |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/article1.php |websitewww.sigapl.org |access-date=January 11, 2015}}</ref>
* This vector is then assigned (<code>←</code>) to the variable <code>x</code>, because it is needed later.
* This vector is then sorted in ascending order by a monadic <code>⍋</code> function, which has as its right argument everything to the right of it up to the next unbalanced close-bracket or close-parenthesis. The result of <code>⍋</code> is the indices that will put its argument into ascending order.
* Then the output of <code>⍋</code> is used to index the variable <code>x</code>, which we saved earlier for this purpose, thereby selecting its items in ascending sequence.
Since there is no function to the left of the left-most x to tell APL what to do with the result, it simply outputs it to the display (on a single line, separated by spaces) without needing any explicit instruction to do that.
<code>?</code> also has a monadic equivalent called <code>roll</code>, which simply returns one random integer between 1 and its sole operand [to the right of it], inclusive. Thus, a role-playing game program might use the expression <code>?20</code> to roll a twenty-sided die.
Prime numbers
The following expression finds all prime numbers from 1 to R. In both time and space, the calculation complexity is <math>O(R^2)\,\!</math> (in Big O notation).
<syntaxhighlight lang="apl">
(~R∊R∘.×R)/R←1↓⍳R
</syntaxhighlight>
Executed from right to left, this means:
* Iota <code>⍳</code> creates a vector containing integers from <code>1</code> to <code>R</code> (if <code>R= 6</code> at the start of the program, <code>⍳R</code> is <code>1 2 3 4 5 6</code>)
* Drop first element of this vector (<code>↓</code> function), i.e., <code>1</code>. So <code>1↓⍳R</code> is <code>2 3 4 5 6</code>
* Set <code>R</code> to the new vector (<code>←</code>, assignment primitive), i.e., <code>2 3 4 5 6</code>
* The <code>/</code> replicate operator is dyadic (binary) and the interpreter first evaluates its left argument (fully in parentheses):
* Generate outer product of <code>R</code> multiplied by <code>R</code>, i.e., a matrix that is the multiplication table of R by R (<code>°.×</code> operator), i.e.,
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right;"
|-
| 4
| 6
| 8
| 10
| 12
|-
| 6
| 9
| 12
| 15
| 18
|-
| 8
| 12
| 16
| 20
| 24
|-
| 10
| 15
| 20
| 25
| 30
|-
| 12
| 18
| 24
| 30
| 36
|}
* Build a vector the same length as <code>R</code> with <code>1</code> in each place where the corresponding number in <code>R</code> is in the outer product matrix (<code>∈</code>, set inclusion or element of or Epsilon operator), i.e., <code>0 0 1 0 1</code>
* Logically negate (not) values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (<code>∼</code>, logical not or Tilde operator), i.e., <code>1 1 0 1 0</code>
* Select the items in <code>R</code> for which the corresponding element is <code>1</code> (<code>/</code> replicate operator), i.e., <code>2 3 5</code>
(This assumes the APL origin is 1, i.e., indices start with 1. APL can be set to use 0 as the origin, so that <code>ι6</code> is <code>0 1 2 3 4 5</code>, which is convenient for some calculations.)
Sorting
The following expression sorts a word list stored in matrix X according to word length:
<syntaxhighlight lang="apl">
X[⍋X+.≠' ';]
</syntaxhighlight>
Game of Life
The following function "life", written in Dyalog APL,<ref>{{cite AV media |authorlinkJohn M. Scholes |last1Scholes |first1John |dateJanuary 26, 2009 |titleConway's Game of Life in APL |mediumvideo |urlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?va9xAKttWgP4 |location|publisherYouTube|access-date=November 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>Further technical details in [https://aplwiki.com/wiki/Conway%27s_Game_of_Life APL Wiki's article "Conway's Game of Life"]. Retrieved November 20, 2021.</ref> takes a Boolean matrix and calculates the new generation according to Conway's Game of Life. It demonstrates the power of APL to implement a complex algorithm in very little code, but understanding it requires some advanced knowledge of APL (as the same program would in many languages).
<syntaxhighlight lang="apl">
life ← {⊃1 ⍵ ∨.∧ 3 4 = +/ +⌿ ¯1 0 1 ∘.⊖ ¯1 0 1 ⌽¨ ⊂⍵}
</syntaxhighlight>
HTML tags removal
In the following example, also Dyalog, the first line assigns some HTML code to a variable <code>txt</code> and then uses an APL expression to remove all the HTML tags:
<syntaxhighlight lang="apl">
txt←'<html><body><p>This is <em>emphasized</em> text.</p></body></html>'
{⍵ /⍨ ~{⍵∨≠\⍵}⍵∊'<>'} txt
This is emphasized text.
</syntaxhighlight>
Naming
APL derives its name from the initials of Iverson's book A Programming Language,<ref name="aplbook"/> even though the book describes Iverson's mathematical notation, rather than the implemented programming language described in this article. The name is used only for actual implementations, starting with APL\360.
Adin Falkoff coined the name in 1966 during the implementation of APL\360 at IBM:
{{Blockquote|text=As I walked by the office the three students shared, I could hear sounds of an argument going on. I poked my head in the door, and Eric asked me, "Isn't it true that everyone knows the notation we're using is called APL?" I was sorry to have to disappoint him by confessing that I had never heard it called that. Where had he got the idea it was well known? And who had decided to call it that? In fact, why did it have to be called anything? Quite a while later I heard how it was named. When the implementation effort started in June of 1966, the documentation effort started, too. I suppose when they had to write about "it", Falkoff and Iverson realized that they would have to give "it" a name. There were probably many suggestions made at the time, but I have heard of only two. A group in SRA in Chicago which was developing instructional materials using the notation was in favor of the name "Mathlab". This did not catch on. Another suggestion was to call it "Iverson's Better Math" and then let people coin the appropriate acronym. This was deemed facetious.
<p>Then one day Adin Falkoff walked into Ken's office and wrote "A Programming Language" on the board, and underneath it the acronym "APL". Thus it was born. It was just a week or so after this that Eric Iverson asked me his question, at a time when the name hadn't yet found its way the thirteen miles up the Taconic Parkway from IBM Research to IBM Mohansic.</p>|authorEugene McDonnell|source<ref>McDonnell, E.E. The [https://code.jsoftware.com/wiki/Doc/A_Source_Book_in_APL#origins introduction to A Source Book in APL], APL Press, 1981. ([http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Papers/ASourceBookInAPL/view full book scan])</ref>}}
APL is occasionally re-interpreted as Array Programming Language or Array Processing Language,<ref>Acharya, R; Pereira, (904567457)
N.E. [https://courses.cs.vt.edu/~cs5314/Lang-Paper-Presentation/Papers/HoldPapers/APL.pdf#page3 APL Programming Language] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211103210435/https://courses.cs.vt.edu/~cs5314/Lang-Paper-Presentation/Papers/HoldPapers/APL.pdf#page3 |date2021-11-03}}. Paper for CS5314 (Concepts of Programming Languages) at Virginia Tech.</ref> thereby making APL into a backronym.
Logo
There has always been cooperation between APL vendors, and joint conferences were held on a regular basis from 1969 until 2010.<ref>APL Wiki. [https://aplwiki.com/wiki/APL_conference APL Conference]. Retrieved 13 Oct 2021.</ref> At such conferences, APL merchandise was often handed out, featuring APL motifs or collection of vendor logos. Common were apples (as a pun on the similarity in pronunciation of apple and APL) and the code snippet {{code|2=apl|⍺*⎕}} which are the symbols produced by the classic APL keyboard layout when holding the APL modifier key and typing "APL".
Despite all these community efforts, no universal vendor-agnostic logo for the programming language emerged. As popular programming languages increasingly have established recognisable logos, Fortran getting one in 2020,<ref>Jacob Williams. Degenerate Conic: [http://degenerateconic.com/new-blood/ New Blood]. Retrieved 13 Oct 2021.</ref> British APL Association launched a campaign in the second half of 2021, to establish such a logo for APL, and after a community election and multiple rounds of feedback, a logo was chosen in May 2022.<ref>APL Wiki. [https://aplwiki.com/wiki/APL_logo APL logo]. Retrieved 20 May 2022.</ref>
Use
APL is used for many purposes including financial and insurance applications,<ref name"simcorp"/> artificial intelligence,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Lee |first1Georges |last2Lelouche |first2Ruddy |last3Meissonnier |first3Vincent |last4Zarri |first4Gian Piero |titleUsing APL in an Artificial Intelligence environment |journalACM SIGAPL APL Quote Quad |dateSeptember 1, 1982 |volume13 |issue1 |pages183–191 |doi10.1145/390006.802242 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/234789115 |access-dateApril 3, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Fordyce |first1K. |last2Sullivan |first2G. |titleArtificial Intelligence Development Aids |journalAPL Quote Quad |date1985 |seriesAPL 85 Conf. Proc. |issue15 |doi10.1145/255315.255347 |pages106–113 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
neural networks<ref>{{cite journal |last1Alfonseca |first1Manuel |titleNeural networks in APL |journalACM SIGAPL APL Quote Quad |dateJuly 1990 |volume20 |issue4 |pages2–6 |doi10.1145/97811.97816 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/220731305 |access-dateApril 3, 2018 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
and robotics.<ref>{{cite web |last1Kromberg |first1Morten |titleRobot Programming in APL |websitewww.dyalog.com/ |urlhttp://begriffs.com/posts/2014-11-26-robots-in-apl.html |access-dateJanuary 6, 2015}}</ref> It has been argued that APL is a calculation tool and not a programming language;<ref>{{cite journal |last1Holmes| first1W.N. |dateMay 1978| titleIs APL a Programming Language? |journalThe Computer Journal| volume21 |issue2 |pages128–131 |doi10.1093/comjnl/21.2.128 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> its symbolic nature and array capabilities have made it popular with domain experts and data scientists<ref name"Hsu">{{cite web |last1Hsu |first1Aaron |urlhttps://confengine.com/functional-conf-2017/proposal/4620/design-patterns-vs-anti-pattern-in-apl |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180323152845/https://confengine.com/functional-conf-2017/proposal/4620/design-patterns-vs-anti-pattern-in-apl |url-statusdead |archive-dateMarch 23, 2018 |titleDesign Patterns vs. Anti-pattern in APL |dateNovember 18, 2017 |websitefunctionalconf.com |access-date2018-04-07}}</ref> who do not have or require the skills of a computer programmer.{{citation needed|dateMay 2022}}
APL is well suited to image manipulation and computer animation, where graphic transformations can be encoded as matrix multiplications. One of the first commercial computer graphics houses, Digital Effects, produced an APL graphics product named Visions, which was used to create television commercials and animation for the 1982 film Tron.<ref>{{cite book |last1Magnenat-Thalmann |first1Nadia |last2Thalmann |first2Daniel |date1985 |titleComputer Animation Theory and Practice |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idneGoCAAAQBAJ&pgPA38 |publisherSpringer-Verlag |page38 |isbn9784431684336 |quoteDigital Effects is another production house that worked on Tron. They used a laser-scanning system to digitize, store and reproduce images. Judson Rosebush, president of Digital Effects, is the primary designer of APL VISION and FORTRAN VISION, two computer animation packages that are currently used. |access-dateApril 3, 2018}}</ref> Latterly, the [https://stormwind.fi/en/ Stormwind] boating simulator uses APL to implement its core logic, its interfacing to the rendering pipeline middleware and a major part of its physics engine.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.optima-systems.co.uk/stormwind-simulator-dyalog-16 |titleStormwind Simulator at Dyalog '16 |last1Gutsell |first1Sam |dateOctober 17, 2017 |websitewww.optima-systems.co.uk |publisherOptima Systems |access-dateApril 3, 2018 |quote=Stormwind is a [3D boating simulator] that has gained a huge amount of interest in the APL community.}}</ref>
Today, APL remains in use in a wide range of commercial and scientific applications, for example
investment management,<ref name"simcorp">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.simcorp.com/-/media/files/investor/annual-reports/simcorp-annual-report-2017.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.simcorp.com/-/media/files/investor/annual-reports/simcorp-annual-report-2017.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|title2017 Annual Report|dateFebruary 1, 2018|publisherSimCorp|access-dateApril 3, 2018|quoteSofia is a front-to-back investment management platform like SimCorp Dimension.&nbsp;... Sofia is based on the APL coding language just like some parts of SimCorp Dimension.}}</ref>
asset management,<ref>{{cite web|titleOP-Pohjola ja Tieto hoitivat sovelluksen muutostyöt sujuvalla yhteistyöllä |urlhttps://www.tieto.com/sites/default/files/migrated/documents/Case_OP-Pohjola_fi2806.pdf |access-dateApril 3, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.tieto.com/sites/default/files/migrated/documents/Case_OP-Pohjola_fi2806.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statusdead |websitewww.tieto.com |publisherTieto |languagefi |trans-titleSmooth cooperation between OP-Pohjola and Tieto enabled app modification}}{{Dead link|dateAugust 2019 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes}}</ref>{{Citation needed|dateFebruary 2024|reason=Prior source is deadlink.}}
health care,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://profdoccare.se/var-ide/om-oss/vi-idag/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180407183212/http://profdoccare.se/var-ide/om-oss/vi-idag/|url-statusdead|archive-dateApril 7, 2018|titleVi idag|websiteprofdoccare.se|access-dateApril 3, 2018|languagesv|trans-titleWe today|quoteThrough the choice of APL as a technical platform, it is relatively easy to quickly build a solution that can be called a executable prototype (translated from the original)}}</ref>
and DNA profiling.<ref>{{cite web |last1Brenner |first1Charles |titleDNA Identification Technology and APL |urlhttp://dna-view.com/DNAtechID.htm |websitedna-view.com |publisherPresentation at the 2005 APL User Conference |access-dateJanuary 9, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Brenner |first1Charles |titleThere's DNA Everywhere – an Opportunity for APL |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?voXlP3r6PzeE |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/oXlP3r6PzeE| archive-date2021-11-14 |url-statuslive |websitewww.youtube.com |date17 October 2014 |publisherYouTube|access-dateJanuary 9, 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Notable implementations APL\360 The first implementation of APL using recognizable APL symbols was APL\360 which ran on the IBM System/360, and was completed in November 1966<ref name"Birthdate">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jsoftware.com/papers/APLQA.htm#APL_birthday |titleAPL Quotations and Anecdotes |websitejsoftware.com |access-dateApril 14, 2018}}</ref> though at that time remained in use only within IBM.<ref name"FalkoffIBMFamily"/> In 1973 its implementors, Larry Breed, Dick Lathwell and Roger Moore, were awarded the Grace Murray Hopper Award from the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). It was given "for their work in the design and implementation of APL\360, setting new standards in simplicity, efficiency, reliability and response time for interactive systems."<ref>{{cite web |titleAwards – 1973 – Lawrence Breed |publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery |urlhttp://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id0694605&srtall&aw145&aoGMHOPPER&yr1973 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120402212031/http://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id0694605&srtall&aw145&aoGMHOPPER&yr1973 |archive-dateApril 2, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAwards – 1973 – Richard Lathwell|publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery |urlhttp://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id3412588&srtall&aw145&aoGMHOPPER&yr1973 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120402212035/http://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id3412588&srtall&aw145&aoGMHOPPER&yr1973 |archive-dateApril 2, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAwards – 1973 – Roger Moore|publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery |urlhttp://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id4987585&srtall&aw145&aoGMHOPPER&yr1973 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120402212037/http://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id4987585&srtall&aw145&aoGMHOPPER&yr1973 |archive-date=April 2, 2012}}</ref>
In 1975, the IBM 5100 microcomputer offered APL\360<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c795 |titleIBM 5100 |websiteold-computers.com|access-dateApril 8, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180430050157/http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c795|archive-dateApril 30, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> as one of two built-in ROM-based interpreted languages for the computer, complete with a keyboard and display that supported all the special symbols used in the language.<ref name"byte197512">{{cite magazine| urlhttps://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1975-12/1975_12_BYTE_00-04_Assembling_an_Altair#page/n91/mode/2up |titleWelcome, IBM, to personal computing |magazineByte |dateDecember 1975 |access-dateApril 29, 2018 |pages90}}</ref>
Significant developments to APL\360 included CMS/APL, which made use of the virtual storage capabilities of CMS and APLSV, which introduced shared variables, system variables and system functions. It was subsequently ported to the IBM System/370 and VSPC platforms until its final release in 1983, after which it was replaced by APL2.<ref name"FalkoffIBMFamily"/> APL\1130 In 1968, APL\1130 became the first publicly available APL system, created by IBM for the IBM 1130.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/APLChronology.php |titleChronology of APL and its Influences on Computer Language Development |websitewww.sigapl.org |publisherACM |access-dateApril 29, 2018}}</ref> It became the most popular IBM Type-III Library software that IBM released.<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v223/APL_1130.htm |titleHow We Got To APL\1130 |authorLarry Breed |author-linkLawrence M. Breed |journalVector (British APL Association) |volume22 |issue3 |dateAugust 2006 |issn0955-1433 |access-dateApril 29, 2018 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512031437/http://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v223/APL_1130.htm |archive-dateMay 12, 2008}}</ref> APL*Plus and Sharp APL
{{Main|I. P. Sharp Associates|Scientific Time Sharing Corporation}}
APL*Plus and Sharp APL are versions of APL\360 with added business-oriented extensions such as data formatting and facilities to store APL arrays in external files. They were jointly developed by two companies, employing various members of the original IBM APL\360 development team.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://rogerdmoore.ca/INF/ERInstallationHistory.htm |titleHistory of I. P. Sharp Associates Timesharing and Network |authorRoger Moore |author-linkRoger Moore (computer scientist) |date2005<!-- Not in article. Found on webpage of links above-before article page. --> |websiteRogerdmoore.ca |publisherRoger Moore |access-dateMarch 7, 2018 |archive-dateApril 4, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404053142/http://www.rogerdmoore.ca/INF/ERInstallationHistory.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>
The two companies were I. P. Sharp Associates (IPSA), an APL\360 services company formed in 1964 by Ian Sharp, Roger Moore and others, and STSC, a time-sharing and consulting service company formed in 1969 by Lawrence Breed and others. Together the two developed APL*Plus and thereafter continued to work together but develop APL separately as APL*Plus and Sharp APL. STSC ported APL*Plus to many platforms with versions being made for the VAX 11,<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Blumenthal |first1Marcia |dateMay 18, 1981 |titleVAX-11s Acquire APL Processor|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMCFtKT_NaYIC&qvax%20apl&pgPA2|magazineComputerworld|access-date April 22, 2018}}</ref> PC and UNIX, whereas IPSA took a different approach to the arrival of the personal computer and made Sharp APL available on this platform using additional PC-XT/360 hardware. In 1993, Soliton Incorporated was formed to support Sharp APL and it developed Sharp APL into SAX (Sharp APL for Unix). {{as of|2018}}, APL*Plus continues as APL2000 APL+Win.
In 1985, Ian Sharp, and Dan Dyer of STSC, jointly received the Kenneth E. Iverson Award for Outstanding Contribution to APL.<ref name"IversonAwards"/>APL2APL2 was a significant re-implementation of APL by IBM which was developed from 1971 and first released in 1984. It provides many additions to the language, of which the most notable is nested (non-rectangular) array support.<ref name"FalkoffIBMFamily"/> The entire APL2 Products and Services Team was awarded the Iverson Award in 2007.<ref name="IversonAwards"/>
In 2021, IBM sold APL2 to Log-On Software, who develop and sell the product as Log-On APL2.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://log-on.com/2021/01/26/log-on-software-announces-log-on-apl2/|titleLog-On Software announces Log-On APL2|date2021-01-26|authorMark Schora |websiteLog-On Software|access-date2021-11-17}}</ref>
APLGOL
In 1972, APLGOL was released as an experimental version of APL that added structured programming language constructs to the language framework. New statements were added for interstatement control, conditional statement execution, and statement structuring, as well as statements to clarify the intent of the algorithm.<ref>{{cite journal | authorKelley, R.A.|titleAPLGOL, an Experimental Structured Programming Language|year1973 |journalIBM Journal of Research and Development|volume17 |pages69–73 |doi10.1147/rd.171.0069 |urlhttps://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5391426/authors#authors}}</ref> It was implemented for Hewlett-Packard in 1977.<ref>{{cite web | authorJohnston, Ronald L.|titleAPLGOL: Structured Programming Facilities for APL|dateJuly 1977 |publisherHewlett-Packard Journal|urlhttps://archive.org/details/Hewlett-Packard_Journal_Vol._28_No._11_1977-07_Hewlett-Packard/page/n9/mode/2up}}</ref> Dyalog APL Dyalog APL was first released by British company Dyalog Ltd.<ref>{{cite web |titleDyalog Ltd website |urlhttps://www.dyalog.com/ |access-date6 June 2018}}</ref> in 1983<ref>{{Cite journal|title Dyalog at 25|journal Vector Magazine|publisher British APL Association|date September 2008|url http://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v234b/d25.pdf|access-date April 14, 2018}}{{Dead link|dateApril 2019 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> and, {{as of|2018|lcy}}, is available for AIX, Linux (including on the Raspberry Pi), macOS and Microsoft Windows platforms. It is based on APL2, with extensions to support object-oriented programming,<ref>{{cite book |authorKromberg, Morten|titleProceedings of the 2007 symposium on Dynamic languages |chapterArrays of objects |date22 October 2007|page20|doi10.1145/1297081.1297087|s2cid18484472|chapter-urlhttps://www.dyalog.com/uploads/documents/Papers/Arrays%20of%20Objects.pdf |isbn9781595938688 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.dyalog.com/uploads/documents/Papers/Arrays%20of%20Objects.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|access-date27 August 2018}}</ref> functional programming,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://archive.vector.org.uk/art10007770 |titleD: A functional subset of Dyalog APL |last1Scholes |first1John |publisherBritish APL Association}}</ref> and tacit programming.<ref>{{cite web |titleTranslation of D-functions into tacit form |last1Scholes |first1John |publisherDyalog Ltd. |urlhttps://dfns.dyalog.com/n_tacit.htm}}</ref> Licences are free for personal/non-commercial use.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.dyalog.com/prices-and-licences.htm#basiclic |title=Dyalog – Prices and Licences}}</ref>
In 1995, two of the development team – John Scholes and Peter Donnelly – were awarded the Iverson Award for their work on the interpreter.<ref name"IversonAwards">{{cite web |titleKenneth E. Iverson Award for Outstanding Contribution to APL|publisherSIGPLAN Chapter on Array Programming Languages (SIGAPL) |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/award.htm|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120226063703/http://www.sigapl.org/award.htm|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2012}}</ref> Gitte Christensen and Morten Kromberg were joint recipients of the Iverson Award in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title2016 Iverson Award Recognises Dyalog's CEO and CXO |urlhttp://www.dyalog.com/dyalogue-newsletters.htm?nl27&a158 |access-date6 June 2018}}</ref>
NARS2000
NARS2000 is an open-source APL interpreter written by Bob Smith, a prominent APL developer and implementor from STSC in the 1970s and 1980s. NARS2000 contains advanced features and new datatypes and runs natively on Microsoft Windows, and other platforms under Wine. It is named after a development tool from the 1980s, NARS (Nested Arrays Research System).<ref name"NARS2000">{{cite web |titleNested Arrays Research System – NARS2000: An Experimental APL Interpreter |urlhttp://www.nars2000.org/ |websiteNARS2000 |publisherSudley Place Software |access-dateJuly 10, 2015}}</ref>
APLX
APLX is a cross-platform dialect of APL, based on APL2 and with several extensions, which was first released by British company MicroAPL in 2002. Although no longer in development or on commercial sale it is now available free of charge from Dyalog.<ref>{{cite web |titleAPLX has been withdrawn from commercial sale but can be downloaded free of charge|urlhttp://microapl.com/apl/|publisherMicroapl.com|access-dateApril 14, 2018}}</ref>
York APL
York APL<ref name"YorkAPL">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/YorkAPL |titleYork APL}}</ref> was developed at the York University, Ontario around 1968, running on IBM 360 mainframes. One notable difference between it and APL\360 was that it defined the "shape" (ρ) of a scalar as 1 whereas APL\360 defined it as the more mathematically correct 0 — this made it easier to write functions that acted the same with scalars and vectors. GNU APL GNU APL is a free implementation of Extended APL as specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001 and is thus an implementation of APL2. It runs on Linux, macOS, several BSD dialects, and on Windows (either using Cygwin for full support of all its system functions or as a native 64-bit Windows binary with some of its system functions missing). GNU APL uses Unicode internally and can be scripted. It was written by Jürgen Sauermann.<ref name"GNU">{{cite web |urlhttp://directory.fsf.org/wiki/GNU_APL |titleGNU APL|websitedirectory.fsf.org |publisherFree Software Directory |access-date=September 28, 2013}}</ref>
Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU Project, was an early adopter of APL, using it to write a text editor as a high school student in the summer of 1969.<ref name"Berättar">{{cite web|last1Stallman|first1Richard M. |urlhttp://www.lysator.liu.se/history/garb/txt/87-2-rms.txt |titleRMS Berättar|access-dateApril 22, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181126072301/http://www.lysator.liu.se/history/garb/txt/87-2-rms.txt|archive-dateNovember 26, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> Interpretation and compilation of APL APL is traditionally an interpreted language, having language characteristics such as weak variable typing not well suited to compilation.<ref>{{cite book |last1Budd |first1Timothy |titleAn APL Compiler |publisherSpringer-Verlag |year1988 |isbn978-0-387-96643-4 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrTb2BwAAQBAJ&pgPA1}}</ref> However, with arrays as its core data structure<ref>{{cite web |titleWhat is APL? |websitewww.sigapl.org |publisherSIGAPL |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/about.php |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015}}</ref> it provides opportunities for performance gains through parallelism,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ju |first1Dz-Ching |last2Ching |first2Wai-Mee |titleExploitation of APL data parallelism on a shared-memory MIMD machine |journalNewsletter ACM SIGPLAN Notices |date1991 |volume26 |issue7 |pages61–72 |doi10.1145/109625.109633 |s2cid8584353}}</ref> parallel computing,<ref>{{cite web |last1Hsu |first1Aaron W. |last2Bowman |first2William J. |titleRevisiting APL in the Modern Era |urlhttp://www.cs.princeton.edu/~dpw/obt/abstracts/obt12_submission_11.pdf |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~dpw/obt/abstracts/obt12_submission_11.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websitewww.cs.princeton.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Ching |first1W.-M. |last2Ju |first2D. |titleExecution of automatically parallelized APL programs on RP3 |journalIBM Journal of Research & Development |date1991 |volume35 |issue5/6 |pages767–777 |urlhttp://domino.research.ibm.com/tchjr/journalindex.nsf/c469af92ea9eceac85256bd50048567c/f892e104dfc4d0fd85256bfa0067fb42!OpenDocument |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015 |doi10.1147/rd.355.0767 |archive-dateMarch 3, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303231727/http://domino.research.ibm.com/tchjr/journalindex.nsf/c469af92ea9eceac85256bd50048567c/f892e104dfc4d0fd85256bfa0067fb42!OpenDocument |url-statusdead}}</ref> massively parallel applications,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Blelloch |first1Guy E. |last2Sabot |first2Gary W. |titleCompiling Collection-Oriented Languages onto Massively Parallel Computers |journalJournal of Parallel and Distributed Computing |volume8 |issue2 |citeseerx10.1.1.51.5088 |pages119–134 |quoteCollection oriented languages include APL, APL2 |year1990 |doi10.1016/0743-7315(90)90087-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Jendrsczok |first1Johannes |last2Hoffmann |first2Rolf |last3Ediger |first3Patrick |last4Keller |first4Jörg |titleImplementing APL-like data parallel functions on a GCA machine |pages1–6 |urlhttps://www.fernuni-hagen.de/imperia/md/content/fakultaetfuermathematikundinformatik/pv/97-08/papergca_09_1_.pdf |websitewww.fernuni-hagen.de |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |quoteGCA – Global Cellular Automation. Inherently massively parallel. 'APL has been chosen because of the ability to express matrix and vector' structures. |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150122211834/https://www.fernuni-hagen.de/imperia/md/content/fakultaetfuermathematikundinformatik/pv/97-08/papergca_09_1_.pdf |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |url-statusdead}}</ref> and very-large-scale integration (VLSI),<ref>{{cite book |last1Brenner |first1Norman |chapterVLSI circuit design using APL with fortran subroutines |titleProceedings of the international conference on APL - APL '84 |date1984 |volume14 |issue4 |pages77–79 |doi10.1145/800058.801079 |isbn0-89791-137-7 |quoteAPL for interactiveness and ease of coding |s2cid30863491}}<br/>{{*}}{{cite book |last1Brenner |first1Norman |date1984 |titleProceedings of the international conference on APL – APL '84 |chapterVLSI circuit design using APL with fortran subroutines |publisherACM SIGAPL |isbn978-0897911375}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi10.1109/PACRIM.1989.48437 |quoteVLSI module generators are described. APL and C, as examples of interpreted and compiled languages, can be interfaced to an advanced graphics display. |chapterTowards a graphics/Procedural environment for constructing VLSI module generators |titleConference Proceeding IEEE Pacific Rim Conference on Communications, Computers and Signal Processing |pages606–611 |year1989 |last1Gamble |first1D.J. |last2Hobson |first2R.F. |s2cid7921438}}</ref> and from the outset APL has been regarded as a high-performance language<ref>{{cite journal |last1Lee |first1Robert S. |titleTwo Implementations of APL |journalPC Magazine |date1983 |volume2 |issue5 |page379 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqURs4j9vKn4C&q%22IBM%20APL%27s%20fast%20execution%22&pgPA379 |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015}}</ref> – for example, it was noted for the speed with which it could perform complicated matrix operations "because it operates on arrays and performs operations like matrix inversion internally".<ref>{{cite web |websiteMARTHA and LLAMA |titleThe APL Computer Language |urlhttp://marthallama.org/apl/ |access-dateJanuary 20, 2015 |archive-dateFebruary 13, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150213004709/http://marthallama.org/apl/ |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Nevertheless, APL is rarely purely interpreted and compilation or partial compilation techniques that are, or have been, used include the following:
Idiom recognition
Most APL interpreters support idiom recognition<ref>{{cite book |last1Metzger |first1Robert |last2Wen |first2Zhaofang |titleAutomatic Algorithm Recognition and Replacement: A New Approach to Program Optimization |publisherThe MIT press |year2000 |isbn9780262133685 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu38h_fV3UqgC&pgPA12 |access-dateMay 6, 2018}}</ref> and evaluate common idioms as single operations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Snyder |first1Lawrence |date1982 |titleRecognition and Selection of Idioms for Code Optimization |journalActa Informatica |volume17 |issue3 |doi10.1007/BF00264357 |s2cid8369972}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1Cheng |first1Feng Sheng |date1981 |titleIdiom matching: an optimization technique for an APL compiler |urlhttps://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article7896&contextrtd |publisherIowa State University |access-dateMay 6, 2018}}</ref> For example, by evaluating the idiom <code>BV/⍳⍴A</code> as a single operation (where <code>BV</code> is a Boolean vector and <code>A</code> is an array), the creation of two intermediate arrays is avoided.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://help.dyalog.com/16.0/Content/Language/Defined%20Functions%20and%20Operators/Idiom%20Recognition/Idiom%20Recognition.htm |titleIdiom Recognition |publisherdyalog.com |access-dateMay 6, 2018}}</ref>
Optimised bytecode
Weak typing in APL means that a name may reference an array (of any datatype), a function or an operator. In general, the interpreter cannot know in advance which form it will be and must therefore perform analysis, syntax checking etc. at run-time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Strawn |first1George O. |dateMarch 1977 |titleDoes APL really need run-time parsing? |journalSoftware: Practice and Experience |volume7 |issue2 |pages193–200 |doi10.1002/spe.4380070207 |s2cid1463012}}</ref> However, in certain circumstances, it is possible to deduce in advance what type a name is expected to reference and then generate bytecode which can be executed with reduced run-time overhead. This bytecode can also be optimised using compilation techniques such as constant folding or common subexpression elimination.<ref name"DyalogCompiler">{{cite web|titleCompiler User Guide|urlhttp://docs.dyalog.com/16.0/Compiler%20User%20Guide.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://docs.dyalog.com/16.0/Compiler%20User%20Guide.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websitewww.dyalog.com|publisherDyalog Ltd.|access-dateMay 7, 2018}}</ref> The interpreter will execute the bytecode when present and when any assumptions which have been made are met. Dyalog APL includes support for optimised bytecode.<ref name"DyalogCompiler"/>
Compilation
Compilation of APL has been the subject of research and experiment since the language first became available; the first compiler is considered to be the Burroughs APL-700<ref name="DriscollOrth">
{{cite journal |last1Driscoll |first1Graham C. Jr. |last2Orth |first2Donald L. |s2cid2299699 |dateNovember 1986 |titleCompiling APL: The Yorktown APL Translator |journalIBM Journal of Research and Development |volume30 |issue6 |pages583–593 |doi10.1147/rd.306.0583}}</ref> which was released around 1971.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sigapl.org/APLChronology.php |titleChronology of APL |websitewww.sigapl.org| publisherACM |access-dateMay 7, 2018}}</ref> In order to be able to compile APL, language limitations have to be imposed.<ref name"DriscollOrth"/><ref>
{{cite journal |last1Wai-Mee |first1Ching |s2cid17306407 |dateNovember 1986 |titleProgram Analysis and Code Generation in an APL/370 Compiler|journalIBM Journal of Research and Development |volume30 |issue6 |pages594–602 |doi10.1147/rd.306.0594}}</ref> APEX is a research APL compiler which was written by Robert Bernecky and is available under the GNU General Public License.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe APEX Project |url http://www.snakeisland.com/apexup.htm}}</ref>
The STSC APL Compiler is a hybrid of a bytecode optimiser and a compiler – it enables compilation of functions to machine code provided that its sub-functions and globals are declared, but the interpreter is still used as a runtime library and to execute functions which do not meet the compilation requirements.<ref>{{cite web |titleAPL Compiler (message from Jim Weigang to the comp.lang.apl Newsgroup) |url http://www.chilton.com/~jimw/aplcomp.html |dateApr 5, 1994}}</ref> Standards APL has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) working group X3J10 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001. References {{reflist|30em}} Further reading * [https://www-public.slac.stanford.edu/sciDoc/docMeta.aspx?slacPubNumberslac-r-114 An APL Machine] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240127023607/https://www-public.slac.stanford.edu/sciDoc/docMeta.aspx?slacPubNumberslac-r-114 |date=2024-01-27}} (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams)
* [https://sigapl.org/Articles/MichaelMontalbanoPersonalViewOfAPL.php A Personal History Of APL] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231107115811/http://sigapl.org/Articles/MichaelMontalbanoPersonalViewOfAPL.php |date2023-11-07}} (1982 article by Michael S. Montalbano)
* {{cite journal |urlhttps://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004N.pdf |titleLanguage as an intellectual tool: From hieroglyphics to APL |year1991 |first1Donald B. |last1McIntyre |journalIBM Systems Journal |volume30 |issue4 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060504050437/http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004N.pdf |archive-dateMay 4, 2006 |doi10.1147/sj.304.0554 |pages554–581}}
* {{cite journal |urlhttps://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004O.pdf |titleA Personal view of APL |year1991 |first1Kenneth E. |last1Iverson |author-linkKenneth E. Iverson |journalIBM Systems Journal |volume30 |issue4 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080227012149/http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004O.pdf |archive-dateFebruary 27, 2008 |doi10.1147/sj.304.0582 |pages=582–593}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141027152546/http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Books/APROGRAMMING%20LANGUAGE/view A Programming Language] by Kenneth E. Iverson
* [https://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/apl/Papers/197201_APL%20In%20Exposition_320-3010.pdf/view APL in Exposition] by Kenneth E. Iverson
* Brooks, Frederick P.; Kenneth Iverson (1965). Automatic Data Processing, System/360 Edition. {{ISBN|0-471-10605-4}}.
* {{cite book |last1Askoolum |first1Ajay |titleSystem Building with APL + Win |date August 2006 |publisherWiley |isbn978-0-470-03020-2}}
* {{cite journal |urlhttp://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/032/falkoff.pdf |titleA Formal Description of System/360 |first1Adin D. |last1Falkoff |first2Kenneth E. |last2Iverson |author-link2Kenneth E. Iverson |first3Edward H. |last3Sussenguth |author-link3Edward H. Sussenguth |journalIBM Systems Journal |volume3 |issue2 |year1964 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080227012111/http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/032/falkoff.pdf |archive-dateFebruary 27, 2008 |doi10.1147/sj.32.0198 |pages198–261}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastWexelblat |editor-firstRichard L |titleHistory of Programming Languages: Proceedings of the History of Programming Languages Conference, Los Angeles, Calif., June 1-3, 1978 |chapterXIV |isbn978-0127450407 |year1981|publisher=Academic Press}}
* {{cite book |last1Banon |first1Gerald Jean Francis |titleBases da Computacao Grafica |publisherCampus |locationRio de Janeiro |year1989 |page=141}}
* {{cite book |last1LePage |first1Wilbur R. |titleApplied A.P.L. Programming |publisherPrentice Hall |year=1978}}
* {{cite journal |dateNovember 2003 |last1Mougin |first1Philippe |last2Ducasse |first2Stephane |titleOOPAL: Integrating array programming in object-oriented programming |journalACM SIGPLAN Notices |volume38 |issue11 |pages65–77 |doi10.1145/949343.949312 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061114145417/http://www.fscript.org/documentation/OOPAL.pdf |archive-dateNovember 14, 2006 |url=http://www.fscript.org/documentation/OOPAL.pdf}}
* {{cite book |urlhttp://www.dyalog.dk/whatsnew/OO4APLERS.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071004214341/http://www.dyalog.dk/whatsnew/OO4APLERS.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-dateOctober 4, 2007 |titleAn Introduction to Object Oriented Programming For APL Programmers |publisherDyalog Limited |date=September 2006}}
* {{cite web |titleThe APL Programming Language Source Code |first1Len |last1Shustek |dateOctober 10, 2012 |publisherComputer History Museum (CHM) |urlhttp://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/the-apl-programming-language-source-code/#A-Taste-of-APL |access-dateSeptember 6, 2017 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170906205616/http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/the-apl-programming-language-source-code/ |archive-dateSeptember 6, 2017}}
* {{cite book |titleAdvanced Logical Circuit Design Techniques |first1Antonín |last1Svoboda |author-link1Antonín Svoboda (computer scientist) |first2Donnamaie E. |last2White |date2016 |orig-year2012, 1985, 1979-08-01 |editionretyped electronic reissue |publisherGarland STPM Press (original issue) / WhitePubs Enterprises, Inc. (reissue) |lccn78-31384 |isbn978-0-8240-7014-4<!-- 1990 1st issue --> |urlhttp://www.donnamaie.com/Advanced_logic_ckt/Advanced_Logical_Circuit_Design_Techniques%20sm.pdf |access-date2017-04-15 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170414163013/http://www.donnamaie.com/Advanced_logic_ckt/Advanced_Logical_Circuit_Design_Techniques%20sm.pdf |archive-date2017-04-14}} [http://www.donnamaie.com/<!-- https://web.archive.org/web/20170415220158/http://www.donnamaie.com/ -->] [https://books.google.com/books?idg3uzAAAAIAAJ]
Video
* {{YouTube|id8kUQWuK1L4w|titleThe Origins of APL}} – a 1974 talk show style interview with the original developers of APL.
* {{YouTube|id_DTpQ4Kk2wA|titleAPL demonstration}} – a 1975 live demonstration of APL by Professor Bob Spence, Imperial College London.
* {{YouTube|ida9xAKttWgP4|titleConway's Game Of Life in APL}} – a 2009 tutorial by John Scholes of Dyalog Ltd. which implements Conway's Game of Life in a single line of APL.
* {{YouTube|idra_JyBCI4Xg|title50 Years of APL}} – a 2009 introduction to APL by Graeme Robertson.
External links
{{Commons category}}
Online resources
* [https://tryapl.org/ TryAPL.org], an online APL primer
* [http://www.apl2c.de/home/Links/links.html APL2C], a source of links to APL compilers
{{APL programming language}}
{{Programming languages}}
{{ISO standards}}
{{List of International Electrotechnical Commission standards}}
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Category:Articles with example code | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_(programming_language) | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.259359 |
1453 | ALGOL | {{Short description|Family of programming languages}}
{{About|the programming language family||Algol (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox programming language
| name = ALGOL
| logo = 1965 ALGOL-20 A Language Manual, Fierst et al - cover.jpg
| logo caption = A 1965 manual for ALGOL-20
| paradigm = Procedural, imperative, structured
| family = ALGOL
| designers = Bauer, Bottenbruch, Rutishauser, Samelson, Backus, Katz, Perlis, Wegstein, Naur, Vauquois, van Wijngaarden, Woodger, Green, McCarthy
| released = {{Start date and age|1958}}
| typing = Static, strong
| scope = Lexical
| implementations | influenced Most subsequent imperative languages (including so-called ALGOL-like languages)<br/>e.g. PL/I, Simula, Pascal, C and Scheme
}}
ALGOL ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|g|ɒ|l|,_|-|g|ɔː|l}}; short for "Algorithmic Language")<ref>The name of this language family is sometimes given in mixed case ([http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm Algol 60] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070625171638/http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm |date25 June 2007}}), and sometimes in all uppercase ([https://www.cs.ru.nl/~hubbers/courses/sl1/rr.pdf ALGOL68] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140913132128/http://www.cs.ru.nl/~hubbers/courses/sl1/rr.pdf |date13 September 2014}}). For simplicity this article uses ALGOL.</ref> is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in 1958. ALGOL heavily influenced many other languages and was the standard method for algorithm description used by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in textbooks and academic sources for more than thirty years.<ref>[http://calgo.acm.org/ Collected Algorithms of the ACM] {{webarchive|urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20111017235805/http://calgo.acm.org/ |date17 October 2011}} Compressed archives of the algorithms. ACM.</ref>
In the sense that the syntax of most modern languages is "Algol-like",<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.eecs.qmul.ac.uk/~ohearn/Algol/intro.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111114122103/http://www.eecs.qmul.ac.uk/~ohearn/Algol/intro.html |titleAlgol-like languages, Introduction |last1O'Hearn |first1P. W. |last2Tennent |first2R. D. |dateSeptember 1996 |archive-date14 November 2011}}</ref> it was arguably more influential than three other high-level programming languages among which it was roughly contemporary: FORTRAN, Lisp, and COBOL.<ref>[http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/algol/algol.html "The ALGOL Programming Language"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161006113915/http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/algol/algol.html |date=6 October 2016}}, University of Michigan-Dearborn</ref> It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with FORTRAN and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages, including PL/I, Simula, BCPL, B, Pascal, Ada, and C.
ALGOL introduced code blocks and the <code>begin</code>...<code>end</code> pairs for delimiting them. It was also the first language implementing nested function definitions with lexical scope. Moreover, it was the first programming language which gave detailed attention to formal language definition and through the Algol 60 Report introduced Backus–Naur form, a principal formal grammar notation for language design.
There were three major specifications, named after the years they were first published:
* ALGOL 58 – originally proposed to be called IAL, for International Algebraic Language.
* ALGOL 60 – first implemented as X1 ALGOL 60 in 1961. Revised 1963.<ref name":0">{{cite journal |titleReport on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60 |locationCopenhagen, Denmark |dateMay 1960 |doi10.1145/367236.367262 |issn0001-0782 |author-first1John Warner |author-last1Backus |author-link1John Warner Backus |author-first2Friedrich Ludwig |author-last2Bauer |author-link2Friedrich Ludwig Bauer |author-first3Julien |author-last3Green |author-link3Julien Green (computer scientist) |author-first4Charles |author-last4Katz |author-link4Charles Katz |author-first5John |author-last5McCarthy |author-link5John McCarthy (computer scientist) |author-first6Peter |author-last6Naur |author-link6Peter Naur |author-first7Alan Jay |author-last7Perlis |author-link7Alan Jay Perlis |author-first8Heinz |author-last8Rutishauser |author-link8Heinz Rutishauser |author-first9Klaus |author-last9Samelson |author-link9Klaus Samelson |author-first10Bernard |author-last10Vauquois |author-link10Bernard Vauquois |author-first11Joseph Henry |author-last11Wegstein |author-link11Joseph Henry Wegstein |author-first12Adriaan |author-last12van Wijngaarden |author-link12Adriaan van Wijngaarden |author-first13Michael |author-last13Woodger |author-link13Michael Woodger |editor-firstPeter |editor-lastNaur |editor-linkPeter Naur |journalCommunications of the ACM |volume3 |issue5 |pages299–314 |s2cid278290 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleRevised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60|year1963|urlhttp://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm|access-date8 June 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070625171638/http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm |archive-date25 June 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleAn ALGOL 60 Translator for the X1|year1961|urlhttps://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/MCReps/MR35.PDF |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/MCReps/MR35.PDF |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|access-date7 January 2021}}</ref>
* ALGOL 68 – introduced new elements including flexible arrays, slices, parallelism, operator identification. Revised 1973.<ref namea68>{{cite web|titleRevised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 68|year1973|urlhttps://www.cs.ru.nl/~hubbers/courses/sl1/rr.pdf|access-date13 September 2014|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140913132128/http://www.cs.ru.nl/~hubbers/courses/sl1/rr.pdf|archive-date13 September 2014}}</ref>
ALGOL 68 is substantially different from ALGOL 60 and was not well received,{{according to whom|dateMay 2023}} so reference to "Algol" is generally understood to mean ALGOL 60 and its dialects.{{citation needed|dateMay 2023}}
History
ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists in a meeting in 1958 at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (cf. ALGOL 58).<ref>{{Cite web |titleHistory of ALGOL — Software Preservation Group |urlhttps://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/ALGOL/ |access-date2024-03-14 |websitewww.softwarepreservation.org}}</ref> It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax, syntaxes that permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs periods) for different languages.<ref name=":0" />
ALGOL was used mostly by research computer scientists in the United States and in Europe; commercial applications were hindered by the absence of standard input/output facilities in its description, and the lack of interest in the language by large computer vendors (other than Burroughs Corporation).<ref name":1" /> ALGOL 60 did however become the standard for the publication of algorithms and had a profound effect on future language development.<ref name":1" />
and COBOL programming language dynasty]]
John Backus developed the Backus normal form method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by Peter Naur for ALGOL 60, and at Donald Knuth's suggestion renamed Backus–Naur form.<ref>{{cite journal |lastKnuth |firstDonald E. |year1964 |titleBackus Normal Form vs Backus Naur Form |journalCommunications of the ACM |volume7 |issue12 |pages735–736 |doi10.1145/355588.365140|s2cid47537431 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Peter Naur: "As editor of the ALGOL Bulletin I was drawn into the international discussions of the language and was selected to be member of the European language design group in November 1959. In this capacity I was the editor of the ALGOL 60 report, produced as the result of the ALGOL 60 meeting in Paris in January 1960."<ref name"naur_acm">[http://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id1024454&srtall&aw140&aoAMTURING&yr2005 ACM Award Citation: Peter Naur] {{webarchive|urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120402220529/http://amturing.acm.org/award_winners/naur_1024454.cfm |date2 April 2012}}, 2005</ref>
The following people attended the meeting in Paris (from 11 to 16 January):<ref name=":0" />
* Friedrich Ludwig Bauer, Peter Naur, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Bernard Vauquois, Adriaan van Wijngaarden, and Michael Woodger (from Europe)
* John Warner Backus, Julien Green, Charles Katz, John McCarthy, Alan Jay Perlis, and Joseph Henry Wegstein (from the US).
Alan Perlis gave a vivid description of the meeting: "The meetings were exhausting, interminable, and exhilarating. One became aggravated when one's good ideas were discarded along with the bad ones of others. Nevertheless, diligence persisted during the entire period. The chemistry of the 13 was excellent."<ref>{{Cite book |lastPerlis |firstAlan J |chapterThe American side of the development of ALGOL |date1978 |titleHistory of programming languages |chapter-urlhttps://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/800025.1198352 |urlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery |pages75–91 |doi10.1145/800025.1198352 |isbn0-12-745040-8 |viadl.acm.org}}</ref>LegacyA significant contribution of the ALGOL 58 Report was to provide standard terms for programming concepts: statement, declaration, type, label, primary, block, and others.<ref name":1">{{cite web |last1Bemer |first1Bob |titleA Politico-Social History of Algol |urlhttps://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/ALGOL/paper/Bemer-Politico_Social_History_of_Algol.pdf |websiteComputer History Museum |access-dateAugust 9, 2024}}</ref>
ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. Tony Hoare remarked: "Here is a language so far ahead of its time that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors."<ref>[http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~bchandra/courses/papers/Hoare_Hints.pdf "Hints on Programming Language Design"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090915033339/http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~bchandra/courses/papers/Hoare_Hints.pdf |date15 September 2009}}, C.A.R. Hoare, December 1973. Page 27. (This statement is sometimes erroneously attributed to Edsger W. Dijkstra, also involved in implementing the first ALGOL 60 compiler.)</ref> The Scheme programming language, a variant of Lisp that adopted the block structure and lexical scope of ALGOL, also adopted the wording "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme" for its standards documents in homage to ALGOL.<ref name"r3rs">{{cite web |editor-lastRees |editor-firstJonathan |editor2-lastClinger |editor2-firstWilliam |editor3-lastAbelson |editor3-firstHal |editor3-linkHal Abelson |lastDybvig |firstR. K. |titleRevised(3) Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme, (Dedicated to the Memory of ALGOL 60) |urlhttp://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/ftpdir/scheme-reports/r3rs-html/r3rs_toc.html |access-date20 October 2009 | display-authorsetal |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100114060759/http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/ftpdir/scheme-reports/r3rs-html/r3rs_toc.html |archive-date14 January 2010 | dfdmy-all}}</ref>
Properties
{{more citations needed section|date = February 2024}}
ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of transput (input/output) facilities.
ALGOL 60 allowed for two evaluation strategies for parameter passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name. Call-by-name has certain effects in contrast to call-by-reference. For example, without specifying the parameters as value or reference, it is impossible to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable.<ref>{{cite book |last1Aho |first1Alfred V. |author-linkAlfred V. Aho |last2Sethi |first2Ravi |author2-linkRavi Sethi |last3Ullman |first3Jeffrey D. |author3-linkJeffrey Ullman |titleCompilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools |year1986 |edition1st |publisherAddison-Wesley |isbn0-201-10194-7}}, Section 7.5, and references therein</ref> Think of passing a pointer to swap(i, A[i]) in to a function. Now that every time swap is referenced, it is reevaluated. Say i :1 and A[i] : 2, so every time swap is referenced it will return the other combination of the values ([1,2], [2,1], [1,2] and so on). A similar situation occurs with a random function passed as actual argument.
Call-by-name is known by many compiler designers for the interesting "thunks" that are used to implement it. Donald Knuth devised the "man or boy test" to separate compilers that correctly implemented "recursion and non-local references." This test contains an example of call-by-name.
ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden and which bears his name. Van Wijngaarden grammars use a context-free grammar to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ad hoc code attached to the formal language parser.
Examples and portability
{{expand section | with further annotation indicating sources of code samples, as Wikipedia disallows presentation of individual editor creations or other original research | small no |dateFebruary 2024}}Code sample comparisonsALGOL 60
(The way the bold text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER'—quotation marks included—for integer. This is known as stropping.)
procedure Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k);
value n, m; array a; integer n, m, i, k; real y;
comment The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m,
is copied to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k;
begin
integer p, q;
y :0; i : k := 1;
for p := 1 step 1 until n do
for q := 1 step 1 until m do
if abs(a[p, q]) > y then
begin y := abs(a[p, q]);
i :p; k : q
end
end Absmax
Here is an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL.<ref>[http://www.billp.org/ccs/A104/ "803 ALGOL"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100529063048/http://www.billp.org/ccs/A104/ |date29 May 2010}}, the manual for Elliott 803 ALGOL</ref>
FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST'
BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D'
READ D'
FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO
BEGIN
PRINT {{abbr|PUNCH(3)|sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch.}},££L??'
B := SIN(A)'
C := COS(A)'
PRINT PUNCH(3),{{abbr|SAMELINE|suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments.}},{{abbr|ALIGNED(1,6)|controls the format of the output with one digit before and six after the decimal point.}},A,B,C'
END
END'
ALGOL 68
The following code samples are ALGOL 68 versions of the above ALGOL 60 code samples.
ALGOL 68 implementations used ALGOL 60's approaches to stropping. In ALGOL 68's case tokens with the bold typeface are reserved words, types (modes) or operators.
proc abs max = ([,]real a, ref real y, ref int i, k)real:
comment The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size ⌈a by 2⌈a
is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k; comment
begin
real y :0; i : ⌊a; k := 2⌊a;
for p from ⌊a to ⌈a do
for q from 2⌊a to 2⌈a do
if abs a[p, q] > y then
y := abs a[p, q];
i :p; k : q
fi
od
od;
y
end # abs max #
Note: lower (⌊) and upper (⌈) bounds of an array, and array slicing, are directly available to the programmer.
floating point algol68 test:
(
real a,b,c,d;
&nbsp;
# printf – sends output to the file stand out. #
# printf($p$); – selects a new page #
printf(($pg$,"Enter d:"));
read(d);
&nbsp;
for step from 0 while a:step*d; a < 2*pi do
printf($l$); # $l$ - selects a new line. #
b := sin(a);
c := cos(a);
printf(($z-d.6d$,a,b,c)) # formats output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point. #
od
)
Timeline: Hello world
The variations and lack of portability of the programs from one implementation to another is easily demonstrated by the classic hello world program.{{citation needed|date February 2024}}ALGOL 58 (IAL)
{{main|ALGOL 58}}
ALGOL 58 had no I/O facilities.
ALGOL 60 family
{{main|ALGOL 60}}
Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portable hello world program in ALGOL.
The next three examples are in Burroughs Extended Algol. The first two direct output at the interactive terminal they are run on. The first uses a character array, similar to C. The language allows the array identifier to be used as a pointer to the array, and hence in a REPLACE statement.
{{sxhl|2m2|1
BEGIN
FILE F(KIND=REMOTE);
EBCDIC ARRAY E[0:11];
REPLACE E BY "HELLO WORLD!";
WRITE(F, *, E);
END.
}}
A simpler program using an inline format:
{{sxhl|2m2|1
BEGIN
FILE F(KIND=REMOTE);
WRITE(F, <"HELLO WORLD!">);
END.
}}
An even simpler program using the Display statement. Note that its output would end up at the system console ('SPO'):
{{sxhl|2m2|1 BEGIN DISPLAY("HELLO WORLD!") END.}}
An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. Elliott Algol used different characters for "open-string-quote" and "close-string-quote", represented here by {{color box|rgba(255,255,255,0)|bordersilver|‘}} and {{color box|rgba(255,255,255,0)|bordersilver|’}}.
{{sxhl|2pascal|1
program HiFolks;
begin
print ‘Hello world’
end;
}}
Below is a version from Elliott 803 Algol (A104). The standard Elliott 803 used five-hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequences were placed in double quotes (e.g£. £L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter).
HIFOLKS'
BEGIN
PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??'
END'
The ICT 1900 series Algol I/O version allowed input from paper tape or punched card. Paper tape 'full' mode allowed lower case. Output was to a line printer. The open and close quote characters were represented using '(' and ')' and spaces by %.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.icl1900.co.uk/techpub/tp3340.djvu|titleICL 1900 series: Algol Language|publisherICL Technical Publication 3340|year1965}}</ref>
'BEGIN'
WRITE TEXT('('HELLO%WORLD')');
'END'
ALGOL 68
{{main|ALGOL 68}}
ALGOL 68 code was published with reserved words typically in lowercase, but bolded or underlined.
begin
printf(($gl$,"Hello, world!"))
end
In the language of the "Algol 68 Report" the input/output facilities were collectively called the "Transput".
Timeline of ALGOL special characters
{{Contains special characters
| alt = Decimal Exponent Symbol
| link = http://mailcom.com/unicode/DecimalExponent.ttf
| special = Unicode 6.0 "[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2300.pdf Miscellaneous Technical]" characters
| fix = Unicode#External_links
| characters = something like "₁₀" ([http://mailcom.com/unicode/DecimalExponent.ttf Decimal Exponent Symbol U+23E8 TTF])
}}
The ALGOLs were conceived at a time when character sets were diverse and evolving rapidly; also, the ALGOLs were defined so that only uppercase letters were required.
1960: IFIP – The Algol 60 language and report included several mathematical symbols which are available on modern computers and operating systems, but, unfortunately, were unsupported on most computing systems at the time. For instance: ×, ÷, ≤, ≥, ≠, ¬, ∨, ∧, ⊂, ≡, ␣ and ⏨.
1961 September: ASCII – The ASCII character set, then in an early stage of development, had the \ (Back slash) character added to it in order to support ALGOL's Boolean operators /\ and \/.<ref>[http://www.bobbemer.com/BACSLASH.HTM How ASCII Got Its Backslash] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140711225835/http://bobbemer.com/BACSLASH.HTM |date11 July 2014}}, Bob Bemer</ref>
1962: ALCOR – This character set included the unusual "᛭"<!-- U+16ED --> runic cross<ref>[https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/16ed/ iron/runic cross]</ref> character for multiplication and the "⏨" Decimal Exponent Symbol<ref>[http://mailcom.com/unicode/DecimalExponent.ttf Decimal Exponent Symbol]</ref> for floating point notation.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBaumann |firstR. |titleALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group, Part 1 |journalElektronische Rechenanlagen |dateOctober 1961 |pages206–212 |languagede|trans-titleALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |lastBaumann |firstR. |titleALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group, Part 2 |journalElektronische Rechenanlagen |volume6 |dateDecember 1961 |pages259–265 |languagede|trans-titleALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |lastBaumann |firstR. |titleALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group, Part 3 |journalElektronische Rechenanlagen |volume2 |dateApril 1962 |languagede|trans-title=ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group}}</ref>
1964: GOST – The 1964 Soviet standard GOST 10859 allowed the encoding of 4-bit, 5-bit, 6-bit and 7-bit characters in ALGOL.<ref>{{cite web|titleGOST 10859 standard |urlhttp://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/stand.html#gost10859 |access-date5 June 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070616201227/http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/stand.html |archive-date16 June 2007 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
1968: The "Algol 68 Report" – used extant ALGOL characters, and further adopted →, ↓, ↑, □, ⌊, ⌈, ⎩, ⎧, ○, ⊥, and ¢ characters which can be found on the IBM 2741 keyboard with typeball (or golf ball) print heads inserted (such as the APL golf ball). These became available in the mid-1960s while ALGOL 68 was being drafted. The report was translated into Russian, German, French, and Bulgarian, and allowed programming in languages with larger character sets, e.g., Cyrillic alphabet of the Soviet BESM-4. All ALGOL's characters are also part of the Unicode standard and most of them are available in several popular fonts.
2009 October: Unicode – The <code>⏨</code> (Decimal Exponent Symbol) for floating point notation was added to Unicode 5.2 for backward compatibility with historic Buran programme ALGOL software.<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08030r-subscript10.pdf
|title = Revised proposal to encode the decimal exponent symbol
|last = Broukhis
|first = Leonid
|date = 22 January 2008
|website = www.unicode.org
|publisher = ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 2
|access-date = 24 January 2016
|quote = This means that the need to transcode GOST-based software and documentation can still arise: legacy numerical algorithms (some of which may be of interest, e.g. for the automatic landing of the Buran shuttle ...) optimized for the non-IEEE floating point representation of BESM-6 cannot be simply recompiled and be expected to work reliably, and some human intervention may be necessary.
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150731024347/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08030r-subscript10.pdf
|archive-date=31 July 2015
}}</ref>
ALGOL implementations
To date there have been at least 70 augmentations, extensions, derivations and sublanguages of Algol 60.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/showlanguage.prx?exp1807 |titleThe Encyclopedia of Computer Languages |access-date20 January 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927014141/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/showlanguage.prx?exp1807 |archive-date27 September 2011 |df=dmy}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!|Name
!|Year
!|Author
!|Country
!|Description
!|Target CPU
|-
| ZMMD-implementation|| 1958 || Friedrich L. Bauer, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Hermann Bottenbruch || {{flag|Germany}} || implementation of ALGOL 58 || Z22 <br /> (later Zuse's Z23 was delivered with an Algol 60 compiler)<ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/projects/zuse_z23/ Computer Museum History] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100820213805/http://www.computerhistory.org/projects/zuse_z23/ |date20 August 2010}}, Historical Zuse-Computer Z23, restored by the Konrad Zuse Schule in Hünfeld, for the Computer Museum History Center in Mountain View (California) US</ref>
|-
|X1 ALGOL 60 || 1960 August<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.dijkstrascry.com/node/4 |titleDijkstra's Rallying Cry for Generalization: the Advent of the Recursive Procedure, late 1950s – early 1960s |lastDaylight |firstE. G. |journalThe Computer Journal |year2011 |doi10.1093/comjnl/bxr002 |volume54 |issue11 |pages1756–1772 |citeseerx10.1.1.366.3916 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130312111503/http://www.dijkstrascry.com/node/4 |archive-date12 March 2013 }}</ref> || Edsger W. Dijkstra and Jaap A. Zonneveld || {{flag|Netherlands}} || First implementation of ALGOL 60<ref>{{Cite book |last1 Kruseman Aretz |first1 F.E.J. | chapter The Dijkstra-Zonneveld ALGOL 60 Compiler for the Electrologica X1 |title Software Engineering | series History of Computer Science |publisher Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica | location Amsterdam |date30 June 2003 |url http://oai.cwi.nl/oai/asset/4155/04155D.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191208/http://oai.cwi.nl/oai/asset/4155/04155D.pdf |archive-date4 March 2016 }}</ref> || Electrologica X1
|-
|Elliott ALGOL || 1960s || C. A. R. Hoare || {{flag|UK}} || Subject of the 1980 Turing Award Lecture<ref>{{cite journal|firstAntony|lastHoare|titleThe Emperor's Old Clothes|journalCommunications of the ACM|volume24|number2|year1980|pages75–83|doi10.1145/358549.358561|doi-accessfree}}</ref>|| Elliott 803, Elliott 503, Elliott 4100 series
|-
|JOVIAL || 1960 || Jules Schwartz || {{flag|US}} || A DOD HOL prior to Ada || Various (see article)
|-
|Burroughs Algol <br /> (Several variants)|| 1961 || Burroughs Corporation (with participation by Hoare, Dijkstra, and others) || {{flag|US}} || Basis of the Burroughs (and now Unisys MCP based) computers || Burroughs Large Systems and their midrange also.
|-
|Case ALGOL || 1961 || Case Institute of Technology<ref>{{cite web|lastKoffman|firstEliot|titleAll I Really Need to Know I Learned in CS1|urlhttp://www.temple.edu/cis/directory/tenure/documents/KoffmanSIGCSESlides.pdf|access-date20 May 2012|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121012032624/http://www.temple.edu/cis/directory/tenure/documents/KoffmanSIGCSESlides.pdf|archive-date12 October 2012}}</ref> || {{flag|US}} || Simula was originally contracted as a simulation extension of the Case ALGOL || UNIVAC 1107
|-
|GOGOL || 1961 || William M. McKeeman || {{flag|US}} || For ODIN time-sharing system<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://hopl.info/showlanguage.prx?exp3905|titleGOGOL – PDP-1 Algol 60 (Computer Language)|access-date1 February 2018|publisherOnline Historical Encyclopaedia of Programming Languages|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180202074636/http://hopl.info/showlanguage.prx?exp3905|archive-date=2 February 2018}}</ref> || PDP-1
|-
|RegneCentralen ALGOL || 1961 || Peter Naur, Jørn Jensen || {{flag|Denmark}} || Implementation of full Algol 60 || DASK at Regnecentralen
|-
|Dartmouth ALGOL 30 || 1962 || Thomas Eugene Kurtz et al. || {{flag|US}} || || LGP-30
|-
|USS 90 Algol || 1962 || L. Petrone <!-- ? --> || {{flag|Italy}} ||
|-
|ALGOL 60
|1962
|Bernard Vauquois, Louis Bolliet<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMounier-Kuhn |firstPierre |date2014 |titleAlgol in France: From Universal Project to Embedded Culture |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/79159820 |journalIEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume36 |issue4 |pages6–25 |doi10.1109/MAHC.2014.50 |s2cid16684090 |issn1058-6180}}</ref>
| {{flag|France}}
|Institut d'Informatique et Mathématiques Appliquées de Grenoble (IMAG) and Compagnie des Machines Bull
|Bull Gamma 60
|-
| Algol Translator || 1962 || G. van der Mey and W.L. van der Poel || {{flag|Netherlands}} || Staatsbedrijf der Posterijen, Telegrafie en Telefonie || ZEBRA
|-
|Kidsgrove Algol || 1963 || F. G. Duncan <!-- ? --> || {{flag|UK}} || || English Electric Company KDF9
|-
|VALGOL || 1963 || Val Schorre || {{flag|US}} || A test of the META II compiler compiler
|-
|Whetstone || 1964 || Brian Randell and L. J. Russell || {{flag|UK}} || Atomic Power Division of English Electric Company. Precursor to Ferranti Pegasus, National Physical Laboratories ACE and English Electric DEUCE implementations. || English Electric Company KDF9
|-
|NU ALGOL || 1965 || || {{flag|Norway}} || || UNIVAC
|-
|ALGEK || 1965 || || {{flag|USSR}} || АЛГЭК, based on ALGOL-60 and COBOL support, for economical tasks || Minsk-22
|-
|ALGOL W || 1966 || Niklaus Wirth || {{flag|US}} || Proposed successor to ALGOL 60 || IBM System/360
|-
|MALGOL || 1966 || publ. A. Viil, M Kotli & M. Rakhendi, || {{flag|Estonian SSR}} || || Minsk-22
|-
|ALGAMS || 1967 || GAMS group (ГАМС, группа автоматизации программирования для машин среднего класса), cooperation of Comecon Academies of Science || Comecon || || Minsk-22, later ES EVM, BESM
|-
|ALGOL/ZAM || 1967 || || {{flag|Poland}} || || Polish ZAM computer
|-
|Simula 67 || 1967 || Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard || {{flag|Norway}} || Algol 60 with classes || UNIVAC 1107
|-
|{{anchor|Triplex}}Triplex-ALGOL Karlsruhe || 1967/1968 || || Karlsruhe, {{flag|Germany}} || ALGOL 60 (1963) with triplex numbers for interval arithmetic || <ref name"Wippermann_1968">{{cite journal |titleDefinition von Schrankenzahlen in Triplex-ALGOL |languagede |author-firstHans-Wilm |author-lastWippermann |date1968 |orig-date1967-06-15, 1966 |journalComputing |issn0010-485X |publisherSpringer |volume3 |issue2 |locationKarlsruhe, Germany |doi10.1007/BF02277452 |s2cid36685400 |pages99–109}}</ref>
|-
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080722231533/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/showlanguage.prx?exp7288&languageChinese%20Algol Chinese Algol]|| 1972 ||
| {{flag|China}} || Chinese characters, expressed via the Symbol system
|-
|DG/L || 1972 || || {{flag|US}} || || DG Eclipse family of Computers
|-
|S-algol || 1979 || Ron Morrison || {{flag|UK}} || Addition of orthogonal datatypes with intended use as a teaching language || PDP-11 with a subsequent implementation on the Java VM
|}
The Burroughs dialects included special Bootstrapping dialects such as ESPOL and NEWP. The latter is still used for Unisys MCP system software.
See also
{{div col|content=
* Address (programming language)
* Atlas Autocode
* Coral 66
* Edinburgh IMP
* ISWIM
* JOVIAL
* NELIAC
* Simula
* S-algol
* Scheme (programming language)
}}
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |authorRandell, Brian & L. J. Russell |date1964 |titleALGOL 60 Implementation: The Translation and Use of ALGOL 60 Programs on a Computer |location |publisherAcademic Press |citeseerx10.1.1.737.475 |urlhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi10.1.1.737.475&reprep1&typepdf |access-date=}}. On the design of the Whetstone Compiler, and one of the early published descriptions of implementing a compiler.
* {{cite web |firstE. W |lastDijkstra |titleALGOL 60 Translation: An ALGOL 60 Translator for the X1 and Making a Translator for ALGOL 60 |seriesreport MR 35/61 |publisherMathematisch Centrum |placeAmsterdam |year1961 |urlhttp://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/MCReps/MR35.PDF |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/MCReps/MR35.PDF |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |firstFrans E.J. |lastKruseman Aretz |titleThe Dijkstra–Zonneveld ALGOL 60 Compiler for the Electrologica X1 |seriesHistorical note SEN, 2 |placeAmsterdam: Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica |urlhttps://ir.cwi.nl/pub/4155/04155D.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/4155/04155D.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}External links
* [http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 by Peter Naur, et al.]
* [http://portal.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id808370&typepdf&coll&dlACM&CFID15151515&CFTOKEN6184618 The European Side of the Last Phase of the Development of ALGOL 60, by Peter Naur]
* [http://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/ALGOL/ A History of ALGOL] from the Computer History Museum
{{ALGOL programming}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Algol}}
Category:ALGOL 60 dialect
Category:Articles with example ALGOL 60 code
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1958
Category:Procedural programming languages
Category:Programming languages created in 1958
Category:Structured programming languages
Category:Systems programming languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALGOL | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.284763 |
1456 | AWK | {{Short description|Programming language}}
{{About|the programming language}}
{{Infobox programming language
| logo = The-AWK-Programming-Language.svg
| logo_size = 200px
| screenshot = Awk-example-usage-gimp.gif
| screenshot_size = 250px
| screenshot_caption = Usage of AWK in shell to check matching fields in two files
| name = AWK
| paradigm Scripting, procedural, data-driven<ref namedeveloperworks>{{cite web|urlhttps://www6.software.ibm.com/developerworks/education/au-gawk/au-gawk-a4.pdf|titleGet started with GAWK: AWK language fundamentals|lastStutz|firstMichael|dateSeptember 19, 2006|workdeveloperWorks|publisherIBM|access-date2015-01-29|quote[AWK is] often called a data-driven language -- the program statements describe the input data to match and process rather than a sequence of program steps|archive-date2015-04-27|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150427143548/https://www6.software.ibm.com/developerworks/education/au-gawk/au-gawk-a4.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>
| year = {{start date and age|1977}}
| latest_release_version = [http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/utilities/awk.html IEEE Std 1003.1-2008] (POSIX) / 1985
| designer = Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan
| typing = none; can handle strings, integers and floating-point numbers; regular expressions
| implementations = awk, GNU Awk, mawk, nawk, MKS AWK, Thompson AWK (compiler), Awka (compiler)
| dialects = old awk oawk 1977, new awk nawk 1985, GNU Awk gawk
| influenced_by C, sed, SNOBOL<ref>{{cite book |titleUNIX Workshop |publisherMacmillan International Higher Education |authorAndreas J. Pilavakis |year1989 |pages196 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleEffective Awk Programming: Universal Text Processing and Pattern Matching |edition4th |publisherO'Reilly Media |authorArnold Robbins |year2015 |pages560}}</ref>
| influenced = Tcl, AMPL, Perl<!--1987-->, Korn Shell (ksh93<!--1993-->, dtksh, tksh), Lua<!--1993-->
| operating_system = Cross-platform
| website =
}}
AWK ({{IPAc-en|ɔː|k}}<ref nameawkLC.DR/>) is a domain-specific language designed for text processing and typically used as a data extraction and reporting tool. Like sed and grep, it is a filter,<ref nameawkLC.DR>{{cite magazine |magazineDigital Review |dateMay 2, 1988 |page91 |authorJames W. Livingston |title=The Great awk Program is No Birdbrain}}</ref> and it is a standard feature of most Unix-like operating systems.
The AWK language is a data-driven scripting language consisting of a set of actions to be taken against streams of textual data – either run directly on files or used as part of a pipeline – for purposes of extracting or transforming text, such as producing formatted reports. The language extensively uses the string datatype, associative arrays (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and regular expressions. While AWK has a limited intended application domain and was especially designed to support one-liner programs, the language is Turing-complete, and even the early Bell Labs users of AWK often wrote well-structured large AWK programs.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch08s02.html#awk
| title = Applying Minilanguages
| first = Eric S.
| last = Raymond
| author-link = Eric S. Raymond
| work = The Art of Unix Programming
| at = Case Study: awk
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080730063308/http://www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch08s02.html#awk
| archive-date = July 30, 2008
| access-date = May 11, 2010
| quote = The awk action language is Turing-complete, and can read and write files.
}}</ref>
AWK was created at Bell Labs in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite tech report |urlhttps://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi10.1.1.31.1299 |titleAwk — A Pattern Scanning and Processing Language (Second Edition) |last1Aho |first1Alfred V. |author-link1Alfred Aho |last2Kernighan |first2Brian W. |author-link2Brian Kernighan |last3Weinberger |first3Peter J. |author-link3Peter J. Weinberger |dateSeptember 1, 1978 |publisherBell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. |seriesUnix Seventh Edition Manual, Volume 2 |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020}}</ref> and its name is derived from the surnames of its authors: Alfred Aho (author of egrep), Peter Weinberger (who worked on tiny relational databases), and Brian Kernighan. The acronym is pronounced the same as the name of the bird species auk, which is illustrated on the cover of The AWK Programming Language.<ref name"AWK1" /> When written in all lowercase letters, as <code>awk</code>, it refers to the Unix or Plan 9 program that runs scripts written in the AWK programming language.HistoryAccording to Brian Kernighan, one of the goals of AWK was to have a tool that would easily manipulate both numbers and strings. AWK was also inspired by Marc Rochkind's programming language that was used to search for patterns in input data, and was implemented using yacc.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vvT_J6xc-Az0 | archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/vT_J6xc-Az0| archive-date2021-11-22 | url-statuslive|titleUNIX Special: Profs Kernighan & Brailsford |workComputerphile |date=September 30, 2015 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>
As one of the early tools to appear in Version 7 Unix, AWK added computational features to a Unix pipeline besides the Bourne shell, the only scripting language available in a standard Unix environment. It is one of the mandatory utilities of the Single UNIX Specification,<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.unix.org/version3/apis/cu.html |titleThe Single UNIX Specification, Version 3, Utilities Interface Table |access-date2005-12-18 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180105030249/http://www.unix.org/version3/apis/cu.html |archive-date2018-01-05 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and is required by the Linux Standard Base specification.<ref>{{cite tech report |urlhttps://refspecs.linuxfoundation.org/LSB_4.0.0/LSB-Core-generic/LSB-Core-generic.html#COMMAND |titleLinux Standard Base Core Specification 4.0 |chapterChapter 15. Commands and Utilities |institutionLinux Foundation |date2008 |access-date2020-02-01 |archive-date2019-10-16 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191016015828/https://refspecs.linuxfoundation.org/LSB_4.0.0/LSB-Core-generic/LSB-Core-generic.html#COMMAND |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1983, AWK was one of several UNIX tools available for Charles River Data Systems' UNOS operating system under Bell Laboratories license.<ref>{{Cite book|year1983|titleThe Insider's Guide To The Universe|publisherCharles River Data Systems, Inc.|urlhttps://www.1000bit.it/ad/bro/charles/CharlesRiverSystem-Universe.pdf|page=13}}</ref>
AWK was significantly revised and expanded in 1985–88, resulting in the GNU AWK implementation written by Paul Rubin, Jay Fenlason, and Richard Stallman, released in 1988.<ref namerobbins/> GNU AWK may be the most widely deployed version<ref>{{cite book|last1Dougherty|first1Dale|last2Robbins|first2Arnold|titlesed & awk|date1997|publisherO'Reilly|locationSebastopol, CA|isbn1-565-92225-5|page221|edition2nd}}</ref> because it is included with GNU-based Linux packages. GNU AWK has been maintained solely by Arnold Robbins since 1994.<ref namerobbins>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.skeeve.com/gnu-awk-and-me-2014.pdf |titleThe GNU Project and Me: 27 Years with GNU AWK |websiteskeeve.com |firstArnold |lastRobbins |dateMarch 2014 |access-dateOctober 4, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 6, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006081656/http://www.skeeve.com/gnu-awk-and-me-2014.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref> Brian Kernighan's nawk (New AWK) source was first released in 1993 unpublicized, and publicly since the late 1990s; many BSD systems use it to avoid the GPL license.<ref namerobbins/>
AWK was preceded by sed (1974). Both were designed for text processing. They share the line-oriented, data-driven paradigm, and are particularly suited to writing one-liner programs, due to the implicit main loop and current line variables. The power and terseness of early AWK programs – notably the powerful regular expression handling and conciseness due to implicit variables, which facilitate one-liners – together with the limitations of AWK at the time, were important inspirations for the Perl language (1987). In the 1990s, Perl became very popular, competing with AWK in the niche of Unix text-processing languages.
Structure of AWK programs
{{Blockquote|AWK reads the input a line at a time. A line is scanned for each pattern in the program, and for each pattern that matches, the associated action is executed.|authorAlfred V. Aho<ref>{{cite web |firstNaomi |lastHamilton |urlhttps://www.computerworld.com/article/2535126/the-a-z-of-programming-languages--awk.html |titleThe A-Z of Programming Languages: AWK |dateMay 30, 2008 |workComputerworld |access-date2008-12-12 |archive-date2020-02-01 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200201095859/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2535126/the-a-z-of-programming-languages--awk.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
An AWK program is a series of pattern action pairs, written as:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
condition { action }
condition { action }
...
</syntaxhighlight>
where condition is typically an expression and action is a series of commands. The input is split into records, where by default records are separated by newline characters so that the input is split into lines. The program tests each record against each of the conditions in turn, and executes the action for each expression that is true. Either the condition or the action may be omitted. The condition defaults to matching every record. The default action is to print the record. This is the same pattern-action structure as sed.
In addition to a simple AWK expression, such as <code>foo 1</code> or <code>/^foo/</code>, the condition can be <code>BEGIN</code> or <code>END</code> causing the action to be executed before or after all records have been read, or pattern1, pattern2 which matches the range of records starting with a record that matches pattern1 up to and including the record that matches pattern2 before again trying to match against pattern1 on subsequent lines.
In addition to normal arithmetic and logical operators, AWK expressions include the tilde operator, <code>~</code>, which matches a regular expression against a string. As handy syntactic sugar, /regexp/ without using the tilde operator matches against the current record; this syntax derives from sed, which in turn inherited it from the ed editor, where <code>/</code> is used for searching. This syntax of using slashes as delimiters for regular expressions was subsequently adopted by Perl and ECMAScript, and is now common. The tilde operator was also adopted by Perl.
Commands
AWK commands are the statements that are substituted for action in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of dynamically linked libraries, which can also provide more functions.
The print command
The print command is used to output text. The output text is always terminated with a predefined string called the output record separator (ORS) whose default value is a newline. The simplest form of this command is:
; <code>print</code>
:This displays the contents of the current record. In AWK, records are broken down into fields, and these can be displayed separately:
; <code>print $1</code>
: Displays the first field of the current record
; <code>print $1, $3</code>
: Displays the first and third fields of the current record, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character
Although these fields ($X) may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in the usual Unix shells and in Perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current record. A special case, $0, refers to the entire record. In fact, the commands "<code>print</code>" and "<code>print $0</code>" are identical in functionality.
The print command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
/regex_pattern/ {
# Actions to perform in the event the record (line) matches the above regex_pattern
print 3+2
print foobar(3)
print foobar(variable)
print sin(3-2)
}
</syntaxhighlight>
Output may be sent to a file:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
/regex_pattern/ {
# Actions to perform in the event the record (line) matches the above regex_pattern
print "expression" > "file name"
}
</syntaxhighlight>
or through a pipe:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
/regex_pattern/ {
# Actions to perform in the event the record (line) matches the above regex_pattern
print "expression" | "command"
}
</syntaxhighlight>
Built-in variables
AWK's built-in variables include the field variables: $1, $2, $3, and so on ($0 represents the entire record). They hold the text or values in the individual text-fields in a record.
Other variables include:
* <code>NR</code>: Number of Records. Keeps a current count of the number of input records read so far from all data files. It starts at zero, but is never automatically reset to zero.<ref name"GNU.org Records">{{Cite book|chapter-urlhttps://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/html_node/Records.html#index-FNR-variable|chapterRecords|urlhttps://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/|titleGAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User’s Guide for GNU Awk|dateSeptember 2024|edition5.3|access-date2025-01-24}}</ref>
* <code>FNR</code>: File Number of Records. Keeps a current count of the number of input records read so far in the current file. This variable is automatically reset to zero each time a new file is started.<ref name="GNU.org Records" />
* <code>NF</code>: Number of Fields. Contains the number of fields in the current input record. The last field in the input record can be designated by $NF, the 2nd-to-last field by $(NF-1), the 3rd-to-last field by $(NF-2), etc.
* <code>FILENAME</code>: Contains the name of the current input-file.
* <code>FS</code>: Field Separator. Contains the "field separator" used to divide fields in the input record. The default, "white space", allows any sequence of space and tab characters. FS can be reassigned with another character or character sequence to change the field separator.
* <code>RS</code>: Record Separator. Stores the current "record separator" character. Since, by default, an input line is the input record, the default record separator character is a "newline".
* <code>OFS</code>: Output Field Separator. Stores the "output field separator", which separates the fields when awk prints them. The default is a "space" character.
* <code>ORS</code>: Output Record Separator. Stores the "output record separator", which separates the output records when awk prints them. The default is a "newline" character.
* <code>OFMT</code>: Output Format. Stores the format for numeric output. The default format is "%.6g".
Variables and syntax
Variable names can use any of the characters [A-Za-z0-9_], with the exception of language keywords, and cannot begin with a numeric digit. The operators + - * / represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other. It is optional to use a space in between if string constants are involved, but two variable names placed adjacent to each other require a space in between. Double quotes delimit string constants. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using # as the first character on a line, or behind a command or sequence of commands.
User-defined functions
In a format similar to C, function definitions consist of the keyword <code>function</code>, the function name, argument names and the function body. Here is an example of a function.
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
function add_three(number) {
return number + 3
}
</syntaxhighlight>
This statement can be invoked as follows:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
(pattern) {
print add_three(36) # Outputs 39
}
</syntaxhighlight>
Functions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some whitespace in the argument list before the local variables, to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin.
Examples
Hello, World!
Here is the customary "Hello, World!" program written in AWK:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
BEGIN {
print "Hello, world!"
exit
}
</syntaxhighlight>
Print lines longer than 80 characters
Print all lines longer than 80 characters. The default action is to print the current line.
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
length($0) > 80
</syntaxhighlight>
Count words
Count words in the input and print the number of lines, words, and characters (like wc):
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
{
words += NF
chars += length + 1 # add one to account for the newline character at the end of each record (line)
}
END { print NR, words, chars }
</syntaxhighlight>
As there is no pattern for the first line of the program, every line of input matches by default, so the increment actions are executed for every line. <code>words +NF</code> is shorthand for <code>words words + NF</code>.
Sum last word
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
{ s += $NF }
END { print s + 0 }
</syntaxhighlight>
s is incremented by the numeric value of $NF, which is the last word on the line as defined by AWK's field separator (by default, white-space). NF is the number of fields in the current line, e.g. 4. Since $4 is the value of the fourth field, $NF is the value of the last field in the line regardless of how many fields this line has, or whether it has more or fewer fields than surrounding lines. $ is actually a unary operator with the highest operator precedence. (If the line has no fields, then NF is 0, $0 is the whole line, which in this case is empty apart from possible white-space, and so has the numeric value 0.)
At the end of the input the END pattern matches, so s is printed. However, since there may have been no lines of input at all, in which case no value has ever been assigned to s, it will by default be an empty string. Adding zero to a variable is an AWK idiom for coercing it from a string to a numeric value. (Concatenating an empty string is to coerce from a number to a string, e.g. s "". Note, there's no operator to concatenate strings, they're just placed adjacently.) With the coercion the program prints "0" on an empty input, without it, an empty line is printed.
Match a range of input lines
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
NR % 4 1, NR % 4 3 { printf "%6d %s\n", NR, $0 }
</syntaxhighlight>
The action statement prints each line numbered. The printf function emulates the standard C printf and works similarly to the print command described above. The pattern to match, however, works as follows: NR is the number of records, typically lines of input, AWK has so far read, i.e. the current line number, starting at 1 for the first line of input. % is the modulo operator. NR % 4 1 is true for the 1st, 5th, 9th, etc., lines of input. Likewise, NR % 4 3 is true for the 3rd, 7th, 11th, etc., lines of input. The range pattern is false until the first part matches, on line 1, and then remains true up to and including when the second part matches, on line 3. It then stays false until the first part matches again on line 5.
Thus, the program prints lines 1,2,3, skips line 4, and then 5,6,7, and so on. For each line, it prints the line number (on a 6 character-wide field) and then the line contents. For example, when executed on this input:
Rome
Florence
Milan
Naples
Turin
Venice
The previous program prints:
1 Rome
2 Florence
3 Milan
5 Turin
6 Venice
Printing the initial or the final part of a file
As a special case, when the first part of a range pattern is constantly true, e.g. 1, the range will start at the beginning of the input. Similarly, if the second part is constantly false, e.g. 0, the range will continue until the end of input. For example,
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
/^--cut here--$/, 0
</syntaxhighlight>
prints lines of input from the first line matching the regular expression ^--cut here--$, that is, a line containing only the phrase "--cut here--", to the end.
Calculate word frequencies
Word frequency using associative arrays:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
BEGIN {
FS="[^a-zA-Z]+"
}
{
for (i1; i<NF; i++)
words[tolower($i)]++
}
END {
for (i in words)
print i, words[i]
}
</syntaxhighlight>
The BEGIN block sets the field separator to any sequence of non-alphabetic characters. Separators can be regular expressions. After that, we get to a bare action, which performs the action on every input line. In this case, for every field on the line, we add one to the number of times that word, first converted to lowercase, appears. Finally, in the END block, we print the words with their frequencies. The line
for (i in words)
creates a loop that goes through the array words, setting i to each subscript of the array. This is different from most languages, where such a loop goes through each value in the array. The loop thus prints out each word followed by its frequency count. <code>tolower</code> was an addition to the One True awk (see below) made after the book was published.
Match pattern from command line
This program can be represented in several ways. The first one uses the Bourne shell to make a shell script that does everything. It is the shortest of these methods:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
#!/bin/sh
pattern="$1"
shift
awk '/'"$pattern"'/ { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' "$@"
</syntaxhighlight>
The <code>$pattern</code> in the awk command is not protected by single quotes so that the shell does expand the variable but it needs to be put in double quotes to properly handle patterns containing spaces. A pattern by itself in the usual way checks to see if the whole line (<code>$0</code>) matches. <code>FILENAME</code> contains the current filename. awk has no explicit concatenation operator; two adjacent strings concatenate them. <code>$0</code> expands to the original unchanged input line.
There are alternate ways of writing this. This shell script accesses the environment directly from within awk:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
#!/bin/sh
export pattern="$1"
shift
awk '$0 ~ ENVIRON["pattern"] { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' "$@"
</syntaxhighlight>
This is a shell script that uses <code>ENVIRON</code>, an array introduced in a newer version of the One True awk after the book was published. The subscript of <code>ENVIRON</code> is the name of an environment variable; its result is the variable's value. This is like the getenv function in various standard libraries and POSIX. The shell script makes an environment variable <code>pattern</code> containing the first argument, then drops that argument and has awk look for the pattern in each file.
<code>~</code> checks to see if its left operand matches its right operand; <code>!~</code> is its inverse. A regular expression is just a string and can be stored in variables.
The next way uses command-line variable assignment, in which an argument to awk can be seen as an assignment to a variable:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
#!/bin/sh
pattern="$1"
shift
awk '$0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' pattern="$pattern" "$@"
</syntaxhighlight>
Or You can use the -v varvalue command line option (e.g. awk -v pattern"$pattern" ...).
Finally, this is written in pure awk, without help from a shell or without the need to know too much about the implementation of the awk script (as the variable assignment on command line one does), but is a bit lengthy:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
BEGIN {
pattern = ARGV[1]
for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) # remove first argument
ARGV[i] = ARGV[i + 1]
ARGC--
if (ARGC 1) { # the pattern was the only thing, so force read from standard input (used by book)
ARGC = 2
ARGV[1] = "-"
}
}
$0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME ":" $0 }
</syntaxhighlight>
The <code>BEGIN</code> is necessary not only to extract the first argument, but also to prevent it from being interpreted as a filename after the <code>BEGIN</code> block ends. <code>ARGC</code>, the number of arguments, is always guaranteed to be ≥1, as <code>ARGV[0]</code> is the name of the command that executed the script, most often the string <code>"awk"</code>. <code>ARGV[ARGC]</code> is the empty string, <code>""</code>. <code>#</code> initiates a comment that expands to the end of the line.
Note the <code>if</code> block. awk only checks to see if it should read from standard input before it runs the command. This means that
awk 'prog'
only works because the fact that there are no filenames is only checked before <code>prog</code> is run! If you explicitly set <code>ARGC</code> to 1 so that there are no arguments, awk will simply quit because it feels there are no more input files. Therefore, you need to explicitly say to read from standard input with the special filename <code>-</code>.
Self-contained AWK scripts
On Unix-like operating systems self-contained AWK scripts can be constructed using the shebang syntax.
For example, a script that sends the content of a given file to standard output may be built by creating a file named <code>print.awk</code> with the following content:
<syntaxhighlight lang="awk">
#!/usr/bin/awk -f
{ print $0 }
</syntaxhighlight>
It can be invoked with: <code>./print.awk <filename></code>
The <code>-f</code> tells awk that the argument that follows is the file to read the AWK program from, which is the same flag that is used in sed. Since they are often used for one-liners, both these programs default to executing a program given as a command-line argument, rather than a separate file.
Versions and implementations
AWK was originally written in 1977 and distributed with Version 7 Unix.
In 1985 its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book The AWK Programming Language, published 1988, and its implementation was made available in releases of UNIX System V. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes called "new awk" or nawk. This implementation was released under a free software license in 1996 and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan (see external links below).{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}
Old versions of Unix, such as UNIX/32V, included <code>awkcc</code>, which converted AWK to C. Kernighan wrote a program to turn awk into {{nowrap|C++}}; its state is not known.<ref>{{cite conference |firstBrian W. |lastKernighan |dateApril 24–25, 1991 |urlhttps://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/btl.mirror/awkc++.pdf |titleAn AWK to C++ Translator |eventUsenix C++ Conference |locationWashington, DC |pages217–228 |conference|access-date2020-02-01 |archive-date2020-06-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200622061725/https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/btl.mirror/awkc++.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* BWK awk, also known as nawk, refers to the version by Brian Kernighan. It has been dubbed the "One True AWK" because of the use of the term in association with the book that originally described the language and the fact that Kernighan was one of the original authors of AWK.<ref name "AWK1">{{cite book | title The AWK Programming Language |first1Alfred V. |last1Aho |first2Brian W. |last2Kernighan |first3Peter J. |last3Weinberger | year1988 | publisher Addison-Wesley Publishing Company | isbn9780201079814 |url https://archive.org/details/pdfy-MgN0H1joIoDVoIC7 | access-date 16 May 2015 }}</ref> FreeBSD refers to this version as one-true-awk.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/contrib/one-true-awk/FREEBSD-upgrade?rev1.9&content-typetext/x-cvsweb-markup |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130908180035/http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/contrib/one-true-awk/FREEBSD-upgrade?rev1.9&content-typetext%2Fx-cvsweb-markup |archive-dateSeptember 8, 2013 |titleFreeBSD's work log for importing BWK awk into FreeBSD's core |dateMay 16, 2005 |access-dateSeptember 20, 2006 |url-statuslive }}</ref> This version also has features not in the book, such as <code>tolower</code> and <code>ENVIRON</code> that are explained above; see the FIXES file in the source archive for details. This version is used by, for example, Android, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, macOS, and illumos. Brian Kernighan and Arnold Robbins are the main contributors to a source repository for nawk: {{URL|https://github.com/onetrueawk/awk}}.
* gawk (GNU awk) is another free-software implementation and the only implementation that makes serious progress implementing internationalization and localization and TCP/IP networking. It was written before the original implementation became freely available. It includes its own debugger, and its profiler enables the user to make measured performance enhancements to a script. It also enables the user to extend functionality with shared libraries. Some Linux distributions include gawk as their default AWK implementation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} As of version 5.2 (September 2022) gawk includes a persistent memory feature that can remember script-defined variables and functions from one invocation of a script to the next and pass data between unrelated scripts, as described in the Persistent-Memory gawk User Manual: {{URL|https://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/pm-gawk/}}.
** gawk-csv. The CSV extension of gawk provides facilities for inputting and outputting CSV formatted data.<ref>{{cite web | titleCSV Processing With gawk (using the gawk-csv extension)| websitegawkextlib |year2018 | urlhttps://gawkextlib.sourceforge.net/csv/gawk-csv.htmlurl-statuselive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200325201153/http://gawkextlib.sourceforge.net/csv/gawk-csv.html |archive-date=2020-03-25}}</ref>
* mawk is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a bytecode interpreter.
* libmawk is a fork of mawk, allowing applications to embed multiple parallel instances of awk interpreters.
* awka (whose front end is written atop the mawk program) is another translator of AWK scripts into C code. When compiled, statically including the author's libawka.a, the resulting executables are considerably sped up and, according to the author's tests, compare very well with other versions of AWK, Perl, or Tcl. Small scripts will turn into programs of 160–170 kB.
* tawk (Thompson AWK) is an AWK compiler for Solaris, DOS, OS/2, and Windows, previously sold by Thompson Automation Software (which has ceased its activities).<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.drdobbs.com/tools/examining-the-tawk-compiler/184410193 |workDr. Dobb's Journal |authorJames K. Lawless |dateMay 1, 1997 |titleExamining the TAWK Compiler |access-dateFebruary 21, 2020 |archive-dateFebruary 21, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200221191605/https://www.drdobbs.com/tools/examining-the-tawk-compiler/184410193 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Jawk is a project to implement AWK in Java, hosted on SourceForge.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://sourceforge.net/projects/jawk/ |titleJawk at SourceForge |access-date2006-08-23 |archive-date2007-05-27 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070527021808/http://sourceforge.net/projects/jawk |url-statuslive }}</ref> Extensions to the language are added to provide access to Java features within AWK scripts (i.e., Java threads, sockets, collections, etc.).
* xgawk is a fork of gawk<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://gawkextlib.sourceforge.net/ |titlexgawk Home Page |access-date2013-05-07 |archive-date2013-04-18 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130418224130/http://gawkextlib.sourceforge.net/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> that extends gawk with dynamically loadable libraries. The XMLgawk extension was integrated into the official GNU Awk release 4.1.0.
* QSEAWK is an embedded AWK interpreter implementation included in the QSE library that provides embedding application programming interface (API) for C and C++.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://github.com/hyung-hwan/qse |titleQSEAWK at GitHub |websiteGitHub |access-date2017-09-06 |archive-date2018-06-11 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180611001042/https://github.com/hyung-hwan/qse |url-status=live }}</ref>
* libfawk is a very small, function-only, reentrant, embeddable interpreter written in C
* BusyBox includes an AWK implementation written by Dmitry Zakharov. This is a very small implementation suitable for embedded systems.
* CLAWK by Michael Parker provides an AWK implementation in Common Lisp, based upon the regular expression library of the same author.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://github.com/sharplispers/clawk |titleCLAWK at GitHub |websiteGitHub |access-date2021-06-01 |archive-date2021-08-25 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210825102602/https://github.com/sharplispers/clawk |url-status=live }}</ref>
* goawk is an AWK implementation in Go with a few convenience extensions by Ben Hoyt, hosted on [https://github.com/benhoyt/goawk Github].
The gawk manual has a list of more AWK implementations.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttps://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/html_node/Other-Versions.html |titleGAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User's Guide for GNU Awk |chapterB.5 Other Freely Available awk Implementations|dateSeptember 2024|edition5.3|access-date2025-01-24}}</ref>
Books
* {{cite book |last1 = Aho
|first1 = Alfred V.
|author-link1 = Alfred Aho
|last2 = Kernighan
|first2 = Brian W.
|author-link2 = Brian Kernighan
|last3 = Weinberger
|first3 = Peter J.
|author-link3 = Peter J. Weinberger
|title = The AWK Programming Language
|url = https://archive.org/details/awkprogrammingla00ahoa
|access-date = 2017-01-22
|date = 1988-01-01
|publisher = Addison-Wesley
|location = New York, NY
|isbn = 0-201-07981-X
|url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
|last1 = Aho
|first1 = Alfred V.
|author-link1 = Alfred Aho
|last2 = Kernighan
|first2 = Brian W.
|author-link2 = Brian Kernighan
|last3 = Weinberger
|first3 = Peter J.
|author-link3 = Peter J. Weinberger
|title = The AWK Programming Language, Second Edition
|date = 2023-09-06
|publisher = Addison-Wesley Professional
|location = Hoboken, New Jersey
|isbn = 978-0-13-826972-2
|url = https://awk.dev
|url-status = live
|access-date = 2023-11-03
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231027062708/https://awk.dev/
|archive-date = 2023-10-27
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Robbins
| first1 = Arnold
| title = Effective awk Programming
| url = http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/awkprog3/
| access-date = 2009-04-16
| edition = 3rd
| date = 2001-05-15
| publisher = O'Reilly Media
| location = Sebastopol, CA
| isbn = 0-596-00070-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Dougherty
| first1 = Dale
| author-link1 = Dale Dougherty
| last2 = Robbins
| first2 = Arnold
| title = sed & awk
| url = http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/sed2/
| access-date = 2009-04-16
| edition = 2nd
| date = 1997-03-01
| publisher = O'Reilly Media
| location = Sebastopol, CA
| isbn = 1-56592-225-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Robbins
| first1 = Arnold
| title = Effective Awk Programming: A User's Guide for Gnu Awk
| url = https://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/
| access-date = 2009-04-16
| edition = 1.0.3
| year = 2000
| publisher = iUniverse
| location = Bloomington, IN
| isbn = 0-595-10034-1
| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090412190359/https://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/| archive-date 12 April 2009 | url-statuslive}} See also
* Data transformation
* Event-driven programming
* List of Unix commands
* sed
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Further reading
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.fosslife.org/awk-power-and-promise-40-year-old-language |titleAwk: The Power and Promise of a 40-Year-Old Language |workFosslife |authorAndy Oram |dateMay 19, 2021 |accessdateJune 9, 2021}}
* {{cite web |firstNaomi |lastHamilton |urlhttps://www.computerworld.com/article/2535126/the-a-z-of-programming-languages--awk.html |titleThe A-Z of Programming Languages: AWK |dateMay 30, 2008 |workComputerworld |access-date=2008-12-12}}&nbsp;– Interview with Alfred V. Aho on AWK
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-awk1/
| title = Awk by example, Part 1: An intro to the great language with the strange name
| access-date = 2009-04-16
| last = Robbins
| first = Daniel
| author-link = Daniel Robbins (computer programmer)
| date = 2000-12-01
| work = Common threads
| publisher = IBM DeveloperWorks
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-awk2/
| title = Awk by example, Part 2: Records, loops, and arrays
| access-date = 2009-04-16
| last = Robbins
| first = Daniel
| date = 2001-01-01
| work = Common threads
| publisher = IBM DeveloperWorks
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-awk3/
| title = Awk by example, Part 3: String functions and ... checkbooks?
| access-date = 2009-04-16
| last = Robbins
| first = Daniel
| date = 2001-04-01
| work = Common threads
| publisher = IBM DeveloperWorks
| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090519074032/http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-awk3.html| archive-date 19 May 2009 | url-status= live}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081031084509/http://www.think-lamp.com/2008/10/awk-a-boon-for-cli-enthusiasts/ AWK &nbsp;– Become an expert in 60 minutes]
* {{man|cu|awk|SUS|pattern scanning and processing language}}
* {{man|1|gawk|Linux}}
External links
{{Wikibooks|An Awk Primer}}
* [http://doc.cat-v.org/henry_spencer/amazing_awk_assembler/ The Amazing Awk Assembler] by Henry Spencer.
* {{cite web |titleAWK (formerly) at Curlie |urlhttps://curlie.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Awk |websiteCurlie |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220318040955/https://curlie.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Awk |archive-date2022-03-18 |languageen |url-status=dead}}
* [http://awklang.org awklang.org] The site for things related to the awk language
* {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160403181356/http://awk.info/ |titleAwk Community Portal}}
{{Unix commands}}
{{Plan 9 commands}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Awk}}
Category:1977 software
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Category:Unix text processing utilities | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AWK | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.326897 |
1460 | Asgard | {{about|the location in Nordic mythology|other uses}}
{{short description|Home of the gods in Nordic mythology}}
In Nordic mythology, Asgard (Old Norse: Ásgarðr; "Garden of the Æsir") is a location associated with the gods. It appears in several Old Norse sagas and mythological texts, including the Eddas, however it has also been suggested to be referred to indirectly in some of these sources. It is described as the fortified home of the Æsir gods and is often associated with gold imagery and contains many other locations known in Nordic mythology such as Valhöll, Iðavöllr and Hlidskjálf.
In some euhemeristic accounts, Asgard is portrayed as being a city in Asia or Troy, however in other accounts that likely more accurately reflect its conception in Old Nordic religion, it is depicted as not conforming to a naturalistic geographical position. In these latter accounts, it is found in a range of locations such as over the rainbow bridge Bifröst, in the middle of the world and over the sea.
Etymology
The compound word Ásgarðr combines Old Norse {{linktext|áss}} ("god") and {{langx|non|garðr|labelnone}} ("enclosure").{{sfn|Lindow|2002}} Possible anglicisations include: Ásgarthr, Ásgard, Ásegard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Esageard, and Ásgardhr.{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica, Asgard}} Attestations The Poetic Edda Asgard is named twice in Eddic poetry.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p20}} The first case is in Hymiskviða, when Thor and Týr journey from Asgard to Hymir's hall to obtain a cauldron large enough to brew beer for a feast for Ægir and the gods.{{sfn|Orchard|2011|p77|loc Hymiskvida: The song of Hymir, stanza 7}}{{sfn|Bellows|1923|locÞrymskviða, stanza 17}}{{sfn|Simek|2008|pp167–169}} The second instance is in Þrymskviða when Loki is attempting to convince Thor to dress up as Freyja in order to get back Mjölnir by claiming that without his hammer to protect them, jötnar would soon be living in Asgard.{{sfn|Bellows|1923|loc= Þrymskviða, stanza 17}}
Grímnismál contains among its cosmological descriptions, a number of abodes of the gods, such as Álfheim, Nóatún and Valhalla, which some scholars have identified as being in Asgard. Asgard is not mentioned at any point in the poem.{{sfn|Simek|2008|pp8,235,329}}{{sfn|Mattioli|2018|p102}} Furthermore, Völuspá references Iðavöllr, one of the most common meeting places of Æsir gods, which in Gylfaginning, Snorri locates in the centre of Asgard.{{sfn|Boult|1948}}{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 14}} The Prose Edda Prologue The Prose Edda's euhemeristic prologue portrays the Æsir gods as people who travelled from the East to northern territories.{{sfn|Sturluson|Byock|2005}} According to Snorri, Asgard represented the town of Troy before Greek warriors overtook it. After the defeat, Trojans moved to northern Europe, where they became a dominant group due to their "advanced technologies and culture".{{sfn|Sturluson|Byock|2005}} Eventually, other tribes began to perceive the Trojans and their leader Trór (Thor in Old Norse) as gods.{{sfn|Lindow|2002}} Gylfaginning In Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson describes how during the creation of the world, the gods made the earth and surrounded it with the sea. They made the sky from the skull of Ymir and settled the {{lang|non|jötnar}} on the shores of the earth. They set down the brows of Ymir, forming Midgard, and in the centre of the world they built Asgard, which he identifies as Troy:{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|loc Gylfaginning, chapter 8, 9}}
{| width="100%"
! width"50%" | Old Norse text{{sfn|Gylfaginning (ON)|locChapter 9}}
! width"50%" | Brodeur translation{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 9}}
|-
|
{{lang|non|Þar næst gerðu þeir sér borg í miðjum heimi, er kölluð er Ásgarðr. Þat köllum vér Trója. Þar byggðu goðin ok ættir þeira, ok gerðust þaðan af mörg tíðendi ok greinir bæði á jörðu ok í lofti. Þar er einn staðr, er Hliðskjálf heitir, ok þá er Óðinn settist þar í hásæti, þá sá hann of alla heima ok hvers manns athæfi ok vissi alla hluti, þá er hann sá.}}
|
Next they made for themselves in the middle of the world a city which is called Ásgard; men call it Troy. There dwelt the gods and their kindred; and many tidings and tales of it have come to pass both on earth and aloft. There is one abode called Hlidskjálf, and when Allfather sat in the high-seat there, he looked out over the whole world and saw every man's acts, and knew all things which he saw.
|}
After Asgard is made, the gods then built a hof named Glaðsheimr at Iðavöllr, in the centre of the burg, or walled city, with a high seat for Odin and twelve seats for other gods.{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 14}} It is described as like gold both on the inside and the outside, and as the best of all buildings in the world.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p112}} They also built Vingólf for the female gods, which is described as both a hall and a hörgr, and a forge with which they crafted objects from gold.{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 14}} After Ragnarök, some gods such as Váli and Baldr will meet at Iðavöllr where Asgard once stood and discuss matters together. There they will also find in the grass the golden chess pieces that the Æsir had once owned.{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|loc Gylfaginning, chapter 53}}
Later, the section describes how an unnamed jötunn came to the gods with his stallion, Svaðilfari and offered help in building a burg for the gods in three winters, asking in return for the sun, moon, and marriage with Freyja. Despite Freyja's opposition, together the gods agree to fulfill his request if he completes his work in just one winter. As time goes on, the gods grow desperate as it becomes apparent that the jötunn will construct the burg on time. To their surprise, his stallion contributes much of the progress, swiftly moving boulders and rocks. To deal with the problem, Loki comes up with a plan whereupon he changes his appearance to that of a mare, and distracts Svaðilfari to slow down construction.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1983}} Without the help of his stallion, the builder realises he cannot complete his task in time and goes into a rage, revealing his identity as a jötunn. Thor then kills the builder with Mjöllnir, before any harm to the gods is done.{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 42}} The chapter does not explicitly name Asgard as the fortress but they are commonly identified by scholars.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p108}}
In Gylfaginning, the central cosmic tree Yggdrasil is described as having three roots that hold it up; one of these goes to the Æsir, which has been interpreted as meaning Asgard. In Grímnismál, this root instead reaches over the realm of men.{{sfn|Crawford|2015}}{{sfn|Simek|2008|p375}} The bridge Bifröst is told to span from the heavens to the earth and over it the Æsir cross each day to hold council beneath Yggdrasil at the Urðarbrunnr. Based on this, Bifröst is commonly interpreted as the bridge to Asgard.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p36}}
Skáldskaparmál
Asgard is mentioned briefly throughout Skáldskaparmál as the name for the home of the Æsir, as in Gylfaginning.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p20}} In this section, a number of locations are described as lying within Asgard including Valhalla, and in front of its doors, the golden grove Glasir.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p113}} It also records a name for Thor as 'Defender of Ásgard' ({{langx|non|verjandi Ásgarðs}}).{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|loc11. Kennings for Thor}}{{sfn|Skáldskaparmál|locChapter 11}}
Ynglinga Saga
In the Ynglinga saga, found in Heimskringla, Snorri describes Asgard as a city in Asia, based on a perceived, but erroneous, connection between the words for Asia and Æsir. In the opening stanzas of the Saga of the Ynglings, Asgard is the capital of Asaland, a section of Asia east of the river Tana-kvísl or Vana-Kvísl (kvísl is "arm"), which Snorri explains is the river Tanais (now Don), flowing into the Black Sea. Odin then leaves to settle in the northern part of the world and leaves his brothers Vili and Vé to rule over the city. When the euhemerised Odin dies, the account states that the Swedes believed he had returned to Asgard and would live there forever.{{sfn|Laing|1961|pp8–13}}Interpretation and discussionCosmology in Old Nordic religion is presented in a vague and often contradictory manner when viewed from a naturalistic standpoint. Snorri places Asgard in the centre of the world, surrounded by Midgard and then the lands inhabited by {{lang|non|jötnar}}, all of which are finally encircled by the sea. He also locates the homes of the gods in the heavens. This had led to the proposition of a system of concentric circles, centred on Asgard or Yggdrasil, and sometimes with a vertical axis, leading upwards towards the heavens. There is debate between scholars over whether the gods were conceived of as living in the heavens, with some aligning their views with Snorri, and others proposing that he at times presents the system in a Christian framework and that this organisation is not seen in either Eddic or skaldic poetry. The concept of attempting to create a spatial cosmological model has itself been criticised by scholars who argue that the oral traditions did not form a naturalistic, structured system that aimed to be internally geographically consistent. An alternative proposal is that the world should be conceived of as a number of realms connected by passages that cannot be typically traversed. This would explain how Asgard can be located both to the east and west of the realm of men, over the sea and over Bifröst.{{sfn|Heide|2014|pp103–104,125–127}}
It has been noted that the tendency to link Asgard to Troy is part of a wider European cultural practice of claiming Trojan origins for one's culture, first seen in the Aeneid and also featuring in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regum Britanniae for the founding of Britain.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1983|p56}} Depictions in popular culture Both Asgard and Valhalla have been portrayed many times in popular cultureIn filmAsgard is depicted in the 1989 film comedy film Erik the Viking as a frozen wasteland dominated by the Halls of Valhalla on a high plateau. In the film the Æsir are depicted as spoilt children <ref>{{cite web |title Erik the Viking (1989) |urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/erik_the_viking_1989 |website Rotten Tomatoes |access-date9 January 2024 }}</ref>In comicsThor first appeared in the Marvel Universe within comic series Journey into Mystery in the issues #83 during August 1962. Following this release, he becomes one of the central figures in the comics along with Loki and Odin. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Thor and Loki make their first appearance together in the 2011 film Thor. After that, Thor becomes a regular character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and reappears in several films, including the Avengers series. Asgard becomes the central element of the film Thor: Ragnarok, where it is destroyed following the Old Norse mythos. These and other Norse mythology elements also appear in video games, TV series, and books based in and on the Marvel Universe, although these depictions do not closely follow historical sources.{{cn|dateAugust 2023}}
In video games
Asgard is an explorable realm in the video game God of War: Ragnarök, a sequel to 2018's Norse-themed God of War.{{sfn|God Of War Interview}}
In the ''Assassin's Creed Valhalla'' video game, Asgard is featured as part of a "vision quest".{{sfn|PC Games AC}}
See also
* Mount Olympus – home of the Olympian gods
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
Primary
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book| translator-last1 Bellows| translator-first1 Henry Adams| translator-link1 Henry Adams Bellows (businessman) | date 1923| chapter Lays of the Gods: Voluspo| editor1-last Bellows| editor1-first Henry Adams| editor1-link Henry Adams Bellows (businessman) | title The Poetic Edda| url https://books.google.com/books?idOjZcAAAAMAAJ | series Scandinavian classics, vols. 21, 22 | location New York | publisher American-Scandinavian Foundation | publication-date 1926 | page 3 | access-date = 9 August 2021 }}
* {{Cite book|lastCrawford|firstJackson|titleThe Poetic Edda : stories of the Norse Gods and heroes|publisherHackett Publishing Company, Inc|year2015|isbn978-1-62466-358-1|locationChicago|pages12–14, 47–58, 68, 95|oclc=905921490}}
* {{cite book |last1Laing |first1Samuel |titleHeimskringla. Part two, Sagas of the Norse Kings |date1961 |publisherDent |locationLondon |isbn=0460008471}}
* {{cite book |last1Orchard |first1Andy | author-linkAndy Orchard |titleThe Elder Edda : a book of Viking lore |date2011 |publisherPenguin Books |locationLondon |isbn9780141393728}}
* {{Cite book|last1Sturluson|first1Snorri|titleThe prose Edda: Norse mythology|last2Byock|first2Jesse L.|publisherPenguin Classics|year2005|isbn0-14-044755-5|locationLondon|pages30–48, 55–78, 80–83, 93–94, 97|oclc=59352542}}
* {{cite book |last1Sturluson |first1Snorri |translator-lastBrodeur|translator-firstArthur Gilchrist|titleThe Prose Edda |date2018 |publisherFranklin Classics Trade Press |isbn9780344335013}}
* {{cite web |ref{{SfnRef|Gylfaginning (ON)}}| titleGylfaginning (Old Norse) |urlhttps://heimskringla.no/wiki/Gylfaginning |websiteheimskringla.no |access-date=4 October 2022}}
* {{cite web | titleSkaldskáparmál (Old Norse) |ref{{harvid|Skáldskaparmál}} |urlhttps://heimskringla.no/wiki/Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l |websiteheimskringla.no |access-date=8 October 2022}}
{{refend}}
Secondary
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|lastBoult|first Katherine|titleAsgard and the Norse Heroes|publisher University of Michigan Library|year1948|isbn 978-1176204492|locationAnn Arbor|pages 21, 56–59, 72, 82–90, 121–123}}
* {{Cite journal|lastFontenrose|firstJoseph|date1983|titleThe Building of the City Walls: Troy and Asgard|journalThe Journal of American Folklore|volume96|issue379|pages53–63|doi10.2307/539834|jstor539834|issn=0021-8715}}
* {{cite journal |last1Heide |first1Eldar |titleContradictory cosmology in Old Norse myth and religion – but still a system? |journalMaal og Minne |date2014 |volume106 |issue1 |urlhttp://ojs.novus.no/index.php/MOM/article/view/226 |access-date23 April 2022 |languageno |issn=1890-5455}}
* {{Cite book|lastLindow|firstJohn|titleNorse mythology : a guide to the Gods, heroes, rituals, and beliefs|publisherOxford University Press|date2002|isbn 9786610532490 |locationOxford|oclc1136323846|pages =13, 37, 54–56}}
* {{cite journal |last1Mattioli |first1Vittorio |titleGrímnismál : a critical edition |journalUniversity of St Andrews |date2018 |s2cid165843311 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1Simek |first1Rudolf | author-link Rudolf Simek | translator1-last Hall | translator-first Angela |titleA Dictionary of Northern Mythology |date2008 |publisherBOYE6 |isbn=9780859915137}}
* {{Cite web|ref{{SfnRef|Encyclopedia Britannica, Asgard}}|title Asgard {{!}} Norse mythology|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Asgard|access-date2020-06-03 |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|languageen}}
* {{cite web |ref{{SfnRef|PC Games AC}}|urlhttps://www.pcgamesn.com/assassins-creed-valhalla/asgard-jotunheim |titleYou can visit Asgard and Jotunheim in Assassin's Creed Valhalla |websitePCGamesN |date=15 October 2020 }}
* {{cite AV media|ref{{SfnRef|God Of War Interview}}|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?appdesktop&vnOJrXHLQPx8|titleGod Of War Ragnarök Developer Interview|websiteIGN|date=9 September 2021}}
{{refend}}
External links
* [https://myndir.uvic.ca/Asgrd01.html MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository)] Illustrations of Asgard from manuscripts and early print books.
{{Norse paganism footer}}
{{Heaven}}
Category:Locations in Norse mythology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.346153 |
1461 | Apollo program | {{Short description|1961–1972 American crewed lunar exploration program}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox space program
| name = Apollo program
| image = Apollo program.svg
| alt = The letter "A" printed with a depiction of a trans-lunar trajectory streaking across; the Moon and Earth are depicted on opposite sides of the "A", with Apollo's face outlined on the Moon
| country = United States
| organization = NASA
| purpose = Crewed lunar landing
| cost = {{Unbulleted list
| $25.4 billion (1973)
| $257 billion (2020)<ref name"www_planetary_org">{{Cite web| title How much did the Apollo program cost?| work The Planetary Society| access-date 2024-03-25| url = https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-apollo}}</ref>
}}
| status = Completed
| duration = 1961–1972
| firstflight = {{Unbulleted list
| SA-1
| {{Start date|1961|10|27}}
}}
| firstcrewed = {{Unbulleted list
| Apollo 7
| {{Start date|1968|10|11}}
}}
| lastflight = {{Unbulleted list
| Apollo 17
| {{Start date|1972|12|19}}
}}
| successes = 32
| failures = 2 (Apollo 1 and 13)
| partialfailures = 1 (Apollo 6)
| launchsite = {{Unbulleted list
| Cape Kennedy
| Kennedy Space Center
| White Sands
}}
| crewvehicle = {{Hlist|Apollo CSM|Apollo LM}}
| launcher = {{Hlist|Little Joe II|Saturn I|Saturn IB|Saturn V}}
}}
{{United States space program sidebar}}
The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, was the United States human spaceflight program led by NASA, which successfully landed the first humans on the Moon in 1969.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/history/july-20-1969-one-giant-leap-for-mankind/ | titleJuly 20, 1969: One Giant Leap for Mankind - NASA | date=July 20, 2019}}</ref> Apollo followed Project Mercury that put the first Americans in space. It was conceived in 1960 as a three-person spacecraft during President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal for the 1960s of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" in an address to Congress on May 25, 1961. It was the third US human spaceflight program to fly, preceded by Project Gemini conceived in 1961 to extend spaceflight capability in support of Apollo.
Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module (CSM), and all three landed safely on Earth in the Pacific Ocean on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last, Apollo 17, in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve people walked on the Moon.
(pictured) walked on the Moon with Neil Armstrong, on Apollo 11, July 20–21, 1969.|alt=Astronaut Buzz Aldrin, standing on the Moon]]
]]
'', the iconic 1968 image from Apollo 8 taken by astronaut William Anders]]
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first crewed flight in 1968. It encountered a major setback in 1967 when an Apollo 1 cabin fire killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first successful landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. Five of the remaining six missions achieved successful landings, but the Apollo 13 landing had to be aborted after an oxygen tank exploded en route to the Moon, crippling the CSM. The crew barely managed a safe return to Earth by using the lunar module as a "lifeboat" on the return journey. Apollo used the Saturn family of rockets as launch vehicles, which were also used for an Apollo Applications Program, which consisted of Skylab, a space station that supported three crewed missions in 1973–1974, and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, a joint United States-Soviet Union low Earth orbit mission in 1975.
Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, and Apollo 11 was the first crewed spacecraft to land humans on one.
Overall, the Apollo program returned {{convert|842|lb|kg}} of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight capability and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and human spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.
Name
The program was named after Apollo, the Greek god of light, music, and the Sun, by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said, "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby."<ref>Murray & Cox 1989, p. 55</ref> Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program".<ref name"pressrelease">{{cite press release |titleRelease 69-36 |dateJuly 14, 1969 |publisher Lewis Research Center |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/apollo_press_release.html |locationCleveland, OH |access-date=June 21, 2012}}</ref>
The context of this was that the program focused at its beginning mainly on developing an advanced crewed spacecraft, the Apollo command and service module, succeeding the Mercury program. A lunar landing became the focus of the program only in 1961.<ref name"Nast 2013 t554">{{cite magazine |titleProject Olympus (1962) |magazineWIRED |date2013-09-02 |urlhttps://www.wired.com/2013/09/project-olympus-1962/ |access-date2023-10-12}}</ref> Thereafter Project Gemini instead followed the Mercury program to test and study advanced crewed spaceflight technology.
Background
Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies
{{main|Apollo spacecraft feasibility study}}
The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a follow-up to Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could support only one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station, circumlunar flights, and eventual crewed lunar landings.
In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module (piloting and reentry cabin), and a propulsion and equipment module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric, and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs.<ref name"chariots_feasibility">{{harvnb|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locCh. 1.7: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch1-7.html "Feasility Studies"]. pp. 16–21.}}</ref>
Political pressure builds
{{main|Space Race|Sputnik crisis}}
In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Up to the election of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the "missile gap" that he and many other senators said had developed between the Soviet Union and the United States due to the inaction of President Eisenhower.<ref>{{cite journal |firstChristopher A. |lastPreble |title"Who Ever Believed in the 'Missile Gap'?": John F. Kennedy and the Politics of National Security |journalPresidential Studies Quarterly |volume33 |number4 |date2003 |page813 |doi10.1046/j.0360-4918.2003.00085.x |jstor27552538}}</ref> Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first period".<ref>Beschloss 1997</ref> Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a crewed Moon landing.<ref>Sidey 1963, pp. 117–118</ref> When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.<ref>Beschloss 1997, p. 55</ref>
On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up.<ref>87th Congress 1961</ref> Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets.<ref>Sidey 1963, p. 114</ref>
Kennedy delivers his proposal to put a man on the Moon before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961.|alt=President John F. Kennedy addresses a joint session of Congress, with Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and House Speaker Sam Rayburn seated behind him]]
On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up.<ref name"jfkmemo">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/6XnAYXEkkkSMLfp7ic_o-Q.aspx |titleMemorandum for Vice President |lastKennedy |firstJohn F. |author-linkJohn F. Kennedy |dateApril 20, 1961 |workThe White House |publisherJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |locationBoston, MA |typeMemorandum |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |archive-dateJuly 21, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160721230444/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/6XnAYXEkkkSMLfp7ic_o-Q.aspx |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastLaunius |firstRoger D. |titleApollo: A Retrospective Analysis |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/cover.html |formatPDF |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesMonographs in Aerospace History |number3 |dateJuly 1994 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc31825096 |chapterPresident John F. Kennedy Memo for Vice President, 20 April 1961 |chapter-urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo1.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive }} [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/docs.htm Key Apollo Source Documents] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201108100815/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/docs.htm |dateNovember 8, 2020 }}.</ref> Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership."<ref name"lbjmemo">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/DjiWpQJegkuIlX7WZAUCtQ.aspx |titleMemorandum for the President |lastJohnson |firstLyndon B. |author-linkLyndon B. Johnson |typeMemorandum |dateApril 28, 1961 |workOffice of the Vice President |publisherJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |locationBoston, MA |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |archive-dateJuly 1, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160701151811/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/DjiWpQJegkuIlX7WZAUCtQ.aspx |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastLaunius |firstRoger D. |titleApollo: A Retrospective Analysis |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/cover.html |formatPDF |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesMonographs in Aerospace History |number3 |dateJuly 1994 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc31825096 |chapterLyndon B. Johnson, Vice President, Memo for the President, 'Evaluation of Space Program,' 28 April 1961 |chapter-urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo2.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo2.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive }} [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/docs.htm Key Apollo Source Documents] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201108100815/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/docs.htm |dateNovember 8, 2020 }}.</ref> His memo concluded that a crewed Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first.<ref name="lbjmemo" />
On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US crewed spaceflight Freedom 7, Kennedy proposed the crewed Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs:
{{blockquote|Now it is time to take longer strides—time for a great new American enterprise—time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth.
...{{nbsp}}I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.<ref name"Special Message">{{cite AV media |peopleKennedy, John F. |dateMay 25, 1961 |titleSpecial Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |mediumMotion picture (excerpt) |urlhttp://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |publisherJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |locationBoston, MA |idAccession number: TNC:200; digital identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref>{{efn|{{Cws |titleFull text |linkSpecial Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs|nobullet=yes}}}}
}}
NASA expansion
At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a month earlier—and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met.<ref>Murray & Cox 1989, pp. 16–17</ref> By 1963, Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of effort.<ref>{{cite news |titleSoviets Planned to Accept JFK's Joint Lunar Mission Offer |firstFrank |lastSietzen |urlhttp://www.spacedaily.com/news/russia-97h.html |agencySpaceCast News Service |workSpaceDaily |dateOctober 2, 1997 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>
With the clear goal of a crewed landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and circumlunar flights, NASA decided that, in order to make progress quickly, it would discard the feasibility study designs of Convair, GE, and Martin, and proceed with Faget's command and service module design. The mission module was determined to be useful only as an extra room, and therefore unnecessary.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4209/ch3-7.htm|title Soyuz – Development of the Space Station; Apollo – Voyage to the Moon|access-dateJune 12, 2016}}</ref> They used Faget's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was announced that North American Aviation had won the contract, although its bid was not rated as good as the Martin proposal. Webb, Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in preference due to North American's longer association with NASA and its predecessor.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locCh. 2.5: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch2-5.html "Contracting for the Command Module"]. pp. 41–44}}
Landing humans on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($25&nbsp;billion; ${{format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|25400000000|1966}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}} US dollars){{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}} ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Apollo.html |titleNASA Langley Research Center's Contributions to the Apollo Program |editor-lastAllen |editor-firstBob |workLangley Research Center |publisherNASA |access-date=August 1, 2013}}</ref>
On July 1, 1960, NASA established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama. MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for Apollo.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://history.msfc.nasa.gov/history_fact_sheet.html|titleHistorical Facts|access-dateJune 7, 2016|websiteMSFC History Office|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160603125431/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/history_fact_sheet.html|archive-dateJune 3, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>Manned Spacecraft Center
{{main|Johnson Space Center}}
It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's crewed space program from NASA's Langley Research Center. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on land donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961.<ref name"TNO 12">{{cite book |last1Swenson |first1Loyd S. Jr. |first2James M. |last2Grimwood |first3Charles C. |last3Alexander |titleThis New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesThe NASA History Series |orig-yearOriginally published 1966 |date1989 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc569889 |idNASA SP-4201 |chapterChapter 12.3: Space Task Group Gets a New Home and Name |chapter-urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch12-3.htm |archive-dateJuly 13, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090713233748/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref> It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC.<ref>{{cite book |lastDethloff |firstHenry C. |titleSuddenly Tomorrow Came ... A History of the Johnson Space Center |publisherNational Aeronautics and Space Administration |year1993 |author-link Henry C. Dethloff |chapterChapter 3: Houston – Texas – U.S.A. |isbn978-1502753588 |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/suddenly_tomorrow/suddenly.htm}}</ref>
, September 12, 1962 (17 min, 47 s).]]
In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:
{{blockquote|But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic?{{nbsp}}...
We choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills; because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win{{nbsp}}...<ref name"Rice Speech">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03SpaceEffort09121962.htm |url-statusdead |titleAddress at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort |lastKennedy |firstJohn F. |dateSeptember 12, 1962 |publisherJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |locationBoston, MA |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100506113709/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical%2BResources/Archives/Reference%2BDesk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03SpaceEffort09121962.htm |archive-dateMay 6, 2010 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>{{efn|{{Cws |titleFull text |linkWe choose to go to the moon |nobullet=yes}}}}}}
The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the United States Congress in honor of Lyndon B. Johnson soon after his death in 1973.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid4109#axzz1RbWN5hpf |title50—Statement About Signing a Bill Designating the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas, as the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |firstRichard M. |lastNixon |author-linkRichard M. Nixon |dateFebruary 19, 1973 |workThe American Presidency Project |publisherUniversity of California, Santa Barbara |access-dateJuly 9, 2011}}</ref>
Launch Operations Center
{{main|Kennedy Space Center}}
It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the crewed lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director.<ref name"NASA2">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/debus.html |titleDr. Kurt H. Debus |dateFebruary 1987 |workKennedy Biographies |publisherNASA |access-dateOctober 7, 2008}}</ref> Construction began in November 1962. Following Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1963-johnson.html |titleExecutive Orders Disposition Tables: Lyndon B. Johnson – 1963: Executive Order 11129 |workOffice of the Federal Register |publisherNational Archives and Records Administration |access-dateApril 26, 2010}}</ref>
, Wernher von Braun, and Eberhard Rees watch the AS-101 launch from the firing room.]]
The LOC included Launch Complex 39, a Launch Control Center, and a {{convert|130|e6ft3|m3|adjon}} Vertical Assembly Building (VAB).<ref>The building was renamed "Vehicle Assembly Building" on February 3, 1965. {{cite web |titleVAB Nears Completion |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4204/ch12-7.html |websiteNASA History Program Office |publisherNASA |access-date2023-02-12 |quoteThe new name, it was felt, would more readily encompass future as well as current programs and would not be tied to the Saturn booster. |archive-dateApril 28, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150428174930/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4204/ch12-7.html |url-statusdead }}</ref> in which the space vehicle (launch vehicle and spacecraft) would be assembled on a mobile launcher platform and then moved by a crawler-transporter to one of several launch pads. Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated A{{nbsp}}and{{nbsp}}B, were completed in October 1965. The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to {{convert|250000|ft|km}}, which is nearly a vacuum.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/techCap/altitude.htm |url-statusdead |titleKSC Technical Capabilities: O&C Altitude Chambers |editor-lastCraig |editor-firstKay |workCenter Planning and Development Office |publisherNASA |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120328084113/http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/techCap/altitude.htm |archive-dateMarch 28, 2012 |access-dateJuly 29, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.luizmonteiro.com/StdAtm.aspx |title1976 Standard Atmosphere Properties |workluizmonteiro.com |publisherLuizmonteiro, LLC |typeComplete International Standard Atmosphere calculator (1976 model) |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>
Organization
Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited George E. Mueller for a high management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later Deputy Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF).<ref name"SecretOfApollo">Johnson 2002</ref> On July 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun), and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) reported to Mueller.<ref>{{Cite web |titleStages to Saturn |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/p443.htm |page443 |access-date2023-02-12 |websitehistory.nasa.gov |id=SP-4206}}</ref>
Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high-ranking officers in the U.S. Air Force, so he got Webb's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips's superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the first human landing in July 1969, after which he returned to Air Force duty.<ref>{{Cite news |titleSamuel C. Phillips, Who Directed Apollo Lunar Landing, Dies at 68 |firstAlfonso A. |lastNarvaez |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/01/obituaries/samuel-c-phillips-who-directed-apollo-lunar-landing-dies-at-68.html?pagewanted1 |newspaperThe New York Times |dateFebruary 1, 1990 |access-dateApril 14, 2010}}</ref>
Charles Fishman, in One Giant Leap, estimated the number of people and organizations involved into the Apollo program as "410,000 men and women at some 20,000 different companies contributed to the effort".<ref namenpr>{{cite web |last1Davies |first1Dave |title'One Giant Leap' Explores The Herculean Effort Behind The 1969 Moon Landing |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2019/06/12/731660780/one-giant-leap-explores-the-herculean-effort-behind-the-1969-moon-landing |workNPR |locationUS |date2019-06-12 |access-date=5 July 2023}}</ref>
<!----This probably completes this section, the intent of which is to keep the narrative flow of Webb's big 1963 reorganization. These remainders should be highlighted, probably as appropriate in later sections.
* Shea
* Christopher Kraft
* Gene Kranz
* Deke Slayton
* Rocco Petrone
---->
Choosing a mission mode
{{see also|Moon landing}}
explaining the LOR concept]]
and Earth Orbit Rendezvous, 1961]]
Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life, limiting cost, and not exceeding limits in possible technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:
* Direct Ascent: The spacecraft would be launched as a unit and travel directly to the lunar surface, without first going into lunar orbit. A {{convert|50000|lb|kg|adjon}} Earth return ship would land all three astronauts atop a {{convert|113000|lb|kg|adjon}} descent propulsion stage,<ref name"Nova_scale">Using the Apollo 11 lunar lander's mass ratio of {{convert|22667|lb|kg|adjon}} descent stage to {{convert|10042|lb|kg|adjon}} ascent stage, scaled up to Nova's {{convert|163000|lb|kg|adjon}} payload.</ref> which would be left on the Moon. This design would have required development of the extremely powerful Saturn C-8 or Nova launch vehicle to carry a {{convert|163000|lb|kg|adjon}} payload to the Moon.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch2-6.html Ch. 2.6, "Influences on Booster Determination"]}}
* Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): Multiple rocket launches (up to 15 in some plans) would carry parts of the Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection (TLI). These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit.
* Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the crewed vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to the crewed vehicle.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc=Chapter 3.2: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch3-2.html Early Reaction to LOR]. pp. 61–67}}
* Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): This turned out to be the winning configuration, which achieved the goal with Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969: a single Saturn V launched a {{convert|96886|lb|kg|adjon}} spacecraft that was composed of a {{convert|63608|lb|kg|adjon}} Apollo command and service module which remained in orbit around the Moon and a {{convert|33278|lb|kg|adjon}} two-stage Apollo Lunar Module spacecraft which was flown by two astronauts to the surface, flown back to dock with the command module and was then discarded.<ref>{{cite book |last1Orloff |first1Richard W. |titleApollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. Launch Vehicle/Spacecraft Key Facts – 2nd table |dateSeptember 2004 |publisherNASA History Division |locationWashington DC |isbn016-050631-X |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-12_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm |access-dateAugust 8, 2018}}</ref> Landing the smaller spacecraft on the Moon, and returning an even smaller part ({{convert|10042|lb|disp=or}}) to lunar orbit, minimized the total mass to be launched from Earth, but this was the last method initially considered because of the perceived risk of rendezvous and docking.
In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that rendezvous and docking, maneuvers that had not been attempted in Earth orbit, would be nearly impossible in lunar orbit. LOR advocates including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness", Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc=Ch. 3.4: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch3-4.html "Early Reaction to LOR"]. p. 71}}
{{anchor|Nicholas E. Golovin}}
Seamans's establishment of an ad hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program, represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision.<ref name"hansen21">Hansen 1999, p. 32</ref> This committee recognized that the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice, and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode. Its consideration of LOR—as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work—played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR, including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a champion of LOR.<ref name"hansen24">Hansen 1999, pp. 35–39</ref> The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), who were heavily invested in direct ascent, took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7, 1962.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc=Ch. 3.6: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch3-6.html "Settling the Mode Issue"]. pp. 81–83}}
But even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. Kennedy's science advisor Jerome Wiesner, who had expressed his opposition to human spaceflight to Kennedy before the President took office,<ref>{{Cite report |titleManaging NASA in the Apollo Era |chapter2: The Lunar Landing Decision and Its Aftermath |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4102/ch2.htm|access-date2023-02-12 |websitehistory.nasa.gov}}</ref> and had opposed the decision to land people on the Moon, hired Golovin, who had left NASA, to chair his own "Space Vehicle Panel", ostensibly to monitor, but actually to second-guess NASA's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea, Seamans, and even Webb to defend themselves, delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11, 1962, and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as "tentative".{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch3-7.html Ch. 3.7, "Casting the Die"]}}
Wiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner blurted out "No, that's no good" in front of the press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was "still subject to final review". Webb held firm and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) contractors. Wiesner finally relented, unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy's office, because of the President's involvement with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc=[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch4-4.html Ch. 4.4, "Pressures by PSAC"]}}
Space historian James Hansen concludes that:
{{blockquote|Without NASA's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962, the United States may still have reached the Moon, but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by the end of the 1960s, President Kennedy's target date.<ref>Hansen 1999, p. 42</ref>}}
The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a "lifeboat" in the event of a failure of the command ship. Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after the method was chosen. In 1964 an MSC study concluded, "The LM [as lifeboat]{{nbsp}}... was finally dropped, because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS."<ref>{{cite book |last Letterman |first John B. |title Survivors: True Tales of Endurance: 500 Years of the Greatest Eyewitness Accounts |page404 |publisher Simon & Schuster |date 2003 |location New York |isbn 0-7432-4547-4 |url https://archive.org/details/survivorstruetal00lett |chapterExplosion on Apollo 13; April 1970: From the Earth to the Moon and Back |quoteLovell writes, 'Naturally, I'm glad that view didn't prevail, and I'm thankful that by the time of Apollo 10, the first lunar mission carrying the LM, the LM as a lifeboat was again being discussed.'}}</ref> Ironically, just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power. The lunar module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely.<ref name"KSC-Apollo_13">{{cite web |urlhttp://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-13/apollo-13.html |lastDumoulin |firstJim |titleApollo-13 (29) |workHistorical Archive for Manned Missions |publisherNASA |dateJune 29, 2001 |access-dateSeptember 12, 2012 |archive-dateAugust 19, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110819103041/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-13/apollo-13.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>Spacecraft
{{main|Apollo (spacecraft)}}
command module is on exhibit in the Meteor Crater Visitor Center in Winslow, Arizona.]]
Faget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped command module, supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately for the space station, cislunar, and lunar landing missions. Once Kennedy's Moon landing goal became official, detailed design began of a command and service module (CSM) in which the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip, after being soft-landed by a larger landing propulsion module. The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM's role to the translunar ferry used to transport the crew, along with a new spacecraft, the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM, later shortened to LM (Lunar Module) but still pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|m}}) which would take two individuals to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM.<ref name"SummaryReport" />Command and service module
{{main|Apollo command and service module}}
CSM Endeavour in lunar orbit|alt=The cone-shaped command module, attached to the cylindrical service module, orbits the Moon with a panel removed, exposing the scientific instrument module]]
The command module (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield, and had its own reaction control system (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path. Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to splashdown. The module was {{convert|11.42|ft|m}} tall, {{convert|12.83|ft|m}} in diameter, and weighed approximately {{convert|12250|lb|kg}}.<ref name="ABTN_LV2" />
; the very high resolution image was produced in 2007 by the Smithsonian Institution.]]
A cylindrical service module (SM) supported the command module, with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants. A high-gain S-band antenna was used for long-distance communications on the lunar flights. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. The service module was discarded just before reentry. The module was {{convert|24.6|ft|m}} long and {{convert|12.83|ft|m}} in diameter. The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately {{convert|51300|lb|kg}} fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over {{convert|54000|lb|kg}}.<ref name="ABTN_LV2"/>
North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off the Moon, and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight.<ref>Wilford 1969, p. 167</ref> Also, there was no provision for docking with the lunar module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development.<ref name"SummaryReport">{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/apsr/Apollopt2-2.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/apsr/Apollopt2-2.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleApollo Program Summary Report |dateApril 1975 |publisherNASA |locationHouston, TX |pages3–66 to 4–12 |idJSC-09423 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>
Apollo Lunar Module
{{main|Apollo Lunar Module}}
Lunar Module Eagle (and Buzz Aldrin) on the Moon, photographed by Neil Armstrong]]
The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the command module. Not designed to fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations and was of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The initial LM model weighed approximately {{convert|33300|lb|kg}}, and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours. An extended lunar module (ELM) weighed over {{convert|36200|lb|kg}}, and allowed surface stays of more than three days.<ref name"ABTN_LV2">{{Cite web|titleLaunch Vehicle|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-12_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm|access-date2023-02-12|websitehistory.nasa.gov}}</ref> The contract for design and construction of the lunar module was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the project was overseen by Thomas J. Kelly.<ref>{{cite news |titleT. J. Kelly, 72, Dies; Father of Lunar Module |firstWarren E. |lastLeary |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/27/nyregion/t-j-kelly-72-dies-father-of-lunar-module.html |newspaperThe New York Times |dateMarch 27, 2002 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>
Launch vehicles
, Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V]]
Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series, and the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA and was made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center. The initial direct ascent plan to send the three-person Apollo command and service module directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large descent rocket stage, would require a Nova-class launcher, with a lunar payload capability of over {{convert|180000|lb|kg|abbrout}}.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAerospace Alphabet: ABMA, ARPA, MSFC|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch2.htm|access-date2023-02-12|websitehistory.nasa.gov}}</ref> The June 11, 1962, decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the Saturn V to replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded to develop the Saturn rocket family for Apollo.<ref>{{Cite web|titleMissions, Modes, and Manufacturing|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch3.htm|access-date2023-02-12|website=history.nasa.gov}}</ref>
Since Apollo, like Mercury, used more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series numbers: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (compare Mercury-Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time human flights began.<ref name"missionNumbers" />Little Joe II
{{main|Little Joe II}}
Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system. A rocket bigger than the Little Joe used by Mercury would be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics/Convair. After an August 1963 qualification test flight,<ref>Townsend 1973, p. 14</ref> four LES test flights (A-001 through 004) were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966.<ref>Townsend 1973, p. 22</ref>
Saturn I
{{main|Saturn I}}
, 1968]]
Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in eight clustered Rocketdyne H-1 engines, to produce {{convert|1500000|lbf|kN|sigfig3}} of thrust. The S-IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled Pratt & Whitney RL-10 engines with {{convert|90000|lbf|kN|sigfig3}} of thrust. The S-V third stage flew inactively on Saturn I four times.<ref>Dawson & Bowles 2004, p. 85. See footnote 61.</ref>
The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only the first stage live, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The first flight with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the Apollo program by also carrying Pegasus satellites, which verified the safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity of micrometeorite impacts.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc=Ch. 7.6: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch7-6.html "Portents for Operations"]}}
In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four crewed CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965 through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The {{convert|22500|lb|kg|adjon}} payload capacity<ref>{{cite book|urlhttp://www.alternatewars.com/SpaceRace/Saturn/ASD_II_Saturn_Launch_Vehicles-2-1964.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.alternatewars.com/SpaceRace/Saturn/ASD_II_Saturn_Launch_Vehicles-2-1964.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleApollo Systems Description|dateFebruary 1, 1964|publisherNASA|volumeII: Saturn Launch Vehicles|page3|typeTechnical Memorandum|idNASA TM-X-881|access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}<!----Original URL for document on NTRS server: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710065502_1971065502.pdf----></ref> would have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in October 1963 to use the uprated Saturn IB for all crewed Earth orbital flights.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.astronautix.com/flights/apoosa11.htm |lastWade |firstMark |titleApollo SA-11 |encyclopediaEncyclopedia Astronautica |access-dateJune 21, 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120617193358/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apoosa11.htm |archive-dateJune 17, 2012 |dfmdy-all}}</ref>Saturn IB
{{main|Saturn IB}}
The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S-IB first stage increased the thrust to {{convert|1600000|lbf|kN|sigfig3}} by uprating the H-1 engine. The second stage replaced the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce {{convert|200000|lbf|kN|sigfig3|lkon}} of thrust.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205.pdf|titleInfluences on Booster Determination|pages44–46|websiteNASA HQ|access-dateNovember 11, 2022}}</ref> A restartable version of the S-IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over {{convert|40000|lb|kg|sigfig3}} into low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM.<ref>{{cite book |titleSaturn IB News Reference |urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/58939029/Saturn-IB-News-Reference |formatPDF |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |dateDecember 1965 |publisherNASA; Chrysler Corporation; McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company; International Business Machines Corporation; Rocketdyne |oclc22102803 |chapterSaturn IB Design Features}}</ref> Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-200 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "2" indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family.<ref name"Origin of NASA's Names" />
Saturn V
{{main|Saturn V}}
rocket launches Apollo 11, 1969]]
Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "5" indicating Saturn V.<ref name"Origin of NASA's Names">{{cite web|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4402/ch4.htm|titleOrigin of NASA's Names: Manned Spaceflight |access-dateJuly 19, 2016}}</ref> The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was {{convert|33|ft|m|sigfig3}} in diameter and stood {{convert|363|ft|m|sigfig4}} tall with its {{convert|96800|lb|kg|sigfig3|adjon}} lunar payload. Its capability grew to {{convert|103600|lb|kg|sigfig3}} for the later advanced lunar landings. The S-IC first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of {{convert|7500000|lbf|kN|sigfig3}}, which was upgraded to {{convert|7610000|lbf|kN|sigfig3}}. The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen; the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to {{convert|230000|lbf|kN|sigfig3}} and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a parking orbit.<ref name"ABTN_LV1">{{Cite web|titleLaunch Vehicle|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-11_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm|access-date2023-02-12|websitehistory.nasa.gov}}</ref>Astronauts
{{main|List of Apollo astronauts}}
crew: Ed White, command pilot Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee]]
NASA's director of flight crew operations during the Apollo program was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/slayton.html |titleAstronaut Bio: Deke Slayton 6/93 |publisherNASA |dateJune 1993 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060929001149/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/slayton.html |archive-dateSeptember 29, 2006 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earth's orbit and flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 walked on the Moon's surface, though none of them returned to it after landing once. One of the moonwalkers was a trained geologist. Of the 32, Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee were killed during a ground test in preparation for the Apollo 1 mission.<ref name="missionNumbers" />
, Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin]]
The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development flights) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12, included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in the lunar geology training of all of the Apollo landing crews.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/schmitt-hh.html |titleAstronaut Bio: Harrison Schmitt |publisherNASA |dateDecember 1994 |access-dateSeptember 12, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110317220959/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/schmitt-hh.html |archive-dateMarch 17, 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
NASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, given for "distinguished service, ability, or courage", and personal "contribution representing substantial progress to the NASA mission". The medals were awarded posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969, then to the crews of all missions from Apollo 8 onward. The crew that flew the first Earth orbital test mission Apollo 7, Walter M. Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service Medal, because of discipline problems with the flight director's orders during their flight. In October 2008, the NASA Administrator decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals. For Schirra and Eisele, this was posthumously.<ref name"Apollo Crew Honored 2008" >{{cite web |urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-102008a.html |titleFirst Apollo flight crew last to be honored |lastPearlman |firstRobert Z. |dateOctober 20, 2008 |websitecollectSPACE |publisherRobert Pearlman |access-dateJune 12, 2014}}</ref>Lunar mission profileThe first lunar landing mission was planned to proceed:<ref>{{cite book|last1Gatland|first1Kenneth|titleManned Spacecraft|date1976|publisherMacMillan|locationNew York|pages75–85, 88–89}}</ref>
<gallery modepacked widths"190" heights="131">
File:Apollo11-01.png|Launch The three Saturn{{nbsp}}V stages burn for about 11 minutes to achieve a {{convert|100|nmi|km|adj=on}} circular parking orbit. The third stage burns a small portion of its fuel to achieve orbit.
File:Apollo11-02.png|Translunar injection After one to two orbits to verify readiness of spacecraft systems, the S-IVB third stage reignites for about six minutes to send the spacecraft to the Moon.
File:Apollo11-03.png|Transposition and docking The Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) panels separate to free the CSM and expose the LM. The command module pilot (CMP) moves the CSM out a safe distance, and turns 180°.
File:Apollo11-04.png|Extraction The CMP docks the CSM with the LM, and pulls the complete spacecraft away from the S-IVB. The lunar voyage takes between two and three days. Midcourse corrections are made as necessary using the SM engine.
File:Apollo11-05.png|Lunar orbit insertion The spacecraft passes about {{convert|60|nmi|km}} behind the Moon, and the SM engine is fired to slow the spacecraft and put it into a {{convert|60|by|170|nmi|km|adj=on}} orbit, which is soon circularized at 60 nautical miles by a second burn.
File:Apollo11-07.png|After a rest period, the commander (CDR) and lunar module pilot (LMP) move to the LM, power up its systems, and deploy the landing gear. The CSM and LM separate; the CMP visually inspects the LM, then the LM crew move a safe distance away and fire the descent engine for Descent orbit insertion, which takes it to a perilune of about {{convert|50000|ft|km}}.
File:Apollo11-08.png|Powered descent At perilune, the descent engine fires again to start the descent. The CDR takes control after pitchover for a vertical landing.
File:Apollo11-09.png|The CDR and LMP perform one or more EVAs exploring the lunar surface and collecting samples, alternating with rest periods.
File:Apollo11-10.png|The ascent stage lifts off, using the descent stage as a launching pad.
File:Apollo11-11.png|The LM rendezvouses and docks with the CSM.
File:Apollo11-12.png|The CDR and LMP transfer back to the CM with their material samples, then the LM ascent stage is jettisoned, to eventually fall out of orbit and crash on the surface.
File:Apollo11-13.png|Trans-Earth injection The SM engine fires to send the CSM back to Earth.
File:Apollo11-14.png|The SM is jettisoned just before reentry, and the CM turns 180° to face its blunt end forward for reentry.
File:Apollo11-15.png|Atmospheric drag slows the CM. Aerodynamic heating surrounds it with an envelope of ionized air which causes a communications blackout for several minutes.
File:Apollo11-16.png|Parachutes are deployed, slowing the CM for a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean. The astronauts are recovered and brought to an aircraft carrier.
</gallery>
{{Wide image|Apollo Mission Flight Plan - 1967.jpg|1200|Apollo Mission Flight Plan, 1967}}
Profile variations
pilots the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle and lands himself and navigator Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, July 20, 1969.]]
* The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the free-return option.<ref>{{cite book|last1McDivitt|first1James A.|titleApollo 12 Mission Report|dateMarch 1970|publisherNASA Manned Spacecraft Center|locationHouston, Texas|page{{Not a typo|5–4}}<!-- A single page in document -->|urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a12/A12_MissionReport.pdf}}</ref>
* After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seismometers on the Moon,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1969-099C|titleApollo 12 Lunar Module / ALSEP|access-dateJune 15, 2016|websiteNASA Space Science Data Coordinate Archive}}</ref> the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations to induce vibrations in the Moon's structure. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16, where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apolloloc.html |titleApollo: Where are they now? |lastWilliams |firstDavid R. |workNational Space Science Data Center |publisherNASA |access-dateDecember 2, 2011}}</ref>
* As another active seismic experiment, the S-IVBs on Apollo 13 and subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100322-apollo13booster.html#.V2JPbfkrLD4|titleApollo 13's Booster Impact|websiteNASA|access-dateJune 16, 2016}}</ref>
* Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the service module engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing. This was actually done for the first time on Apollo 14, since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before landing.<ref>{{cite book|last1McDivitt|first1James A.|titleApollo 14 Mission Report|dateApril 1971|publisherNASA Manned Spacecraft Center|locationHouston, Texas|chapter-urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/a14mr07.htm|access-date19 May 2016|chapter7.0 Command and Service Module Performance}}</ref>Development historyUncrewed flight tests
<imagemap>
File:Apollo unmanned launches.png|thumb|right|upright1.15|Apollo uncrewed development mission launches. Click on a launch image to read the main article about each mission.|altComposite image of uncrewed development Apollo mission launches in chronological sequence.
rect 0 0 91 494 AS-201 first uncrewed CSM test
rect 92 0 181 494 AS-203 S-IVB stage development test
rect 182 0 270 494 AS-202 second uncrewed CSM test
rect 271 0 340 494 Apollo 4 first uncrewed Saturn V test
rect 341 0 434 494 Apollo 5 uncrewed LM test
rect 435 0 494 494 Apollo 6 second uncrewed Saturn V test
</imagemap>
{{Main list|List of Apollo missions}}
Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The first, AS-201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of {{convert|265.7|nmi|km}} and splashed down {{convert|4577|nmi|km}} downrange in the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/59688171/Post-Launch-Report-for-Mission-as-201-Apollo-Spacecraft-009|titlePostlaunch Report for Mission AS-201 (Apollo Spacecraft 009)|dateMay 6, 1966|publisherNASA|locationHouston, TX|formatPDF|idMSC-A-R-66-4|access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}<!----Original URL for document on NTRS server: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750065090_1975065090.pdf----></ref> The second, AS-202 on August 25, reached {{convert|617.1|nmi|km}} altitude and was recovered {{convert|13900|nmi|km}} downrange in the Pacific Ocean. These flights validated the service module engine and the command module heat shield.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/59690251/Post-Launch-Report-for-Mission-AS-202|titlePostlaunch Report for Mission AS-202 (Apollo Spacecraft 011)|dateOctober 12, 1966|publisherNASA|locationHouston, TX|formatPDF|idMSC-A-R-66-5|access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}<!----Original URL for document on NTRS server: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740075039_1974075039.pdf----></ref>
A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nose cone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.<ref nameNASAreport>{{cite tech report |authorChrysler Corp. |titleEvaluation of AS-203 Low Gravity Orbital Experiment |dateJanuary 13, 1967 |publisherNASA}}</ref>Preparation for crewed flightTwo crewed orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.astronautix.com/details/apo17594.htm|titleApollo flight crew nomenclature changes|access-dateJuly 8, 2016|websiteAstronautix|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100201000351/http://astronautix.com/details/apo17594.htm|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2010|url-statusdead}}</ref> The astronauts would wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.astronautix.com/a/a1c.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160820051220/http://www.astronautix.com/a/a1c.html|url-statusdead|archive-dateAugust 20, 2016|titleA1C|access-dateJuly 8, 2016|website=Astronautix}}</ref>
After an uncrewed LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB).{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locPlans and Progress in Space Flight}} The Block II crew positions were titled Commander, Command Module Pilot, and Lunar Module Pilot. The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to accommodate lunar extravehicular activity (EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear "fishbowl" type for greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment.<ref name"EMU_development">{{cite journal|last1Lutz|first1Charles C.|last2Carson|first2Maurice A.|titleApollo Experience Report – Development of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit|journalNASA Technical Note|dateNovember 1975|volumeTN D-8093|pages22–25|urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/tnD8093EMUDevelop.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/tnD8093EMUDevelop.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|access-date18 May 2016}}</ref>
Deke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became director of flight crew operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee.<ref namewhatshisname/> NASA announced the final crew selection for AS-204 on March 21, 1966, with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and David Scott, with rookie Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally Schirra, Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS-205.<ref namewhatshisname>{{Cite web |lastTeitel |first Amy Shira |titleHow Donn Eisele Became "Whatshisname," the Command Module Pilot of Apollo 7 |website Popular Science |dateDecember 4, 2013 |orig-year 2013 |url= http://www.popsci.com/blog-network/vintage-space/how-donn-eisele-became-whatshisname-command-module-pilot-apollo-7}}</ref>
In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo{{nbsp}}1 backup crew.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locCh. 8.7: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch8-7.html "Preparations for the First Manned Apollo Mission"]}}Program delaysThe spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first crewed mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission. Eventually, the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.<ref name"SP4029">{{Cite web |titleApollo 1: The Fire |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm |date1967-01-27|access-date2023-02-12 |website=history.nasa.gov}}</ref>
North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn{{nbsp}}V S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first uncrewed Saturn{{nbsp}}V flight AS-501 from late 1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.)<ref>{{cite book |last1Benson |first1Charles D. |last2Faherty |first2William Barnaby |titleMoonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080123133438/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |archive-dateJanuary 23, 2008 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesThe NASA History Series |date1978 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc3608505 |lccn77029118 |idNASA SP-4204 |chapterDelay after Delay after Delay |chapter-urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch19-3.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "tiger team" to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans.<ref>NASA never volunteered the tiger team findings to the US Congress in the course of its regular oversight, but its existence was publicly disclosed as "the Phillips report" in the course of the Senate investigation into the Apollo 204 fire. {{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/phillip1.html |titleThe Phillips Report |dateOctober 22, 2004 |publisherNASA History Office |access-dateApril 14, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100415050958/https://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/phillip1.html |archive-dateApril 15, 2010 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Meanwhile, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for crewed flight in 1967, not long after the first crewed CSM flights.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locCh. 7.4: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch7-4.html "The LEM Test Program: A Pacing Item"]}}Apollo 1 fire
{{main|Apollo 1}}
Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo{{nbsp}}1 as a motivational focus on the first crewed flight. They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.<ref name"sea4">{{cite book |firstRobert C. Jr. |lastSeamans |author-linkRobert Seamans |publisherNASA History Office |titleReport of Apollo 204 Review Board |chapterDescription of Test Sequence and Objectives |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/desc.html |dateApril 5, 1967 |access-dateOctober 7, 2007}}</ref>
The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was plagued with problems. First, the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits which delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin and spread quickly in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened.<ref name"sea5">{{cite book |firstRobert C. Jr. |lastSeamans |publisherNASA History Office |titleReport of Apollo 204 Review Board |chapterFindings, Determinations And Recommendations |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html |dateApril 5, 1967 |access-dateOctober 7, 2007 |archive-dateNovember 5, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151105102355/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
NASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in command module design, workmanship and quality control".<ref name"sea5" /> At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as command module program manager.<ref>Gray 1994</ref> Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with George Low.<ref name"KeyPersonnelChange">Ertel et al. 1978, p. 119</ref>
To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials.<ref name"chariot">{{harvnb|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|loc[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch9-4.html "The Slow Recovery"]}}</ref> The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door.<ref name"chariot"/> NASA discontinued the crewed Block I program, using the Block{{nbsp}}I spacecraft only for uncrewed Saturn{{nbsp}}V flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not.<ref name"EMU_development"/>
Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests
On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, crewed or uncrewed. The sequence would start with Apollo 4 to cover the first three uncrewed flights while retiring the Apollo{{nbsp}}1 designation to honor the crew, per their widows' wishes.<ref name"missionNumbers">{{Cite web |titleApollo 11 30th Anniversary: Manned Apollo Missions |publisherNASA History Office |date1999 |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm |access-dateMarch 3, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110220232013/https://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm |archive-dateFebruary 20, 2011 |url-status= live}}</ref><ref>Ertel & al. 1978, Part 1(H)</ref>
In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the crewed lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions were uncrewed Saturn V validation; B was uncrewed LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was crewed CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D was the first crewed CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a "dress rehearsal"); and G would be the first crewed landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, and J for extended-stay lunar landings.<ref name="3Q1967">Ertel et al. 1978, p. 157</ref>
The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on human-rating the LM and Saturn{{nbsp}}V. Apollo{{nbsp}}4 (AS-501) was the first uncrewed flight of the Saturn{{nbsp}}V, carrying a Block{{nbsp}}I CSM on November 9, 1967. The capability of the command module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the service module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed.
Apollo 5 (AS-204) was the first uncrewed test flight of the LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second uncrewed test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be crewed.<ref>{{cite book |lastLow |firstGeorge M. |author-linkGeorge Low |editor-lastCortright |editor-firstEdgar M |editor-linkEdgar Cortright |titleApollo Expeditions to the Moon |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |date1975 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc1623434 |lccn75600071 |idNASA SP-350 |chapterTesting and Retesting To Get Ready For flight |chapter-urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-350/ch-4-6.html |archive-dateFebruary 19, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080219204538/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the service module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the service module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo{{nbsp}}6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo{{nbsp}}6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn{{nbsp}}V ready to fly crew, canceling a third uncrewed test.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locCh. 10.5: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch10-5.html "Apollo 6: Saturn V's Shaky Dress Rehearsal"]}}Crewed development missions
<imagemap>
File:Apollo manned development missions insignia.png|thumb|right|upright1.15|Apollo crewed development mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission.|altComposite image of six crewed Apollo development mission patches, from Apollo{{nbsp}}1 to Apollo 11.
rect 0 0 595 600 Apollo 1 unsuccessful first crewed CSM test
rect 596 0 1376 600 Apollo 7 first crewed CSM test
rect 1377 0 2076 600 Apollo 8 first crewed flight to the Moon
rect 0 601 595 1200 Apollo 9 crewed Earth orbital LM test
rect 596 601 1376 1200 Apollo 10 crewed lunar orbital LM test
rect 1377 601 2076 1200 Apollo 11 first crewed Moon landing
</imagemap>
Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the C{{nbsp}}mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM systems.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo7.html|titleMission Objective|dateJuly 8, 2015 |access-dateJuly 8, 2016}}</ref>
Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a Saturn{{nbsp}}V instead of two Saturn IBs.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo8.html#.V4BhBRUrJeV|titleMission Objective|dateJuly 8, 2009 |access-dateJuly 8, 2016}}</ref> In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo{{nbsp}}8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the D{{nbsp}}mission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises, mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the Moon on September 15, 1968, aboard Zond 5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts.<ref name"Chaikin">{{cite book |lastChaikin |firstAndrew |author-linkAndrew Chaikin |titleA Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts |date1994 |publisherViking |locationNew York |isbn978-0-670-81446-6 |lccn93048680 |refChaikin}}</ref><ref name"Moon Race 1968">{{cite magazine |titlePoised for the Leap |urlhttp://www.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,844661-1,00.html |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130204221712/http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,844661-1,00.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateFebruary 4, 2013 |access-dateDecember 15, 2011 |magazineTime |dateDecember 6, 1968 |locationNew York}}</ref> The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, and rookie William Anders captured the world's attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|locCh. 11.6: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-6.html "Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage"]. pp. 274–284}}
descends the LM's ladder in preparation for the first steps on the lunar surface, as televised live on July 20, 1969.]]
The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo 9, and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its portable life support system (PLSS) outside the LM.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1969-018A|titleApollo 9|website NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-dateJuly 8, 2016}}</ref> The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan. Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within {{convert|50000|ft|km|sigfig2}} of the lunar surface.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/Ap10.html|titleApollo 10|websiteNASA JSC|access-dateJuly 8, 2016}}</ref>
The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2{{nbsp}}hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft,<ref name"statrefeva"/> walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html|titleApollo 11 Mission Overview|websiteNASA|dateApril 17, 2015|access-dateJuly 8, 2016}}</ref>
{{blockquote|textThat's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.|signNeil Armstrong, just after stepping onto the Moon's surface<ref name"Snopes">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp |titleOne Small Misstep: Neil Armstrong's First Words on the Moon |last1Mikkelson |first1Barbara |last2Mikkelson |first2David P. |dateOctober 2006 |workSnopes.com |publisherUrban Legends Reference Pages |access-dateSeptember 19, 2009}}</ref>}}Production lunar landings
In November 1969, Charles "Pete" Conrad became the third person to step onto the Moon, which he did while speaking more informally than had Armstrong:
{{blockquote|Whoopee! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me. |sourcePete Conrad<ref namejournal>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a12/a12.eva1prelim.html |publisherNASA |workApollo 12 Lunar Surface Journal |titleThat may have been a small one for Neil... |last1Jones |first1Eric |access-date=February 5, 2018}}</ref>}}
<imagemap>
File:Apollo lunar landing missions insignia.png|thumb|right|upright1.15|Apollo production crewed lunar landing mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission.|altComposite image of six production crewed Apollo lunar landing mission patches, from Apollo 12 to Apollo 17.
rect 0 0 602 600 Apollo 12 second crewed Moon landing
rect 603 0 1205 600 Apollo 13 unsuccessful Moon landing attempt
rect 1206 0 1885 600 Apollo 14 third crewed Moon landing
rect 0 601 602 1200 Apollo 15 fourth crewed Moon landing
rect 603 601 1205 1200 Apollo 16 fifth crewed Moon landing
rect 1206 601 1885 1200 Apollo 17 sixth crewed Moon landing
</imagemap>
Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing of Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 uncrewed lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the Ocean of Storms. The command module pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7{{nbsp}}hours and 45 minutes.<ref namestatrefeva>{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-30_Extravehicular_Activity.htm |titleExtravehicular Activity |access-dateJune 11, 2016}}</ref> On one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which they returned to Earth.<ref>{{cite book |last1Conrad |first1Charles Jr. |author-link1Pete Conrad |last2Shepard |first2Alan B Jr. |author-link2Alan Shepard |editor-lastCortright |editor-firstEdgar M |editor-linkEdgar Cortright |titleApollo Expeditions to the Moon |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |date1975 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc1623434 |lccn75600071 |idNASA SP-350 |chapterTan Dust On Surveyor |chapter-urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-12-3.html |archive-dateFebruary 19, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080219204538/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs was enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. Shortly after Apollo 11, NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites after Apollo 12, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.<ref>{{Cite web|titleWhere No Man Has Gone Before, Ch12-4|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/ch12-4.html|access-date2023-02-12|websitewww.hq.nasa.gov|archive-dateFebruary 12, 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230212183759/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/ch12-4.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise in April 1970, headed for the Fra Mauro formation. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the service module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "lifeboat" to return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications.<ref name"KSC-Apollo_13" /> Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added.<ref>{{Cite web|titleWhere No Man Has Gone Before, Ch11-7|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/ch11-7.html|access-date2023-02-12|websitewww.hq.nasa.gov|archive-dateFebruary 12, 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230212183759/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/ch11-7.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Mission cutbacks
About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming Space Shuttle. By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19.<ref>{{Cite web|titleWhere No Man Has Gone Before, Ch12-2|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/ch12-2.html|access-date2023-02-12|websitewww.hq.nasa.gov|archive-dateFebruary 12, 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230212183758/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/ch12-2.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/display.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051115064337/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/display.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateNovember 15, 2005 |titleThree Saturn Vs on Display Teach Lessons in Space History |publisherMarshall Space Flight Center History Office |firstMike |lastWright |access-dateJuly 19, 2016}}</ref>
The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only two subsequent missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_18_20.html |last1Williams |first1David |websiteNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |titleApollo 18 through 20 – The Cancelled Missions |access-dateJune 11, 2016 |date=December 11, 2003}}</ref>
Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell.<ref nameapollo14>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo14.html#.V1xEp5ErJeU |titleApollo 14 |websiteNASA |access-dateJune 11, 2016 |dateJuly 8, 2009}}</ref> This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1971-008A |titleApollo 14 Command and Service Module (CSM) |websiteNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |access-dateJune 11, 2016}}</ref> and completed two EVAs totalling 9{{nbsp}}hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time.<ref nameapollo14/>
In August 1971, just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nixon proposed canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Office of Management and Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions.<ref>"MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT" by Caspar Weinberger (via George Shultz), Aug 12, 1971, Page32(of 39) [http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf]</ref>
Extended missions
used on Apollos 15–17]]
Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott, Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed on July 30 near Hadley Rille, and spent just under two days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about {{convert|77|kg|lb}} of lunar material.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo15.html |titleApollo 15 |dateJuly 8, 2009 |websiteNASA |access-date=June 9, 2016}}</ref>
Apollo 16 landed in the Descartes Highlands on April 20, 1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke. Young and Duke spent just under three days on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo16.html |titleApollo 16 |websiteNASA |dateJuly 8, 2009 |access-date=June 9, 2016}}</ref>
Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the Taurus–Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist Harrison H. Schmitt.<ref nameapollo17>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo17.html |titleApollo 17 |websiteNASA |dateJuly 30, 2015 |access-dateJune 9, 2016}}</ref> Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/Apollo_18.html |titleApollo 18' Myths Debunked, NASA-style |websiteNASA |dateSeptember 28, 2011 |access-dateJune 10, 2016 |last1Grinter |first1Kay}}</ref> but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.space.com/20789-harrison-schmitt-astronaut-biography.html |titleHarrison Schmitt: Geologist on the Moon |dateApril 23, 2013 |access-dateJune 10, 2016 |last1Howell |first1Elizabeth |websiteSpace.com}}</ref> Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA.<ref name"apollo17" /> Canceled missions
{{Main|Canceled Apollo missions}}
Several missions were planned for but were canceled before details were finalized.
Mission summary
{{Main list|List of Apollo missions}}
{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sticky-header"
|-
! Designation !! width120px|Date !! width60px|{{Abbr|LV|Launch Vehicle Serial Number}} !! {{Abbr|CSM|Commmand and Service Module Serial Number}} !! {{Abbr|LM|Lunar Module Serial Number}} !! width=130px|Crew !! Summary
|-
| AS-201 || Feb 26, 1966 || AS-201 || CSM-009 || {{sdash}} || {{sdash}} || First flight of Saturn IB and Block I CSM; suborbital to Atlantic Ocean; qualified heat shield to orbital reentry speed.
|-
| AS-203 || Jul 5, 1966 || AS-203 || {{sdash}} || {{sdash}} || {{sdash}} || No spacecraft; observations of liquid hydrogen fuel behavior in orbit to support design of S-IVB restart capability.
|-
| AS-202 || Aug 25, 1966 || AS-202 || CSM-011 || {{sdash}} || {{sdash}} || Suborbital flight of CSM to Pacific Ocean.
|-
| Apollo 1 || Feb 21, 1967 || SA-204 || CSM-012 || {{sdash}} || Gus Grissom<br />Ed White<br />Roger B. Chaffee || Not flown. All crew members died in a fire during a launch pad test on January 27, 1967.
|-
| Apollo 4 || Nov 9, 1967 || SA-501 || CSM-017 || LTA-10R || {{sdash}} || First test flight of Saturn V, placed a CSM in a high Earth orbit; demonstrated S-IVB restart; qualified CM heat shield to lunar reentry speed.
|-
| Apollo 5 || Jan 22–23, 1968 || SA-204 || {{sdash}} || LM-1 || {{sdash}} || Earth orbital flight test of LM, launched on Saturn IB; demonstrated ascent and descent propulsion; human-rated the LM. No crew.
|-
| Apollo 6 || Apr 4, 1968 || SA-502 || CM-020<br />SM-014 || LTA-2R || {{sdash}} || Uncrewed, second flight of Saturn V, attempted demonstration of trans-lunar injection, and direct-return abort using SM engine; three engine failures, including failure of S-IVB restart. Flight controllers used SM engine to repeat Apollo 4's flight profile. Human-rated the Saturn V.
|-
| Apollo 7 || Oct 11–22, 1968 || SA-205 || CSM-101 || {{sdash}} || Wally Schirra<br />Walt Cunningham<br />Donn Eisele || First crewed Earth orbital demonstration of Block II CSM, launched on Saturn IB. First live television broadcast from a crewed mission.
|-
| Apollo 8 || Dec 21–27, 1968 || SA-503 || CSM-103 || LTA-B || Frank Borman<br />James Lovell<br />William Anders || First crewed flight of Saturn V; First crewed flight to Moon; CSM made 10 lunar orbits in 20 hours.
|-
| Apollo 9 || Mar 3–13, 1969 || SA-504 || CSM-104<br />Gumdrop || LM-3<br />Spider || James McDivitt<br /> David Scott<br />Russell Schweickart || Second crewed flight of Saturn V; First crewed flight of CSM and LM in Earth orbit; demonstrated portable life support system to be used on the lunar surface.
|-
| Apollo 10 || May 18–26, 1969 || SA-505 || CSM-106<br />Charlie Brown || LM-4<br />Snoopy || Thomas Stafford<br />John Young<br />Eugene Cernan || Dress rehearsal for first lunar landing; flew LM down to {{cvt|50000|ft|km mi}} from lunar surface.
|-
| Apollo 11 || Jul 16–24, 1969 || SA-506 || CSM-107<br />Columbia || LM-5 Eagle || Neil Armstrong<br />Michael Collins<br />Buzz Aldrin || First landing, in Tranquility Base, Sea of Tranquility. Surface EVA time: 2h&nbsp;31m. Samples returned: {{cvt|47.51|lb}}.
|-
| Apollo 12 || Nov 14–24, 1969 || SA-507 || CSM-108<br />Yankee Clipper || LM-6<br />Intrepid || Pete Conrad<br />Richard Gordon<br />Alan Bean || Second landing, in Ocean of Storms near Surveyor 3. Surface EVA time: 7h&nbsp;45m. Samples returned: {{cvt|75.62|lb}}.
|-
| Apollo 13 || Apr 11–17, 1970 || SA-508 || CSM-109<br />Odyssey || LM-7<br />Aquarius || James Lovell<br />Jack Swigert<br />Fred Haise || Third landing attempt aborted in transit to the Moon, due to SM failure. Crew used LM as "lifeboat" to return to Earth. Mission called a "successful failure".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo13.html |titleApollo 13 |publisherNASA |locationUS |dateJuly 9, 2009 |access-dateNovember 7, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Apollo 14 || Jan 31 – Feb 9, 1971 || SA-509 || CSM-110<br />Kitty Hawk || LM-8<br />Antares || Alan Shepard<br />Stuart Roosa<br />Edgar Mitchell || Third landing, in Fra Mauro formation. Surface EVA time: 9h&nbsp;21m. Samples returned: {{cvt|94.35|lb}}.
|-
| Apollo 15 || Jul 26 – Aug 7, 1971 || SA-510 || CSM-112<br />Endeavour|| LM-10<br />Falcon || David Scott<br />Alfred Worden<br />James Irwin || Fourth landing, in Hadley-Apennine. First extended mission, used Rover on Moon. Surface EVA time: 18h&nbsp;33m. Samples returned: {{cvt|169.10|lb}}.
|-
| Apollo 16 || Apr 16–27, 1972 || SA-511 || CSM-113<br />Casper || LM-11<br />Orion || John Young<br />Ken Mattingly<br />Charles Duke || Fifth landing, in Plain of Descartes. Second extended mission, used Rover on Moon. Surface EVA time: 20h&nbsp;14m. Samples returned: {{cvt|207.89|lb}}.
|-
| Apollo 17 || Dec 7–19, 1972 || SA-512 || CSM-114<br />America || LM-12<br />Challenger || Eugene Cernan<br />Ronald Evans<br />Harrison Schmitt || Only Saturn V night launch. Sixth landing, in Taurus–Littrow. Third extended mission, used Rover on Moon. First geologist on the Moon. Apollo's last crewed Moon landing. Surface EVA time: 22h&nbsp;2m. Samples returned: {{cvt|243.40|lb}}.
|}
Source: Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004).<ref name"Orloff-EVA">{{Cite web|titleExtravehicular Activity|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-30_Extravehicular_Activity.htm|access-date2023-02-12|websitehistory.nasa.gov}}</ref>Samples returned
{{main|Moon rock}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 350
| image1 = Apollo 15 Genesis Rock.jpg
| caption1 = The most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the Genesis Rock, returned from Apollo&nbsp;15.
| image2 = Lunar_Sample_61016_-_Big_Muley.jpg
| caption2 = Apollo 16's sample 61016, better known as Big Muley, is the largest sample collected during the Apollo program
}}
The Apollo program returned over {{convert|382|kg|lb|abbron}} of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lun-fac.cfm |titleNASA Lunar Sample Laboatory Facility |dateSeptember 1, 2016 |websiteNASA Curation Lunar |publisherNASA |access-dateFebruary 15, 2017 |quoteA total of 382 kilograms of lunar material, comprising 2200 individual specimens returned from the Moon{{nbsp}}...}}</ref><ref name"Orloff-EVA"/><ref>{{cite book|last1Chaikin|first1Andrew|titleA Man On the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts|year2007|publisherPenguin Books|locationNew York|pages611–613|editionThird}}</ref> Today, 75% of the samples are stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility built in 1979.<ref>{{cite web|titleRock Solid: JSC's Lunar Sample Lab Turns 30|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/jsc_lunar_sample_lab_30.html|work 40th Anniversary of Apollo Program|publisherNASA|access-dateJune 29, 2012|authorKristen Erickson|editorAmiko Kauderer|date=July 16, 2009}}</ref>
The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from about 3.2&nbsp;billion years for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar maria, to about 4.6&nbsp;billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust.<ref>Papike et al. 1998, pp. 5-001–5-234</ref> As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the Solar System, that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission.{{sfn|Harland|2008|pp132–133}} This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust.{{sfn|Harland|2008|p171}} A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart.{{sfn|Harland|2008|pp49–50}} KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see lunar magma ocean).{{sfn|Harland|2008|pp323–327}}
Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted with micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high-pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.{{sfn|Harland|2008|pp=330–332}}
From analyses of the composition of the returned lunar samples, it is now believed that the Moon was created through the impact of a large astronomical body with Earth.<ref>Burrows 1999, p. 431</ref>
Costs
Apollo cost $25.4&nbsp;billion or approximately $257&nbsp;billion (2023) using improved cost analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi 10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101476| issn 0265-9646| volume 60| pages 101476| last Dreier| first Casey| title An Improved Cost Analysis of the Apollo Program| journal Space Policy| date 2022-05-01| doi-access free| bibcode = 2022SpPol..6001476D}}</ref>
Of this amount, $20.2&nbsp;billion (${{format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|20200000000|1966}}}} adjusted) was spent on the design, development, and production of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, the Apollo spacecraft, spacesuits, scientific experiments, and mission operations. The cost of constructing and operating Apollo-related ground facilities, such as the NASA human spaceflight centers and the global tracking and data acquisition network, added an additional $5.2&nbsp;billion (${{format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|5200000000|1966}}}} adjusted).
The amount grows to $28&nbsp;billion ($280&nbsp;billion adjusted) if the costs for related projects such as Project Gemini and the robotic Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter programs are included.<ref name="www_planetary_org" />
NASA's official cost breakdown, as reported to Congress in the Spring of 1973, is as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! Project Apollo !! Cost (original, billion $)
|-
| Apollo spacecraft || align=right|8.5
|-
| Saturn launch vehicles || align=right|9.1
|-
| Launch vehicle engine development || align=right|0.9
|-
| Operations || align=right|1.7
|-
| Total R&D || align=right|20.2
|-
| Tracking and data acquisition || align=right|0.9
|-
| Ground facilities || align=right|1.8
|-
| Operation of installations || align=right|2.5
|-
| Total || align=right|25.4
|}
Accurate estimates of human spaceflight costs were difficult in the early 1960s, as the capability was new and management experience was lacking. Preliminary cost analysis by NASA estimated $7&nbsp;billion – $12&nbsp;billion for a crewed lunar landing effort. NASA Administrator James Webb increased this estimate to $20&nbsp;billion before reporting it to Vice President Johnson in April 1961.<ref nameButts>{{cite web |last1Butts |first1Glenn |last2Linton |first2Kent |titleThe Joint Confidence Level Paradox: A History of Denial |work2009 NASA Cost Symposium |publisherCost Analysis Division |dateApril 28, 2009 |pages25–26 |urlhttp://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/nexgen/Nexgen_Downloads/Butts_NASA's_Joint_Cost-Schedule_Paradox_-_A_History_of_Denial.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111026132859/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/nexgen/Nexgen_Downloads/Butts_NASA%27s_Joint_Cost-Schedule_Paradox_-_A_History_of_Denial.pdf |archive-dateOctober 26, 2011 |dfmdy-all |access-dateDecember 15, 2021 }}</ref>
Project Apollo was a massive undertaking, representing the largest research and development project in peacetime. At its peak, it employed over 400,000 employees and contractors around the country and accounted for more than half of NASA's total spending in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book |last1Skolnikoff |first1Eugene B. |last2Hoagland |first2John H. |titleThe World-wide Spread of Space Technology |series69-5 |date1968 |publisherMIT Center for Space Research |locationCambridge, MA |oclc14154430 |refSkolnikoff & Hoagland}}</ref> After the first Moon landing, public and political interest waned, including that of President Nixon, who wanted to rein in federal spending.<ref>{{cite web |last1Callahan |first1Jason |titleHow Richard Nixon Changed NASA |urlhttp://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/jason-callahan/20141003-how-richard-nixon-changed-nasa.html |website planetary.org |publisherThe Planetary Society |access-date20 June 2019 |languageen}}</ref> NASA's budget could not sustain Apollo missions which cost, on average, $445&nbsp;million (${{format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|440000000|1970}}}} adjusted)<ref name"ApolloCost">{{Cite book|urlhttps://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003212095|title1974 NASA authorization hearings, Ninety-third Congress, first session, on H.R. 4567 (superseded by H.R. 7528).|date1973|publisherU.S. Govt. Print. Off.|locationWashington}}</ref> each while simultaneously developing the Space Shuttle. The final fiscal year of Apollo funding was 1973.Apollo Applications Program
{{main|Apollo Applications Program}}
Looking beyond the crewed lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper stage and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount, which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/ch4.htm|titleA Science Program for Manned Spaceflight|dateJanuary 1983 |access-dateJune 11, 2016 |last1Compton |first1W. D. |last2Benson |first2C. D. }}</ref> The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly-by mission.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?PHPSESSIDj74hfnr889reqoinelc27u5877&actiondlattach;topic34776.0;attach584256;sess0 |titleManned Venus Flyby |dateFebruary 1, 1967 |publisherNASA |access-dateJuly 19, 2016}}</ref>
The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab, it was assembled on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979 after development of the Space Shuttle was delayed too long to save it.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/ch19.htm|titleWhat Goes Up{{nbsp}}... |dateJanuary 1983 |access-dateJune 11, 2016 |last1Compton |first1W. D. |last2Benson |first2C. D. }}</ref><ref name="Legacy" />
The Apollo–Soyuz program also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation spaceflight, paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs.<ref name"Legacy">{{Cite web|titleLegacy|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch13.htm|access-date2023-02-12|websitehistory.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/astp.html |dateJuly 10, 2015 |titleApollo-Soyuz: An Orbital Partnership Begins |publisherNASA |access-dateJuly 19, 2016}}</ref>
Recent observations
, imaged in March 2012 by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]]
In 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface.<ref>{{cite press release |titleThe 'halo' area around Apollo 15 landing site observed by Terrain Camera on SELENE(KAGUYA) |dateMay 20, 2008 |publisherJapan Aerospace Exploration Agency |locationChōfu, Tokyo |urlhttp://www.jaxa.jp/press/2008/05/20080520_kaguya_e.html |access-dateNovember 19, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091212114843/http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2008/05/20080520_kaguya_e.html |archive-dateDecember 12, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Beginning in 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, while orbiting {{convert|50|km|mi|sigfig2|spus}} above the Moon, photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and each site where crewed Apollo flights landed.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html |titleLRO Sees Apollo Landing Sites |last1Hautaluoma |first1Grey |last2Freeberg |first2Andy |editor-lastGarner |editor-firstRobert|dateJuly 17, 2009 |publisherNASA |access-dateNovember 19, 2009 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20091116012309/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html| archive-dateNovember 16, 2009 |url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/index.html |editor-lastTownsend |editor-firstJason |titleApollo Landing Sites Revisited |publisherNASA |access-dateNovember 19, 2009| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091113094613/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/index.html| archive-date November 13, 2009 |url-statuslive}}</ref> All of the U.S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that mission's lift-off from the lunar surface; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://lroc.sese.asu.edu/news/index.php?/archives/620-Question-Answered!.html |titleQuestion Answered! |lastRobinson |firstMark |dateJuly 27, 2012 |workLROC News System |publisherArizona State University |access-dateOctober 28, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121024061649/http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/news/index.php?%2Farchives%2F620-Question-Answered%21.html |archive-dateOctober 24, 2012 |url-statusdead |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The flags cannot be seen through a telescope from Earth.
In a November 16, 2009, editorial, The New York Times opined:
{{blockquote|[T]here's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites. The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now, we could make him out, make out his footsteps even, like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the Apollo 14 site. Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those Apollo missions. Perhaps, too, it's a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed—the possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would be stranded on the Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as we're able to come to looking directly back into the human past{{nbsp}}...
There the [Apollo 11] lunar module sits, parked just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since merely imaginary.<ref name"nyt_lro_lm_img">{{cite news|titleThe Human Moon |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/opinion/17tue4.html |workThe New York Times |dateNovember 16, 2009 |access-dateNovember 19, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121231162941/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/opinion/17tue4.html |archive-dateDecember 31, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref>}}LegacyScience and engineering
{{further|NASA spin-off technologies}}
standing next to the navigation software that she and her MIT team produced for the Apollo project]]
The Apollo program has been described as the greatest technological achievement in human history.<ref>{{Cite web |titleApollo 11 30th Anniversary: Introduction |publisherNASA History Office |date1999 |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/introduction.htm |access-dateApril 26, 2013}}</ref> Apollo stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800 spinoff products as of 2015, including advances in the development of cordless power tools, fireproof materials, heart monitors, solar panels, digital imaging, and the use of liquid methane as fuel.<ref name"January 2005">{{cite web |lastO'Rangers |firstEleanor A. |dateJanuary 26, 2005 |titleNASA Spin-offs: Bringing Space Down to Earth |urlhttps://www.space.com/731-nasa-spin-offs-bringing-space-earth.html |access-date2024-04-23 |websiteSpace.com}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web |titleBenefits from Apollo: Giant Leaps in Technology |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/80660main_ApolloFS.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/80660main_ApolloFS.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websiteNASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://spinoff.nasa.gov/search/node |websiteNASA Spinoff |publisherNational Aeronautics and Space Administration |titleSearch |access-dateApril 24, 2024}}</ref> The flight computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Polaris and Minuteman missile systems, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits (ICs). By 1963, Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States' production of ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high.{{sfn|Mindell|2008|pp125–131}}
Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp181–182, 205–208}} The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP)<ref>{{cite book |titleInterplanetary Monitoring Platform |date29 August 1989 |publisherNASA |pages1, 11, 134 |urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800012928.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800012928.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date12 August 2019|last1Butler |first1P. M. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1White |first1H. D. |last2Lokerson |first2D. C. |titleThe Evolution of IMP Spacecraft Mosfet Data Systems |journalIEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science |date1971 |volume18 |issue1 |pages233–236 |doi10.1109/TNS.1971.4325871 |bibcode1971ITNS...18..233W |issn0018-9499}}</ref> and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC).<ref>{{cite web |titleApollo Guidance Computer and the First Silicon Chips |urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips |websiteNational Air and Space Museum |publisherSmithsonian Institution |access-date1 September 2019 |date14 October 2015}}</ref>Cultural impact
photograph taken on December{{nbsp}}7, 1972, during Apollo 17. "We went to explore the Moon, and in fact discovered the Earth." —Eugene Cernan]]
The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read from the creation story in the Book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve 1968.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/apollo_8.html|websiteNASA|access-dateJuly 20, 2016|titleApollo 8: Christmas at the Moon|date=February 19, 2015}}</ref> An estimated one-quarter of the population of the world saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon,<ref>Chaikin 1994, p. 120</ref> and an estimated one-fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moonwalk.<ref>Burrows 1999, p. 429</ref>
The Apollo program also affected environmental activism in the 1970s due to photos taken by the astronauts. The most well known include Earthrise, taken by William Anders on Apollo 8, and The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The Blue Marble'' was released during a surge in environmentalism, and became a symbol of the environmental movement as a depiction of Earth's frailty, vulnerability, and isolation amid the vast expanse of space.<ref namePetsko>{{cite journal |lastPetsko |firstGregory A|titleThe blue marble |journalGenome Biology |volume12 |issue4 |page112 |doi10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-112 |date2011|pmc3218853 |pmid21554751 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
According to The Economist, Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on the Soviet Union in the Space Race by accomplishing a singular and significant achievement, to demonstrate the superiority of the free-market system. The publication noted the irony that in order to achieve the goal, the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast, centralized government bureaucracy.<ref>{{cite news |titleApollo plus 50 |editor-lastLexington |urlhttp://www.economist.com/node/18712369 |newspaperThe Economist |publisherThe Economist Newspaper Limited |locationLondon |dateMay 21, 2011 |page36 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project
{{main|Apollo 11 missing tapes}}
Prior to Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA searched for the original videotapes of the mission's live televised moonwalk. After an exhaustive three-year search, it was concluded that the tapes had probably been erased and reused. A new digitally remastered version of the best available broadcast television footage was released instead.<ref nameNPR_tapes>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId106637066 |titleHouston, We Erased The Apollo 11 Tapes |lastGreenfieldboyce |firstNell |author-linkNell Greenfieldboyce |dateJuly 16, 2009 |workNPR |publisherNational Public Radio, Inc. |locationWashington, D.C. |access-dateAugust 1, 2013}}</ref>
Depictions on film
Documentaries
Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including:
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Footprints on the Moon (1969)
* Moonwalk One (1970)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2009/may/25/apollo-11-anniversary|titleThe moon shoot: film of Apollo mission on show again after 35 years in the can|lastJones|firstSam|dateMay 25, 2009|websiteThe Guardian|access-date=September 5, 2019}}</ref>
* The Greatest Adventure (1978)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/08/13/TV-WorldNEWLNRace-to-moon-reviewed-with-NASA-film-on-PBS/5530461217600/ph|titleTV World;NEWLN:Race to moon reviewed with NASA film on PBS|lastHastings|firstJulianne|dateAugust 13, 1984|websiteUPI|access-date=May 2, 2023}}</ref>
* For All Mankind (1989)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-18/apollo-11-review-documentary-captures-moon-landing-mission/11315242 |titleApollo 11 documentary is a time capsule for the fleeting optimism of mankind's first Moon landing|lastGoodsell|firstLuke|websiteABC|access-dateSeptember 5, 2019|date=July 17, 2019}}</ref>
* Moon Shot (1994 miniseries)
* "Moon" from the BBC miniseries The Planets (1999)
* Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005)
* The Wonder of It All (2007)
* In the Shadow of the Moon (2007)<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttp://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20053781,00.html|magazineEntertainment Weekly|titleMovie Review: In the Shadow of the Moon|dateAugust 29, 2007|last1Gleiberman|first1Owen|access-dateSeptember 5, 2019|archive-dateNovember 7, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141107020047/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20053781,00.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (2008 miniseries)
* Moon Machines (2008 miniseries)
* James May on the Moon (2009)
* ''NASA's Story (2009 miniseries)
* Apollo 11'' (2019)<ref>{{cite news |lastKenny |firstGlenn |title'Apollo 11' Review: The 1969 Moon Mission Still Has the Power to Thrill |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/27/movies/apollo-11-review.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/27/movies/apollo-11-review.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |dateFebruary 27, 2019 |newspaperThe New York Times |access-dateFebruary 28, 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://variety.com/2019/film/news/apollo-11-documentary-imax-release-1203138469/|title'Apollo 11' Documentary Gets Exclusive Imax Release|magazineVariety|dateFebruary 13, 2019|last1Rubin|first1Rebecca|access-date=July 20, 2019}}</ref>
* Chasing the Moon (2019 miniseries)
{{div col end}}
Docudramas
Some missions have been dramatized:
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Apollo 13 (1995)
* Apollo 11 (1996)
* From the Earth to the Moon (1998)
* The Dish (2000)
* Space Race (2005)
* Moonshot (2009)
* First Man (2018)
{{div col end}}
Fictional
The Apollo program has been the focus of several works of fiction, including:
*Apollo 18 (2011), horror movie which was released to negative reviews.
*Men in Black 3 (2012), Science Fiction/Comedy movie. Agent J played by Will Smith goes back to the Apollo 11 launch in 1969 to ensure that a global protection system is launched in to space.
*For All Mankind (2019), TV series depicting an alternate history in which the Soviet Union was the first country to successfully land a man on the Moon.
*Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023), fifth Indiana Jones film, in which Jürgen Voller, a NASA member and ex-Nazi involved with the Apollo program, wants to time travel. The New York City parade for the Apollo 11 crew is portrayed as a plot point.<ref>{{cite news |last1Travis |first1Ben |titleIndiana Jones 5 Will Pit Indy Against Nazis Again, In 1969 – Exclusive |urlhttps://www.empireonline.com/movies/news/indiana-jones-5-nazis-1969-exclusive |access-dateDecember 24, 2022 |workEmpire |dateNovember 11, 2022}}</ref>See also
{{Div col}}
* Apollo 11 in popular culture
* Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
* Exploration of the Moon
* Leslie Cantwell collection
* List of artificial objects on the Moon
* List of crewed spacecraft
* List of missions to the Moon
* Soviet crewed lunar programs
* Stolen and missing Moon rocks
* Artemis Program
{{div col end}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist|35em}}
Sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{NASA}}
* {{cite book |lastBeschloss |firstMichael R. |author-linkMichael Beschloss |editor1-lastLaunius |editor1-firstRoger D. |editor2-lastMcCurdy |editor2-firstHoward E. |titleSpaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership |date1997 |publisherUniversity of Illinois Press |locationChampaign, IL |isbn0-252-06632-4 |lccn96051213 |chapterKennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon |ref=Beschloss}}
* {{cite book |lastBilstein |firstRoger E. |othersForeword by William R. Lucas |titleStages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/contents.htm |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesThe NASA History Series |orig-yearOriginally published 1980 |date1996 |publisherNASA |locationWashington D.C. |oclc36332191 |idNASA SP-4206 |refBilstein }}
* {{cite book |last1Brooks |first1Courtney G. |last2Grimwood |first2James M. |last3Swenson |first3Loyd S. Jr. |othersForeword by Samuel C. Phillips |titleChariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesThe NASA History Series |date1979 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |isbn978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc4664449 |lccn79001042 |idNASA SP-4205 |archive-dateOctober 20, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151020095653/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |lastBurrows |firstWilliam E. |titleThis New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age |date1999 |publisherModern Library |locationNew York |isbn0-375-75485-7 |oclc42136309 |ref=Burrows}}
* {{cite book |lastChaikin |firstAndrew |author-linkAndrew Chaikin |titleA Man on the Moon |date1994 |publisherPenguin Books |locationNew York |isbn0-14-027201-1 |oclc38918860 |refChaikin }} Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program.
* {{cite book |lastCompton |firstWilliam David |titleWhere no man has gone before : a history of Apollo lunar exploration missions |locationWashington, DC |publisherNational Aeronautics and Space Administration |year1989 |seriesNASA history series |idNASA SP-4214 |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4214/cover.html |oclc18223277 |ref=Compton }}
* {{cite book |titleDiscussion of Soviet Man-in-space Shot |typeHearing |dateApril 13, 1961 |publisher87th Congress, first session |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc4052829 |lccn61061306 |ref87th Congress}}
* {{cite book |title1974 NASA Authorization Hearings |typeHearing on H.R. 4567 |date1973 |publisher93rd Congress, first session |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc23229007 |ref=93rd Congress}}
* {{cite book |last1Dawson |first1Virginia P. |last2Bowles |first2Mark D. |titleTaming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket 1958–2002 |urlhttp://www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4230.pdf |access-dateSeptember 12, 2012 |seriesThe NASA History Series |date2004 |publisherNASA |locationWashington D.C. |idNASA SP-2400-4320 |oclc51518552 |refDawson & Bowles }}
* {{cite book |last1Ertel |first1Ivan D. |last2Newkirk |first2Roland W. |last3Brooks |first3Courtney G. |othersForeword by Kenneth S. Kleinknecht |titleThe Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |urlhttp://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/documents/NTRS/collection3/NASA_SP_4009-4.pdf |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |volumeIV |date1978 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |idNASA SP-4009 |oclc23818 |lccn69060008 |display-authors2 |ref=Ertel et al. }}
* {{cite book |lastGray |firstMike |author-linkMike Gray |titleAngle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon |orig-yearFirst published W. W. Norton & Company 1992 |date1994 |publisherPenguin Books |locationNew York |isbn0-14-023280-X |oclc30520885 |refGray |url https://archive.org/details/angleofattackhar0000gray/page/n5/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book |lastHansen |firstJames R. |titleEnchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/monograph4.pdf |access-dateMay 3, 2012 |seriesMonographs in Aerospace History |number4 |date1999 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc69343822 |refHansen }}
* {{cite book |lastHarland |firstDavid M. |author-link David M. Harland |title Exploring the Moon: the Apollo Expeditions |locationChichester, England |publisherSpringer |seriesSpringer-Praxis books in space exploration |year2008 |isbn9780387746388 |oclc495296214}}
* {{cite book |lastHeppenheimer |firstT.A. |titleThe Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesThe NASA History Series |date1999 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc40305626 |idNASA SP-4221 |refHeppenheimer }}
* {{cite book |lastJohnson |firstStephen B. |titleThe Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs |urlhttps://archive.org/details/secretofapollosy0000john |url-accessregistration |seriesNew series in NASA history |date2002 |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |locationBaltimore |isbn0-8018-6898-X |oclc48003131 |lccn2001005688 |ref=Johnson }}
* {{cite book |editor1-lastLaunius |editor1-firstRoger D. |editor2-lastMcCurdy |editor2-firstHoward E. |titleSpaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership |date1997 |publisherUniversity of Illinois Press |isbn0-252-06632-4 |lccn96051213 |locationChampaign, IL |ref=Launius & McCurdy }}
* {{cite book |lastLaunius |firstRoger D. |titleApollo: A Retrospective Analysis |urlhttps://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_20040084534 |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |editionReprint |seriesMonographs in Aerospace History |number3 |orig-yearOriginally published July 1994 |dateJuly 2004 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |ref=Launius }}
* {{cite book |lastMindell |firstDavid A. |titleDigital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight |date2008 |publisherThe MIT Press |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |isbn978-0-262-13497-2 |oclc733307011}}
* {{cite book |last1Murray |first1Charles |author1-link Charles Murray (political scientist) |last2Cox |first2Catherine Bly |title Apollo: The Race to the Moon |date1989 |publisherSimon & Schuster |locationNew York |isbn0-671-61101-1 |oclc19589707 |lccn89006333 |ref=Murray & Cox }}
* {{cite book |lastOrloff |firstRichard W. |titleApollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |seriesThe NASA History Series |orig-yearFirst published 2000 |dateSeptember 2004 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |isbn0-16-050631-X |lccn00061677 |idNASA SP-2000-4029 |refOrloff }}
* {{cite journal |last1Papike |first1James J. |last2Ryder |first2Graham |last3Shearer |first3Charles K. |dateJanuary 1998 |titlePlanetary Materials: Lunar Samples |journalReviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume 36 |issue1 |pages5.1–5.234 |locationWashington, D.C. |publisherMineralogical Society of America |isbn0-939950-46-4 |lccn99474392 |issn0275-0279 |refPapike et al.}}
* {{cite book |lastSidey |firstHugh |author-linkHugh Sidey |titleJohn F. Kennedy, President |date1963 |publisherAtheneum |edition1st |locationNew York |urlhttps://archive.org/details/johnfkennedypres000540mbp |access-dateAugust 1, 2013 |lccn63007800 |refSidey }}
* {{Cite book |lastTownsend |firstNeil A. |dateMarch 1973 |titleApollo Experience Report: Launch Escape Propulsion Subsystem |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |idNASA TN D-7083 |urlhttp://klabs.org/history/apollo_experience_reports/tn-d7083_apollo_launch_escape_propulsion.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://klabs.org/history/apollo_experience_reports/tn-d7083_apollo_launch_escape_propulsion.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-dateSeptember 12, 2012 |ref=Townsend }}
* {{cite book |lastWilford |firstJohn Noble |author-linkJohn Noble Wilford |title We Reach the Moon: The New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure |date1969 |publisherBantam Paperbacks |locationNew York |oclc29123 |ref=Wilford}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |url http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/APSR-JSC-09423.pdf |title Apollo Program Summary Report}}&nbsp;{{small|(46.3&nbsp;MB)}} NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975
* {{cite book |lastCollins |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Collins (astronaut) |othersForeword by Charles Lindbergh |titleCarrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |orig-yearOriginally published 1974; New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux |date2001 |publisherCooper Square Press |locationNew York |isbn978-0-8154-1028-7 |lccn2001017080 |refCollins |url=https://archive.org/details/carryingfire00mich}} The autobiography of Michael Collins' experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11.
* {{cite book |lastCooper |firstHenry S.F. Jr. |author-linkHenry S. F. Cooper Jr. |titleThirteen: The Apollo Flight That Failed |orig-yearOriginally published 1972; New York: Dial Press |date1995 |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |locationBaltimore |isbn0-8018-5097-5 |oclc31375285 |lccn94039726 |refCooper |url=https://archive.org/details/thirteenapollofl00coop}} Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures.
* {{cite book |last1French |first1Francis |author-link1Francis French (author) |last2Burgess |first2Colin |author-link2Colin Burgess (author) |othersForeword by Walter Cunningham |titleIn the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965–1969 |date2007 |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |locationLincoln |isbn978-0-8032-1128-5 |oclc182559769 |lccn2006103047 |ref=French & Burgess}} History of the Apollo program from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.
* Gleick, James, "Moon Fever" [review of Oliver Morton, The Moon: A History of the Future; ''Apollo's Muse: The Moon in the Age of Photography, an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, July 3 – September 22, 2019; Douglas Brinkley, American Moonshot: John F. Kennedy and the Great Space Race; Brandon R. Brown, The Apollo Chronicles: Engineering America's First Moon Missions; Roger D. Launius, Reaching for the Moon: A Short History of the Space Race; Apollo 11, a documentary film directed by Todd Douglas Miller; and Michael Collins, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (50th Anniversary Edition)], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 13 (15 August 2019), pp.&nbsp;54–58.
* {{cite book |lastKranz |firstGene |author-linkGene Kranz |titleFailure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond |date2000 |publisherSimon & Schuster |locationNew York |isbn0-7432-0079-9 |oclc43590801 |lccn00027720 |refKranz |urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743200790}} Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs.
* {{cite book |last1Lovell |first1Jim |author-link1Jim Lovell |last2Kluger |first2Jeffrey |author-link2Jeffrey Kluger |titleApollo 13 |orig-yearPreviously published 1994 as Lost Moon'' |date2000 |publisherHoughton Mifflin Company |locationBoston |isbn0-618-05665-3 |oclc43118301 |lccn99089647 |ref=Lovell & Kluger}} Details the flight of Apollo 13.
* {{cite journal |last1McMahon |first1Adam |titleTo the Moon and Back: Reexamining Presidential Decision-Making and the Apollo Program |journalSpace Policy |volume62 |year2022 |page101516 |doi10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101516 |bibcode2022SpPol..6201516M |refnone|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1Musgrave |first1Paul |last2Nexon |first2Daniel |titleDefending Hierarchy from the Moon to the Indian Ocean: Symbolic Capital and Political Dominance in Early Modern China and the Cold War |journalInternational Organization |volume72 |issue3 |year2018 |pages591–626 |doi10.1017/S0020818318000139 |refnone|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last1Pellegrino |first1Charles R. |author-link1Charles R. Pellegrino |last2Stoff |first2Joshua |titleChariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon |date1999 |publisherAvon Books |locationNew York |isbn0-380-80261-9 |oclc41579174 |refPellegrino & Stoff}} Tells Grumman's story of building the lunar modules.
* {{Cite book |last1Scott |first1David |author-link1David Scott |last2Leonov |first2Alexei |author-link2Alexei Leonov |last3Toomey |first3Christine |othersForeword by Neil Armstrong; introduction by Tom Hanks |titleTwo Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race |edition1st U.S. |date2004 |publisherThomas Dunne Books |locationNew York |isbn0-312-30865-5 |oclc56587777 |lccn2004059381 |refScott & Leonov |url=https://archive.org/details/twosidesofmoon00scot}}
* {{cite book |lastSeamans |firstRobert C. Jr. |titleProject Apollo: The Tough Decisions |seriesMonographs in Aerospace History|number37 |date2005 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |isbn0-16-074954-9 |oclc64271009 |lccn2005003682 |idNASA SP-4537 |ref=Seamans}} History of the crewed space program from 1{{nbsp}}September 1960, to 5{{nbsp}}January 1968.
* {{cite book |last1Slayton |first1Donald K. |author1-link Deke Slayton |last2Cassutt |first2Michael |author2-link Michael Cassutt |title Deke!: An Autobiography |date1995 |publisherSt. Martin's Press |locationNew York |isbn0-312-85918-X |refSlayton & Cassutt }} Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.
* {{Cite book |url https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690022643_1969022643.pdf |title The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |volume=1}}&nbsp;{{small|(131.2&nbsp;MB)}} From origin to November 7, 1962
* {{Cite book |url https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740004394_1974004394.pdf |title The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |volume=2}}&nbsp;{{small|(13.4&nbsp;MB)}} November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964
* {{Cite book |url https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760014180_1976014180.pdf |title The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |volume=3}}&nbsp;{{small|(57.7&nbsp;MB)}} October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966
* {{Cite book |urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |title The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |volume4}}&nbsp;{{small|(24.2&nbsp;MB)}} January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974
* {{Cite book |lastWilhelms |firstDon E. |author-linkDonald Wilhelms |title To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration |url https://archive.org/details/torockymoongeolo0000wilh |url-accessregistration |date1993 |publisherUniversity of Arizona Press |locationTucson |isbn0-8165-1065-2 |oclc26720457 |lccn92033228 |ref=Wilhelms}} The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Apollo program}}
{{Wikinews category}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19991013042039/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html Apollo program history] at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website
* [https://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html The Apollo Program] at the NASA History Program Office
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm |titleApollo Spinoffs |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120404160907/http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm |archive-date=April 4, 2012}}
* [http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/ The Apollo Program] at the National Air and Space Museum
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040804051632/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/apollo11/index1.html Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature] at NASA (in Flash)
* [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/apollo_landings.html Lunar Mission Timeline] at the Lunar and Planetary Institute
* [http://libarchstor.uah.edu:8081/repositories/2/resources/69 Apollo Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections]
NASA reports
* [https://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975
* [https://history.nasa.gov/series95.html NASA History Series Publications]
* [https://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.html Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams] at the NASA History Program Office
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040618191651/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html |dateJune 18, 2004 }} edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover
* [https://history.nasa.gov/afj/ The Apollo Flight Journal] by W. David Woods, et al.
Multimedia
* [https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/index.html NASA Apollo Program images and videos]
* [http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/ Apollo Image Archive] at Arizona State University
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160601211812/http://millercenter.org/presidentialrecordings/jfk-mtg-63 Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda] (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962)
* [http://www.apolloarchive.com/ The Project Apollo Archive] by Kipp Teague is a large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/projectapolloarchive/ The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr]
* [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/ Apollo Image Atlas]—almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute
* {{Internet Archive short film |id gov.ntis.ava03129vnb1 |name The Time of Apollo (1975) }}
* [https://catalog.archives.gov/id/649447 The short film The Time of Apollo (1975) is available for free viewing and download at the National Archives.]
* {{YouTube|GNJpoP642wc|The Journeys of Apollo – NASA Documentary}}
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Category:Space program of the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.422037 |
1466 | Assault | {{Short description|Physical or verbal attack of another person}}
{{About|the criminal act|tortious aspects of assault|Assault (tort)|other uses|Assault (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Assailants|the EP|Assailants (EP)|the film|Assailant (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Criminal law}}
In the terminology of law, an assault is the act of causing physical harm or unwanted physical contact to another person, or, in some legal definitions, the threat or attempt to do so.<ref>{{cite web|titleAssault and Battery Overview|urlhttp://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-charges/assault-and-battery-overview.html|access-date18 September 2016|websitecriminal.findlaw.com|publishercriminal.findlaw}}</ref> It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in criminal prosecution, civil liability, or both. Additionally, assault is a criminal act in which a person intentionally causes fear of physical harm or offensive contact to another person.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBeyond Rape: An Essay on the Difference between the Presence of Force and the Absence of Consent |urlhttps://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handlehein.journals/clr92&div58&g_sent1&casa_token|access-date2023-03-18 |websiteheinonline.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastGarfield |firstLeslie Yalof |date2009 |titleThe Case for a Criminal Law Theory of Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress |urlhttps://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handlehein.journals/crimlbrf5&id33&div&collection |journalCriminal Law Brief |volume5 |pages33}}</ref> Assault can be committed with or without a weapon and can range from physical violence to threats of violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1FELSON |first1RICHARD B. |last2STEADMAN |first2HENRY J. |dateFebruary 1983 |titleSituational Factors in Disputes Leading to Criminal Violence |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00251.x |journalCriminology |volume21 |issue1 |pages59–74 |doi10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00251.x |issn0011-1384}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1Meloy |first1J. Reid |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idszkqEAAAQBAJ&dqAssault+can+be+committed+with+or+without+a+weapon+and+can+range+from+physical+violence+to+threats+of+violence&pgPA22 |titleInternational Handbook of Threat Assessment |last2Hoffmann |first2Jens |date2021 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-094016-4 |languageen}}</ref> Assault is frequently referred to as an attempt to commit battery, which is the deliberate use of physical force against another person. The deliberate inflicting of fear, apprehension, or terror is another definition of assault that can be found in several legal systems. Depending on the severity of the offense, assault may result in a fine, imprisonment, or even death.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastReitz |firstKevin R. |dateFebruary 1993 |titleSentencing Facts: Travesties of Real-Offense Sentencing |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1229007 |journalStanford Law Review |volume45 |issue3 |pages523–573 |doi10.2307/1229007 |jstor1229007 |issn0038-9765}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Tyler |first1Tom R. |last2Weber |first2Renee |date1982 |titleSupport for the Death Penalty; Instrumental Response to Crime, or Symbolic Attitude? |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3053531 |journalLaw & Society Review |volume17 |issue1 |pages21–45 |doi10.2307/3053531 |jstor3053531 |issn=0023-9216}}</ref>
Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law.
Traditionally, common law legal systems have separate definitions for assault and battery. When this distinction is observed, battery refers to the actual bodily contact, whereas assault refers to a credible threat or attempt to cause battery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Spohn |first1Cassia |last2Beichner |first2Dawn |last3Davis-Frenzel |first3Erika |dateMay 2001 |titleProsecutorial Justifications for Sexual Assault Case Rejection: Guarding the "Gateway to Justice" |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206 |journalSocial Problems |volume48 |issue2 |pages206–235 |doi10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206 |issn0037-7791}}</ref> Some jurisdictions combined the two offenses into a single crime called "assault and battery", which then became widely referred to as "assault".<ref>{{Cite journal |title14. Criminal Law (Ireland) |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2666-075x_ldio_com_16irl14 |access-date2023-03-23 |websiteAnnotated Legal Documents on Islam in Europe Online|doi10.1163/2666-075x_ldio_com_16irl14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Walby |first1Sylvia |last2Allen |first2Jonathan |date2004 |titleDomestic Violence, Sexual Assault And Stalking: Findings from The British Crime Survey |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e649462007-001 |access-date2023-03-23 |websitePsycEXTRA Dataset|doi10.1037/e649462007-001 }}</ref> The result is that in many of these jurisdictions, assault has taken on a definition that is more in line with the traditional definition of battery. The legal systems of civil law and Scots law have never distinguished assault from battery.
Legal systems generally acknowledge that assaults can vary greatly in severity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Britt |first1Chester L. |last2Buzawa |first2Eve S. |last3Buzawa |first3Carl G. |dateJuly 1991 |titleDomestic Violence: The Criminal Justice Response. |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2071841 |journalContemporary Sociology |volume20 |issue4 |pages597 |doi10.2307/2071841 |jstor2071841 |issn0094-3061}}</ref> In the United States, an assault can be charged as either a misdemeanor or a felony. In England and Wales and Australia, it can be charged as either common assault, assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) or grievous bodily harm (GBH). Canada also has a three-tier system: assault, assault causing bodily harm and aggravated assault. Separate charges typically exist for sexual assaults, affray and assaulting a police officer. Assault may overlap with an attempted crime; for example, an assault may be charged as attempted murder if it was done with intent to kill.
{{TOC limit|3}}
Related definitions
Battery
{{main|Battery (crime)}}
Battery is a criminal offense that involves the use of physical force against another person without their consent.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastDripps |firstDonald A. |dateNovember 1992 |titleBeyond Rape: An Essay on the Difference between the Presence of Force and the Absence of Consent |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1123045 |journalColumbia Law Review |volume92 |issue7 |pages1780–1809 |doi10.2307/1123045 |jstor1123045 |issn0010-1958}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |titleCriminal Violence In Sport |date2010 |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781509955640.ch-005 |workModern Sports Law |pages173–217 |access-date2023-03-23 |publisherBloomsbury|doi10.5040/9781509955640.ch-005 |isbn978-1-8411-3685-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastDripps |firstDonald A. mname |date2018 |titleWhy Rape Should Be a Federal Crime |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3095741 |journalSSRN Electronic Journal |doi10.2139/ssrn.3095741 |issn1556-5068}}</ref> It is a type of assault and is considered a serious crime. Battery can include a wide range of actions, from slapping someone to causing serious harm or even death.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastO'Neal |firstEdgar C. |date1994 |titleHuman aggression, second edition, edited by Robert A. Baron and Deborah R. Richardson. New York, Plenum, 1994, xx + 419 pp |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:6%3C461::aid-ab2480200606%3E3.0.co;2-o |journalAggressive Behavior |volume20 |issue6 |pages461–463 |doi10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:6<461::aid-ab2480200606>3.0.co;2-o |issn0096-140X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Bidwell |first1Lee D. Millar |last2Barnett |first2Ola W. |last3Miller-Perrin |first3Cindy L. |last4Perrin |first4Robin |dateApril 1997 |titleFamily Violence across the Lifespan: An Introduction |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1318672 |journalTeaching Sociology |volume25 |issue2 |pages198 |doi10.2307/1318672 |jstor1318672 |issn0092-055X}}</ref> Depending on the severity of the offense, it can carry a wide range of punishments, including jail time, fines, and probation.
In jurisdictions that make a distinction between the two, assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See common assault. The elements of battery are that it is a volitional act,<ref>An act is volitional if it is purposeful and deliberate as opposed to reflexive or involuntary (see Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (London, Sweet & Maxwell 2012) at p 901). For example. a person who has restless leg syndrome kicks his wife while asleep. The contact, although, harmful, would not constitute battery because the act was not willful.</ref> done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur, and which causes such contact.<ref>A criminal battery may also be committed if the harmful or offensive contact is due to the criminal negligence of the defendant.</ref>
Aggravated assault
Aggravated assault is a violent crime that involves violence or the threat of violence.<ref name"Tjaden 2000">{{Cite journal |last1Tjaden |first1Patricia |last2Thoennes |first2Nancy |date2000 |titleExtent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e300342003-001 |access-date2023-03-23 |websitePsycEXTRA Dataset|doi10.1037/e300342003-001 |hdl2027/mdp.39015042645401 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |lastGruszczyńska |firstBeata Z. |titleWomen Victimization Risk of Violence in Poland |date2013-10-31 |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01839-3_9 |workOrganized Crime, Corruption and Crime Prevention |pages69–75 |access-date2023-03-23 |placeCham |publisherSpringer International Publishing |doi10.1007/978-3-319-01839-3_9 |isbn978-3-319-01838-6}}</ref> It is generally described as an intentional act that causes another person to fear imminent physical harm or injury. This can include the use of a weapon, or the threat of using a weapon. It is usually considered a felony offense and can carry severe penalties. Aggravated assault is often considered a very serious crime and can lead to long-term prison sentences.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastGurr |firstTed Robert |dateJanuary 1981 |titleHistorical Trends in Violent Crime: A Critical Review of the Evidence |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1086/449082 |journalCrime and Justice |volume3 |pages295–353 |doi10.1086/449082 |s2cid144948441 |issn0192-3234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastMarkowitz |firstSara |dateMarch 2005 |titleAlcohol, Drugs and Violent Crime |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2005.05.003 |journalInternational Review of Law and Economics |volume25 |issue1 |pages20–44 |doi10.1016/j.irle.2005.05.003 |issn0144-8188}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastDeLisi |firstMatt |date2003 |titleCriminal careers behind bars |journalBehavioral Sciences & the Law |volume21 |issue5 |pages653–669 |doi10.1002/bsl.531 |pmid14502694 |issn0735-3936|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon.<ref>{{cite web |titleCrime in the United States 2010: Aggravated Assault |workFederal Bureau of Investigation |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-2010/violent-crime/aggravatedassaultmain}}</ref> A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to:
* cause serious bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon<ref name"Baker">{{cite book|last1Baker|first1Dennis|last2William|first2Glanville|titleTextbook of Criminal Law|publisherLondon, Sweet & Maxwell|chapter9}}</ref>
* have sexual relations with a person who is under the age of consent
* cause bodily harm by recklessly operating a motor vehicle during road rage; often referred to as either vehicular assault or aggravated assault with a motor vehicle.
Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastBailey |firstFrankie Y. |dateSeptember 1999 |titleBook Review: Street-Level Leadership: Discretion and Legitimacy in Front-Line Public Service |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073401689902400229 |journalCriminal Justice Review |volume24 |issue2 |pages218–220 |doi10.1177/073401689902400229 |s2cid144571165 |issn0734-0168}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Sherman |first1Lawrence W. |last2Rogan |first2Dennis P. |dateDecember 1995 |titleEffects of gun seizures on gun violence: "Hot spots" patrol in Kansas city |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418829500096241 |journalJustice Quarterly |volume12 |issue4 |pages673–693 |doi10.1080/07418829500096241 |issn0741-8825}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Sherman |first1Lawrence W. |last2Berk |first2Richard A. |dateApril 1984 |titleThe Specific Deterrent Effects of Arrest for Domestic Assault |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2095575 |journalAmerican Sociological Review |volume49 |issue2 |pages261–272 |doi10.2307/2095575 |jstor2095575 |pmid6742629 |issn0003-1224}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastChambliss |firstWilliam J. |date2018-05-15 |titlePower, Politics, and Crime |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429498084 |doi10.4324/9780429498084|isbn9780429498084 }}</ref>DefensesAlthough the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault:ConsentExceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others.<ref>{{Cite book |lastNemeth |firstCharles P. |titleCriminal law |date2012 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn978-1-4398-9787-4 |edition2nd |locationBoca Raton |pages218-221}}</ref>
Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault.<ref>(RvG ref 6. 1980): see {{cite web|titleR v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75|urlhttp://lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non+Fatal+Assaults/Consent+R+v+Brown.htm|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016125514/http://lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non%20Fatal%20Assaults/Consent%20R%20v%20Brown.htm|archive-date16 October 2007|access-date2009-09-17|websiteLawTeacher}}</ref> This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game (mixed martial arts, wrestling, boxing, or contact sports), bodily adornment (R v Wilson [1996] Crim LR 573), or horseplay (R v Jones [1987] Crim LR 123). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish law, consent is not a defense for assault.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bailii.org/scot/cases/ScotHC/1975/1975_JC_30.html|titleSmart v. H. M. Advocate, [1975<nowiki>]</nowiki> ScotHC HCJ_1, 1975 SLT 65, 1975 JC 30.|websitebailii.org|access-date23 July 2018}}</ref>Arrest and other official actsPolice officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary.Punishment
In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system. The officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault.
In the United States, England, Northern Ireland, Australia and Canada, corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes "reasonable" varies in both statutory law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for child abuse.
In English law, s.&nbsp;58 Children Act 2004 limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault.<ref>{{cite legislation UK |typeact |year2004 |chapter31 |section58 |actChildren Act 2004}}</ref> This defence was abolished in Wales in 2022.<ref>{{cite legislation Wales |typeact|year2020|chapter3|section1|titleChildren (Abolition of Defence of Reasonable Punishment) (Wales) Act 2020|mode=cs1}} Section 1. This section came into force two years after the Act received royal assent (see section 5(1)).</ref>
Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of controversial corporal punishment for children in school or home.
Prevention of crime
This may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence.
Defense of property
Some jurisdictions allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a lawful excuse to damage property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that they felt threatened by the intruder's presence.
By country
Statistics
{{Further|Crime statistics}}
The below table shows the rate of reported serious assault for individual countries according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime for the last available year.<ref name"f967">{{cite web | titleUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, crime-violent-offences, Serious assaults| urlhttps://dataunodc.un.org/crime-violent-offences | access-date17 August 2024}}</ref>
{{Sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
{| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header col1left" style"text-align:center;"
! Country !! Reported<br>serious assaults <br>per 100,000<ref name="f967"/> !! Year
|-
| {{flaglist|Albania}} || 5.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Algeria}} || 39.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Andorra}} || 327.5 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Antigua and Barbuda}} || 3.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Argentina}} || 366.9 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Armenia}} || 7.4 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Australia}} || 288.9 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Austria}} || 48.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Azerbaijan}} || 3.2 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Bahamas}} || 878.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Bahrain}} || 329.1 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|Bangladesh}} || 0.4 || 2006
|-
| {{flaglist|Barbados}} || 326.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Belarus}} || 7.4 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Belgium}} || 500.5 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Belize}} || 310.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Benin}} || 46.0 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Bermuda}} || 58.5 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Bhutan}} || 107.2 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Bolivia}} || 80.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} || 15.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Botswana}} || 745.3 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Brazil}} || 216.8 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Brunei Darussalam}} || 121.0 || 2006
|-
| {{flaglist|Bulgaria}} || 46.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Burundi}} || 5.2 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Cabo Verde}} || 527.8 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Cameroon}} || 19.0 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Canada}} || 209.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Chile}} || 84.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Colombia}} || 249.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Costa Rica}} || 144.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Croatia}} || 19.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Cyprus}} || 14.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Czech Republic}} || 39.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Denmark}} || 36.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Dominica}} || 1020.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Dominican Republic}} || 27.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Ecuador}} || 37.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Egypt}} || 0.4 || 2011
|-
| {{flaglist|El Salvador}} || 76.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flagicon|England}} England and {{flagicon|Wales}} Wales || 950.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Estonia}} || 4.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Eswatini}} || 352.1 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Finland}} || 31.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|France}} || 606.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Georgia}} || 5.1 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Germany}} || 173.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Ghana}} || 155.1 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Greece}} || 12.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Grenada}} || 1790.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Guatemala}} || 121.8 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Guinea}} || 3.1 || 2007
|-
| {{flaglist|Guinea-Bissau}} || 109.0 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Guyana}} || 210.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Haiti}} || 11.6 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Honduras}} || 21.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Hong Kong}} || 49.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Hungary}} || 136.6 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Iceland}} || 39.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|India}} || 25.9 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|Indonesia}} || 12.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Iraq}} (Central) || 0.0 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Ireland}} || 121.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Israel}} || 82.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Italy}} || 106.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Ivory Coast}} || 50.0 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|Jamaica}} || 90.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Japan}} || 15.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Jordan}} || 6.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Kazakhstan}} || 11.2 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Kenya}} || 41.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Kosovo}} || 19.0 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Kuwait}} || 24.5 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Kyrgyzstan}} || 0.5 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Latvia}} || 29.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Lebanon}} || 119.7 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Lesotho}} || 364.9 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Liechtenstein}} || 259.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Lithuania}} || 5.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Luxembourg}} || 107.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Macau}} || 0.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Madagascar}} || 8.8 || 2015
|-
| {{flaglist|Malaysia}} || 12.1 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Maldives}} || 74.9 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Malta}} || 41.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Mauritius}} || 20.9 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Mexico}} || 51.0 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Moldova}} || 5.3 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Monaco}} || 535.9 || 2015
|-
| {{flaglist|Mongolia}} || 11.1 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Montenegro}} || 20.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Morocco}} || 155.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Mozambique}} || 2.3 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Myanmar}} || 1.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Namibia}} || 374.1 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Nepal}} || 0.2 || 2016
|-
| {{flaglist|Netherlands}} || 27.9 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|New Zealand}} || 932.2 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Nicaragua}} || 14.7 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Nigeria}} || 9.4 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|North Macedonia}} || 6.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Northern Ireland}} || 45.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Norway}} || 35.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Oman}} || 0.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Pakistan}} || 11.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Palestine}} || 13.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Panama}} || 112.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Paraguay}} || 8.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Peru}} || 9.0 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Philippines}} || 1.1 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Poland}} || 12.9 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Portugal}} || 7.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Puerto Rico}} || 108.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Qatar}} || 0.4 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Romania}} || 1.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Russia}} || 13.0 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|Rwanda}} || 29.7 || 2013
|-
| {{flaglist|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} || 358.8 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Saint Lucia}} || 850.1 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Saudi Arabia}} || 52.7 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|Scotland}} || 58.0 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Senegal}} || 2.4 || 2010
|-
| {{flaglist|Serbia}} || 73.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Sierra Leone}} || 326.2 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|Singapore}} || 7.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Slovakia}} || 22.9 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Slovenia}} || 5.4 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Solomon Islands}} || 212.6 || 2008
|-
| {{flaglist|South Africa}} || 295.5 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|South Korea}} || 51.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Spain}} || 42.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Sri Lanka}} || 12.7 || 2019
|-
| {{flaglist|St. Vincent and Grenadines}} || 416.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Suriname}} || 99.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Sweden}} || 44.0 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Switzerland}} || 8.7 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Syria}} || 0.7 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|São Tomé and Príncipe}} || 2.2 || 2011
|-
| {{flaglist|Tajikistan}} || 48.0 || 2011
|-
| {{flaglist|Tanzania}} || 4.5 || 2015
|-
| {{flaglist|Thailand}} || 13.5 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Trinidad and Tobago}} || 47.9 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Turkey}} || 101.7 || 2014
|-
| {{flaglist|Turkmenistan}} || 1.7 || 2006
|-
| {{flaglist|Uganda}} || 14.3 || 2017
|-
| {{flaglist|Ukraine}} || 3.8 || 2020
|-
| {{flaglist|United Arab Emirates}} || 2.2 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|United States of America}} || 280.6 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Uruguay}} || 15.3 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Uzbekistan}} || 3.9 || 2021
|-
| {{flaglist|Vatican City}} || 0.0 || 2022
|-
| {{flaglist|Venezuela}} || 6.3 || 2018
|-
| {{flaglist|Yemen}} || 0.1 || 2009
|-
| {{flaglist|Zimbabwe}} || 408.3 || 2008
|}
Australia
The term 'assault', when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force.<ref>{{cite AustLII|NSWCA|431|2004|litigantsDarby v DPP |parallelcite(2004) 61 NSWLR 558 |courtname=auto}}.</ref>
Each state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the magistrates' court of that state or indictable offences are heard in a district or supreme court of that state. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.findlaw.com.au/articles/4274/assault-laws-in-australia-definitions-and-defences.aspx|titleAssault Laws in Australia: Definitions and Defences|websitefindlaw.com.au|access-date2016-03-12}}</ref>
In New South Wales, the Crimes Act 1900<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900}}.</ref> defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include:
Assault with further specific intent
* Acts done to the person with intent to murder<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|27}}</ref>
* Wounding or grievous bodily harm<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|33}}</ref>
* Use or possession of a weapon to resist arrest<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|33B}}</ref>
Assault causing certain injuries
* Actual bodily harm<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|59}}</ref> – the term is not defined in the Crimes Act, but case law indicates actual bodily harm may include injuries such as bruises and scratches,<ref name"AustLII">{{cite AustLII|NSWCCA|305|2009|litigantsR v McIntyre |courtnameauto}}.</ref> as well as psychological injuries<ref>{{cite AustLII|NSWCCA|442|2005|litigantsLi v R |courtname=auto}}.</ref> if the injury inflicted is more than merely transient (the injury does not necessarily need to be permanent)<ref>R v Donovan [1934] 2 KB 498; [http://www.austlii.edu.au/nz/cases/NZPoliceLawRp/1934/8.pdf (1934) 5 New Zealand Police Law Reports 247].</ref>
* Wounding<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|35}}(4).</ref> – where there is breaking of the skin;<ref name="AustLII"/>
* Grievous bodily harm<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|35}}(2).</ref> – which includes the destruction of a fetus, permanent or serious disfiguring, and transmission of a grievous bodily disease<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|4}}.</ref>
Assault causing death
* Death<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|25a}}</ref>
* Death when intoxicated (in regards to the offender)<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|ca190082|Crimes Act 1900|25b}}</ref>
Canada
Assault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code.<ref name"1985-46">{{cite web|titleCanLII – Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46|urlhttp://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150430001252/http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html|archive-date30 April 2015|access-date10 May 2015|websiteCanlii}}</ref> There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to "tap", "pinch", "push", or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault.
The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/> This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim.
Some variations on the ordinary crime of assault include:
* Assault: The offence is defined by section 265 of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Assault with a weapon: Section 267(a) of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Assault causing bodily harm: Section 267(b) of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Aggravated assault: Section 268 of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Assaulting a peace officer, etc.: Section 270 of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Sexual assault: Section 271 of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm: Section 272 of the Code.<ref name=1985-46/>
* Aggravated sexual assault: See aggravated sexual assault.
An individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm.
Ancient Greece
Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, "hubris" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich.
Violations of the law against hubris included, what would today be termed, assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property.<ref>MacDowell (1976) p. 25.</ref> Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, in addition to other acts of violence, Meidias allegedly punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second (Against Konon), when the defendant allegedly severely beat him.
Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, "outrageous treatment", in general.
The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atë, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of their hubris, or great pride, that leads to their death or downfall.
Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence".
India
The Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16,<ref>{{citation|urlhttp://devgan.in/ipc/chapter_16.php#s351|titleIndian Penal Code Chapter XVI}}</ref> sections 351 through 358.
{{Blockquote|Whoever makes any gesture, or any preparation intending or knowing it to be likely that such gesture or preparation will cause any person present to apprehend that he who makes that gesture or preparation is about to use criminal force to that person, is said to commit an assault.|§351 of the Indian Penal Code<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/indianpenalcode/S351.htm|titleVakil No1.com – "Indian Penal Code"|access-date2 March 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110205035155/http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/indianpenalcode/S351.htm|archive-date5 February 2011|url-statusdead}}</ref>}}
The Code further explains that "mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to their gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault". Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states.
Nigeria
The Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault.<ref>{{cite web|titleCriminal Code Act-PartV|urlhttp://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm#Chapter%2029|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20021124135626/http://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm|archive-date24 November 2002|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref> Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with "intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her" or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for.<ref>{{cite web|titleCriminal Code Act-PartV|urlhttp://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm#Chapter%2025|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20021124135626/http://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm#Chapter%2025|archive-date24 November 2002|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref>
Pacific Islands
Marshall Islands
The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code.<ref>[http://www3.paclii.org/mh/legis/consol_act/cc94/ Criminal Code [31 MIRC Ch 1&#93;<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090413025838/http://www.paclii.org/mh/legis/consol_act/cc94/ |date13 April 2009 }}</ref> A person is guilty of this offence if they unlawfully offer or attempt, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another.
Republic of Ireland
Section 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm.
South Africa
South African law does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. Assault is a common law crime defined as "unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him". The law also recognises the crime of assault with intent to cause grievous bodily harm, where grievous bodily harm is defined as "harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health".<ref>{{cite book |firstJohn |lastMilton |titleSouth African Criminal Law and Procedure: Common-law crimes |locationCape Town |publisherJuta & Co |year1996 |edition3rd |isbn978-0-7021-3773-0 |pages405–437}}</ref> The common law crime of indecent assault was repealed by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, and replaced by a statutory crime of sexual assault.United Kingdom
;Piracy with violence: Section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837 provides that it is an offence, amongst other things, for a person, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, to assault, with intent to murder, any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel.
;Assault on an officer of Revenue and Customs: This offence (relating to officers of HMRC) is created by section 32(1) of the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.
;Assaulting an immigration officer: This offence is created by [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2007/30/section/22 section 22(1)] of the UK Borders Act 2007.
;Assaulting an accredited financial investigator: This section is created by section 453A of the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002.<ref>Section 453A was inserted by [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2007/27/section/81 section 81(2)] of the Serious Crime Act 2007 and amended by [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2009/26/schedule/7/paragraph/94 paragraph 94] of Schedule 7 to the Policing and Crime Act 2009.</ref>
;Assaulting a member of an international joint investigation team: This offence is created by [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/15/section/57 section 57(2)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226203609/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/15/section/57 |date26 February 2021 }} of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005.
;Attacks on internationally protected persons: Section 1(1)(a) of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978 (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on "protected persons" (including Heads of State).
;Attacks on UN Staff workers: Section 1(2)(a) of the United Nations Personnel Act 1997 (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff.
;Assault by person committing an offence under the Night Poaching Act 1828: This offence is created by section 2 of the Night Poaching Act 1828.
Abolished offences:
;Assault on customs and excise officers, etc.: Section 16(1)(a) of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 (c.2) provided that it was an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of "assault" in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP [1976] Crim LR 121, DC. This offence was abolished and replaced by the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.
;Assaulting a person designated under section 43 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005: This offence was created by [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/15/section/51 section 51(1)] of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. It related to officers of the Serious Organized Crime Agency and was repealed when that agency was abolished.
England and Wales
{{See also|Battery (crime)#England and Wales}}
English law provides for two offences of assault: common assault and battery. Assault (or common assault) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. Violence in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. The terms "assault" and "common assault" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as section 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (c. 33).
A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in a magistrates' court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed.
Aggravated assault
An assault which is aggravated by the scale of the injuries inflicted may be charged as offences causing "actual bodily harm" (ABH) or, in the severest cases, "grievous bodily harm" (GBH).
;Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: This offence is created by section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
;Inflicting grievous bodily harm: Also referred to as "malicious wounding" or "unlawful wounding". This offence is created by section 20 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
;Causing grievous bodily harm with intent: Also referred to as "wounding with intent". This offence is created by section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
Other aggravated assault charges refer to assaults carried out against a specific target or with a specific intent:
;Assault with intent to rob: The penalty for assault with intent to rob, a common law offence, is provided by section 8(2) of the Theft Act 1968.
;Racially or religiously aggravated common assault: This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (c. 37), defined in terms of the common law offence.
;Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm: This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (c. 37), defined in terms of the common law offence.
;Assault with intent to resist arrest: This offence is created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
;Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty: Section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996 (c. 16) provides that it is an offence for a person to assault a constable acting in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. It is a summary offence with the same maximum penalty as common assault.
;Assaulting a traffic officer: This offence is created by section/10 section 10(1) of the Traffic Management Act 2004 (c. 18). This offence applies to Traffic Wardens, Civil Enforcement Officers and PCSOs if they have been conferred with road traffic powers by their force.
;Assaulting a person designated or accredited under sections 38 or 39 or 41 or 41A of the Police Reform Act 2002: This offence is created by section/46 section 46(1) of the Police Reform Act 2002 (c. 30). Those sections relate respectively to persons given police powers by a chief police officer, such as PCSOs detention officers or contractors retained by police, accredited contractors under a community safety accreditation scheme, and weights and measures inspectors.
;Assault on a prison custody officer: This offence is created by section 90(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (c. 53).
;Assault on a secure training centre custody officer: This offence is created by section 13(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (c. 33).
;Assault on officer saving wreck: This offence is created by section 37 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
;Assaulting an officer of the court: This offence is created by section 14(1)(b) of the County Courts Act 1984 (c. 28).
;Cruelty to persons under sixteen: This offence is created by section 1(1) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 (23 & 24 Geo. 5. c. 12) and applies to a person who has responsibility for the child. In England (but not Wales since 2022), common law provides a defence of "reasonable punishment" to battery (i.e. assaults involving touching); the Children Act 2004 (c. 31) limits the defence to exclude, among other offences, cruelty under the 1933 act, but not battery, which implies that smacking is not always to be considered cruelty.
;Sexual assault: The offence of sexual assault is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 (c. 42). It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent.
;Assault by penetration: This offence is defined by section 2 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 (c. 42). Whereas rape consists only of penetration with the perpetrator's penis, assault by penetration can be committed with anything, though unlike rape it excludes penetration of the mouth. It carries the same maximum sentence of life imprisonment.
; Assault on an emergency worker: The Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018 (c. 23) makes common assault an either way offence (section 1) when committed against an emergency worker (defined in section 3), with a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment if tried on indictment. The act did not repeal any enactments, so the existing offence of assault on a constable is still available, but that offence cannot be tried on indictment and is therefore limited to six months.
Scotland
In Scots law, assault is defined as an "attack upon the person of another".<ref>MacDonald, Criminal Law (5th edn, 1948) p.155</ref> There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a physical attack on another's person, as demonstrated in Atkinson v. HM Advocate<ref>1987 SCCR 534</ref> wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter while wearing a ski mask. The court said:
{{blockquote|[A]n assault may be constituted by threatening gestures sufficient to produce alarm|Atkinson v. HM Advocate (1987)}}
Scots law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or Hamesucken (to assault a person in their own home). The mens rea for assault is simply "evil intent",<ref>MacDonald, op. cit, p.155; Smart v. HM Advocate 1975 JC 30</ref> although this has been held to mean no more than that assault "cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently" as upheld in ''Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992'' where it was found that a "hold-up" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence.
It is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of their duty, under section 90 of the Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 (asp 8) (previously section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 (c. 77)) which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of their duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty.
Northern Ireland
Several offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100) creates the offences of:
* Common assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 42;
* Aggravated assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 43
* Common assault: under section 47
* Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: under section 47
The Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 (c. 28 (N.I.)) creates the offences of:
* Assault with intent to resist arrest: under section 7(1)(b); this offence was formerly created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
That act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under section 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c. 32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.
United States
In the United States,{{where|date=September 2018}}<!-- federal? some states? all states and territories? including Louisiana which did not incorporate English common law? --> assault may be defined as an attempt to commit a battery. However, the crime of assault can encompass acts in which no battery is intended, but the defendant's act nonetheless creates reasonable fear in others that a battery will occur.
Four elements were required at common law:<ref>{{cite journal|last1Atoki|first1Morayo|s2cid148828619|titleAssault and S 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861|journalThe Journal of Criminal Law|year1995|volume59|issue3|page301|doi10.1177/002201839505900307}}</ref>
* The apparent, present ability to carry out;
* An unlawful attempt;
* To commit a violent injury;
* Upon another.
As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states.
The crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be a natural person. Thus, unless the attack is directed by a person, an animal attack does not constitute an assault. However, under limited circumstances the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats a fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes.<ref>{{cite web |titleLegislative Analysis of The Unborn Victims Of Violence Act |urlhttps://www.aclu.org/other/legislative-analysis-unborn-victims-violence-act |websiteACLU |publisherAmerican Civil Liberties Union |access-date5 May 2021 |date18 February 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleState Laws on Fetal Homicide and Penalty-enhancement for Crimes Against Pregnant Women |urlhttps://www.ncsl.org/research/health/fetal-homicide-state-laws.aspx |websiteNCSL |publisherNational Conference of State Legislatures |date=1 May 2018}}</ref>
Possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof that may be raised in response to an assault charge include:
* Lack of intent: A defendant could argue that since they were drunk, they could not form the specific intent to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail, however, since only involuntary intoxication is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions.
* Mutual consent: A defendant could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. For example, boxers who are fighting in an organized boxing match and do not significantly deviate from the rules of the sport cannot be charged with assault.
State laws
Laws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own criminal laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as battery, menacing, intimidation, reckless endangerment, etc. in another state. Assault is often subdivided into two categories, simple assault and aggravated assault.
* Simple assault involves an intentional act that causes another person to be in reasonable fear of an imminent battery. Simple assault may also involve an attempt to cause harm to another person, where that attempt does not succeed. Simple assault is typically classified as a misdemeanor offense, unless the victim is a member of a protected class, such as being a law enforcement officer.<ref>See, e.g., {{cite web |titleMCL 750.81d, Assaulting, battering, resisting, obstructing, opposing person performing duty; felony; penalty; other violations; consecutive terms; definitions. |urlhttp://www.legislature.mi.gov/mileg.aspx?pageGetObject&objectnamemcl-750-81d |websiteMichigan Legislature |publisherState of Michigan |access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref> Even as a misdemeanor, an assault conviction may still result in incarceration and in a criminal record.
* Aggravated assault involves more serious actions, such as an assault that is committed with the intent to cause a serious bodily injury, or an assault that is committed with a deadly weapon such as a firearm. Aggravated assault is typically classified as a felony offense.
Modern American statutes may define assault as including:
* an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another
* negligently causing bodily injury to another with a dangerous weapon (assault with a deadly weapon).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://legis.state.sd.us/statutes/DisplayStatute.aspx?TypeStatute&Statute22-18-1|titleSouth Dakota Legislature|access-date=10 May 2015}}</ref>
* causing bodily harm by reckless operation of a motor vehicle (vehicular assault).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://apps.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite46.61.522|titleRCW 46.61.522: Vehicular assault — Penalty.|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref>
* threatening another in a menacing manner.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://law.justia.com/codes/nebraska/2006/s28index/s2803010000.html|title§ 28-310 — Assault in the third degree; penalty. :: Chapter 28 — Crimes and Punishments: 2006 Nebraska Revised Statutes :: Nebraska Revised Statutes: US Codes and Statutes :: US Law :: Justia|workJustia Law|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref>
* knowingly causing physical contact with another person knowing the other person will regard the contact as offensive or provocative<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C500-599/5650000070.HTM|titleSection 565-070 Until December 31, 2016—Assault in the|access-date10 May 2015|archive-date18 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518094908/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C500-599/5650000070.HTM|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* causing stupor, unconsciousness or physical injury by intentionally administering a drug or controlled substance without consent<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://law.justia.com/codes/connecticut/2005/title53a/sec53a-60.html|titleSec. 53a-60. Assault in the second degree: Class D felony. :: Chapter 952 — Penal Code: Offenses (contains Secs. 53a-24 to 53a-323) :: Title 53a — Penal Code (contains Chapters 950 to 952) :: 2005 Connecticut Code :: Connecticut Code: US Codes and Statutes: US Law: Justia|workJustia Law|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref>
*purposely or knowingly causing reasonable apprehension of bodily injury in another<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://codes.lp.findlaw.com/mtcode/45/5/2/45-5-201|titleMONT CODE ANN § 45-5-201 : Montana Code – Section 45-5-201: Assault|workFindlaw|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref>
*any act which is intended to place another in fear of immediate physical contact which will be painful, injurious, insulting, or offensive, coupled with the apparent ability to execute the act.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://coolice.legis.iowa.gov/cool-ice/default.asp?categorybillinfo&serviceiowacode&ga83&input708#708.1|titleIowa Code 708|access-date10 May 2015|archive-date14 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160314103140/https://coolice.legis.iowa.gov/cool-ice/default.asp?categorybillinfo&serviceiowacode&ga83&input708#708.1|url-statusdead}}</ref>
In some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense to an assault charge such that an assault charge is prosecuted as a less significant offense such as a petty misdemeanor.
States vary on whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double inchoate offense.
Kansas
In Kansas the law on assault states:<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://kansasstatutes.lesterama.org/Chapter_21/Article_34/ |titleKS Statutes: Ch 21 Article 34: Crimes Against Persons |date2007-11-14 |access-date2016-09-18 |url-statusbot: unknown |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071114225316/http://kansasstatutes.lesterama.org/Chapter_21/Article_34/ |archive-date=14 November 2007}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Assault is intentionally placing another person in reasonable apprehension of immediate bodily harm.}}
New York
In New York State, assault (as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/laws/PEN/120.05|titleArticle 120 – NY Penal Law – Assault Menacing Stalking – Law|publisherNew York State Senate|access-date15 March 2018}}</ref> requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery; there is no crime of battery in New York. However, in New York if a person threatens another person with imminent injury without engaging in physical contact, that is called "menacing". A person who engages in that behavior is guilty of aggravated harassment in the second degree (a Class A misdemeanor; punishable with up to one year incarceration, probation for an extended time, and a permanent criminal record) when they threaten to cause physical harm to another person, and guilty of aggravated harassment in the first degree (a Class E felony) if they have a previous conviction for the same offense.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://codes.findlaw.com/ny/penal-law/pen-sect-240-30.html|titleNew York Consolidated Laws, Penal Law – PEN § 240.30 – FindLaw|websitefindlaw.com|access-date23 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://statelaws.findlaw.com/new-york-law/new-york-harassment-laws.html|titleNew York Harassment Laws – FindLaw|websitefindlaw.com|access-date23 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/06/opinion/when-is-a-threat-a-criminal-act.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/06/opinion/when-is-a-threat-a-criminal-act.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|titleOpinion – When Is a Threat a Criminal Act?|date2014-12-05|newspaperThe New York Times|access-date23 July 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.new-york-lawyers.org/second-degree-aggravated-harassment.html|titleSecond Degree Aggravated Harassment|websiteThe Law Office of Crotty & Saland|access-date23 July 2018}}</ref> New York also has specific laws against hazing, when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization.
North Dakota
North Dakota law states:<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.legis.nd.gov/cencode/t12-1c17.pdf?20130902151232|titleNorth Dakota Century Code t12.1c17}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Simple assault.
# A person is guilty of an offense if that person:{{ordered list|list_style_type=lower-alpha
| Willfully causes bodily injury to another human being; or
| Negligently causes bodily injury to another human being by means of a firearm, destructive device, or other weapon, the use of which against a human being is likely to cause death or serious bodily injury.}}}}
Pennsylvania
In Pennsylvania, an offender can be charged with simple assault if they:
* injure someone else recklessly, knowingly, or purposefully
* accidentally injure someone with a firearm or weapon
* cause a needle-stick to an officer or correctional employee during a search or arrest
* threaten or intimidate someone causing fear of imminent serious bodily injury
A person convicted of simple assault can be ordered to up to two years in prison as a second-degree misdemeanor.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |titleChapter 27. - Title 18 - CRIMES AND OFFENSES |urlhttps://www.legis.state.pa.us/WU01/LI/LI/CT/HTM/18/00.027..HTM |access-date2022-04-12 |website=www.legis.state.pa.us}}</ref>
An offender can be charged with aggravated assault if the offender:
* demonstrates extreme indifference to the victim's life
* injures or threatens to injure a law enforcement officer, correctional officer, firefighter, police officer, or teacher on duty, or for incapacitating any of these individuals
A person convicted of aggravated assault can face up to 10 years in prison as a second-degree felony. However, if the crime is perpetrated against a firefighter or police officer, the offender may face first-degree felony charges carrying a penalty of up to 20 years in prison.<ref name":1" />TennesseeIn Tennessee assault is defined as follows:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/tncode/|titleLexisNexis® Custom Solution: Tennessee Code Research Tool|access-date10 May 2015}}</ref>
{{blockquote|39-13-101. Assault.{{plainlist|
*(a) A person commits assault who:
*(1) Intentionally, knowingly or recklessly causes bodily injury to another;
*(2) Intentionally or knowingly causes another to reasonably fear imminent bodily injury; or
*(3) Intentionally or knowingly causes physical contact with another and a reasonable person would regard the contact as extremely offensive or provocative.}}}}
See also
* Crime statistics
* Domestic violence
* Gay bashing
* Hate crime
* Mayhem
* Offences Against the Person Act 1861
Citations
{{Reflist}}
General and cited references
* {{Cite book |last1Baker |first1Dennis |last2William |first2Glanville |titleTextbook of Criminal Law |chapterChapter 9 |publisherLondon, Sweet & Maxwell}}{{Full citation needed|dateJune 2022}}<!-- Which edition?: https://www.worldcat.org/title/textbook-of-criminal-law/oclc/1110221098/editions?sddesc&start_edition1&refererbr&seyr&qtsort_yr_desc&editionsViewtrue&fq-->External links
{{Wiktionary|assault|beat up}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090201151414/http://criminallawonline.com/artassaults.php A guide to the non fatal offences against the person]
{{Types of crime}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Crimes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.611794 |
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{{about|the place in Nordic mythology|the historical region|Álfheimr (region)|other uses|Alfheim (disambiguation)}}
, 1866]]
In Norse cosmology, Álfheimr (Old Norse: {{IPA|non|ˈɑːlvˌhɛimz̠|}}, "Land of the Elves" or "Elfland"; anglicized as Alfheim), also called "Ljósálfheimr" ({{lang|non|Ljósálf[a]heimr}} {{IPA|non|ˈljoːsˌɑːlv(ɑ)ˌhɛimz̠|}}, "home of the Light Elves"), is home of the Light Elves.
Attestations
Álfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in Old Norse texts.
Grímnismál
The Eddic poem Grímnismál describes twelve divine dwellings beginning the stanza&nbsp;5 with:
{| width="75%"
! width"25%" | Old Norse text{{sfn|Grímnismál (ON)|locStanza 5}}
! width"50%" | Bellows translation{{sfn|Bellows|2004|locGrimnismol stanza 5}}
|-
|
:{{lang|non|Ýdalir heita,}}
:{{lang|non|þar er Ullr hefir}}
:{{lang|non|sér of görva sali;}}
:{{lang|non|Alfheim Frey}}
:{{lang|non|gáfu í árdaga}}
:{{lang|non|tívar at tannféi.}}
|
:Ydalir call they the place where Ull
:A hall for himself hath set;
:And Alfheim the gods to Freyr once gave
:As a tooth-gift in ancient times.
|}
A tooth-gift is a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth.{{sfn|Bellows|2004|locGrimnismol stanza 5 notes}}Gylfaginning
In the 12th&nbsp;century Eddic prose Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson relates it in the stanza&nbsp;17 as the first of a series of abodes in heaven:
{| width="100%"
! width"50%" | Old Norse text{{sfn|Gylfaginning (ON)|locChapter 17}}
! width"50%" | Brodeur translation{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 17}}
|-
|
{{lang|non|Margir staðir eru þar göfugligir. Sá er einn staðr þar, er kallaðr er Álfheimr. Þar byggvir fólk þat, er Ljósálfar heita, en Dökkálfar búa niðri í jörðu, ok eru þeir ólíkir þeim sýnum ok miklu ólíkari reyndum. Ljósálfar eru fegri en sól sýnum, en Dökkálfar eru svartari en bik.}}
|
Many places are there, and glorious. That which is called Álfheimr is one, where dwell the peoples called Light-Elves; but the Dark-Elves dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by far more unlike in nature. The Light-Elves are fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Dark-Elves are blacker than pitch.
|}
Later in the section, in speaking of a hall in the Highest Heaven called Gimlé that shall survive when heaven and earth have died, explains:
{| width="100%"
! width"50%" | Old Norse text{{sfn|Gylfaginning (ON)|locChapter 17}}
! width"50%" | Brodeur translation{{sfn|Sturluson|2018|locGylfaginning, chapter 17}}
|-
|
{{lang|non|Svá er sagt, at annarr himinn sé suðr ok upp frá þessum himni, ok heitir sá Andlangr, en inn þriði himinn sé enn upp frá þeim, ok heitir sá Víðbláinn, ok á þeim himni hyggjum vér þenna stað vera. En Ljósálfar einir, hyggjum vér, at nú byggvi þá staði.}}
|
It is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called Andlangr; but the third heaven is yet above that, and it is called Vídbláinn, and in that heaven we think this abode is. But we believe that none but Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now.
|}
See also
* Álfheimr (region)
* Alfheimbjerg
* Fairyland, a folkloric location sometimes referred to as Elfame
* Svartálfaheimr
* Svartálfar (black elves)
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
Primary
* {{cite book |last1Bellows |first1Henry Adam |titleThe poetic Edda : the mythological poems |date2004 |publisherDover Publications |locationMineola, NY |isbn9780486437101 |urlhttps://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/index.htm}}
* {{cite book |last1Sturluson |first1Snorri |translator-lastBrodeur|translator-firstArthur Gilchrist|titleThe Prose Edda |date2018 |publisherFranklin Classics Trade Press |isbn9780344335013}}
* {{cite web |ref{{SfnRef|Grímnismál (ON)}}| title Grímnismál (Old Norse) |urlhttps://heimskringla.no/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l |websiteheimskringla.com|access-date=3 April 2023}}
* {{cite web |ref{{SfnRef|Gylfaginning (ON)}}| titleGylfaginning (Old Norse) |urlhttps://heimskringla.no/wiki/Gylfaginning |websiteheimskringla.no |access-date3 April 2023}}External links
*{{Commonscatinline|Álfheimr}}
{{Elves}}
{{Freyr}}
{{Norse cosmology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alfheim}}
Category:Locations in Norse mythology
Category:Saga locations
Category:Elves
Category:Freyr | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Álfheimr | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.619929 |
1482 | Ask and Embla | thumb|300px|upright|"Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin create Askr and Embla" (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.
In Norse mythology, Ask and Embla ()—man and woman respectively—were the first two humans, created by the gods. The pair are attested in both the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, composed in the 13th century. In both sources, three gods, one of whom is Odin, find Ask and Embla and bestow upon them various corporeal and spiritual gifts. A number of theories have been proposed to explain the two figures, and there are occasional references to them in popular culture.
Etymology
thumb|upright|A depiction of Ask and Embla (1919) by Robert Engels.
Old Norse literally means "ash tree" but the etymology of embla is uncertain, and two possibilities of the meaning of embla are generally proposed. The first meaning, "elm tree", is problematic, and is reached by deriving *Elm-la from *Almilōn and subsequently to ('elm'). The second suggestion is "vine", which is reached through *Ambilō, which may be related to the Greek term (), itself meaning "vine, liana". The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories.
Linguist Gunlög Josefsson claims that the name Embla comes from the roots + which would mean 'firemaker' or 'smokebringer' inflected for either gender. She connects this to the ancient practice of creating fire through a fire plough which was considered a magical and holy way of fire making in folk belief in Scandinavia long into modern times. She identifies the emergence of fire through the plowing symbolically to the moment of orgasm and hence fertilization and reproduction.
According to Benjamin Thorpe, "Grimm says the word embla, emla, signifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, aml, ambl, assiduous labour; the same relation as Meshia and Meshiane, the ancient Persian names of the first man and woman, who were also formed from trees."
Attestations
In stanza 17 of the Poetic Edda poem , the seeress reciting the poem states that Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on land. The seeress says that the two were capable of very little, lacking in and says that they were given three gifts by the three gods:
Old Norse:
Benjamin Thorpe translation:
Spirit they possessed not, sense they had not,
blood nor motive powers, nor goodly colour.
Spirit gave Odin, sense gave Hœnir,
blood gave Lodur, and goodly colour.Henry Adams Bellows translation:
Soul they had not, sense they had not,
Heat nor motion, nor goodly hue;
Soul gave Othin, sense gave Hönir,
Heat gave Lothur and goodly hue.
The meaning of these gifts has been a matter of scholarly disagreement and translations therefore vary.
According to chapter 9 of the Prose Edda book , the three brothers Vili, Vé, and Odin, are the creators of the first man and woman. The brothers were once walking along a beach and found two trees there. They took the wood and from it created the first human beings; Ask and Embla. One of the three gave them the breath of life, the second gave them movement and intelligence, and the third gave them shape, speech, hearing and sight. Further, the three gods gave them clothing and names. Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard.
Theories
thumb|upright|"Ask och Embla" (1948) by Stig Blomberg
Indo-European origins
A Proto-Indo-European basis has been theorized for the duo based on the etymology of embla meaning "vine." In Indo-European societies, an analogy is derived from the drilling of fire and sexual intercourse. Vines were used as a flammable wood, where they were placed beneath a drill made of harder wood, resulting in fire. Further evidence of ritual making of fire in Scandinavia has been theorized from a depiction on a stone plate on a Bronze Age grave in Kivik, Scania, Sweden.
Jaan Puhvel comments that "ancient myths teem with trite 'first couples' similar to the type of Adam and his by-product Eve. In Indo-European tradition, these range from the Vedic Yama and Yamī and the Iranian Mašya and Mašyānag to the Icelandic Askr and Embla, with trees or rocks as preferred raw material, and dragon's teeth or other bony substance occasionally thrown in for good measure".
In his study of the comparative evidence for an origin of mankind from trees in Indo-European society, Anders Hultgård observes that "myths of the origin of mankind from trees or wood seem to be particularly connected with ancient Europe and Indo-Europe and Indo-European-speaking peoples of Asia Minor and Iran. By contrast the cultures of the Near East show almost exclusively the type of anthropogonic stories that derive man's origin from clay, earth or blood by means of a divine creation act".
Other potential Germanic analogues
Two wooden figures—the Braak Bog Figures—of "more than human height" were unearthed from a peat bog at Braak in Schleswig, Germany. The figures depict a nude man and a nude woman. Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that these figures may represent a "Lord and Lady" of the Vanir, a group of Norse gods, and that "another memory of [these wooden deities] may survive in the tradition of the creation of Ask and Embla, the man and woman who founded the human race, created by the gods from trees on the seashore".
A figure named Æsc (Old English "ash tree") appears as the son of Hengest in the Anglo-Saxon genealogy for the kings of Kent. This has resulted in a number of theories that the figures may have had an earlier basis in pre-Norse Germanic mythology.
Connections have been proposed between Ask and Embla and the Vandal kings Assi and Ambri, attested in Paul the Deacon's 7th century AD work Origo Gentis Langobardorum. There, the two ask the god Godan (Odin) for victory. The name Ambri, like Embla, likely derives from *Ambilō. Carolyne Larrington theorizes that humans are metaphorically designated as trees in Old Norse works (examples include "trees of jewellery" for women and "trees of battle" for men) due to the origin of humankind stemming from trees; Ask and Embla.
Modern depictions
Ask and Embla have been the subject of a number of references and artistic depictions.
A sculpture depicting the two, created by Stig Blomberg in 1948, stands in Sölvesborg in southern Sweden.
Ask and Embla are depicted on two of the sixteen wooden panels by Dagfin Werenskiold on Oslo City Hall.
Ask to Embla is the title of a poem, parts of which are quoted, by R. H. Ash, one of the protagonists in A. S. Byatt's novel Possession: A Romance, which won the Booker prize in 1990.
In the video game Fire Emblem Heroes, the two main warring kingdoms are Askr and Embla, which is where the Summoner, the player, finds themselves in, as the kingdom has been at war with the Emblian Empire when the game starts. It is later revealed both kingdoms are named after a pair of Ancient Dragons; with Askr being male and Embla female.
In the videogame Valheim, the developers named an armor set after Embla, as stated in their development blog entry on November 21, 2023: "we have named this set after one of the two first humans in Norse mythology: Embla".
See also
Líf and Lífþrasir
Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology
Bibliography
Notes
References
Bellows, Henry Adams (Trans.) (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation.
Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics.
Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1975). Scandinavian Mythology. Paul Hamlyn.
Hultgård, Anders (2006). "The Askr and Embla Myth in a Comparative Perspective". In Andrén, Anders; Jennbert, Kristina; Raudvere, Catharina (editors).Old Norse Religion in Long-term Perspectives. Nordic Academic Press.
Dronke, Ursula (Trans.) (1997). The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems. Oxford University Press.
Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics.
Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press.
Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell.
Puhvel, Jaan (1989 [1987]). Comparative Mythology. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Schach, Paul (1985). "Some Thoughts on Völuspá" as collected in Glendinning, R. J. Bessason, Heraldur (Editors). Edda: a Collection of Essays. University of Manitoba Press.
Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. Norrœna Society.
Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: The Edda of Sæmund the Learned. Part I. London: Trübner & Co.
Category:Legendary progenitors
Category:Mythological first humans
Category:People in Norse mythology
Category:Mythological duos
Category:Fraxinus excelsior
Category:Mythological lovers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ask_and_Embla | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.632799 |
1484 | Alabama River | {{short description|River in Alabama, United States}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Alabama River
| image = Alabama River.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| image_caption = The Alabama River at Montgomery in 2004
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 7
| source1 = Tallapoosa and Coosa Rivers
| source1_location = Wetumpka, Alabama
| source1_coordinates {{Coord|32.4861|-86.2786|formatdms|type:river_region:US-AL|display=i}}
| source1_elevation {{Convert|42|m|ft|abbron}}
| mouth = Mobile River
| mouth_location = Mount Vernon, Alabama
| mouth_coordinates {{Coord|31.1383|-87.9401|formatdms|region:US-AL|display=it}}
| mouth_elevation {{Convert|6|m|ft|abbron}}
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = United States
| length = {{convert|318|mi}}
| discharge1_avg | basin_size {{Convert|59000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
| progression = Mobile → Gulf of Mexico
| map = MobileAlabamaCoosa3.png
| map_caption = The Mobile, Alabama, and Coosa rivers are essentially a single river the name of which changes at the confluences of major tributaries.
| extra =
}}
The Alabama River, in the U.S. state of Alabama, is formed by the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about {{convert|6|mi|0}} north of Montgomery, near the town of Wetumpka.<ref name eb>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11995/Alabama-River|title Alabama River &#124; river, United States &#124; Britannica| dateMarch 23, 2024 }}</ref>
Over a course of approximately {{Convert|319|mi|km}}, the river meanders west towards Selma, then southwest until, about {{convert|45|mi}} from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee, forming the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay.<ref name eb/>DescriptionThe run of the Alabama is highly meandering.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.caria.org/navigation.html |titleCARIA Current Issues - Navigation on the Alabama river |access-dateMay 9, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110725141115/http://www.caria.org/navigation.html |archive-dateJuly 25, 2011 |url-statusdead }}</ref> Its width varies from {{convert|50|to|200|yd}}, and its depth from {{convert|3|to|40|ft|0}}. Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is {{convert|318.5|mi}},<ref nameNHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120329155652/http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |dateMarch 29, 2012 }}, accessed April 27, 2011</ref> and by steamboat measurement, {{convert|420|mi}}.<ref name"Berney">{{cite book |lastBerney |firstSaffold |titleHandbook Of Alabama: A Complete Index To The State |publisherNabu Press |year2011 |isbn=978-1-1792-5964-2}}</ref>
The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state. Railways connect it with the mineral regions of north-central Alabama.
After the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the principal tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River, which is about {{convert|194|mi}} long<ref name=NHD/> and joins the Alabama River about {{convert|10|mi}} below Selma. The Alabama River's main tributary, the Coosa River, crosses the mineral region of Alabama and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia, to about {{convert|117|mi}} above Wetumpka (about {{convert|102|mi}} below Rome and {{convert|26|mi}} below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa. The channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government.
The navigation of the Tallapoosa River – which has its source in Paulding County, Georgia, and is about {{convert|265|mi}} long<ref nameNHD/> – is prevented by shoals and a {{convert|60|ft|adjon}} fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year.
The river played an important role in the growth of the economy in the region during the 19th century as a source of transportation of goods, which included slaves. The river is still used for transportation of farming produce; however, it is not as important as it once was due to the construction of roads and railways.
Documented by Europeans first in 1701,<ref>{{Cite book|lastWillson|firstMarcius|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideEvIL9V3RAgC&qAlabama+River+europeans+found+in+1712&pgRA2-PA522|titleAmerican History: Comprising Historical Sketches of the Indian Tribes: A Description of American Antiquities, with an Inquiry Into Their Origin and the Origin of the Indian Tribes; History of the United States, with Appendices Showing Its Connection with European History; History of the Present British Provinces; History of Mexico; and History of Texas, Brought Down to the Time of Its Admission Into the American Union|date1847|publisherW.H. Moore & Company|languageen}}</ref> the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers were central to the homeland of the Creek Indians before their removal by United States forces to the Indian Territory in the 1830s.
Lock and dams
The Alabama River has three lock and dams between Montgomery and the Mobile River. The Robert F. Henry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 236.2, the Millers Ferry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 133.0, and the Claiborne Lock & Dam is located at river mile 72.5.<ref>Courtesy [http://www.sam.usace.army.mil/ U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Mobile District]
</ref> These dams create R.E. "Bob" Woodruff Lake, William Dannely Reservoir, and Claiborne Lake respectively.
Gallery
<gallery>
Image:USACE Claiborne Lock and Dam.jpg|Claiborne Lock and Dam on the Alabama River, approximately {{convert|5|mi|0}} upriver from Claiborne, Monroe County
Image:USACE Robert F Henry Lock and Dam.jpg|Robert F. Henry Lock and Dam on the Alabama River, approximately {{convert|15|mi}} east of Selma
Image:Cesam249.jpg|Millers Ferry Lock and Dam on the Alabama River in Wilcox County, approximately {{convert|9.5|mi}} northwest of Camden
Image:Alabama River RM192 Selma.JPG|Alabama River in Dallas County looking upstream towards Selma.
Image:Alabama River at Benton Park.JPG|The Alabama River in Lowndes County as seen from Benton Park in Benton, Alabama.
Image:Edmund Pettus Bridge over Alabama River.jpg|The Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma overlooking the Alabama River.
File:Selma December 2018 11 (Alabama River).jpg|The Alabama River in Selma
File:Riverfront Park December 2018 07 (Alabama River).jpg|Alabama River at Riverfront Park in Montgomery
</gallery>
See also
*List of Alabama rivers
*Tallapoosa River
*Coosa River
*Mobile River
* South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Collier's Poster|Alabama (river)|Alabama River}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050930120237/http://reference.allrefer.com/gazetteer/A/A02218-alabama-river.html Allrefer.com]
*{{Cite AmCyc|wstitleAlabama (river)|displayAlabama, a river of the state of Alabama |short=x}}
*{{Cite NIE|wstitleAlabama (river)|displayAlabama. A river formed by the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers |short=x}}
{{authority control}}
Category:Alabama placenames of Native American origin
Category:Rivers of Autauga County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Monroe County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Montgomery County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Wilcox County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Dallas County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Mobile County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Elmore County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Alabama | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama_River | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.639528 |
1485 | Alain de Lille | {{short description|French theologian and poet (c. 1128 – c. 1202)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox academic
| name = Alain de Lille
| image = Alanus de Insulis (Alain de Lille). Woodcut. Wellcome V0000079.jpg
| caption | birth_date 1128
| birth_place = Lille, France
| death_date = 1202–1203
| alma_mater = University of Paris
| school_tradition = Scholasticism
| influences =
{{Flatlist}}
*Aristotle
*Pythagoras
*Neoplatonism
*Peter Abelard
*Gilbert de la Porrée
*Thierry of Chartres
*Boethius
{{Endflatlist}}
| era = Medieval philosophy
| main_interests = Philosophy, mysticism, theology, poetry
}}
Alain de Lille (Alan of Lille; Latin: Alanus ab Insulis; {{circa}} 1128{{snd}}1202/1203) was a French<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alain-de-Lille Alain de Lille WRITTEN BY: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica]</ref> theologian and poet. He was born in Lille some time before 1128. His exact date of death remains unclear as well, with most research pointing toward it being between 14 April 1202 and 5 April 1203. He is known for writing a number of works based upon the teachings of the liberal arts, with one of his most renowned poems, De planctu Naturae ("The Complaint of Nature"), focusing on sexual conduct among humans. Although Alain was widely known during his lifetime, little is known about his personal life.<ref>{{cite book|lastZott|firstLynn|titleClassical and Medieval Literature Criticism|urlhttps://archive.org/details/classicalmedieva00lynn_6|url-accessregistration|year2003|publisherGale|locationFarmington Hills|isbn=978-0-7876-5839-7 }}</ref><ref>Wetherbee, Winthrop. "Alan of Lille, De planctu Naturae: The Fall of Nature and the Survival of Poetry". The Journal of Medieval Latin 21 (2011): 223–51. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45019679/</ref>
As a theologian, Alain de Lille opposed scholasticism in the second half of the 12th century. His philosophy is characterized by rationalism and mysticism. Alain claimed that reason, guided by prudence, could discover most truths about the physical order without help; but in order to understand religious truth and to know God, the wise must be believers.
Life
Little is known of his life. Alain entered the schools no earlier than the late 1140s; first attending the school at Paris, and then at Chartres. He probably studied under masters such as Peter Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Thierry of Chartres. This is known through the writings of John of Salisbury, who is thought to have been a contemporary student of Alain of Lille.<ref name"auto1" >{{cite book|lastEvans|firstG.R.|titleAlan of Lille: The Frontiers of Theology in the Later Twelfth Century|year1983|publisherUniversity Press|locationCambridge}}</ref> Alain's earliest writings were probably written in the 1150s, and probably in Paris.<ref name"auto2" >{{cite book|lastMarenbon|firstJohn|titleA Companion to the Philosophy of Education|year2002|publisherBlackwell}}</ref> He spent many years as a professor of theology at the University of Paris<ref>{{cite book |lastMuston |firstAlexis |urlhttps://archive.org/details/israelofalpscomp02must |titleThe Israel of the Alps: a complete history of the Waldenses and their colonies, Vol. 2 |date1875 |publisherBlackie & Son |locationLondon |page[https://archive.org/details/israelofalpscomp02must/page/509 509] |translatorRev. John Montgomery |quoteAlain de l'Isle (Alanus Magnus de Insulis), a celebrated professor of Theology at the University of Paris, towards the end of the twelfth century. |author-linkAlexis Muston}}</ref> and he attended the Lateran Council in 1179. Though the only accounts of his lectures seem to show a sort of eccentric style and approach, he was said to have been good friends with many other masters at the school in Paris, and taught there, as well as some time in southern France, into his old age. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Cîteaux, where he died in 1202.{{sfn|Alphandéry|1911}}
He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime, and his knowledge caused him to be called Doctor Universalis. Many of Alain's writings cannot be exactly dated, and the circumstances surrounding his writing are often unknown as well. It does seem clear that his first notable work, Summa Quoniam Homines, was completed between 1155 and 1165, with the most conclusive date being 1160, and was probably developed through his lectures at the school in Paris.<ref name"auto1" /> Among his numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature of the Middle Ages; one of these, the De planctu Naturae, is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He created the allegory of grammatical "conjugation" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The Anticlaudianus, a treatise on morals as allegory, the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity.{{sfn|Alphandéry|1911}}Theology and philosophy
As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the Anticlaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei, as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Christian creed. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality.{{sfn|Alphandéry|1911}}
Alan's philosophy was a sort of mixture of Aristotelian logic and Neoplatonic philosophy. The Platonist seemed to outweigh the Aristotelian in Alan, but he felt strongly that the divine is all intelligibility and argued this notion through much Aristotelian logic combined with Pythagorean mathematics.<ref name"auto1" />Works and attributionsOne of Alain's most notable works was one he modeled after Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy, to which he gave the title De planctu Naturae, or The Plaint of Nature, and which was most likely written in the late 1160s.<ref name"auto2" /> In this work, Alan uses prose and verse to illustrate the way in which nature defines its own position as inferior to that of God.<ref name"auto2" /> He also attempts to illustrate the way in which humanity, through sexual perversion and specifically homosexuality, has defiled itself from nature and God. In Anticlaudianus, another of his notable works, Alan uses a poetical dialogue to illustrate the way in which nature comes to the realization of her failure in producing the perfect man. She has only the ability to create a soulless body, and thus she is "persuaded to undertake the journey to heaven to ask for a soul," and "the Seven Liberal Arts produce a chariot for her... the Five Senses are the horses".<ref>{{cite book|lastSheridan|firstJames J.|titleIntroduction to The Plaint of Nature|year1980|publisherPontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies|locationToronto}}</ref> The Anticlaudianus was translated into French and German in the following century, and toward 1280 was re-worked into a musical anthology by Adam de la Bassée.<ref>A. J. Creighton, Anticlaudien: A Thirteenth-Century French Adaptation (Washington: 1944).</ref><ref>Andrew Hughes, "The Ludus super Anticlaudianum of Adam de la Bassée". Journal of the American Musicological Society 23"1 (1970), 1–25.</ref> One of Alan's most popular and widely distributed works is his manual on preaching, Ars Praedicandi, or The Art of Preaching. This work shows how Alan saw theological education as being a fundamental preliminary step in preaching and strove to give clergyman a manuscript to be "used as a practical manual" when it came to the formation of sermons and art of preaching.<ref>{{cite book|lastEvans|firstG.R.|titleIntroduction to The Art of Preaching|year1981|publisherCistercian Publications|location=Kalamazoo}}</ref>
Alain wrote three very large theological textbooks, one being his first work, Summa Quoniam Homines. Another of his theological textbooks that strove to be more minute in its focus, is his De Fide Catholica, dated somewhere between 1185 and 1200, Alan sets out to refute heretical views, specifically that of the Waldensians and Cathars.<ref name"auto2" /> In his third theological textbook, Regulae Caelestis Iuris, he presents a set of what seems to be theological rules; this was typical of the followers of Gilbert of Poitiers, of which Alan could be associated.<ref name"auto2" /> Other than these theological textbooks, and the aforementioned works of the mixture of prose and poetry, Alan of Lille had numerous other works on numerous subjects, primarily including Speculative Theology, Theoretical Moral Theology, Practical Moral Theology, and various collections of poems.
Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with another Alanus (Alain, bishop of Auxerre), Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Alan of Lille was not the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under his name, nor of Moralium dogma philosophorum, nor of the satirical Apocalypse of Golias once attributed to him; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta Alani de lapide philosophico really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the Ars catholicae fidei and the treatise Contra haereticos.{{sfn|Alphandéry|1911}}
In his sermons on capital sins, Alain argued that sodomy and homicide are the most serious sins, since they call forth the wrath of God, which led to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. His chief work on penance, the Liber poenitenitalis dedicated to Henry de Sully, exercised great influence on the many manuals of penance produced as a result of the Fourth Lateran Council. Alain's identification of the sins against nature included bestiality, masturbation, oral and anal intercourse, incest, adultery and rape. In addition to his battle against moral decay, Alan wrote a work against Islam, Judaism and Christian heretics dedicated to William VIII of Montpellier.
List of known works
*{{ill|De planctu Naturae|ru|Плач Природы|la|De planctu Naturae|italic=y}}
*Anticlaudianus
*Rhythmus de Incarnatione et de Septem Artibus
*De Miseria Mundi
*Quaestiones Alani Textes
*Summa Quoniam Homines
*Regulae Theologicae
*Hierarchia Alani
*De Fide Catholica: Contra Haereticos, Valdenses, Iudaeos et Paganos
*De Virtutibus, de Vitiis, de Donis Spiritus Sancti
*Liber Parabolarum
*Distinctiones Dictionum Theologicalium
*Elucidatio in Cantica Canticorum
*Glosatura super Cantica
*Expositio of the Pater Noster
*Expositiones of the Nicene and Apostolic Creeds
*Expositio Prosae de Angelis
*Quod non-est celebrandum bis in die
*Liber Poenitentialis
*De Sex Alis Cherubim
*Ars Praedicandi
*Sermones<ref name"auto1" />References
{{reflist}}
Attribution:
*{{EB1911|wstitleAlain de Lille|volume1|pages467–468|firstPaul Daniel |lastAlphandéry}}Translations
*Alan of Lille, A Concise Explanation of the Song of Songs in Praise of the Virgin Mary, trans Denys Turner, in Denys Turner, Eros and Allegory: Medieval Exegesis of the Song of Songs, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995), 291–308
*The Plaint of Nature, translated by James J Sheridan, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980)
*Anticlaudian: Prologue, Argument and Nine Books, edited by W. H. Cornog, (Philadelphia, 1935)
Further reading
* Alain de Lille: De planctu Naturae, ed. Nikolaus M. Häring, Studi Medievali 19 (1978), 797–879. Latin edition of the De planctu Naturae.
* Dynes, Wayne R. 'Alan of Lille.' in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, Garland Publishing, 1990. p.&nbsp;32.
* Alanus de insulis, Anticlaudianus, a c. di . M. Sannelli, La Finestra editrice, Lavis, 2004.
* Evans, G. R. (1983), Alan of Lille: The Frontiers of Theology in the Later Twelfth Century, Cambridge: Cambridge. {{ISBN|978-0521246187}} .
* {{cite encyclopedia
| last = Kren
| first = Claudia
| title = Alain de Lille
| encyclopedia = Dictionary of Scientific Biography
| volume = 1
| pages = 91–92
| publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons
| location = New York
| year = 1970
| isbn = 0-684-10114-9
}}
*{{cite DNB|wstitleAlain de Lille |firstArthur Henry|lastGrant|volume1}}
*{{cite ODNB|firstHenry|last Summerson|titleLille, Alain de (1116/17–1202?)| id266}}
External links
*(Latin) [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost12/Alanus/ala_ac00.html Alanus ab Insulis, Anticlaudianus sive De officiis viri boni et perfecti]
*(Latin) [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/alanus/alanus1.html Alanus ab Insulis, Liber de planctu Naturae]
*(Latin) [http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Omnis_mundi_creatura Alanus ab Insulis, Omnis mundi creatura]
*(Latin) [http://mlat.uzh.ch/?c2&wAlDeIn.DiDiTh Alanus ab Insulis, Distinctiones dictionum theologicalium]
*(English) [https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/alain-deplanctu.asp Alain of Lille, The Complaint of Nature]. Translation of Liber de planctu Naturae''
{{Medieval Philosophy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lille, Alain De}}
Category:1110s births
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:1200s deaths
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:Writers from Lille
Category:12th-century writers in Latin
Category:12th-century Christian mystics
Category:Scholastic philosophers
Category:Roman Catholic mystics
Category:12th-century French Catholic theologians
Category:Medieval Latin-language poets
Category:12th-century French poets
Category:12th-century French philosophers
Category:University of Paris alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_de_Lille | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.648015 |
1486 | Alemanni | {{Short description|Germanic people}}
{{for|people with the name|Alamanni (surname)}}
The Alemanni or Alamanni<ref>The spelling with "e" is used in Encyc. Brit. 9th. ed., (c. 1880), Everyman's Encyc. 1967, Everyman's Smaller Classical Dictionary, 1910. The current edition of Britannica spells with "e", as does Columbia and Edward Gibbon, Vol. 3, Chapter XXXVIII. The Latinized spelling with a is current in older literature (so in the 1911 Britannica), but remains in use e.g. in Wood (2003), Drinkwater (2007).</ref><ref>The Alemanni were alternatively known as Suebi from about the fifth century, and that name became prevalent in the high medieval period, eponymous of the Duchy of Swabia. The name is taken from that of the Suebi mentioned by Julius Caesar, and although these older Suebi did likely contribute to the ethnogenesis of the Alemanni, there is no direct connection to the contemporary Kingdom of the Suebi in Galicia.</ref> were a confederation of Germanic tribes<ref name="Germanic">
* {{cite book |last1Drinkwater |first1John Frederick |author-link1John Frederick Drinkwater |date2012 |chapterAlamanni |chapter-urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-235# |editor1-lastHornblower |editor1-firstSimon |editor1-linkSimon Hornblower |editor2-lastSpawforth |editor2-firstAntony |editor3-lastEidinow |editor3-firstEsther |editor3-linkEsther Eidinow |titleThe Oxford Classical Dictionary |edition4 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0191735257 |access-dateJanuary 26, 2020 |quoteAlamanni (Alemanni), a loose concentration of Germanic communities... }}
* {{cite book |last1Hitchner |first1R. Bruce |author-link1R. Bruce Hitchner |date2005 |chapterGoths |chapter-urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-0156? |editor1-lastKazhdan |editor1-firstAlexander P. |editor1-linkAlexander Kazhdan |titleThe Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0195187922 |access-dateJanuary 26, 2020 |quoteAlemanni... the Latin term for an amalgamation of a number of smaller Germanic tribes, including a segment of the Suevi. }}
* {{cite book |date2009 |chapterAlamanni |chapter-urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534043.001.0001/acref-9780199534043-e-76? |editor1-lastDarvill |editor1-firstTimothy |editor1-linkTimothy Darvill |titleThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology |edition3 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0191727139 |access-dateJanuary 25, 2020 |quoteAlamanni. A confederation of several Germanic tribes who amalgamated in the third century AD}}
</ref> on the Upper Rhine River during the first millennium. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Roman emperor Caracalla of 213 CE, the Alemanni captured the {{lang|la|Agri Decumates|italic=no}} in 260, and later expanded into present-day Alsace and northern Switzerland, leading to the establishment of the Old High German language in those regions, which by the eighth century were collectively referred to as Alamannia.<ref>in pago Almanniae 762, in pago Alemannorum 797, urbs Constantia in ducatu Alemanniae 797; in ducatu Alemannico, in pago Linzgowe 873. From the ninth century, Alamannia is increasingly used of the Alsace specifically, while the Alamannic territory in general is increasingly called Suebia; by the 12th century, the name Suebia had mostly replaced Alamannia.
S. Hirzel, Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde 6 (1888), p. 299.</ref>
In 496, the Alemanni were conquered by the Frankish leader Clovis and incorporated into his dominions. Mentioned as still pagan allies of the Christian Franks, the Alemanni were gradually Christianized during the seventh century. The {{lang|la|Lex Alamannorum|italic=yes}} is a record of their customary law during this period. Until the eighth century, Frankish suzerainty over Alemannia was mostly nominal. After an uprising by Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia, however, Carloman executed the Alamannic nobility and installed Frankish dukes.
During the later and weaker years of the Carolingian Empire, the Alemannic counts became almost independent, and a struggle for supremacy took place between them and the Bishopric of Constance. The chief family in Alamannia was that of the counts of {{lang|la|Raetia Curiensis|italic=yes}}, who were sometimes called margraves, and one of whom, Burchard II, established the Duchy of Swabia, which was recognized by Henry the Fowler in 919 and became a stem duchy of the Holy Roman Empire.
The area settled by the Alemanni corresponds roughly to the area where Alemannic German dialects remain spoken, including German Swabia and Baden, French Alsace, German-speaking Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austrian Vorarlberg. The French-language name of Germany, {{lang|fr|Allemagne}}, is derived from their name, from Old French aleman(t),<ref>recorded as aleman in c. 1100, and with final dental, alemant or alemand, from c. 1160. Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé s.v. [http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/allemand allemand].</ref> and from French was loaned into a number of other languages, including Middle English, which commonly used the term Almains for Germans.<ref>F.C. and J. Rivington, T. Payne, Wilkie and Robinson: The Chronicle of Iohn Hardyng, 1812, p. 99.</ref><ref>H. Kurath: Middle English Dictionary, part 14, University of Michigan Press, 1952, 1345.</ref> Likewise, the Arabic name for Germany is {{Lang|ar|ألمانيا}} (Almanya), the Turkish is Almanya, the Spanish is Alemania, the Portuguese is Alemanha, the Welsh is Yr Almaen and the Persian is {{lang|fa|آلمان}} (Alman).
Name
{{see|Suebi#Etymology}}
According to Gaius Asinius Quadratus (quoted in the mid-sixth century by Byzantine historian Agathias), the name Alamanni (Ἀλαμανοι) means "all men". It indicates that they were a conglomeration drawn from various Germanic tribes.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAlamanni|volume1|page468}}</ref> The Romans and the Greeks called them as such (Alamanni, all men, in the sense of a group composed of men of all groups in the region). This derivation was accepted by Edward Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire<ref>{{cite web|authorEdward Gibbon. |urlhttp://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap10.htm#MIX |titleChapter 10 |publisherCcel.org |access-date2012-01-02}}</ref> and by the anonymous contributor of notes assembled from the papers of Nicolas Fréret, published in 1753.<ref name=Freret>''Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, avec les Mémoires de Littérature tirés des Registres de cette Académie, depuis l'année MDCCXLIV jusques et compris l'année MDCCXLVI, vol. XVIII, (Paris 1753) pp. 49–71. Excerpts are on-line at [http://www.eliohs.unifi.it/testi/700/freret/vues.html#notaed ELIOHS].</ref>
This etymology has remained the standard derivation of the name.<ref>It is cited in most etymological dictionaries, such as the American Heritage Dictionary (large edition) under the root, [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE295.html *man-] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060519035935/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE295.html |date2006-05-19 }}.</ref>
An alternative suggestion proposes derivation from *alah'' "sanctuary".<ref>"the name is possibly Alahmannen, 'men of the sanctuary'" Inglis Palgrave (ed.), The Collected Historical Works of Sir Francis Palgrave, K.H. (1919), p. 443 (citing: "Bury's ed. of Gibbon (Methuen), vol. I [1902], p. 278 note; H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation [1907]").</ref>
Walafrid Strabo in the ninth century remarked, in discussing the people of Switzerland and the surrounding regions, that only foreigners called them the Alemanni, but that they gave themselves the name of Suebi.<ref>Igitur quia mixti Alamannis Suevi, partem Germaniae ultra Danubium, partem Raetiae inter Alpes et Histrum, partemque Galliae circa Ararim obsederunt; antiquorum vocabulorum veritate servata, ab incolis nomen patriae derivemus, et Alamanniam vel Sueviam nominemus. Nam cum duo sint vocabula unam gentem significantia, priori nomine nos appellant circumpositae gentes, quae Latinum habent sermonem; sequenti, usus nos nuncupat barbarorum. Walafrid Strabo, Proleg. ad Vit. S. Galli (833/4) ed. Migne (1852); Thomas Greenwood, The First Book of the History of the Germans: Barbaric Period (1836), [https://archive.org/details/firstbookofhisto00gree/page/498 p. 498].</ref>
The Suebi are given the alternative name of Ziuwari (as Cyuuari) in an Old High German gloss, interpreted by Jacob Grimm as Martem colentes ("worshippers of Mars").<ref>Rudolf Much, Der germanische Himmelsgott (1898), p. 192.</ref> Annio da Viterbo a scholar and historian of the 15th century claimed the Alemanni had their name from the Hebrew language, as in Hebrew the river Rhine was translated into Mannum and the people who live at its shores were called Alemannus.<ref name":0">{{Citation |lastPopper |firstNicholas S. |titlePlanks from a Shipwreck: Belief and Evidence in Sixteenth-Century Histories |date2023 |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09722-5_7 |workCollected Wisdom of the Early Modern Scholar: Essays in Honor of Mordechai Feingold |seriesArchimedes |volume64 |pages141–142 |editor-lastRoos |editor-firstAnna Marie |placeCham |publisherSpringer International Publishing |languageen |doi10.1007/978-3-031-09722-5_7 |isbn978-3-031-09722-5 |access-date2023-01-04 |editor2-lastManning |editor2-firstGideon}}</ref> This was refuted by Beatus Rhenanus, a humanist of the 16th century.<ref name":0" /> Rhenanus argued the term Alemanni was meant for the whole Germanic people only in late antiquity and before it was only meant to designate the population of an island in the North Sea.<ref name":0" />
First appearance in historical record
) in the Tabula Peutingeriana. Suevia is indicated separately, further downstream of the Rhine, beyond Silva Vosagus.]]
Early Roman writers did not mention the Alemanni, and it is likely that they had not yet come to exist. In his Germania Tacitus (AD 90) does not mention the Alemanni.<ref>{{cite book |author1Tacitus |author1-linkTacitus |titleTacitus: Germany Book 1 |urlhttps://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/tac/g01040.htm |access-date25 October 2022 |chapterChapter 42}}</ref> He uses the term Agri Decumates to describe the region between the Rhine, Main and Danube rivers. He says that it had once been the home of the Helvetians, who had moved westwards into Gaul in the time of Julius Caesar. The people living there in Caesar's time are not Germanic. Instead, "Reckless adventurers from Gaul, emboldened by want, occupied this land of questionable ownership. After a while, our frontier having been advanced, and our military positions pushed forward, it was regarded as a remote nook of our empire and a part of a Roman province."<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D29 Tac. Ger. 29].</ref>
at Weingarten]]
The Alemanni were first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213. At that time, they apparently dwelt in the basin of the Main, to the south of the Chatti.<ref name="EB1911"/>
Cassius Dio portrays the Alemanni as victims of this treacherous emperor.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/78*.html | publisherUniversity of Chicago | title=Cassius Dio: Roman History}}</ref> They had asked for his help, according to Dio, but instead he colonized their country, changed their place names, and executed their warriors under a pretext of coming to their aid. When he became ill, the Alemanni claimed to have put a hex on him. Caracalla, it was claimed, tried to counter this influence by invoking his ancestral spirits.
In retribution, Caracalla then led the Legio II Traiana Fortis against the Alemanni, who lost and were pacified for a time. The legion was as a result honoured with the name Germanica. The fourth-century fictional Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Caracalla, relates (10.5) that Caracalla then assumed the name Alemannicus, at which Helvius Pertinax jested that he should really be called Geticus Maximus, because in the year before he had murdered his brother, Geta.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Caracalla*.html | publisherUniversity of Chicago | title=Historia Augusta: The Life of Antoninus Caracalla}}</ref>
Through much of his short reign, Caracalla was known for unpredictable and arbitrary operations launched by surprise after a pretext of peace negotiations. If he had any reasons of state for such actions, they remained unknown to his contemporaries. Whether or not the Alemanni had been previously neutral, they were certainly further influenced by Caracalla to become thereafter notoriously implacable enemies of Rome.
This mutually antagonistic relationship is perhaps the reason why the Roman writers persisted in calling the Alemanni "barbari," meaning "savages." The archaeology, however, shows that they were largely Romanized, lived in Roman-style houses and used Roman artefacts, the Alemannic women having adopted the Roman fashion of the tunica even earlier than the men.
Most of the Alemanni were probably at the time, in fact, resident in or close to the borders of Germania Superior. Although Dio is the earliest writer to mention them, Ammianus Marcellinus used the name to refer to Germans on the Limes Germanicus in the time of Trajan's governorship of the province shortly after it was formed, around 98–99 AD. At that time, the entire frontier was being fortified for the first time. Trees from the earliest fortifications found in Germania Inferior are dated by dendrochronology to 99–100 AD.
Ammianus relates ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060211084122/http://www.gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/ammianus17.html xvii.1.11]) that much later the Emperor Julian undertook a punitive expedition against the Alemanni, who by then were in Alsace, and crossed the Main (Latin Menus), entering the forest, where the trails were blocked by felled trees. As winter was upon them, they reoccupied a
"fortification which was founded on the soil of the Alemanni that Trajan wished to be called with his own name".<ref>munimentum quod in Alamannorum solo conditum Traianus suo nomine voluit appellari.</ref>
In this context, the use of Alemanni is possibly an anachronism, but it reveals that Ammianus believed they were the same people, which is consistent with the location of the Alemanni of Caracalla's campaigns.
Conflicts with the Roman Empire
83 to 260 CE]]
{{Campaignbox Rome against the Alamanni}}
The Alemanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire in the third and fourth centuries. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy in 268 when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the Goths from the east. Their raids throughout the three parts of Gaul were traumatic: Gregory of Tours (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls Chrocus, who acted "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to Clermont he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3 Historia Francorum Book I.32–34]). Thus sixth-century Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of Roman temples and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni.
In the early summer of 268, the Emperor Gallienus halted their advance into Italy but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the Battle of Naissus in September, Gallienus' successor Claudius Gothicus turned north to deal with the Alemanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the Po River.
After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alemanni to battle at the Battle of Lake Benacus in November. The Alemanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards.
Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum (Strasbourg), in 357, where they were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomarius was taken prisoner to Rome.<ref name="EB1911"/>
On January 2, 366, the Alemanni yet again crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces, this time being defeated by Valentinian (see Battle of Solicinium). In the great mixed invasion of 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau.<ref name"EB1911"/> The crossing is described in Wallace Breem's historical novel Eagle in the Snow. The Chronicle of Fredegar gives the account. At Alba Augusta (Alba-la-Romaine) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishop retired to Viviers, but in Gregory's account at Mende in Lozère, also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated.{{Citation needed|dateJanuary 2011}} It is thought{{Citation needed|dateJanuary 2011}} this detail may be a generic literary ploy to epitomize the horrors of barbarian violence. List of battles between Romans and Alemanni
* 259, Battle of Mediolanum{{snd}}Emperor Gallienus defeats the Alemanni to rescue Rome
* 268, Battle of Lake Benacus{{snd}}Romans under Emperor Claudius II defeat the Alemanni.
* 271
** Battle of Placentia{{snd}}Emperor Aurelian is defeated by the Alemanni forces invading Italy
** Battle of Fano{{snd}}Aurelian defeats the Alemanni, who begin to retreat from Italy
** Battle of Pavia{{snd}}Aurelian destroys the retreating Alemanni army.
* 298
** Battle of Lingones{{snd}}Caesar Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alemanni
** Battle of Vindonissa{{snd}}Constantius defeats the Alemanni.
* 356, Battle of Reims{{snd}}Caesar Julian is defeated by the Alemanni
* 357, Battle of Strasbourg{{snd}}Julian expels the Alemanni from the Rhineland
* 368, Battle of Solicinium{{snd}}Romans under Emperor Valentinian I defeat an Alemanni incursion.
* 378, Battle of Argentovaria{{snd}}Western Emperor Gratianus is victorious over the Alemanni.
* 451, Battle of the Catalaunian Fields{{snd}}Roman General Aetius and his army of Romans and barbarian allies defeat Attila's army of Huns and other Germanic allies, including the Alemanni.
* 457, Battle of Campi Cannini{{snd}}Alemanni invade Italy and are defeated near Lake Maggiore by Majorian
* 554, Battle of the Volturnus{{snd}}Byzantine General Narses defeats a combined force of Franks and Alemanni in southern Italy.
Subjugation by the Franks
{{main|Alamannia}}
The kingdom of Alamannia between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until 496, when the Alemanni were conquered by Clovis I at the Battle of Tolbiac. The war of Clovis with the Alemanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by Gregory of Tours. ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gregory-clovisconv.html#n30 Book II.31]) After their defeat in 496, the Alemanni bucked the Frankish yoke and put themselves under the protection of Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths<ref>{{cite book|authorJonathan J. Arnold|titleA Companion to Ostrogothic Italy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id48wJDAAAQBAJ&dqalemanni+ostrogoths+536+franks&pgPA93|year2016|publisherBrill|isbn978-9004313767|page93}}</ref> but after his death they were again subjugated by the Franks under Theudebert I in 536.<ref>{{cite book|authorIan Wood|titleFranks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_z-vB8XUiV4C&dqalemanni+536+franks&pgPA33|year1998|publisherThe Boydell Press|isbn0851157238|page33}}</ref> Subsequently, the Alemanni formed part of the Frankish dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke.
In 746, Carloman ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the blood court at Cannstatt, and for the following century, Alemannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the treaty of Verdun of 843, Alemannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of Louis the German, the precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. The duchy persisted until 1268.
Culture
Language
The German spoken today over the range of the former Alemanni is termed Alemannic German, and is recognised among the subgroups of the High German languages. Alemannic runic inscriptions such as those on the Pforzen buckle are among the earliest testimonies of Old High German. The High German consonant shift is thought to have originated around the fifth century either in Alemannia or among the Lombards; before that, the dialect spoken by Alemannic tribes was little different from that of other West Germanic peoples.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://freya.theladyofthelabyrinth.com/?page_id604|titleAlamanni/Alemanni ( Suebi/Suevi, Semnones) {{!}} Freyia Völundarhúsins|languagenb-NO|access-date2019-04-29}}</ref>
Alemannia lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when Charles Martel absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the eighth century. Today, Alemannic is a linguistic term, referring to Alemannic German, encompassing the dialects of the southern two-thirds of Baden-Württemberg (German State), in western Bavaria (German State), in Vorarlberg (Austrian State), Swiss German in Switzerland and the Alsatian language of the Alsace (France).
Political organization
The Alemanni established a series of territorially defined pagi (cantons) on the east bank of the Rhine. The exact number and extent of these pagi is unclear and probably changed over time.
Pagi, usually pairs of pagi combined, formed kingdoms (regna) which, it is generally believed, were permanent and hereditary. Ammianus describes Alemanni rulers with various terms: reges excelsiores ante alios ("paramount kings"), reges proximi ("neighbouring kings"), reguli ("petty kings") and regales ("princes"). This may be a formal hierarchy, or they may be vague, overlapping terms, or a combination of both.<ref>Drinkwater (2007) 118, 120</ref> In 357, there appear to have been two paramount kings (Chnodomar and Westralp) who probably acted as presidents of the confederation and seven other kings (reges). Their territories were small and mostly strung along the Rhine (although a few were in the hinterland).<ref>Drinkwater (2007) 223 (map)</ref> It is possible that the reguli were the rulers of the two pagi in each kingdom. Underneath the royal class were the nobles (called optimates by the Romans) and warriors (called armati by the Romans). The warriors consisted of professional warbands and levies of free men.<ref>Speidel (2004)</ref> Each nobleman could raise an average of c. 50 warriors.<ref>Drinkwater (2007) 120</ref>
Religion
{{further|Germanic Christianity|Religion in Switzerland#History|Pre-Christian Alpine traditions|Continental Germanic mythology}}
(sixth or seventh century) shows typical iconography of the pagan period. The bracteate depicts the "horse-stabber underhoof" scene, a supine warrior stabbing a horse while it runs over him. The scene is adapted from Roman era gravestones of the region.<ref>Michael Speidel, ''Ancient Germanic warriors: warrior styles from Trajan's column to Icelandic sagas, Routledge, 2004, {{ISBN|978-0415311991}}, p. 162.
Harald Kleinschmidt, People on the move: attitudes toward and perceptions of migration in medieval and modern Europe, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003,
{{ISBN|978-0275974176}}, [https://books.google.com/books?idyOuIvdMqzzAC&pgPA66 p. 66.]
</ref>]]
, found near Sigmaringen, Baden-Württemberg, is a late testimony of pagan ritual in Alemannia, showing a warrior in ritual wolf costume, holding a ring-spatha.]]
The Christianization of the Alemanni took place during Merovingian times (sixth to eighth centuries). We know that in the sixth century, the Alemanni were predominantly pagan, and in the eighth century, they were predominantly Christian. The intervening seventh century was a period of genuine syncretism during which Christian symbolism and doctrine gradually grew in influence.
Some scholars have speculated that members of the Alemannic elite such as king Gibuld due to Visigothic influence may have been converted to Arianism even in the later fifth century.<ref>Schubert, Hans (1909). Das älteste germanische Christentum oder der Sogenannte "Arianismus" der Germanen. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr. p. 32. Cf. also Bossert, G. "Alemanni" in: Jackson, S.M. (Ed.). New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. 1, p. 114: "[the Alamannic] prince, Gibuld, was an Arian, probably converted by Goths".</ref>
In the mid-6th century, the Byzantine historian Agathias records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alemanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king Theudebald were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since
{{blockquote|textthey worship certain trees, the waters of rivers, hills and mountain valleys, in whose honour they sacrifice horses, cattle and countless other animals by beheading them, and imagine that they are performing an act of piety thereby.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPqsJZcQR7oIC |titletrans. Joseph D. Frendo (1975) |access-date2012-01-02|isbn978-3110033571 |year1975 |last1Murinaeus |first1Agathias |last2Scholasticus |first2Agathias |author3Agathias |publisher=Walter de Gruyter }}</ref>}}
He also spoke of the particular ruthlessness of the Alemanni in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alemanni would assume better manners through prolonged contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances, in a manner of speaking, what eventually happened.<ref>R. Keydell, Agathiae Myrinaei historiarum libri quinque Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. Series Berolinensis 2. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1967, p. 18f.
{{lang|grc|7. Νόμιμα δὲ αὐτοῖς [τῶν Ἀλαμανῶν ἔθνος] εἰσι μέν που καὶ πάτρια, τὸ δέ γε ἐν κοινῷ ἐπικρατοῦν τε καὶ ἄρχον τῇ Φραγγικῇ ἕπονται πολιτείᾳ, μόνα δέ γε τὰ ἐς (5) θεὸν αὐτοῖς οὐ ταὐτὰ ξυνδοκεῖ. δένδρα τε γάρ τινα ἱλάσκονται καὶ ῥεῖθρα ποταμῶν καὶ λόφους καὶ φάραγγας, καὶ τούτοις, ὥσπερ ὅσια δρῶντες, ἵππους τε καὶ βόας καὶ ἄλλα ἄττα μυρία καρατομοῦντες ἐπιθειάζουσιν. 2 ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἡ τῶν Φράγγων αὐτοὺς ἐπιμιξία, εnὖ ποιοῦσα, καὶ ἐς τόδε μετακοσμεῖ καὶ ἤδη ἐφέλκεται τοὺς εὐφρονεστέρους, οὐ πολλοῦ δὲ οἶμαι (10) χρόνου καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικήσει. 3 τὸ γὰρ τῆς δόξης παράλογόν τε καὶ ἔμπληκτον καὶ αὐτοῖς οἶμαι τοῖς χρωμένοις, εἰ μὴ πάμπαν εἶεν ἠλίθιοι, γνώριμόν τέ ἐστι καὶ εὐφώρατον καὶ οἶον ἀποσβῆναι ῥᾳδίως. ἐλεεῖσθαι μὲν οὖν μᾶλλον ἢ χαλεπαίνεσθαι δίκαιοι ἂν εἶεν καὶ πλείστης μεταλαγχάνειν συγγνώμης ἅπαντες, ὅσοι δὴ τοῦ ἀληθοῦς ἁμαρτάνουσιν. οὐ γὰρ (15) δήπου ἑκόντες εἶναι ἀλῶνται καὶ ὀλισθαίνουσιν, ἀλλὰ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ἐφιέμενοι, ἔπειτα σφαλέντες τῇ κρίσει τὸ λοιπὸν ἔχονται τῶν δοκηθέντων ἀπρίξ, ὁποῖα ἄττα καὶ τύχοιεν ὄντα. 4 τήν γε μὴν τῶν θυσιῶν ὠμότητα καὶ κακοδαιμονίαν οὐκ οἶδα εἰ οἷόν τε λόγῳ ἀκέσασθαι, εἴτε ἄλσεσιν ἐπιτελοῖντο ὥσπερ ἀμέλει παρὰ βαρβάροις, εἴτε τοῖς πάλαι νενομισμέ-(20)νοις θεοῖς, ὁποῖα αἱ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἐθέλουσιν ἁγιστεῖαι.}}</ref>
Apostles of the Alemanni were Columbanus and his disciple Saint Gall. Jonas of Bobbio records that Columbanus was active in Bregenz, where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to Wodan. Despite these activities, for some time, the Alemanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or syncretistic Christian elements. In particular, there was no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic animal style with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism became more and more prevalent during the seventh century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxons and of the Slavs, the Alemanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread in emulation of the Merovingian elite.
From c. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alemannic Elder Futhark inscriptions. About 70 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on fibulae, others on belt buckles (see Pforzen buckle, Bülach fibula) and other jewellery and weapon parts. The use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity.
The Nordendorf fibula (early seventh century) clearly records pagan theonyms, logaþorewodanwigiþonar read as "Wodan and Donar are magicians/sorcerers", but this may be interpreted as either a pagan invocation of the powers of these deities, or a Christian protective charm against them.<ref name"Düwel">{{Cite book |lastDüwel |firstKlaus |editor-lastKamp |editor-firstNorbert |editor2-lastWollasch |editor2-firstJoachim |contributionRunen und Interpretatio Christiana: Zur Religioneschichtlichen Stellung der Bügelfidel von Nordendorf I |titleTradition als Historische Kraft |publisherWalter de Gruyter |year1982 |pages78–86 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtQ_Mmjx5hSIC |isbn=3110082373}}</ref>
A runic inscription on a fibula found at Bad Ems reflects Christian pious sentiment (and is also explicitly marked with a Christian cross), reading god fura dih deofile ᛭'' ("God for/before you, Theophilus!", or alternatively "God before you, Devil!"). Dated to between AD 660 and 690, it marks the end of the native Alemannic tradition of runic literacy. Bad Ems is in Rhineland-Palatinate, on the northwestern boundary of Alemannic settlement, where Frankish influence would have been strongest.<ref>Wolfgang Jungandreas, 'God fura dih, deofile †' in: Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur, 101, 1972, pp. 84–85.</ref>
The establishment of the bishopric of Konstanz cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by 635, when Gunzo appointed John of Grab bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history unlike the Raetian bishopric of Chur (established 451) and Basel (an episcopal seat from 740, and which continued the line of Bishops of Augusta Raurica, see Bishop of Basel). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. In the early seventh century Pactus Alamannorum hardly ever mentions the special privileges of the church, while Lantfrid's Lex Alamannorum of 720 has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters alone.
Genetics
{{See also|Goths#Genetics|Baiuvarii#Genetics|Lombards#Genetics|Visigoths#Genetics}}
A genetic study published in Science Advances in September 2018 examined the remains of eight individuals buried at a seventh-century Alemannic graveyard in Niederstotzingen, Germany. This is the richest and most complete Alemannic graveyard ever found. The highest-ranking individual at the graveyard was a male with Frankish grave goods. Four males were found to be closely related to him. They were all carriers of types of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b. A sixth male was a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b1a1 and the maternal haplogroup U5a1a1. Along with the five closely related individuals, he displayed close genetic links to northern and eastern Europe, particularly Lithuania and Iceland. Two individuals buried at the cemetery were found to be genetically different from both the others and each other, displaying genetic links to Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and Spain. Along with the sixth male, they might have been adoptees or slaves.{{sfn|O'Sullivan et al.|2018|ps: "Genome-wide analyses were performed on eight individuals to estimate genetic affiliation to modern west Eurasians and genetic kinship at the burial. Five individuals were direct relatives. Three other individuals were not detectably related; two of these showed genomic affinity to southern Europeans... These five related individuals had culturally diverse grave goods despite the evidence that all of them showed local isotope signals with northern European genetic affiliations... Niederstotzingen North individuals are closely related to northern and eastern European populations, particularly from Lithuania and Iceland."}}See also
* Annales Alamannici
* List of rulers of Alamannia
* List of confederations of Germanic tribes
* Armalausi
* Varisci
* Helvetii
* Charietto
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
{{Refbegin|2}}
* Ammianus Marcellinus, passim
* O. Bremer in H. Paul, Grundriss der germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol. iii. pp.&nbsp;930 ff.
* Dio Cassius lxvii. ff.
* {{Cite book|lastDrinkwater|firstJohn F.|titleThe Alamanni and Rome 213–496. Caracalla to Clovis|publisherOxford University Press|year2007|isbn978-0-19-929568-5|location=Oxford}}
* Ian Wood (ed.), Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology), Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2003, {{ISBN|1-84383-035-3}}.
* Melchior Goldast, Rerum Alamannicarum scriptores (1606, 2nd ed. Senckenburg 1730)
* Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book ii.
* {{cite journal |last1O'Sullivan |first1Niall |last2Posth |first2Cosimo |display-authors1 |dateSeptember 5, 2018 |titleAncient genome-wide analyses infer kinship structure in an Early Medieval Alemannic graveyard |url |journalScience Advances |publisherAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science |volume4 |issue9 |pageseaao1262|bibcode 2018SciA....4.1262O|doi10.1126/sciadv.aao1262 |pmc6124919 |pmid30191172 |ref{{harvid|O'Sullivan et al.|2018}}}}
* C. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme (Munich, 1837), pp.&nbsp;303 ff.
{{Refend}}
External links
{{commonscat}}
* [http://members.tripod.com/~Linus_Gemvik/decumates.html The Agri Decumates]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060614052450/http://www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/ujg/ujgd.html The Alemanni] (archived)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824100404/http://www.anistor.co.hol.gr/english/enback/e022.htm The Military Orientation of the Roman Emperors Septimius Severus to Gallienus (146–268 C.E.)] (archived)
* [https://www.alemannische-seiten.de/bilder/schwaebisch-alemannische-fasnet/ Brauchtum und Masken Alemannic Fastnacht]
{{Germanic peoples}}
{{Alsace topics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Early Germanic peoples
Category:Germanic tribal confederacies
Category:History of Swabia
Category:History of Alsace
Category:Medieval history of Switzerland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alemanni | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.675915 |
1488 | NYSE American | {{Short description|Stock exchange in New York City}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox exchange
|name = NYSE American
|alt_name |logo NYSE American logo.png
|logo_size = 250px
|image = AMEX.JPG
|caption2 = The American Stock Exchange Building
|type = Stock exchange
|city = New York City, New York
|country = United States
|coor |foundation {{start date and age|1908}} (as New York Curb Market Agency)
|owner = Intercontinental Exchange
|key_people |currency United States dollar
|commodity |listings
|mcap |volume
|indexes |homepage [https://www.nyse.com/markets/nyse-american NYSE American]
|footnotes =
}}
NYSE American, formerly known as the American Stock Exchange (AMEX), and more recently as NYSE MKT, is an American stock exchange situated in New York City. AMEX was previously a mutual organization, owned by its members. Until 1953, it was known as the New York Curb Exchange.<ref>{{cite book|lastKlein|firstMaury|titleRainbow's End: The Crash of 1929|publisherOxford University Press|isbn0-19-513516-4|year2001|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/rainbowsendcrash00klei_0}}</ref>
NYSE Euronext acquired AMEX on October 1, 2008,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nyse.com/press/1222772889985.html |titleNYSE Euronext Completes Acquisition of American Stock Exchange |publisherNew York Stock Exchange |dateOctober 1, 2008 |access-dateSeptember 10, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081008051922/http://www.nyse.com/press/1222772889985.html |archive-dateOctober 8, 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref> with AMEX integrated with the Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed the NYSE Alternext U.S.<ref name"New York Stock Exchange">{{cite web| dateJuly 7, 2008| urlhttp://traderupdates.nyse.com/2008/07/notice_of_upcoming_nyse_system.html| titleNotice of Upcoming NYSE System Changes To Support the NYSE/Amex Integration (NYSE Alternext U.S.)| publisherNew York Stock Exchange|url-status dead| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080915182324/http://traderupdates.nyse.com/2008/07/notice_of_upcoming_nyse_system.html| archive-dateSeptember 15, 2008| dfmdy-all}}</ref> In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was changed to NYSE Amex Equities. On May 10, 2012, NYSE Amex Equities changed its name to NYSE MKT LLC.<ref name"amex_info">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nyse.com/equities/nysealternextus/1218155408912.html |titleNYSE Amex Equities Information |publisherNew York Stock Exchange |access-dateSeptember 10, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110319235001/http://www.nyse.com/equities/nysealternextus/1218155408912.html |archive-dateMarch 19, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Following the SEC approval of competing stock exchange IEX in 2016, NYSE MKT rebranded as NYSE American and introduced a 350-microsecond delay in trading, referred to as a "speed bump", which is also present on the IEX.<ref name"american">{{cite news | last Matt | first Turner | title The New York Stock Exchange is slowing down trading for a key market | newspaper Business Insider | publisher Axel Springer SE | date January 25, 2017 | url http://www.businessinsider.com/nyse-is-slowing-down-trading-for-a-key-market-2017-1 | access-date September 2, 2017}}</ref><ref name"upstart">{{cite news | last Massa | firstAnnie | title NYSE American Opens to Take on Upstart Exchange IEX | newspaperBloomberg News | publisher Bloomberg L.P. | dateJuly 24, 2017 | url =https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-24/nyse-american-opens-as-retort-to-exchange-rabble-rouser-iex
| access-date September 2, 2017}}</ref><ref name"crush">{{cite news | last Frank | firstChaparro | title The New York Stock Exchange is out to crush America's newest stock exchange| newspaper Business Insider | publisher Axel Springer SE | dateJuly 25, 2017 | url http://www.businessinsider.com/nyse-american-versus-iex-2017-7 | access-date September 2, 2017}}</ref>
History
The Curb market
{{see also|Curbstone broker}}
The exchange grew out of the loosely organized curb market of curbstone brokers on Broad Street in Manhattan. Efforts to organize and standardize the market started early in the 20th century under Emanuel S. Mendels and Carl H. Pforzheimer.<ref>{{cite book|authorRobert Sobel |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF92F1rvEt4UC&qcarl+pforzheimer+curb+exchange&pgPA178 |titleThe Curbstone Brokers: The Origins of the American Stock Exchange |access-dateJanuary 6, 2018|isbn 9781893122659|year 2000}}</ref> The curb brokers had been kicked out of the Mills Building front by 1907, and had moved to the pavement outside the Blair Building where cabbies lined up. There they were given a "little domain of asphalt" fenced off by the police on Broad Street between Exchange Place and Beaver Street.<ref namenyt-complaints/> As of 1907, the curb market operated starting at 10 AM, each day except Sundays, until a gong at 3 PM. Orders for the purchase and sale of securities were shouted down from the windows of nearby brokerages, with the execution of the sale then shouted back up to the brokerage.<ref name"nyt-complaints">{{cite news |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |titleAsks Bingham to Oust Curb Brokers; Lawyer Allen Says Open-Air Exchange Is a Public Nuisance and Therefore Illegal. He Cites Many Decisions And Will Press His Contention -- Brokers Forced to Move Many Times Owing to Complaints. |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1907/08/17/archives/asks-bingham-to-oust-curb-brokers-lawyer-allen-says-openair.html | workThe New York Times |dateAugust 17, 1907 }}</ref>
Organizing and 'Curb list'
As of 1907, E. S. Mendels gave the brokers rules "by right of seniority", but the curb brokers intentionally avoided organizing. According to the Times, this came from a general belief that if a curb exchange was organized, the exchange authorities would force members to sell their other exchange memberships.<ref namenyt-complaints/> However, in 1908 the New York Curb Market Agency was established, which developed appropriate trading rules for curbstone brokers, organized by Mendels.<ref nameabc/> The informal Curb Association formed in 1910 to weed out undesirables.<ref namenyt-stock-cold/> The curb exchange was for years at odds with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), or "Big Board", operating several buildings away. Explained the New York Times in 1910, the Big Board looked at the curb as "a trading place for 'cats and dogs.'"<ref namenyt-curb-out/> On April 1, 1910, however, when the NYSE abolished its unlisted department, the NYSE stocks "made homeless by the abolition" were "refused domicile" by the curb brokers on Broad Street until they had complied with the "Curb list" of requirements.<ref name"nyt-curb-out">{{cite news |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |titleCurb Bars Stocks Big Board Dropped; Securities Shut Out by Abolition of Unlisted Department Are Homeless Now. |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1910/04/02/archives/curb-bars-stocks-big-board-dropped-securities-shut-out-by-abolition.html | workThe New York Times |dateApril 2, 1901 |page1}}</ref> In 1911, Mendels and his advisers drew up a constitution and formed the New York Curb Market Association, which can be considered the first formal constitution of American Stock Exchange.<ref name"abc">http://abcnewspapers.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id11281 New York Curb Market Association</ref>1920s-1940s: Move indoors
, constructed in 1921]]
In 1920, journalist Edwin C. Hill wrote that the curb exchange on lower Broad Street was a "roaring, swirling whirlpool" that "tears control of a gold-mine from an unlucky operator, and pauses to auction a puppy-dog. It is like nothing else under the astonished sky that is its only roof."<ref name"Munseys Magazine 1920 p. 46">{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBKPNAAAAMAAJ&pgPA46|titleMunsey's Magazine|publisherFrank A. Munsey Company|year1920|page46|access-dateFebruary 21, 2020|issuev. 69}}</ref> After a group of Curb brokers formed a real estate company to design a building, Starrett & Van Vleck designed the new exchange building on Greenwich Street in Lower Manhattan between Thames and Rector, at 86 Trinity Place. It opened in 1921,<ref namenyt-stock-cold/> and the curbstone brokers moved indoors on June 27, 1921.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhth_hjJdUBAC&qnew+york+state+stock+exchange+%22June+27%2C+1921%22&pgPA29|titleFinancial Trading and Investing|lastTeall|firstJohn L.|date2012|publisherAcademic Press|isbn9780123918802|page29|languageen}}</ref> In 1929, the New York Curb Market changed its name to the New York Curb Exchange.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/2515.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/2515.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleNew York Curb Exchange (Incorporating the New York Curb Market Building), Later known as the American Stock Exchange|dateJune 26, 1912|websiteLandmarks Preservation Commission}}</ref> The Curb Exchange soon became the leading international stock market, and according to historian Robert Sobel, "had more individual foreign issues on its list than [...] all other American securities markets combined."<ref>{{cite book|lastSobel|firstRobert|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSzJ39Bi9G6oC|titleAmex: A History of the American Stock Exchange, 1921-1971|publisherWeybright and Talley|year1972|isbn9781893122482|page=48}}</ref>
Edward Reid McCormick was the first president of the New York Curb Market Association and is credited with moving the market indoors.<ref>{{cite news |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |titleEdward Reid McCormick, 76, First President of Curb Market|urlhttps://bklyn.newspapers.com/image/53988037/?termsSt.%2BFrancis%2BCollege | workBrooklyn Daily Eagle|dateNovember 9, 1954 |page9|access-date September 17, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |authorMary O'Sullivan |titleThe Expansion of the U.S. Stock Market, 1885—1930: Historical Facts and Theoretical Fashions|publisherOxford University Press|dateSeptember 28, 207 |page509|jstor23700715}}</ref> George Rea was approached about the position of president of the New York Curb Exchange in 1939.<ref name"curb exchange">{{cite news|dateApril 21, 1939 |titleG. P. Rea New Head of Curb Exchange|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1939/04/21/archives/gp-rea-new-head-of-curb-exchange-honolulu-banker-formerly-of.html |workThe New York Times |access-dateApril 8, 2008}}</ref> He was unanimously elected<ref name"curb exchange" /> as the first paid president in the history of the Curb Exchange. He was paid $25,000 per year (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|25000|1939|r-3}}}} today{{Inflation-fn|US}}) and held the position for three years before offering his resignation in 1942.<ref>{{cite news|dateApril 8, 1942 |titleRea Quits as Curb Exchange Head Effective June 30, After 3 Years |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1942/04/08/archives/rea-quits-as-curb-exchange-head-effective-june-30-after-3-years.html?sqGeorge+Rea&scp10&stp |workThe New York Times |access-dateApril 8, 2008}}</ref> He left the position having "done such a good job that there is virtually no need for a full-time successor."<ref>{{cite magazine|dateJuly 13, 1942 |titleFirst Is Last |urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,884565,00.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101014145837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,884565,00.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateOctober 14, 2010 |magazineTime |access-dateApril 8, 2008}}</ref>
Modernization as the American Stock Exchange
In 1953, the Curb Exchange was renamed the American Stock Exchange.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/rr/business/amex/amex.html|titleHistory of the NASDAQ and American Stock Exchanges|websiteBusiness Reference Services, Library of Congress|languageen|access-dateFebruary 10, 2018}}</ref> The exchange was shaken by a scandal in 1961, and in 1962 began a reorganization.<ref namenyt-verylarge/> Its reputation recently damaged by charges of mismanagement, in 1962, the American Stock Exchange named Edwin Etherington its president. Writes CNN, he and executive vice president Paul Kolton were "tapped in 1962 to clean up and reinvigorate the scandal-plagued American Stock Exchange."<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2001/01/12/markets/q_kandel/ |titleAn exceptional character |publisherMoney.cnn.com |dateJanuary 12, 2001 |access-date=January 6, 2018}}</ref>
As of 1971, it was the second largest stock exchange in the United States. Paul Kolton succeeded Ralph S. Saul as AMEX president on June 17, 1971,<ref name="nyt-verylarge">
{{cite news |authorTerry Robards |titleHalf Century Off the Curb |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/06/archives/half-century-off-the-curb-amex-seeks-the-shape-of-future.html?_r0 | workThe New York Times |dateJune 6, 1971 }}</ref> making him the first person to be selected from within the exchange to serve as its leader, succeeding Ralph S. Saul, who announced his resignation in March 1971.<ref>Rustin, Richard E. (May 14, 1971). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112005455/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/djreprints/access/109875724.html?dids109875724:109875724&FMTABS&FMTSABS:AI&typehistoric&dateMay+14%2C+1971&author&pubWall+Street+Journal&descAmerican+Board+Panel+Seen+Recommending+Kolton%2C+No.+2+Man%2C+as+Successor+to+Saul&pqatlgoogle "American Board Panel Seen Recommending Kolton, No. 2 Man, as Successor to Saul"]. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 30, 2010.</ref><ref name"NYT2010">{{registration required|dateJuly 2012}} Kaplan, Thomas (October 29, 2010). [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/30/business/30kolton.html "Paul Kolton, Who Led the American Stock Exchange, Dies at 87"]. The New York Times. Retrieved October 29, 2010.</ref> In November 1972, Kolton was named as the exchange's first chief executive officer and its first salaried top executive.<ref>Staff (November 3, 1972). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112034306/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/djreprints/access/104598030.html?dids104598030:104598030&FMTABS&FMTSABS:AI&typehistoric&dateNov+03%2C+1972&author&pubWall+Street+Journal&descAmex+Formally+Elects+Paul+Kolton+as+Chairman%2C+Chief+Executive+Officer&pqatlgoogle "Amex Formally Elects Paul Kolton as Chairman, Chief Executive Officer"]. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 30, 2010.</ref> As chairman, Kolton oversaw the introduction of options trading. Kolton opposed the idea of a merger with the New York Stock Exchange while he headed the exchange saying that "two independent, viable exchanges are much more likely to be responsive to new pressures and public needs than a single institution".<ref nameNYT2010/> Kolton announced in July 1977 that he would be leaving his position at the American Exchange in November of that year.<ref>Staff (July 17, 1977). [https://news.google.com/newspapers?idfDAcAAAAIBAJ&sjidElgEAAAAIBAJ&dqpaul-kolton&pg=3730%2C245016 "Paul Kolton Leaving Amex"]. (via Dow Jones Service) (The Pittsburgh Press (via Google News)). Retrieved July 18, 2012.</ref>
In 1977, Thomas Peterffy purchased a seat on the American Stock Exchange. Peterffy created a major stir among traders by introducing handheld computers onto the trading floor in the early 1980s.<ref name"Forbes">{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/profile/thomas-peterffy/ |titleThomas Peterffy |magazineForbes |date2016 |access-dateJune 16, 2016}}</ref><ref name"Business">{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/photo-essays/2010-12-06/twenty-billionaires-who-started-with-nothing |titleTwenty Billionaires Who Started With Nothing - Living the American Dream |magazineBloomberg Businessweek |dateDecember 6, 2010}}</ref> Introducing ETFs ETFs or exchange-traded funds had their genesis in 1989 with Index Participation Shares, an S&P 500 proxy that traded on the American Stock Exchange and the Philadelphia Stock Exchange. This product was short-lived after a lawsuit by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange was successful in stopping sales in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book|lastGastineau|firstGary L.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCIYoyIrP6cIC&pgPA32|titleThe Exchange-Traded Funds Manual|date2002-02-14|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn978-0-471-21894-4|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|lastBerman|firstDavid|date2017-02-19|titleThe Canadian investment idea that busted a mutual-fund monopoly|languageen-CA|workThe Globe and Mail|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-150/how-a-canadian-etf-that-toppled-the-mutual-fund-monoply/article34086222/|access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>
In 1990, a similar product, Toronto Index Participation Shares, which tracked the TSE 35 and later the TSE 100 indices, started trading on the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSE) in 1990. The popularity of these products led the American Stock Exchange to try to develop something that would satisfy regulations by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.<ref>{{Cite web|lastMcFeat|firstTom|dateDecember 29, 2010|titleThe Rise of the ETF|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/taxes/the-rise-of-the-etf-1.792278}}</ref>
Nathan Most and Steven Bloom, under the direction of Ivers Riley, designed and developed Standard & Poor's Depositary Receipts (NYSE Arca: SPY), which were introduced in January 1993.<ref>{{Cite book|lastCarrel|firstLawrence|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPfWADwAAQBAJ|titleETFs for the Long Run: What They Are, How They Work, and Simple Strategies for Successful Long-Term Investing|date2008-09-09|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn978-0-470-13894-6|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|lastBayot|firstJennifer|date2004-12-10|titleNathan Most Is Dead at 90; Investment Fund Innovator|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/10/obituaries/nathan-most-is-dead-at-90-investment-fund-innovator.html|access-date2021-11-19|issn0362-4331}}</ref> Known as SPDRs or "Spiders", the fund became the largest ETF in the world. In May 1995, State Street Global Advisors introduced the S&P 400 MidCap SPDRs (NYSE Arca: MDY).
Barclays, in conjunction with MSCI and Funds Distributor Inc., entered the market in 1996 with [https://www.nasdaq.com/glossary/w/world-equity-benchmark-series World Equity Benchmark Shares (WEBS)], which became iShares MSCI Index Fund Shares. WEBS originally tracked 17 MSCI country indices managed by the funds' index provider, Morgan Stanley. WEBS were particularly innovative because they gave casual investors easy access to foreign markets. While SPDRs were organized as unit investment trusts, WEBS were set up as a mutual fund, the first of their kind.<ref>{{Cite book|lastWiandt|firstJim|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50766758|titleExchange traded funds|date2001|publisherWiley|othersWill McClatchy|isbn0-471-22513-4|locationNew York|oclc50766758}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastFabozzi|firstFrank J.|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1037812038|titleThe Handbook of Financial Instruments|date2018|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Incorporated|isbn978-1-119-52296-6|locationSomerset|oclc=1037812038}}</ref>
In 1998, State Street Global Advisors introduced "Sector Spiders", separate ETFs for each of the sectors of the S&P 500 Index.<ref>{{Cite web|title5 Biggest ETF Companies|urlhttps://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/080415/5-biggest-etf-companies.asp|access-date2021-11-19|websiteInvestopedia|language=en}}</ref> Also in 1998, the "Dow Diamonds" (NYSE Arca: DIA) were introduced, tracking the Dow Jones Industrial Average. In 1999, the influential "cubes" (Nasdaq: QQQ), were launched, with the goal of replicate the price movement of the NASDAQ-100.
The iShares line was launched in early 2000. By 2005, it had a 44% market share of ETF assets under management.<ref>{{Cite web|titleETFs Show Increasing Popularity In First Half of 2005 {{!}} PLANSPONSOR|urlhttps://www.plansponsor.com/etfs-show-increasing-popularity-in-first-half-of-2005/|access-date2021-11-19|websitewww.plansponsor.com}}</ref> Barclays Global Investors was sold to BlackRock in 2009.
NYSE merger
As of 2003, AMEX was the only U.S. stock market to permit the transmission of buy and sell orders through hand signals.<ref>Larry Harris, Trading and Exchanges, Oxford University Press US: 2003, page 104, {{ISBN|0-19-514470-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-514470-3}}</ref>
In October 2008 NYSE Euronext completed acquisition of the AMEX for $260 million in stock.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nyse.com/press/1222772889985.html |titleNYSE Euronext Completes Acquisition of American Stock Exchange |publisherNew York Stock Exchange |dateOctober 1, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081008051922/http://www.nyse.com/press/1222772889985.html |archive-dateOctober 8, 2008 |url-status dead }}</ref> Before the closing of the acquisition, NYSE Euronext announced that the AMEX would be integrated with the Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed the NYSE Alternext U.S.<ref name"New York Stock Exchange"/> The American Stock Exchange merged with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE Euronext) on October 1, 2008.<ref name"amex_info"/> Post merger, the Amex equities business was branded "NYSE Alternext US". As part of the re-branding exercise, NYSE Alternext US was re-branded as NYSE Amex Equities.<ref name"amex_info"/> On December 1, 2008, the Curb Exchange building at 86 Trinity Place was closed, and the Amex Equities trading floor was moved to the NYSE Trading floor at 11 Wall Street.<ref name"amex_info"/> 90 years after its 1921 opening, the old New York Curb Market building was empty but remained standing.<ref name"nyt-stock-cold">{{cite news|authorGray|firstChristopher|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/03/realestate/03scapes.html|titleWhen Stocks Came in From the Cold|dateSeptember 30, 2010|workThe New York Times}}</ref> In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was changed to NYSE Amex Equities. On May 10, 2012, NYSE Amex Equities changed its name to NYSE MKT LLC.<ref name="amex_info"/>
In June 2016, a competing stock exchange IEX (which operated with a 350-microsecond delay in trading), gained approval from the SEC, despite lobbying protests by the NYSE and other exchanges and trading firms.<ref>{{cite news | last Popper | firstNathaniel | title IEX Group, Critical of Wall St., Gains Approval for Stock Exchange | newspaperThe New York Times | date June 17, 2016 | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/18/business/dealbook/iex-group-gains-approval-for-stock-exchange.html | access-date = September 2, 2017}}</ref>
On July 24, 2017, the NYSE renamed NYSE MKT to NYSE American, and announced plans to introduce its own 350-microsecond "speed bump" in trading on the small and mid-cap company exchange.<ref nameamerican /><ref nameupstart /><ref namecrush />Products
*Intellidex
*Stocks
*Options
*Exchange-traded funds (ETFs)
*Structured Products
*Warrants
Management
Past presidents of the American Stock Exchange include:<ref>{{Cite book|lastBruchey|firstStuart|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEbnq28DT-XsC&dq%22MacRae+sykes%22+%22american+stock+exchange%22&pgPA168|titleThe Modernization of the American Stock Exchange 1971-1989 (Routledge Revivals)|date2013-02-01|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-136-45907-8|language=en}}</ref>
* John L. McCormack (1911–1914)
* Edward R. McCormick (1914–1923)
* John W. Curtis (1923–1925)
* David U. Page (1925–1928)
* William S. Muller (1928–1932)
* Howard C. Sykes (1932–1934)
* E. Burd Grubb (1934–1935)
* Fred C. Moffatt (1935–1939; 1942–1945)
* George P. Rea (1939–1942)
* Edwin Posner (1945–1947; January–September, 1962)
* Edward C. Werle (February–March, 1947)
* Francis Adams Truslow (1947–1951)
* Edward T. McCormick (1951–1961)
* Joseph F. Reilly (1961–1962)
* Edwin D. Etherington (1962–1966)
* Ralph S. Saul (1966–1971)
* Paul Kolton (1971–1973)
* Richard M. Burdge (1973–1977)
* Robert J. Birnbaum (1977–1986)
* Kenneth R. Leibler (1986–1990)<ref>{{Cite news|lastEichenwald|firstKurt|date1990-06-20|titleCOMPANY NEWS; President of American Exchange Resigns|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/20/business/company-news-president-of-american-exchange-resigns.html|access-date2022-02-06|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
Past chairmen of the American Stock Exchange include:
* Clarence A. Bettman (1939–1941)
* Fred C. Moffatt (1941–1945)
* Edwin Posner (1945–1947; 1962–1965)
* Edward C. Werle (1947–1950)
* Mortimer Landsberg (1950–1951)
* John J. Mann (1951–1956)
* James R. Dyer (1956–1960)
* Joseph E. Reilly (1960–1962)
* David S. Jackson (1965–1968)
* Macrae Sykes (1968–1969)
* Frank C. Graham Jr. (1969–1973)
* Paul Kolton (1973–1978)
* Arthur Levitt Jr. (1978–1989)
* James R. Jones (1989–1993)
* Salvatore F. Sodano (1999–2005)
Gallery
<gallery>
File:Cotton Exchange Building plague 2017.jpg|The text reads: "On June 27, 1921, the curbstone brokers moved from their outdoor Market on Broad Street to establish on this site the indoor securities market that became the American Stock Exchange."
File:US Navy 040601-N-6371Q-096 Vice Adm. Gary Roughead, right, rings the opening bell at the American Stock Exchange, during the 17th Annual Fleet Week in New York.jpg|2004: Vice Adm. Gary Roughead, right, rings the opening bell at the American Stock Exchange, during the 17th Annual Fleet Week in New York
File:Old American Stock Exchange Building 2009.JPG|Old American Stock Exchange Building 2009
</gallery>
See also
{{portal|Business and economics|New York City}}
* NYSE Arca Major Market Index
*Microcap stock
* Economy of New York City
* List of stock exchanges in the Americas
* List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
* Consolidated Tape System
*Hal S. Scott
*Michael J. Meehan
{{clear}}
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Further reading
* {{cite book|author-linkRobert Sobel|lastSobel|firstRobert|titleThe Curbstone Brokers: The Origins of the American Stock Exchange|year1970|isbn1-893122-65-4|publisherBeardBooks|locationWashington, D.C.}}
* {{cite book|lastSobel|firstRobert|titleAMEX: A History of the American Stock Exchange|isbn1-893122-48-4| year1972|publisherBeardBooks|locationWashington, D.C.}}External links
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.nyse.com/markets/nyse-american NYSE American]
{{NYSE Euronext}}
{{stock market}}
{{authority control}}
Category:Financial services companies established in 1908
Category:Intercontinental Exchange
Category:Self-regulatory organizations in the United States
Category:Stock exchanges in the United States
Category:2008 mergers and acquisitions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYSE_American | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.690175 |
1490 | August 17 | {{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 310 &ndash; Pope Eusebius dies, possibly from a hunger strike, shortly after being banished by the Emperor Maxentius to Sicily.
* 682 &ndash; Pope Leo II begins his pontificate.<ref>{{cite web |titleSaint Leo II {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Leo-II |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date28 October 2020}}</ref>
* 986 &ndash; Byzantine–Bulgarian wars: Battle of the Gates of Trajan: The Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Samuel and Aron defeat the Byzantine forces at the Gate of Trajan, with Byzantine Emperor Basil&nbsp;II barely escaping.
*1186 &ndash; Georgenberg Pact: Ottokar IV, Duke of Styria and Leopold V, Duke of Austria sign a heritage agreement in which Ottokar gives his duchy to Leopold and to his son Frederick under the stipulation that Austria and Styria would henceforth remain undivided.
*1386 &ndash; Karl Topia, the ruler of Princedom of Albania forges an alliance with the Republic of Venice, committing to participate in all wars of the Republic and receiving coastal protection against the Ottomans in return.
*1424 &ndash; Hundred Years' War: Battle of Verneuil: An English force under John, Duke of Bedford defeats a larger French army under Jean II, Duke of Alençon, John Stewart, and Earl Archibald of Douglas.
*1488 &ndash; Konrad Bitz, the Bishop of Turku, marks the date of his preface to Missale Aboense, the oldest known book of Finland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.europeana.eu/fi/item/92002/BibliographicResource_1000093325379_source|titleMissale Aboense|publisherEuropeana|access-date8 January 2023}}</ref>
*1498 &ndash; Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, becomes the first person in history to resign the cardinalate; later that same day, King Louis XII of France names him Duke of Valentinois.
*1549 &ndash; Battle of Sampford Courtenay: The Prayer Book Rebellion is quashed in England.
*1560 &ndash; The Catholic Church is overthrown and Protestantism is established as the national religion in Scotland.
*1585 &ndash; Eighty Years' War: Siege of Antwerp: Antwerp is captured by Spanish forces under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, who orders Protestants to leave the city and as a result over half of the 100,000 inhabitants flee to the northern provinces.
* 1585 &ndash; A first group of colonists sent by Sir Walter Raleigh under the charge of Ralph Lane lands in the New World to create Roanoke Colony on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina.
*1597 &ndash; Islands Voyage: Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Sir Walter Raleigh set sail on an expedition to the Azores.
1601–1900
*1668 &ndash; The magnitude 8.0 North Anatolia earthquake causes 8,000 deaths in northern Anatolia, Ottoman Empire.<ref name"USGS">{{Cite web |urlhttp://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/historical.php/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090825081330/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/historical.php/ |archive-date25 August 2009|titleHistoric Worldwide Earthquakes |publisherUnited States Geological Survey|access-date27 September 2021}}</ref><ref name"Zabci_etal_2011">{{Cite journal |last1Zabci |first1C. |last2Akyüz |first2H. S. |last3Karabacak |first3V. |last4Sançar |first4T. |last5Altunel |first5E. |last6Gürsoy |first6H. |last7Tatar |first7O. |year2011 |titlePalaeoearthquakes on the Kelkit Valley Segment of the North Anatolian Fault, Turkey: Implications for the Surface Rupture of the Historical 17 August 1668 Anatolian Earthquake |urlhttp://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/earth/issues/yer-11-20-4/yer-20-4-4-0910-48.pdf |journalTurkish Journal of Earth Sciences |volume20 |pages411–427 |access-date27 September 2021 |archive-date26 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926193329/https://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/earth/issues/yer-11-20-4/yer-20-4-4-0910-48.pdf }}</ref>
*1717 &ndash; Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18: The month-long Siege of Belgrade ends with Prince Eugene of Savoy's Austrian troops capturing the city from the Ottoman Empire.
*1723 &ndash; Ioan Giurgiu Patachi becomes Bishop of Făgăraș and is festively installed in his position at the St. Nicolas Cathedral in Făgăraș, after being formally confirmed earlier by Pope Clement XI.
*1740 &ndash; Pope Benedict XIV, previously known as Prospero Lambertini, succeeds Clement XII as the 247th Pope.
*1784 &ndash; Classical composer Luigi Boccherini receives a pay rise of 12,000 reals from his employer, the Infante Luis, Count of Chinchón.
*1798 &ndash; The Vietnamese Catholics report a Marian apparition in Quảng Trị, an event which is called Our Lady of La Vang.
*1807 &ndash; Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat leaves New York City for Albany, New York, on the Hudson River, inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world.
*1808 &ndash; The Finnish War: The Battle of Alavus is fought.<ref>{{cite book|titleNär riket sprängdes: fälttågen i Finland och Västerbotten, 1808-1809 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDNPRAAAAMAAJ |firstEirik |lastHornborg |languagesv |year1955|publisherP. A. Norstedts och Söners Förlag |location=Stockholm}}</ref>
*1827 &ndash; Dutch King William I and Pope Leo XII sign concord.
*1836 &ndash; British parliament accepts registration of births, marriages and deaths.
*1862 &ndash; American Indian Wars: The Dakota War of 1862 begins in Minnesota as Dakota warriors attack white settlements along the Minnesota River.
* 1862 &ndash; American Civil War: Major General J. E. B. Stuart is assigned command of all the cavalry of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia.
*1863 &ndash; American Civil War: In Charleston, South Carolina, Union batteries and ships bombard Confederate-held Fort Sumter.
*1864 &ndash; American Civil War: Battle of Gainesville: Confederate forces defeat Union troops near Gainesville, Florida.
*1866 &ndash; The Grand Duchy of Baden announces its withdrawal from the German Confederation and signs a treaty of peace and alliance with Prussia.
*1876 &ndash; Richard Wagner's Götterdämmerung, the last opera in his Ringcycle, premieres at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus.<ref>{{Cite web |date7 May 2012 |titleGötterdämmerung: Performance History |urlhttp://opera.stanford.edu/Wagner/Gotterdammerung/history.html |access-date17 August 2022 |website=OperaGlass}}</ref>
*1883 &ndash; The first public performance of the Dominican Republic's national anthem, Himno Nacional.
*1896 &ndash; Bridget Driscoll became the first recorded case of a pedestrian killed in a collision with a motor car in the United Kingdom.
1901–present
*1914 &ndash; World War I: Battle of Stallupönen: The German army of General Hermann von François defeats the Russian force commanded by Paul von Rennenkampf near modern-day Nesterov, Russia.
*1915 &ndash; Jewish American Leo Frank is lynched in Marietta, Georgia, USA after his death sentence is commuted by Governor John Slaton.
* 1915 &ndash; A Category 4 hurricane hits Galveston, Texas with winds at {{convert|135|mph|km/h}}.
*1916 &ndash; World War I: Romania signs a secret treaty with the Entente Powers. According to the treaty, Romania agreed to join the war on the Allied side.
*1918 &ndash; Bolshevik revolutionary leader Moisei Uritsky is assassinated.
*1942 &ndash; World War II: U.S. Marines raid the Japanese-held Pacific island of Makin.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: The U.S. Eighth Air Force suffers the loss of 60 bombers on the Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission.
* 1943 &ndash; World War II: The U.S. Seventh Army under General George S. Patton arrives in Messina, Italy, followed several hours later by the British 8th Army under Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, thus completing the Allied conquest of Sicily.
* 1943 &ndash; World War II: First Québec Conference of Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and William Lyon Mackenzie King begins.
* 1943 &ndash; World War II: The Royal Air Force begins Operation Hydra, the first air raid of the Operation Crossbow strategic bombing campaign against Germany's V-weapon program.
*1945 &ndash; Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta proclaim the independence of Indonesia, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire.
* 1945 &ndash; The novella Animal Farm by George Orwell is first published.
* 1945 &ndash; Evacuation of Manchukuo: At Talitzou by the Sino-Korean border, Puyi, then the Kangde Emperor of Manchukuo, formally renounces the imperial throne, dissolves the state, and cedes its territory to the Republic of China.<ref>{{cite book | last Behr | first Edward | year 1977 | title The Last Emperor | publisher Bantam | isbn 0-553-34474-9 | pages 262–263 | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lastemperor00behr }}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; The Radcliffe Line, the border between the Dominions of India and Pakistan, is revealed.
*1949 &ndash; The 6.7 {{M|s}} Karlıova earthquake shakes eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), leaving 320–450 dead.<ref name"USGS"/><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.koeri.boun.edu.tr/sismo/2/deprem-bilgileri/buyuk-depremler/|titleBogazici University Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute National Earthquake Monitoring Center (NEMC) List of major earthquakes 1900–2004|publisherBoğaziçi University|languageTurkish|access-date27 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsQUzDAAAQBAJ|titleAsian Law in Disasters: Toward a Human-Centered Recovery |authorYuka Kaneko |author2Katsumi Matsuoka |author3Toshihisa Toyoda |publisherRoutledge|year2016|isbn978-1-317-39684-0|access-date27 September 2021}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Matsukawa derailment: Unknown saboteurs cause a passenger train to derail and overturn in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, killing three crew members and igniting a political firestorm between the Japanese Communist Party and the government of Occupied Japan that will eventually lead to the Japanese Red Purge.<ref>{{cite book | last Chalmers | first Johnson | year 1972 | pages 118–119 | title Conspiracy at Matsukawa | publisher University of California Press | isbn 0-520-02063-4 | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/conspiracyatmats0000john }}</ref>
*1953 &ndash; First meeting of Narcotics Anonymous takes place, in Southern California.
*1955 &ndash; Hurricane Diane made landfall near Wilmington, North Carolina, and it went on to cause major floods and kill more than 184 people.<ref>{{cite journal|authorGordon E. Dunn|author2Walter R. Davis|author3Paul L. Moore|titleHurricanes of 1955|pages319|publisherUnited States Weather Bureau|access-date2013-02-13|dateDecember 1955|urlhttp://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/083/mwr-083-12-0315.pdf|journalMonthly Weather Review|volume83|issue12|doi10.1175/1520-0493(1955)083<0315:HO>2.0.CO;2|bibcode 1955MWRv...83..315D|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071026210422/http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/083/mwr-083-12-0315.pdf|archive-date2007-10-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|authorEdward N. Rappaport|author2Jose Fernandez-Partagas|author3Jack Beven|date1997-04-22|titleThe Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492&ndash; 1996|publisherNational Hurricane Center|access-date2013-02-03|chapter-urlhttps://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml?|chapter=Appendix 1: Cyclones with 25+ deaths}}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; Pioneer 0, America's first attempt at lunar orbit, is launched using the first Thor-Able rocket and fails. Notable as one of the first attempted launches beyond Earth orbit by any country.
*1959 &ndash; Quake Lake is formed by the magnitude 7.2 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake near Hebgen Lake in Montana.
*1960 &ndash; Aeroflot Flight 036 crashes in Soviet Ukraine, killing 34.<ref name"asn">{{cite web |titleWednesday 17 August 1960 |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19600817-0 |access-date29 October 2019 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisher=Aviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Peter Fechter is shot and bleeds to death while trying to cross the new Berlin Wall.
*1969 &ndash; Category 5 Hurricane Camille hits the U.S. Gulf Coast, killing 256 and causing $1.42&nbsp;billion in damage.
*1970 &ndash; Soviet Union Venera program: Venera 7 launched. It will become the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another planet (Venus).
*1976 &ndash; A magnitude 7.9 earthquake hits off the coast of Mindanao, Philippines, triggering a destructive tsunami, killing between 5,000 and 8,000 people and leaving more than 90,000 homeless.<ref>{{cite book|titleCatalog of Tsunamis in the Pacific 1969–1982|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idumZ--INFYEEC&pgPA103|authorStaff of the Academy of Sciences of the USS|publisherDiane Pub|isbn978-0-7881393-1-4|pages103, 104|date1997}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ringsurf.com/online/2412-tsunamis_through_history.html|titleTsunami &#124; Tsunami History &#124; Tsunami Devastation &#124; Tsunami Tragedy|websitewww.ringsurf.com}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; The Soviet icebreaker Arktika becomes the first surface ship to reach the North Pole.
*1978 &ndash; Double Eagle II becomes first balloon to cross the Atlantic Ocean when it lands in Miserey, France near Paris, 137 hours after leaving Presque Isle, Maine.
*1985 &ndash; The 1985–86 Hormel strike begins in Austin, Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite web|titleHormel Strike, 1985–1986 {{!}} MNopedia|urlhttps://www.mnopedia.org/event/hormel-strike-1985-1986|access-date2021-05-18|websitewww.mnopedia.org}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; President of Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel are killed in a plane crash.
*1991 &ndash; Strathfield massacre: In Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, taxi driver Wade Frankum shoots seven people and injures six others before turning the gun on himself.
*1998 &ndash; Lewinsky scandal: US President Bill Clinton admits in taped testimony that he had an "improper physical relationship" with White House intern Monica Lewinsky; later that same day he admits before the nation that he "misled people" about the relationship.
*1999 &ndash; The 7.6 {{M|w}} İzmit earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), leaving 17,118–17,127 dead and 43,953–50,000 injured.
*2004 &ndash; The National Assembly of Serbia unanimously adopts new state symbols for Serbia: Bože pravde becomes the new anthem and the coat of arms is adopted for the whole country.
*2005 &ndash; The first forced evacuation of settlers, as part of Israeli disengagement from Gaza, starts.
* 2005 &ndash; Over 500 bombs are set off by terrorists at 300 locations in 63 out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh.
*2008 &ndash; American swimmer Michael Phelps becomes the first person to win eight gold medals at one Olympic Games.
*2009 &ndash; An accident at the Sayano-Shushenskaya Dam in Khakassia, Russia, kills 75 and shuts down the hydroelectric power station, leading to widespread power failure in the local area.
*2015 &ndash; A bomb explodes near the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand, killing at least 19 people and injuring 123 others.
*2017 &ndash; Barcelona attacks: A van is driven into pedestrians in La Rambla, killing 14 and injuring at least 100.
*2019 &ndash; A bomb explodes at a wedding in Kabul killing 63 people and leaving 182 injured.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://news.sky.com/story/dozens-feared-dead-or-injured-in-explosion-at-wedding-hall-in-kabul-afghanistan-11787995|titleBomb blast at wedding party in Kabul, Afghanistan kills 63 and injures 182 more|date18 August 2019|workSky News|access-date19 August 2019}}</ref>Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please.
Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this day in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Pre-1600
*1153 &ndash; William IX, Count of Poitiers (d. 1156)
*1465 &ndash; Philibert I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1482)
*1473 &ndash; Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York (d. 1483)
*1501 &ndash; Philipp II, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1529)
*1556 &ndash; Alexander Briant, English martyr and saint (d. 1581)
*1578 &ndash; Francesco Albani, Italian painter (d. 1660)
* 1578 &ndash; Johann, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, first prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (d. 1638)
*1582 &ndash; John Matthew Rispoli, Maltese philosopher (d. 1639)
*1586 &ndash; Johann Valentin Andrea, German theologian (d. 1654)
1601–1900
*1603 &ndash; Lennart Torstensson, Swedish Field Marshal, Privy Councillour and Governor-General (d. 1651)
*1629 &ndash; John III Sobieski, Polish–Lithuanian king (d. 1696)
*1686 &ndash; Nicola Porpora, Italian composer and educator (d. 1768)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Markstrom |first1Kurt |last2Robinson |first2Michael F. |titlePorpora, Nicola |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22126}}</ref>
*1753 &ndash; Josef Dobrovský, Bohemian philologist and historian (d. 1828)
*1768 &ndash; Louis Desaix, French general (d. 1800)
*1786 &ndash; Davy Crockett, American soldier and politician (d. 1836)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Lofaro |first1Michael A. |titleCrockett, Davy (1786-1836), frontiersman, Tennessee and U.S. congressman, and folk hero |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.2000231}}</ref>
* 1786 &ndash; Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (d. 1861)
*1801 &ndash; Fredrika Bremer, Swedish writer and feminist (d. 1865)<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitleBremer, Fredrika |volume4 |pages=494–495}}</ref>
*1828 &ndash; Jules Bernard Luys, French neurologist and physician (d. 1897)
*1840 &ndash; Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, English poet and activist (d. 1922)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Longford |first1Elizabeth |titleBlunt, Wilfrid Scawen (1840–1922), hedonist, poet, and breeder of Arab horses |date23 September 2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/31938}}</ref>
*1845 &ndash; Henry Cadwalader Chapman, American physician and naturalist (d. 1909)
*1849 &ndash; William Kidston, Scottish-Australian politician, 17th Premier of Queensland (d. 1919)
*1863 &ndash; Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and photographer (d. 1924)
*1865 &ndash; Julia Marlowe, English-American actress (d. 1950)
*1866 &ndash; Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI, Indian 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (d. 1911)
*1873 &ndash; John A. Sampson, American gynecologist and academic (d. 1946)
*1877 &ndash; Ralph McKittrick, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1923)
*1878 &ndash; Reggie Duff, Australian cricketer (d. 1911)
*1880 &ndash; Percy Sherwell, South African cricketer and tennis player (d. 1948)
*1887 &ndash; Charles I of Austria (d. 1922)
* 1887 &ndash; Marcus Garvey, Jamaican journalist and activist, founded Black Star Line (d. 1940)
*1888 &ndash; Monty Woolley, American actor, raconteur, and pundit (d. 1963)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Fisher |first1James |titleWoolley, Monty (1888-1963), stage and screen actor and director |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1801268}}</ref>
*1889 &ndash; Lalla Carlsen, Norwegian singer and actress (d. 1967)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleLalla Carlsen |first1Lillian |last1Bikset |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date22 August 2023 |editor1-lastBolstad | editor1-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Lalla_Carlsen |languageno|access-date14 March 2024}}</ref>
*1890 &ndash; Stefan Bastyr, Polish soldier and pilot (d. 1920)
* 1890 &ndash; Harry Hopkins, American politician and diplomat, 8th United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 1946)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1McJimsey |first1George |titleHopkins, Harry Lloyd (1890-1946), New Deal administrator and presidential adviser |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0600288}}</ref>
*1893 &ndash; John Brahm, German-American director and production manager (d. 1982)
* 1893 &ndash; Mae West, American stage and film actress (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite web |titleMae West {{!}} Biography, Plays, Movies, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Mae-West |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date19 April 2022}}</ref>
*1894 &ndash; William Rootes, 1st Baron Rootes, English businessman, founded Rootes Group (d. 1964)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Butterworth |first1J. B. |last2Bloomfield |first2G. T. |titleRootes, William Edward, first Baron Rootes (1894–1964), motor vehicle manufacturer |date2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/35825}}</ref>
*1896 &ndash; Leslie Groves, American general and engineer (d. 1970)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Fredriksen |first1John C. |titleGroves, Leslie Richard, Jr. (1896-1970), army officer and engineer |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0700115}}</ref>
* 1896 &ndash; Tõnis Kint, Estonian lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (d. 1991)
* 1896 &ndash; Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian and author (d. 1970)
*1899 &ndash; Janet Lewis, American poet and novelist (d. 1998)<ref nameNYTobit>{{cite news |author1Robert McG. Thomas Jr. |author-link1Robert McG. Thomas Jr. |titleJanet Lewis, 99, Poet of Spirit and Keeper of the Hearth, Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/05/arts/janet-lewis-99-poet-of-spirit-and-keeper-of-the-hearth-dies.html |url-accesssubscription |access-date15 April 2022 |workThe New York Times |date5 December 1998 |pageC 16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleObituary: Janet Lewis |author Davis, Dick|newspaperThe Independent|date December 15, 1998|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-janet-lewis-1191516.html|accessdateJuly 11, 2010}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Vivienne de Watteville, British travel writer and adventurer (d. 1957)
* 1900 &ndash; Pauline A. Young, American teacher, historian, aviator and activist (d. 1991)
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Mary Cain, American journalist and politician (d. 1984)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1McRae |first1Elizabeth Gillespie |titleCain, Mary Dawson (17 Aug. 1904–6 May 1984), newspaper publisher and conservative political activist |date26 May 2022 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.013.370007}}</ref>
* 1904 &ndash; Leopold Nowak, Austrian composer and musicologist (d. 1991)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Klein |first1Rudolf |last2Korstvedt |first2Benjamin |titleNowak, Leopold |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20155}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Larry Clinton, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Schneider |first1Wayne |titleClinton, Larry |date2003 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.J091300}}</ref>
* 1909 &ndash; Wilf Copping, English footballer (d. 1980)
*1911 &ndash; Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player and engineer (d. 1995)
* 1911 &ndash; Martin Sandberger, German colonel and lawyer (d. 2010)<ref>{{cite news |titleThe Quiet Death of a Nazi |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/International/interview-death-nazi-officer-martin-sandberger/story?id10380750 |access-date16 August 2024 |workABC News |date15 April 2010}}</ref>
*1913 &ndash; Mark Felt, American lawyer and agent, 2nd Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (d. 2008)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Evensen |first1Bruce J. |titleFelt, Mark (17 August 1913–18 December 2008) |dateApril 2015 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0700855}}</ref>
* 1913 &ndash; Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (d. 1989)
* 1913 &ndash; Rudy York, American baseball player and manager (d. 1970)
*1914 &ndash; Bill Downs, American journalist (d. 1978)
* 1914 &ndash; Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1988)<ref namefdr>{{cite ANB |last1Lemons |first1Shelly L. |titleRoosevelt, Franklin Delano, Jr. (1914-1988), politician and businessman |dateFebruary 2000 |doi10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0700515}}</ref>
*1916 &ndash; Moses Majekodunmi, Nigerian physician and politician (d. 2012)
*1918 &ndash; Evelyn Ankers, British-American actress (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite news |titleEvelyn Ankers Is Dead; 'Queen' of the B-Films |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/31/arts/evelyn-ankers-is-dead-queen-of-the-b-films.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=31 August 1985}}</ref>
* 1918 &ndash; Ike Quebec, American saxophonist and pianist (d. 1963)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Lambert |first1Eddie |last2Kernfeld |first2Barry |titleQuebec, Ike |date2003 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.J366500}}</ref>
* 1918 &ndash; Michael John Wise, English geographer and academic (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Johnston |first1Ron |titleWise, Michael John (1918–2015), geographer |date10 January 2019 |doi=10.1093/odnb/9780198614128.013.109817}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Georgia Gibbs, American singer (d. 2006)<ref>{{cite news |last1Fox |first1Margalit |titleGeorgia Gibbs, 87, Singer of the '50s Hit 'Kiss of Fire,' Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/obituaries/12gibbs.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=12 December 2006}}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; Maureen O'Hara, Irish-American actress and singer (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Evensen |first1Bruce J. |titleO'Hara, Maureen (17 Aug. 1920–24 Oct. 2015), actress |date28 March 2019 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.013.1803936}}</ref>
* 1920 &ndash; Lida Moser, American photographer and author (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Slotnik |first1Daniel E. |titleLida Moser, Photographer With an Urban Eye, Dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/03/arts/lida-moser-photographer-with-an-urban-eye-dies-at-93.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=3 September 2014}}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; Geoffrey Elton, German-English historian and academic (d. 1994)
*1922 &ndash; Roy Tattersall, English cricketer (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite news |last1Frith |first1David |titleRoy Tattersall obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/dec/11/roy-tattersall |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=11 December 2011}}</ref>
*1923 &ndash; Carlos Cruz-Diez, Venezuelan artist (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Rodríguez |first1Bélgica |editor-first1Iliana |editor-last1Cepero |titleCruz-Diez, Carlos |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T020486|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 }}</ref>
* 1923 &ndash; Larry Rivers, American painter and sculptor (d. 2002)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Harrison |first1Helen A. |titleRivers, Larry |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T072310}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Evan S. Connell, American novelist, poet, and short story writer (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news |last1Carlson |first1Michael |titleEvan S Connell obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/jan/14/evan-s-connell |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=14 January 2013}}</ref>
*1926 &ndash; Valerie Eliot, English businesswoman (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Raine |first1Craig |titleEliot [née Fletcher], (Esmé) Valerie (1926–2012), literary executor and editor |date7 January 2016 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/105728}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Jiang Zemin, Chinese engineer and politician, former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (paramount leader) and 5th President of China (d. 2022)
*1927 &ndash; Sam Butera, American saxophonist and bandleader (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite news |last1Keepnews |first1Peter |titleSam Butera, High-Energy Jazz Saxophonist and Bandleader, Is Dead at 81 - Obituary (Obit) - NYTimes.com |urlhttps://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/2009/06/05/arts/music/05butera.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=5 June 2009}}</ref>
* 1927 &ndash; F. Ray Keyser Jr., American lawyer and politician, Governor of Vermont (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite web |titleF. Ray Keyser, Ex-Governor of Vermont, Dies at 87 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/09/us/f-ray-keyser-ex-governor-of-vermont-dies-at-87.html |websiteThe New York Times |access-date3 June 2024 |date=9 March 2015}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; T. J. Anderson, American composer, conductor, and educator<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Ramsey |first1Guthrie P., Jr |titleAnderson, T(homas) J(efferson) |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.00866}}</ref>
* 1928 &ndash; Willem Duys, Dutch tennis player, sportscaster, and producer (d. 2011)
*1929 &ndash; Francis Gary Powers, American captain and pilot (d. 1977)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Butler |first1Brian |titlePowers, Francis Gary (1929-1977), pilot and espionage agent |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0700619}}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; Harve Bennett, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |last1Fox |first1Margalit |titleHarve Bennett, Quiz Kid and 'Star Trek' Producer, Dies at 84 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/07/arts/television/harve-bennett-quiz-kid-and-star-trek-producer-dies-at-84.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=7 March 2015}}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Ted Hughes, English poet and playwright (d. 1998)<ref>{{cite news |last1Lyall |first1Sarah |titleTed Hughes, 68, a Symbolic Poet And Sylvia Plath's Husband, Dies |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/30/books/ted-hughes-68-a-symbolic-poet-and-sylvia-plath-s-husband-dies.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=30 October 1998}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; Tony Wrigley, English historian, demographer, and academic (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite web |titleProfessor Sir Tony Wrigley PhD FBA m.1949 |urlhttps://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/news/professor-sir-tony-wrigley-phd-fba-m1949 |websitePeterhouse Cambridge |access-date3 March 2022 |date=2 March 2022}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; V. S. Naipaul, Trinidadian-English novelist and essayist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite news |last1Ramchand |first1Kenneth |titleVS Naipaul obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/aug/12/vs-naipaul-obituary |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=12 August 2018}}</ref>
* 1932 &ndash; Duke Pearson, American pianist and composer (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Kernfeld |first1Barry |titlePearson, Duke |date2003 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.J349300}}</ref>
* 1932 &ndash; Jean-Jacques Sempé, French cartoonist (d. 2022)<ref name"Reuters-Sempé">{{cite news|titleFrench cartoonist Sempe, famous for New Yorker covers, dies age 89|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/europe/french-cartoonist-sempe-famous-new-yorker-covers-dies-age-89-2022-08-12/|workReuters|dateAugust 12, 2022|languageen|access-date12 August 2022|archive-date12 August 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220812102121/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/french-cartoonist-sempe-famous-new-yorker-covers-dies-age-89-2022-08-12/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Mark Dinning, American pop singer (d. 1986)
*1934 &ndash; João Donato, Brazilian pianist and composer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |last1Pareles |first1Jon |titleJoão Donato, Innovative Brazilian Musician, Is Dead at 88 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/21/arts/music/joao-donato-dead.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=21 July 2023}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Ron Henry, English footballer (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Welch |first1Julie |titleRon Henry obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/jan/05/ron-henry |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=5 January 2015}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Seamus Mallon, Irish educator and politician, Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2020)
* 1936 &ndash; Margaret Heafield Hamilton, American computer scientist, systems engineer, and business owner
*1938 &ndash; Theodoros Pangalos, Greek lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |titleTheodoros Pangalos, outspoken Greek former foreign minister, dies at 84 |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/greece-theodoros-pangalos-dies-7ebdb39af848eee6d6d08728b220b00e |access-date16 August 2024 |workAP News |date31 May 2023|first1Nicholas |last1=Paphitis}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; Luther Allison, American blues guitarist and singer (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite news |last1Leigh |first1Spencer |titleObituary: Luther Allison |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-luther-allison-1245354.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=13 August 1997}}</ref>
*1940 &ndash; Eduardo Mignogna, Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2006)
* 1940 &ndash; Barry Sheerman, English academic and politician
*1941 &ndash; Lothar Bisky, German businessman and politician (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news |last1Reid |first1Robert H. |titleEx-leader of Germany's Left Party dies at age 71 |urlhttps://apnews.com/general-news-0012afd6a41e45cd9df6d591f010d3f8 |access-date16 August 2024 |workAP News |date=13 August 2013}}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Jean Pierre Lefebvre, Canadian director and screenwriter
* 1941 &ndash; Boog Powell, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleBoog Powell |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/boog-powell-120719 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date15 August 2023}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Shane Porteous, Australian actor, animator, and screenwriter
*1943 &ndash; Edward Cowie, English composer, painter, and author<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Burton |first1Anthony |titleCowie, Edward |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.06746}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Robert De Niro, American actor, entrepreneur, director, and producer<ref>{{cite web |titleRobert De Niro |urlhttps://www.goldenglobes.com/person/robert-de-niro |websitewww.goldenglobes.com |access-date7 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleDe Niro, Robert |urlhttps://id.loc.gov/rwo/agents/n85231405.html |websiteLC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies |publisherLibrary of Congress |access-date=7 October 2020}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; John Humphrys, Welsh journalist and author
* 1943 &ndash; Dave "Snaker" Ray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)
*1944 &ndash; Larry Ellison, American businessman, co-founded the Oracle Corporation
* 1944 &ndash; Jean-Bernard Pommier, French pianist and conductor<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Timbrell |first1Charles |titlePommier, Jean-Bernard |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22065}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; Rachel Pollack, American author, poet, and educator (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |last1Priest |first1Christopher |titleRachel Pollack obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/apr/17/rachel-pollack-obituary |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=17 April 2023}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Hugh Baiocchi, South African golfer
* 1946 &ndash; Martha Coolidge, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1946 &ndash; Patrick Manning, Trinidadian-Tobagonian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2016)
*1947 &ndash; Mohamed Abdelaziz, Sahrawi politician, President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (d. 2016)
* 1947 &ndash; Gary Talley, American guitarist, singer-songwriter, and author<ref name="AP" />
*1948 &ndash; Alexander Ivashkin, Russian-English cellist and conductor (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |last1Dixon |first1Gavin |titleAlexander Ivashkin obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/feb/13/alexander-ivashkin |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=13 February 2014}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Norm Coleman, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Mayor of St. Paul
* 1949 &ndash; Sue Draheim, American fiddler and composer (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news |last1Hunt |first1Ken |titleSue Draheim: Widely admired folk violinist |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/sue-draheim-widely-admired-folk-violinist-8635048.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=28 May 2013}}</ref>
* 1949 &ndash; Julian Fellowes, English actor, director, screenwriter, and politician<ref name="AP" />
* 1949 &ndash; Sib Hashian, American rock drummer (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1Staff |first1Bryan Marquard Globe |titleSib Hashian, 67, former drummer for Boston |urlhttps://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2017/03/23/sib-hashian-former-drummer-for-boston-dies/cwWTjRTGSCg7xdxC8slHkK/story.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Boston Globe |date=23 March 2017}}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Geraint Jarman, Welsh musician, poet and television producer (d. 2025)<ref>{{Cite news |date2020-08-17 |titleGeraint Jarman yn 70 |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/cymrufyw/53802556 |access-date2025-03-03 |workBBC Cymru Fyw |languagecy}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web |date2025-03-03 |titleY canwr Geraint Jarman wedi marw yn 74 oed |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/cymrufyw/erthyglau/cx29jdjdl0zo |access-date2025-03-03 |websiteBBC Cymru Fyw |language=cy}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Richard Hunt, American Muppet performer (d. 1992)
* 1951 &ndash; Robert Joy, Canadian actor<ref name="AP" />
*1952 &ndash; Aleksandr Maksimenkov, Russian footballer and coach (d. 2012)
* 1952 &ndash; Nelson Piquet, Brazilian race car driver and businessman
* 1952 &ndash; Mario Theissen, German engineer and businessman
* 1952 &ndash; Guillermo Vilas, Argentinian tennis player
*1953 &ndash; Mick Malthouse, Australian footballer and coach
* 1953 &ndash; Herta Müller, Romanian-German poet and author, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1953 &ndash; Korrie Layun Rampan, Indonesian author, poet, and critic (d. 2015)
* 1953 &ndash; Kevin Rowland, English singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP" />
*1954 &ndash; Eric Johnson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1954 &ndash; Andrés Pastrana Arango, Colombian lawyer and politician, 38th President of Colombia
*1955 &ndash; Colin Moulding, English singer-songwriter and bassist<ref name="AP" />
*1956 &ndash; Gail Berman, American businessman, co-founded BermanBraun
* 1956 &ndash; Álvaro Pino, Spanish cyclist
*1957 &ndash; Ken Kwapis, American director and screenwriter
* 1957 &ndash; Laurence Overmire, American poet, author, and actor
* 1957 &ndash; Robin Cousins, British competitive figure skater
*1958 &ndash; Belinda Carlisle, American singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Brown |first1Jessica L. |titleGo-Go's, the |date1 July 2014 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2262338}}</ref>
* 1958 &ndash; Fred Goodwin, Scottish banker and accountant
* 1958 &ndash; Maurizio Sandro Sala, Brazilian race car driver
*1959 &ndash; Jonathan Franzen, American novelist and essayist
* 1959 &ndash; Jacek Kazimierski, Polish footballer
* 1959 &ndash; Eric Schlosser, American journalist and author
* 1959 &ndash; David Koresh, American cult leader<ref>{{cite web|titleDavid Koresh |date27 March 2023 |url=https://www.biography.com/crime/david-koresh}}</ref> (d. 1993)
*1960 &ndash; Stephan Eicher, Swiss singer-songwriter
* 1960 &ndash; Sean Penn, American actor, director, and political activist<ref>{{cite web |titleSean Penn |urlhttps://www.biography.com/actor/sean-penn |websiteBiography.com |publisherA&E Television Networks |access-date=14 August 2020}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Gilby Clarke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Jovanovic |first1Rob |titleGuns N' Roses |date25 July 2013 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2241369}}</ref>
* 1962 &ndash; Dan Dakich, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster
*1963 &ndash; Jon Gruden, American football player, coach, and sportscaster
* 1963 &ndash; Jackie Walorski, American politician (d. 2022)<ref>{{CongBio |idW000813 |nameWALORSKI, Jackie (1963–)|inline=YES}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Colin James, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1964 &ndash; Maria McKee, American singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1964 &ndash; Dave Penney, English footballer and manager
*1965 &ndash; Steve Gorman, American drummer<ref name="AP" />
* 1965 &ndash; Dottie Pepper, American golfer
*1966 &ndash; Jüri Luik, Estonian politician and diplomat, 18th Estonian Minister of Defense
* 1966 &ndash; Rodney Mullen, American skateboarder and stuntman
* 1966 &ndash; Don Sweeney, Canadian ice hockey player and manager
*1967 &ndash; David Conrad, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1967 &ndash; Michael Preetz, German footballer and manager
*1968 &ndash; Andriy Kuzmenko, Ukrainian singer-songwriter (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |last1Trach |first1Nataliya |titleUkrainian pop star dies in car accident |urlhttps://www.kyivpost.com/post/10529 |access-date16 August 2024 |workKyiv Post |date=2 February 2015}}</ref>
* 1968 &ndash; Ed McCaffrey, American football player and sportscaster
* 1968 &ndash; Helen McCrory, English actress (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news |last1Coveney |first1Michael |titleHelen McCrory obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2021/apr/18/helen-mccrory-obituary |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=18 April 2021}}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; Christian Laettner, American basketball player and coach
* 1969 &ndash; Kelvin Mercer, American rapper, songwriter and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1969 &ndash; Donnie Wahlberg, American singer-songwriter, actor and producer<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Conn |first1Stephanie |titleNew Kids on the Block |date3 September 2014 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2267337}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Jim Courier, American tennis player and sportscaster
* 1970 &ndash; Andrus Kivirähk, Estonian author
* 1970 &ndash; Øyvind Leonhardsen, Norwegian footballer and coach
*1971 &ndash; Uhm Jung-hwa, South Korean singer and actress
* 1971 &ndash; Jorge Posada, Puerto Rican-American baseball player
* 1971 &ndash; Shaun Rehn, Australian footballer and coach
*1972 &ndash; Habibul Bashar, Bangladeshi cricketer
*1974 &ndash; Giuliana Rancic, Italian-American journalist and television personality<ref name="AP" />
* 1974 &ndash; Johannes Maria Staud, Austrian composer<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Ender |first1Daniel |titleStaud, Johannes Maria |date9 September 2009 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.2082392}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Eric Boulton, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1976 &ndash; Geertjan Lassche, Dutch journalist and director
* 1976 &ndash; Serhiy Zakarlyuka, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2014)
*1977 &ndash; Nathan Deakes, Australian race walker
* 1977 &ndash; William Gallas, French footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Thierry Henry, French footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Mike Lewis, Welsh guitarist
* 1977 &ndash; Tarja Turunen, Finnish singer-songwriter and producer
*1979 &ndash; Antwaan Randle El, American football player and journalist
* 1979 &ndash; Nicole Sunitsch, Austrian politician<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.parlament.gv.at/person/30665|titleNicole Sunitsch (aktiv)|publisherAustrian Parliament|languagede}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Keith Dabengwa, Zimbabwean cricketer
* 1980 &ndash; Daniel Güiza, Spanish footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Jan Kromkamp, Dutch footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Lene Marlin, Norwegian singer-songwriter
*1982 &ndash; Phil Jagielka, English footballer
* 1982 &ndash; Cheerleader Melissa, American wrestler and manager
* 1982 &ndash; Mark Salling, American actor and musician (d. 2018)
*1983 &ndash; Dustin Pedroia, American baseball player
*1984 &ndash; Dee Brown, American basketball player
* 1984 &ndash; Oksana Domnina, Russian ice dancer
* 1984 &ndash; Liam Heath, British sprint canoeist<ref>{{cite web|titleLiam Heath|urlhttp://www.olympic.org/liam-heath/|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date27 June 2020}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Garrett Wolfe, American football player
*1985 &ndash; Yū Aoi, Japanese actress and model
*1986 &ndash; Rudy Gay, American basketball player
* 1986 &ndash; Tyrus Thomas, American basketball player
*1988 &ndash; Brady Corbet, American actor and director<ref name="AP" />
* 1988 &ndash; Jihadi John, Kuwaiti-British member of ISIS (d. 2015)
* 1988 &ndash; Natalie Sandtorv, Norwegian singer-songwriter
* 1988 &ndash; Erika Toda, Japanese actress
*1989 &ndash; Lil B, American rapper<ref>{{cite web |last1Madden |first1Sidney |titleHappy Birthday, Lil B! |urlhttps://www.xxlmag.com/happy-birthday-lil-b/ |publisherXXL |access-date15 August 2023 |date=17 August 2015}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Rachel Corsie, Scottish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleRachel Corsie {{!}} Scotland {{!}} Scottish FA |urlhttps://www.scottishfa.co.uk/players/?pid74263&lid2 |websitewww.scottishfa.co.uk |access-date28 April 2020}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Rachel Hurd-Wood, English actress<ref>{{cite news|titleAug. 17 celebrity birthdays|urlhttps://www.ocregister.com/2012/08/17/aug-17-celebrity-birthdays/|workThe Orange County Register|date17 August 2012|access-date=25 January 2024}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Austin Butler, American actor<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 17, 2022 includes celebrities Taissa Farmiga, Robert DeNiro |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-17-2022-includes-celebrities-taissa-farmiga-robert-deniro.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date15 August 2023 |date=17 August 2022}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Saraya Bevis, English wrestler
* 1992 &ndash; Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (d. 2013)
* 1992 &ndash; Chanel Mata'utia, Australian rugby league player
* 1992 &ndash; Maru Teferi, Israeli marathon runner<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://worldathletics.org/athletes/israel/maru-teferi-14526757|titleMaru TEFERI &#124; Profile &#124; World Athletics|website=worldathletics.org}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Ederson Moraes, Brazilian footballer
* 1993 &ndash; Sarah Sjöström, Swedish swimmer
* 1993 &ndash; Xie Zhenye, Chinese athlete<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://worldathletics.org/athletes/pr-of-china/zhenye-xie-14376449|titleZhenye XIE &#124; Profile &#124; World Athletics|website=worldathletics.org}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Phoebe Bridgers, American singer/songwriter
* 1994 &ndash; Jack Conklin, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleJack Conklin |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/2979534/jack-conklin |publisherESPN |access-date15 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Taissa Farmiga, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1995 &ndash; Gracie Gold, American figure skater
* 1995 &ndash; Dallin Watene-Zelezniak, New Zealand rugby league player
*1996 &ndash; Jake Virtanen, Canadian ice hockey player
*2000 &ndash; Lil Pump, American rapper and songwriter
*2003 &ndash; Nastasja Schunk, German tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleNastasja Schunk {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/329366/nastasja-schunk |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association}}</ref>
* 2003 &ndash; The Kid Laroi, Australian rapper and songwriter<ref>{{cite tweet |authorcharlton |userthekidlaroi |number1294551414425804801 |date15 August 2020 |titleMy bday is actually on the 17th da Internet is a lie|access-date10 August 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200815082922/https://twitter.com/thekidlaroi/status/1294551414425804801 |archive-date15 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please.
Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this day in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 754 &ndash; Carloman, mayor of the palace of Austrasia
* 949 &ndash; Li Shouzhen, Chinese general and governor
*1153 &ndash; Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne (b. 1130)
*1304 &ndash; Emperor Go-Fukakusa of Japan (b. 1243)
*1324 &ndash; Irene of Brunswick (b. 1293)
*1338 &ndash; Nitta Yoshisada, Japanese samurai (b. 1301)
*1424 &ndash; John Stewart, Earl of Buchan (b. c. 1381)
*1510 &ndash; Edmund Dudley, English politician, Speaker of the House of Commons (b. 1462)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Gunn |first1S. J. |titleDudley, Edmund (c. 1462–1510), administrator and speaker of the House of Commons |date27 May 2010 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8147}}</ref>
* 1510 &ndash; Richard Empson, English statesman<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Condon |first1M. M. |titleEmpson, Sir Richard (c. 1450–1510), administrator and speaker of the House of Commons |date17 September 2015 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8799}}</ref>
*1547 &ndash; Katharina von Zimmern, Swiss sovereign abbess (b. 1478)<ref>{{cite book|first1Christine|last1Christ-von Wedel|first2Irene|last2Gysel|first3Jeanne|last3Pestalozzi|first4Marlis|last4Stähli|titleDie Äbtissin, der Söldnerführer und ihre Töchter: Katharina von Zimmern im politischen Spannungsfeld der Reformationszeit|locationZürich|publisherTheologischer Verlag Zürich|year2020|languageDE|page317|isbn978-3-29018-255-7}}</ref>1601–1900
*1673 &ndash; Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician and anatomist (b. 1641)
*1676 &ndash; Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, German author (b. 1621)
*1720 &ndash; Anne Dacier, French scholar and translator (b. 1654)
*1723 &ndash; Joseph Bingham, English scholar and academic (b. 1668)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Handley |first1Stuart |titleBingham, Joseph (bap. 1668, d. 1723), ecclesiastical historian |date3 October 2013 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/2410}}</ref>
*1768 &ndash; Vasily Trediakovsky, Russian poet and playwright (b. 1703)
*1785 &ndash; Jonathan Trumbull, English-American merchant and politician, 16th Governor of Connecticut (b. 1710)<ref>{{cite ANB |last1Grossbart |first1Stephen R. |titleTrumbull, Jonathan (1710-1785), merchant and governor of Connecticut |dateFebruary 2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0100900}}</ref>
*1786 &ndash; Frederick the Great, Prussian king (b. 1712)<ref>{{cite book |last1Reddaway |first1William F. |titleFrederick the Great and the Rise of Prussia |date1908 |publisherG. P. Putnam's Sons |locationNew York |pages=346–347}}</ref>
*1809 &ndash; Matthew Boulton, English businessman and engineer, co-founded Boulton and Watt (b. 1728)<ref>{{citation | last Uglow | first Jenny | author-link Jenny Uglow | year 2002 | title The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World | publisher Faber & Faber | location London | isbn 978-0-374-19440-6 | page [https://archive.org/details/lunarmenfivefrie00uglo/page/495 495] | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lunarmenfivefrie00uglo/page/495 }}</ref>
*1814 &ndash; John Johnson, English architect and surveyor (b. 1732)
*1834 &ndash; Husein Gradaščević, Ottoman general (b. 1802)
*1838 &ndash; Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian playwright and poet (b. 1749)
*1850 &ndash; José de San Martín, Argentinian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (b. 1778)
*1861 &ndash; Alcée Louis la Branche, American politician and diplomat, 1st United States Ambassador to Texas (b. 1806)
*1870 &ndash; Perucho Figueredo, Cuban poet and activist (b. 1818)
*1875 &ndash; Wilhelm Bleek, German linguist and anthropologist (b. 1827)
*1897 &ndash; William Jervois, English engineer and diplomat, 10th Governor of South Australia (b. 1821)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Kinross |first1John S. |titleArticle Jervois, Sir William Francis Drummond (1821–1897), army officer |date21 May 2009 |doi10.1093/ref:odnb/14800}}</ref>1901–present*1901 &ndash; Edmond Audran, French organist and composer (b. 1842)<ref>{{cite book |last1Letellier |first1Robert Ignatius |titleOperetta: A Sourcebook, Volume I |date5 October 2015 |publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn978-1-4438-8425-9 |page281 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz5jWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA281}}</ref>
*1903 &ndash; Hans Gude, Norwegian-German painter and academic (b. 1825)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Haverkamp |first1Ernst |titleGude, Hans Fredrik |journalOxford Art Online |date2003 |doi10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T035369}}</ref>
*1908 &ndash; Radoje Domanović, Serbian satirist and journalist (b. 1873)
*1909 &ndash; Madan Lal Dhingra, Indian activist (b. 1883)<ref>{{cite news |last1Jagga |first1Raakhi |titleWho was Madan Lal Dhingra, freedom fighter hanged at 24 |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/madan-lal-dhingra-8896635/ |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Indian Express |date=17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; Moisei Uritsky, Russian activist and politician (b. 1873)
*1920 &ndash; Ray Chapman, American baseball player (b. 1891)
*1924 &ndash; Tom Kendall, English-Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1851)
*1925 &ndash; Ioan Slavici, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1848)
*1935 &ndash; Adam Gunn, American decathlete (b. 1872)
* 1935 &ndash; Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American sociologist and author (b. 1860)<ref>{{cite book|firstLynne E.|lastFord|titleEncyclopedia of Women and American Politics|locationNew York|publisherFacts on File|year2007|isbn978-0-81605-491-6|page209}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; José María of Manila, Spanish-Filipino priest and martyr (b. 1880)
*1940 &ndash; Billy Fiske, American soldier and pilot (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite web |titleDay by day: 17 August 1940 |urlhttps://www.battleofbritainmemorial.org/learn/the-battle-of-britain/day-by-day/#17-august-1940 |websiteThe Battle of Britain Memorial |access-date14 August 2020 |quoteToday say the death of Pilot Officer Billy Fiske of No 601 Squadron, one of the American volunteers to fly with the RAF in the Battle. Fiske's Hurricane had been hit by return fire from a Ju 87 over Bognor Regis the day before and had forced-landed back at Tangmere on fire. At the time the airfield was being bombed, but groundcrew carried him clear. He had appeared to be recovering in hospital before his death from burns and shock. |archive-date23 September 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200923000423/https://www.battleofbritainmemorial.org/learn/the-battle-of-britain/day-by-day/#17-august-1940 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; Reidar Haaland, Norwegian police officer and soldier (b. 1919)
*1949 &ndash; Gregorio Perfecto, Filipino journalist, jurist, and politician (b. 1891)
*1958 &ndash; Arthur Fox, English-American fencer (b. 1878)
*1966 &ndash; Ken Miles, English race car driver and engineer (b. 1918)
*1969 &ndash; Otto Stern, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Toennies |first1J.P. |last2Schmidt-Böcking |first2H. |last3Friedrich |first3B. |last4Lower |first4J.C.A. |titleOtto Stern (1888–1969): The founding father of experimental atomic physics |journalAnnalen der Physik |date20 December 2011 |volume523 |issue12 |pages1045–1070 |doi10.1002/andp.201100228|arxiv1109.4864 }}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Rattana Pestonji, Thai director and producer (b. 1908)
*1971 &ndash; Maedayama Eigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 39th Yokozuna (b. 1914)
* 1971 &ndash; Wilhelm List, German field marshal (b. 1880)
*1973 &ndash; Conrad Aiken, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet (b. 1889)
* 1973 &ndash; Jean Barraqué, French pianist and composer (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Griffiths |first1Paul |titleBarraqué, Jean |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.02103}}</ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Paul Williams, American singer and choreographer (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer Temptations Singer Found Dead |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/detroit-free-press-paul-williams-death/22970797/ |access-date16 August 2024 |workDetroit Free Press |date19 August 1973 |viaNewspapers.com |page=67}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Delmer Daves, American screenwriter, director and producer (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite news |titleSERVICES TOMORROW FOR DELMER L DAVES |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1977/08/19/archives/services-tomorrow-for-delmer-l-daves-motion-picture-producer-writer.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=19 August 1977}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; John C. Allen, American roller coaster designer (b. 1907)
* 1979 &ndash; Vivian Vance, American actress and singer (b. 1909)<ref>{{cite news |last1Smith |first1Cecil |titleFrom the Archives: Comedienne Vivian Vance Dies at 66 |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-vivian-vance-19790818-snap-story.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workLos Angeles Times |date=18 August 1979}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (b. 1896)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Bordman |first1Gerald |last2Hischak |first2Thomas S. |titleGershwin, Ira |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.45732}}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Gary Chester, Italian drummer and educator (b. 1924)
* 1987 &ndash; Rudolf Hess, German soldier and politician (b. 1894)<ref>{{cite news |titleRudolf Hess Is Dead in Berlin; Last of the Hitler Inner Circle |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/18/obituaries/rudolf-hess-is-dead-in-berlin-last-of-the-hitler-inner-circle.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=18 August 1987}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Shaike Ophir, Israeli actor and screenwriter (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite news |titleShaike Ophir Dead at 58 |urlhttps://www.jta.org/archive/shaike-ophir-dead-at-58 |access-date16 August 2024 |workJewish Telegraphic Agency |date=20 March 2015}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (b. 1924)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Umar |first1Ghulam |title[News of President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's Death] |journalPakistan Horizon |date1988 |volume41 |issue3 |pagesi–v |jstor41393865 |issn0030-980X}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1914)<ref name=fdr />
* 1988 &ndash; Victoria Shaw, Australian-American actress (b. 1935)<ref>{{cite news |titleVictoria Shaw, model who went to Hollywood |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-sydney-morning-herald-victoria-shaw/22018429/ |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Sydney Morning Herald |date19 August 1988 |viaNewspapers.com |page=4}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Pearl Bailey, American actress and singer (b. 1918)<ref>{{cite news |last1Wilson |first1John S. |titlePearl Bailey, Musical Star and Humorist, Is Dead at 72 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/19/obituaries/pearl-bailey-musical-star-and-humorist-is-dead-at-72.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=19 August 1990}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Feng Kang, Chinese mathematician and academic (b. 1920)
*1994 &ndash; Luigi Chinetti, Italian-American race car driver and businessman (b. 1901)<ref>{{cite news |last1Siano |first1Joseph |titleLuigi Chinetti Sr., 93, Automobile Importer and Champion Racer |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/20/obituaries/luigi-chinetti-sr-93-automobile-importer-and-champion-racer.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=20 August 1994}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Jack Morrison, Australian rugby league player (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/jack-morrison/summary.html|titleJack Morrison - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|website=Rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Jack Sharkey, American boxer and referee (b. 1902)<ref>{{cite news |last1Thomas |first1Robert Mcg, Jr |titleJack Sharkey, Boxing Champion, Dies at 91 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/19/obituaries/jack-sharkey-boxing-champion-dies-at-91.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=19 August 1994}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Howard E. Koch, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1902)<ref>{{cite news |last1Gussow |first1Mel |titleHoward Koch, a Screenwriter For 'Casablanca,' Dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/18/obituaries/howard-koch-a-screenwriter-for-casablanca-dies-at-93.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=18 August 1995}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Ted Whitten, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite AuDB | firstJohn |lastLack |id2whitten-edward-james-ted-27937 |titleEdward James (Ted) Whitten (1933–1995) |volume19 |date2021}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Władysław Komar, Polish shot putter and actor (b. 1940)<ref name"pole">{{cite news |titlePLUS: TRACK AND FIELD; Two Polish Athletes Killed in Car Crash |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/19/sports/plus-track-and-field-two-polish-athletes-killed-in-car-crash.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date19 August 1998}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Tadeusz Ślusarski, Polish pole vaulter (b. 1950)<ref name="pole" />
*2000 &ndash; Jack Walker, English businessman (b. 1929)
*2004 &ndash; Thea Astley, Australian author and educator (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news |titleThea Astley |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1470360/Thea-Astley.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Telegraph |date=28 August 2004}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; John N. Bahcall, American astrophysicist and academic (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite news |last1Overbye |first1Dennis |titleJohn N. Bahcall, 70, Dies; Astrophysicist at Princeton |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/19/nyregion/john-n-bahcall-70-dies-astrophysicist-at-princeton.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=19 August 2005}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Shamsur Rahman, Bangladeshi poet and journalist (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite news |last1Radice |first1William |titleShamsur Rahman |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2006/sep/15/culture.obituaries |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=15 September 2006}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Bill Deedes, English journalist and politician (b. 1913)<ref>{{cite news |last1Ingrams |first1Richard |titleLord Deedes |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/aug/18/guardianobituaries.obituaries1 |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=17 August 2007}}</ref>
* 2007 &ndash; Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (b. 1982)
*2008 &ndash; Franco Sensi, Italian businessman and politician (b. 1926)
*2010 &ndash; Francesco Cossiga, Italian lawyer and politician, 8th President of Italy (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite news |last1Sassoon |first1Donald |titleFrancesco Cossiga obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/18/francesco-cossiga-obituary |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=18 August 2010}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Aase Bjerkholt, Norwegian politician, Minister of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion (b. 1915)
* 2012 &ndash; Victor Poor, American engineer, developed the Datapoint 2200 (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite news |last1Markoff |first1John |titleVictor Poor, Who Helped Create Early Intel Chips, Dies at 79 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/20/technology/victor-poor-intel-computer-chip-innovator-dies-at-79.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=19 August 2012}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Patrick Ricard, French businessman (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite news |last1Hevesi |first1Dennis |titlePatrick Ricard, Who Expanded Spirits Company, Dies at 67 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/business/global/patrick-ricard-expanded-spirits-company-dies-at-67.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=24 August 2012}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; John Lynch-Staunton, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1930)<ref>{{Canadian Parliament links|ID4329|nolistyes|2=The Hon. John Lynch-Staunton, Senator}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Odilia Dank, American educator and politician (b. 1938)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer Okla. lawmaker dies at 74 after cancer |urlhttps://www.normantranscript.com/news/former-okla-lawmaker-dies-at-74-after-cancer/article_1b0ae510-9468-52ad-9539-f8abf061e501.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workNorman Transcript |agencyThe Associated Press |date20 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Jack Harshman, American baseball player (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite web |last1Gabcik |first1John |titleJack Harshman |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/jack-harshman/ |publisherSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date16 August 2024}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; John Hollander, American poet and critic (b. 1929)
* 2013 &ndash; David Landes, Jewish-American historian and economist (b. 1924)<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/08/us/david-s-landes-historian-and-author-is-dead-at-89.html |titleDavid S. Landes, Historian and Author, Is Dead at 89 |date7 September 2013 |access-date7 October 2023 |lastMartin |firstDouglas |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Frank Martínez, American painter (b. 1924)
* 2013 &ndash; Gus Winckel, Dutch lieutenant and pilot (b. 1912)
*2014 &ndash; Børre Knudsen, Norwegian minister and activist (b. 1937)
* 2014 &ndash; Wolfgang Leonhard, German historian and author (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite news |titleWolfgang Leonhard - obituary |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/11087532/Wolfgang-Leonhard-obituary.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Telegraph |date=10 September 2014}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Sophie Masloff, American civil servant and politician, 56th Mayor of Pittsburgh (b. 1917)<ref>{{cite news |last1McFadden |first1Robert D. |titleSophie Masloff, Ex-Mayor of Pittsburgh, Dies at 96 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/us/sophie-masloff-ex-mayor-of-pittsburgh-dies-at-96.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=18 August 2014}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Miodrag Pavlović, Serbian poet and critic (b. 1928)
* 2014 &ndash; Pierre Vassiliu, French singer-songwriter (b. 1937)
*2015 &ndash; Yvonne Craig, American ballet dancer and actress (b. 1937)<ref>{{cite news |last1Bergan |first1Ronald |titleYvonne Craig obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/culture/2015/aug/23/yvonne-craig |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Guardian |date=23 August 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Gerhard Mayer-Vorfelder, German businessman (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer German football association chief Mayer-Vorfelder dead |urlhttps://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/former-german-football-association-chief-mayer-vorfelder-dead-115081800764_1.html |access-date16 August 2024 |workBusiness Standard |agencyIANS |date18 August 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; László Paskai, Hungarian cardinal (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite news |titleCardinal Paskai, Hungarian Church leader, dies at 88 |urlhttps://catholicherald.co.uk/cardinal-paskai-hungarian-church-leader-dies-at-88/ |access-date16 August 2024 |workThe Catholic Herald |agencyCatholic News Service |date18 August 2015}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; Arthur Hiller, Canadian actor, director, and producer (b. 1923)<ref>{{Cite news |lastKehr |firstDave |date2016-08-17 |titleArthur Hiller, 'Love Story' Director and Box-Office Magnet, Dies at 92 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/18/movies/arthur-hiller-dead.html |access-date2022-11-16 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Virginia Ogilvy, Countess of Airlie, British countess (b. 1933)<ref>{{Cite web |lastTimes |firstThe |date2024-08-21 |titleVirginia, Countess of Airlie obituary: lady of the bedchamber to Queen Elizabeth II |urlhttps://www.thetimes.com/uk/obituaries/article/virginia-countess-of-airlie-obituary-lady-of-the-bedchamber-to-elizabeth-ii-0s89hmrjs |access-date2024-08-21 |website=The Times}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Silvio Santos, Brazilian media mogul and television host (b. 1930)<ref>{{Cite news |lastLvares |firstY.Dbora |date2024-08-17 |titleBrazilian entertaining legend Silvio Santos dies at 93
|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/ap-luiz-inacio-lula-da-silva-rio-de-janeiro-jair-bolsonaro-santos-b2597817.html |access-date2024-08-17 |work=Independent}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Saint Beatrice of Silva
**Saint Clare of Montefalco<ref>{{cite book |last1Watkins |first1Basil |titleThe Book of Saints: A Comprehensive Biographical Dictionary |date2015-11-19 |publisherBloomsbury Academic |isbn978-0-567-66456-3 |page145 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkE6TCgAAQBAJ&pgPA145}}</ref>
**Saint Hyacinth of Poland<ref>{{cite web |titleSaint Hyacinth of Poland |urlhttps://dominicans.ie/saint-hyacinth-of-poland/ |websitedominicans.ie |date17 August 2010 |access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref>
**Saint Jeanne Delanoue<ref>{{cite book |last1Howell |first1Kenneth J. |last2Crownwood |first2Joseph |titleMystery of the Altar: Daily Meditations on the Eucharist |date2021-01-29 |publisherEmmaus Road Publishing |isbn978-1-949013-71-9 |page108 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK-MXEAAAQBAJ&pgRA1-PA108}}</ref>
**Saint Mammes of Caesarea
**Samuel Johnson, Timothy Cutler, and Thomas Bradbury Chandler (Episcopal Church)<ref>{{cite book |last1Publishing |first1Church |titleA Great Cloud of Witnesses |date2016-10-01 |publisherChurch Publishing, Inc. |isbn978-0-89869-963-0 |page419 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3uUlDwAAQBAJ&pgPT419}}</ref>
**August 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Engineer's Day (Colombia)
*Independence Day, celebrates the independence proclamation of Indonesia from Japan in 1945.
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/17 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day17}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/17 |titleHistorical Events on August 17 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 17}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_17 | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.764350 |
1491 | August 12 | {{pp-pc1}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*1099 &ndash; First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid forces led by Al-Afdal Shahanshah. This is considered the last engagement of the First Crusade.<ref>{{cite book|authorJohn France|titleVictory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idExxeto51p3cC&pgPA362|year1994|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-58987-1|pages=362}}</ref>
*1121 &ndash; Battle of Didgori: The Georgian army under King David IV wins a decisive victory over the famous Seljuk commander Ilghazi.
*1164 &ndash; Battle of Harim: Nur ad-Din Zangi defeats the Crusader armies of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch.<ref>{{cite book|authorR. C. Smail|titleCrusading Warfare 1097–1193|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGZ08AAAAIAAJ&pgPA183|year1956|publisherCUP Archive|isbn978-0-521-09730-7|pages=183}}</ref>
*1323 &ndash; The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod Republic is signed, regulating the border between the two countries for the first time.<ref name"Christiansen1997">{{cite book|authorEric Christiansen|titleThe Northern Crusades|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida1OWoMo5ZsAC&pgPT159|year1997|publisherPenguin Books Limited|isbn978-0-14-193736-6|pages159–}}</ref>
*1492 &ndash; Christopher Columbus arrives in the Canary Islands on his first voyage to the New World.
*1499 &ndash; First engagement of the Battle of Zonchio between Venetian and Ottoman fleets.
1601–1900
*1624 &ndash; Charles de La Vieuville is arrested and replaced by Cardinal Richelieu as the French king's chief advisor.
*1676 &ndash; Praying Indian John Alderman shoots and kills Metacomet, the Wampanoag war chief, ending King Philip's War.
*1687 &ndash; Battle of Mohács: Charles of Lorraine defeats the Ottoman Empire.
*1765 &ndash; Treaty of Allahabad is signed. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of Company rule in India.
*1788 &ndash; The Anjala conspiracy is signed.<ref>[http://www.anjala-seura.info/anjalan_liitto/Untitled-1.htm Anjalan liitto – Anjala-seura] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210621015842/http://anjala-seura.info/anjalan_liitto/Untitled-1.htm |date2021-06-21 }} (in Finnish)</ref>
*1793 &ndash; The Rhône and Loire départments are created when the former département of Rhône-et-Loire is split into two.
*1806 &ndash; Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires re-takes the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina after the first British invasion.
*1831 &ndash; French intervention forces William I of the Netherlands to abandon his attempt to suppress the Belgian Revolution.
*1851 &ndash; Isaac Singer is granted a patent for his sewing machine.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleThe Invention That Spawned a Fashion Revolution |urlhttps://time.com/3985665/sewing-machine-invented/ |magazineTime |access-date26 June 2020}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; Joseph Lister, British surgeon and scientist, performs the first antiseptic surgery.
*1883 &ndash; The last quagga dies at the Natura Artis Magistra, a zoo in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
*1898 &ndash; The Hawaiian flag is lowered from ʻIolani Palace in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the flag of the United States to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the Republic of Hawaii to the United States where it is formally recognized as Hawaii.
1901–present
*1914 &ndash; World War I: The United Kingdom and the British Empire declare war on Austria-Hungary.
* 1914 &ndash; World War I: The Battle of Halen a.k.a. Battle of the Silver Helmets a clash between large Belgian and German cavalry formations at Halen, Belgium.
*1944 &ndash; Waffen-SS troops massacre 560 people in Sant'Anna di Stazzema.
* 1944 &ndash; Nazi German troops end the week-long Wola massacre, during which time at least 40,000 people are killed indiscriminately or in mass executions.
* 1944 &ndash; Alençon is liberated by General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, the first city in France to be liberated from the Nazis by French forces.
*1948 &ndash; Between 15 and 150 unarmed members of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement are killed by Pakistani police.
*1950 &ndash; Korean War: Bloody Gulch massacre: Seventy-five American POWs are massacred by the North Korean Army.
*1952 &ndash; The Night of the Murdered Poets: Thirteen prominent Jewish intellectuals are murdered in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union.
*1953 &ndash; First thermonuclear bomb test: The Soviet atomic bomb project continues with the detonation of "RDS-6s" (Joe 4) using a "layered" scheme.
* 1953 &ndash; The 7.2 {{M|s}} Ionian earthquake shakes the southern Ionian Islands with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). Between 445 and 800 people are killed.
*1960 &ndash; Echo 1A, NASA's first successful communications satellite, is launched.<ref>{{cite web |titleEcho {{!}} satellite |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Echo-satellite |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date26 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; South Africa is banned from the Olympic Games due to the country's racist policies.
*1969 &ndash; Violence erupts after the Apprentice Boys of Derry march in Derry, Northern Ireland, resulting in a three-day communal riot known as the Battle of the Bogside.
*1976 &ndash; Between 1,000 and 3,500 Palestinians are killed in the Tel al-Zaatar massacre, one of the bloodiest events of the Lebanese Civil War.
*1977 &ndash; The first free flight of the {{ship|Space Shuttle|Enterprise}}.
* 1977 &ndash; The Sri Lanka Riots: Targeting the minority Sri Lankan Tamils, begin, less than a month after the United National Party came to power. Over 300 Tamils are killed.
*1981 &ndash; The IBM Personal Computer is released.
*1984 &ndash; An infamous brawl takes place at the Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium between the Atlanta Braves and San Diego Padres.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleThis day in baseball: Braves, Padres engage in mega-brawl |urlhttps://www.si.com/mlb/2015/08/12/atlanta-braves-san-diego-padres-brawl-fight-1984 |access-dateJune 24, 2024 |magazineSports Illustrated |date=August 12, 1985}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Japan Air Lines Flight 123 crashes into Osutaka ridge in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, killing 520, to become the worst single-plane air disaster.
*1990 &ndash; Sue, the largest and most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton found to date, is discovered by Sue Hendrickson in South Dakota.
*1992 &ndash; Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
*1994 &ndash; Major League Baseball players go on strike, eventually forcing the cancellation of the 1994 World Series.
*2000 &ndash; The Russian Navy submarine {{ship|Russian submarine|Kursk|K-141|2}} explodes and sinks in the Barents Sea during a military exercise, killing her entire 118-man crew.
*2015 &ndash; At least two massive explosions kill 173 people and injure nearly 800 more in Tianjin, China.
*2016 &ndash; Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) capture the city of Manbij from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37063857|titleSyria rebels 'cut off IS escape route' through Manbij|publisherBBC|date12 August 2016|access-date12 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.almasdarnews.com/article/sdf-captures-isiss-largest-stronghold-aleppo/|titleSDF captures ISIS's largest stronghold in Aleppo|firstIzat|lastCharkatli|date12 August 2016|access-date20 July 2021|archive-date27 March 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327103044/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/sdf-captures-isiss-largest-stronghold-aleppo/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-islamic-state-idUSKCN10N178|titleU.S.-backed forces say launch final assault against Islamic State in Syria's Manbij|workReuters|date12 August 2016|access-date12 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dw.com/en/islamic-state-abducts-2000-civilians-in-northern-syria/a-19471640|titleU.S.-backed forces say launch final assault against Islamic State in Syria's Manbij|publisherDeutsche Welle|date12 August 2016|access-date12 August 2016}}</ref>
*2017 - The Unite the Right rally occurs in Charlottesville, Virginia, leading to the deaths of 3 and injuring nearly 50 more.<ref>{{Cite web |date2018-02-26 |title Independent Review of the 2017 Protest Events in Charlottesville, Virginia|urlhttp://www.charlottesville.org/home/showdocument?id59615 |access-date2024-04-26 |archive-date2018-02-26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180226033207/http://www.charlottesville.org/home/showdocument?id59615 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; Thirty-nine civilians, including a dozen children, are killed in an explosion at a weapons depot in Sarmada, Syria.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45162822|titleArms depot in Syria's Idlib province kills 39 – monitor|newspaperBBC News World Middle East|dateAugust 12, 2018 }}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Six people, five victims and the perpetrator are killed in Keyham, Plymouth in the worst mass shooting in the UK since 2010.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-58197414|title Plymouth shooting: Jake Davison named as gunman who killed five|publisherBBC News|date12 August 2021|access-date13 August 2021}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600
*1452 &ndash; Abraham Zacuto, Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, rabbi and historian (d. 1515)
*1503 &ndash; Christian III of Denmark (d. 1559)
*1506 &ndash; Franciscus Sonnius, Dutch counter-Reformation theologian (d. 1576)
*1591 &ndash; Louise de Marillac, co-founder of the Daughters of Charity (d. 1660)
*1599 &ndash; Sir William Curtius FRS, German magistrate, English baronet (d. 1678)
1601–1900
*1604 &ndash; Tokugawa Iemitsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1651)
*1626 &ndash; Giovanni Legrenzi, Italian composer (d. 1690)
*1629 &ndash; Archduchess Isabella Clara of Austria, Austrian archduchess (d. 1685)
*1644 &ndash; Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Bohemian-Austrian violinist and composer (d. 1704)
*1686 &ndash; John Balguy, English philosopher and author (d. 1748)
*1696 &ndash; Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (d. 1755)
*1762 &ndash; George IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1830)
*1773 &ndash; Karl Faber, Prussian historian and academic (d. 1853)
*1774 &ndash; Robert Southey, English poet and author (d. 1843)
*1831 &ndash; Helena Blavatsky, Russian theosophist and scholar (d. 1891)
*1852 &ndash; Michael J. McGivney, American priest and founder of the Knights of Columbus (d. 1890)
*1856 &ndash; Diamond Jim Brady, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1917)
*1857 &ndash; Ernestine von Kirchsberg, Austrian painter and educator (d. 1924)
*1859 &ndash; Katharine Lee Bates, American poet and author (d. 1929)<ref>{{cite web |titleKatharine Lee Bates {{!}} American author {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Katharine-Lee-Bates |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date25 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1860 &ndash; Klara Hitler, Austrian mother of Adolf Hitler (d. 1907)
*1866 &ndash; Jacinto Benavente, Spanish playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954)
* 1866 &ndash; Henrik Sillem, Dutch target shooter, mountaineer, and jurist (d. 1907)
*1867 &ndash; Edith Hamilton, German-American author and educator (d. 1963)
*1870 &ndash; Henry Reuterdahl, Swedish-American artist (d. 1925)
*1871 &ndash; Gustavs Zemgals, Latvian politician, 2nd President of Latvia (d. 1939)
*1876 &ndash; Mary Roberts Rinehart, American author and playwright (d. 1958)
*1877 &ndash; Albert Bartha, Hungarian general and politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (d. 1960)
*1880 &ndash; Radclyffe Hall, English poet, author, and activist (d. 1943)
* 1880 &ndash; Christy Mathewson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1925)
*1881 &ndash; Cecil B. DeMille, American director and producer (d. 1959)
*1883 &ndash; Martha Hedman, Swedish-American actress and playwright (d. 1974)
* 1883 &ndash; Marion Lorne, American actress (d. 1968)
*1885 &ndash; Jean Cabannes, French physicist and academic (d. 1959)
* 1885 &ndash; Keith Murdoch, Australian journalist (d. 1952)
* 1885 &ndash; Juhan Simm, Estonian composer and conductor (d. 1959)
*1887 &ndash; Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)
*1889 &ndash; Zerna Sharp, American author and educator (d. 1981)
*1891 &ndash; C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and academic (d. 1953)
* 1891 &ndash; John McDermott, American golfer (d. 1971)
*1892 &ndash; Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (d. 1977)
*1897 &ndash; Maurice Fernandes, Guyanese cricketer (d. 1981)
*1899 &ndash; Ben Sealey, Trinidadian cricketer (d. 1963)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian statesman, 1st Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1980)
*1904 &ndash; Idel Jakobson, Latvian-Estonian NKVD officer (d. 1997)
* 1904 &ndash; Tamás Lossonczy, Hungarian painter (d. 2009)
* 1904 &ndash; Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia (d. 1918)
*1906 &ndash; Harry Hopman, Australian tennis player and coach (d. 1985)
* 1906 &ndash; Tedd Pierce, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1972)
*1907 &ndash; Gladys Bentley, American blues singer (d. 1960)
* 1907 &ndash; Joe Besser, American actor (d. 1988)
* 1907 &ndash; Boy Charlton, Australian swimmer (d. 1975)
* 1907 &ndash; Benjamin Sheares, Singaporean physician and politician, 2nd President of Singapore (d. 1981)
*1909 &ndash; Bruce Matthews, Canadian general and businessman (d. 1991)
*1910 &ndash; Yusof bin Ishak, Singaporean journalist and politician, 1st President of Singapore (d. 1970)<ref name"roots.sg">{{cite web |titleYusof Ishak |urlhttps://www.roots.gov.sg/learn/stories/yusof-ishak/story |websitewww.roots.sg |publisherNational Heritage Board |access-date8 November 2020 |languageen }}{{Dead link|dateFebruary 2022 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
* 1910 &ndash; Jane Wyatt, American actress (d. 2006)
*1911 &ndash; Cantinflas, Mexican actor, screenwriter, and producer (d. 1993)
*1912 &ndash; Samuel Fuller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1997)
*1913 &ndash; Richard L. Bare, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
*1914 &ndash; Gerd Buchdahl, German-English philosopher and author (d. 2001)
* 1914 &ndash; Ruth Lowe, Canadian pianist and songwriter (d. 1981)
*1915 &ndash; Michael Kidd, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2007)
*1916 &ndash; Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (d. 2012)
* 1916 &ndash; Edward Pinkowski, American writer, journalist and Polonia historian (d. 2020)
*1917 &ndash; Oliver Crawford, American screenwriter and author (d. 2008)
* 1917 &ndash; Ebba Haslund, Norwegian writer (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleEbba Haslund |first |last|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date23 August 2023|editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Ebba_Haslund |languageno|access-date25 March 2024}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; Sid Bernstein, American record producer (d. 2013)
* 1918 &ndash; Guy Gibson, Anglo-Indian commander and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944)
*1919 &ndash; Margaret Burbidge, English-American astrophysicist and academic (d. 2020)
* 1919 &ndash; Vikram Sarabhai, Indian physicist and academic (d. 1971)
*1920 &ndash; Charles Gibson, American ethnohistorian (d. 1985)
* 1920 &ndash; Percy Mayfield, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1984)<ref>{{cite book |last1Talevski |first1Nick |titleRock Obituaries: Knocking On Heaven's Door |date2010 |publisherOmnibus Press |isbn978-0-85712-117-2 |page403 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDykffzkFALoC&pgPA403 |access-date8 August 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Fulton Mackay, Scottish actor and playwright (d. 1987)
* 1922 &ndash; Miloš Jakeš, Czech communist politician (d. 2020)
*1923 &ndash; John Holt, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1997)
*1924 &ndash; Derek Shackleton, English cricketer, coach, and umpire (d. 2007)
* 1924 &ndash; Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (d. 1988)
*1925 &ndash; Dale Bumpers, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 38th Governor of Arkansas (d. 2016)
* 1925 &ndash; Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (d. 1986)
* 1925 &ndash; Donald Justice, American poet and writing teacher (d. 2004)
* 1925 &ndash; Norris McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist co-founded the Guinness World Records (d. 2004)
* 1925 &ndash; Ross McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist, co-founded the Guinness World Records (d. 1975)
* 1925 &ndash; George Wetherill, American physicist and academic (d. 2006)
*1926 &ndash; Douglas Croft, American child actor (d. 1963)<ref>{{cite book |last1Wilson |first1Scott |last2Mank |first2 Gregory W. |titleResting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons |locationJefferson, N.C. |publisherMcFarland & Company |date2016 |isbn978-0-7864-79924 |url https://books.google.com/books?idFOHgDAAAQBAJ |page167}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; John Derek, American actor, director, and cinematographer (d. 1998)
* 1926 &ndash; Joe Jones, American R&B singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)
*1927 &ndash; Porter Wagoner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)
*1928 &ndash; Charles Blackman, Australian painter and illustrator (d. 2018)
* 1928 &ndash; Bob Buhl, American baseball player (d. 2001)
* 1928 &ndash; Dan Curtis, American director and producer (d. 2006)
*1929 &ndash; Buck Owens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006)
*1930 &ndash; George Soros, Hungarian-American businessman and investor, founded the Soros Fund Management
* 1930 &ndash; Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan engineer and civil servant (d. 2010)
* 1930 &ndash; Jacques Tits, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (d. 2021)
*1931 &ndash; William Goldman, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2018)
*1932 &ndash; Dallin H. Oaks, American lawyer, jurist, and religious leader
* 1932 &ndash; Charlie O'Donnell, American radio and television announcer (d. 2010)
* 1932 &ndash; Sirikit, Queen mother of Thailand
*1933 &ndash; Parnelli Jones, American race car driver and businessman (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news |lastGoldstein |firstRichard |date2024-06-05 |titleParnelli Jones, Champion Auto Racer and Record Setter, Is Dead at 90 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/04/sports/autoracing/parnelli-jones-dead.html |access-date2024-06-06 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
* 1933 &ndash; Frederic Lindsay, Scottish author and educator (d. 2013)
*1934 &ndash; Robin Nicholson, English metallurgist and academic
*1935 &ndash; John Cazale, American actor (d. 1978)
*1936 &ndash; Kjell Grede, Swedish director and screenwriter (d. 2017)
*1937 &ndash; Walter Dean Myers, American author and poet (d. 2014)
*1938 &ndash; Jean-Paul L'Allier, Canadian journalist and politician, 38th Mayor of Quebec City (d. 2016)
*1939 &ndash; George Hamilton, American actor
* 1939 &ndash; David Jacobs, American television writer and producer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/25/arts/television/david-jacobs-dead.html|titleDavid Jacobs, 84, Dies; Turned Soap Opera Drama Into Prime-Time Gold|lastSandomir|firstRichard|newspaperThe New York Times|dateAugust 26, 2023|access-date=August 27, 2023}}</ref>
* 1939 &ndash; S. Jayakumar, Singaporean politician, 4th Senior Minister of Singapore<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.sal.org.sg/Newsroom/Speeches/Speech-Details/id/452|titleCitation for Professor S Jayakumar|websiteSingapore Academy of Law|access-date27 July 2020}}</ref>
* 1939 &ndash; Pam Kilborn, Australian track and field athlete
* 1939 &ndash; David King, South African chemist and academic
* 1939 &ndash; Sushil Koirala, Nepalese politician, 37th Prime Minister of Nepal (d. 2016)
* 1939 &ndash; Roy Romanow, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Saskatchewan
*1940 &ndash; Eddie Barlow, South African cricketer and coach (d. 2005)
* 1940 &ndash; John Waller, English historical European martial arts (HEMA) revival pioneer and fight director (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite journal |titleJohn Waller – A Life Remembered |firstGuy |lastWilson |author-linkGuy Wilson (historian) |journalArms & Armour |publisherRoyal Armouries |volume15 |year2018 |issue2 |pages113–121 |doi10.1080/17416124.2018.1522141 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; L. M. Kit Carson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)
* 1941 &ndash; Réjean Ducharme, Canadian author and playwright (d. 2017)
* 1941 &ndash; Dana Ivey, American actress
*1942 &ndash; Hans-Wilhelm Müller-Wohlfahrt, German physician and author
*1943 &ndash; Javeed Alam, Indian academician<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.newsclick.in/javeed-alam-thinker-and-activist|titleJaveed Alam – a Thinker and an Activist|date5 December 2016|websiteNewsClick}}</ref> (d. 2016)
*1945 &ndash; Dorothy E. Denning, American computer scientist and academic
* 1945 &ndash; Ron Mael, American keyboard player and songwriter
*1946 &ndash; Terry Nutkins, English television host and author (d. 2012)
*1947 &ndash; John Nathan-Turner, English author and television director, producer, and writer (d. 2002)<ref>{{cite news|titleJohn Nathan-Turner|workThe Daily Telegraph|date7 May 2002|access-date12 August 2018|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1393361/John-Nathan-Turner.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1393361/John-Nathan-Turner.html |archive-date2022-01-12 |url-accesssubscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Siddaramaiah, Indian lawyer and politician, 22nd Chief Minister of Karnataka
* 1948 &ndash; Graham J. Zellick, English academic and jurist
*1949 &ndash; Panagiotis Chinofotis, Greek admiral and politician
* 1949 &ndash; Mark Knopfler, Scottish-English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1949 &ndash; Lou Martin, Northern Irish pianist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2012)
* 1949 &ndash; Alex Naumik, Lithuanian-Norwegian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)
* 1949 &ndash; Rick Ridgeway, American mountaineer and photographer
*1950 &ndash; Jim Beaver, American actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1950 &ndash; August "Kid Creole" Darnell, American musician, bandleader, singer-songwriter, and record producer
* 1950 &ndash; George McGinnis, American basketball player (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web|titleGeorge McGinnis|urlhttp://www.hoophall.com/hall-of-famers/george-mcginnis/|publisherThe Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame|access-date24 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170913235632/http://www.hoophall.com/hall-of-famers/george-mcginnis/|archive-date13 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Klaus Toppmöller, German football manager and former player
*1952 &ndash; Daniel Biles, American associate justice of the Kansas Supreme Court
* 1952 &ndash; Sitaram Yechury, Indian politician and leader of CPI(M)<ref>{{cite news|titleSitaram Yechury: Suave, Soft-Spoken and Dynamic|urlhttp://www.ndtv.com/india-news/sitaram-yechury-suave-soft-spoken-and-dynamic-756280|access-date19 April 2015|agencyNDTV|date19 April 2015}}</ref> (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-09-12 |titleSitaram Yechury, CPI(M) general secretary, passes away |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/india/sitaram-yechury-dead-9563945/ |access-date2024-09-16 |websiteThe Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; Rob Borbidge, Australian politician, 35th Premier of Queensland
* 1954 &ndash; Leung Chun-ying, Hong Kong businessman and politician, 3rd Chief Executive of Hong Kong
* 1954 &ndash; Ibolya Dávid, Hungarian lawyer and politician, Minister of Justice of Hungary
* 1954 &ndash; François Hollande, French lawyer and politician, 24th President of France
* 1954 &ndash; Sam J. Jones, American actor<ref>{{cite news|lastRose|firstMike|titleToday's top celebrity birthdays list for August 12, 2018|workThe Plain Dealer|dateAugust 12, 2018|access-dateAugust 12, 2018|url=https://www.cleveland.com/expo/life-and-culture/erry-2018/08/311239569b1980/todays-top-celebrity-birthdays.html}}</ref>
* 1954 &ndash; Pat Metheny, American jazz guitarist and composer
*1956 &ndash; Lee Freedman, Australian horse trainer
* 1956 &ndash; Bruce Greenwood, Canadian actor and producer
* 1956 &ndash; Sidath Wettimuny, Sri Lankan cricketer
*1957 &ndash; Friedhelm Schütte, German footballer
* 1957 &ndash; Amanda Redman, English actress
*1958 &ndash; Jürgen Dehmel, German bass player and songwriter
*1959 &ndash; Kerry Boustead, Australian rugby league player
*1960 &ndash; Laurent Fignon, French cyclist and sportscaster (d. 2010)
* 1960 &ndash; Greg Thomas, Welsh-English cricketer
*1961 &ndash; Roy Hay, English guitarist, keyboard player, and composer
* 1961 &ndash; Mark Priest, New Zealand cricketer
*1963 &ndash; Kōji Kitao, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 60th Yokozuna (d. 2019)
* 1963 &ndash; Campbell Newman, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Queensland
* 1963 &ndash; Sir Mix-a-Lot, American rapper, producer, and actor
*1964 &ndash; Txiki Begiristain, Spanish footballer
* 1964 &ndash; Michael Hagan, Australian rugby league player and coach
*1965 &ndash; Peter Krause, American actor
*1966 &ndash; Tobias Ellwood, American-English captain and politician
*1967 &ndash; Andy Hui, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor
* 1967 &ndash; Andrey Plotnikov, Russian race walker
* 1967 &ndash; Regilio Tuur, Dutch boxer
*1968 &ndash; Thorsten Boer, German footballer and manager
*1969 &ndash; Aga Muhlach, Filipino actor and politician
* 1969 &ndash; Stuart Williams, Nevisian cricketer
* 1969 &ndash; Tanita Tikaram, British pop/folk singer-songwriter<ref name"Larkin">{{cite book|titleThe Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music|editorColin Larkin|editor-linkColin Larkin (writer)|publisherVirgin Books|date1997|editionConcise|isbn1-85227-745-9|page=1180}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Aleksandar Đurić, Bosnian footballer
* 1970 &ndash; Charles Mesure, English-Australian actor and screenwriter
* 1970 &ndash; Toby Perkins, English businessman and politician
* 1970 &ndash; Jim Schlossnagle, American baseball player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Anthony Swofford, American soldier and author
*1971 &ndash; Michael Ian Black, American comedian, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1971 &ndash; Yvette Nicole Brown, American actress, comedian, and talk show host<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 12, 2022 includes celebrities George Hamilton, Cara Delevingne |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-12-2022-includes-celebrities-george-hamilton-cara-delevingne.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date10 August 2023 |date=12 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1971 &ndash; Rebecca Gayheart, American actress
* 1971 &ndash; Pete Sampras, American tennis player
*1972 &ndash; Demir Demirkan, Turkish singer-songwriter and producer
* 1972 &ndash; Mark Kinsella, Irish footballer and manager
* 1972 &ndash; Takanohana Kōji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 65th Yokozuna
* 1972 &ndash; Gyanendra Pandey, Indian cricketer
* 1972 &ndash; Del the Funky Homosapien, American rapper <ref name"Hiero">{{cite web|urlhttp://ensim.hieroglyphics.com/artists/del/|titleDel tha Amazing Homosapien|access-dateSeptember 5, 2007|publisherHieroglyphics|authorHieroglyphics|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070814112553/http://ensim.hieroglyphics.com/artists/del/|archive-date=August 14, 2007}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Jonathan Coachman, American sportscaster and wrestler
* 1973 &ndash; Mark Iuliano, Italian footballer and manager
* 1973 &ndash; Todd Marchant, American ice hockey player and coach
*1974 &ndash; Matt Clement, American baseball player and coach
* 1974 &ndash; Karl Stefanovic, Australian television host
*1975 &ndash; Casey Affleck, American actor
*1976 &ndash; Pedro Collins, Barbadian cricketer
* 1976 &ndash; Mikko Lindström, Finnish guitarist
* 1976 &ndash; Henry Tuilagi, Samoan rugby player
* 1976 &ndash; Antoine Walker, American basketball player
*1977 &ndash; Plaxico Burress, American football player
* 1977 &ndash; Jesper Grønkjær, Danish footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Park Yong-ha, South Korean actor (d. 2010)
*1978 &ndash; Chris Chambers, American football player
* 1978 &ndash; Hayley Wickenheiser, Canadian ice hockey player
*1979 &ndash; D. J. Houlton, American baseball player
* 1979 &ndash; Ian Hutchinson, English motorcycle racer
* 1979 &ndash; Cindy Klassen, Canadian speed skater
* 1979 &ndash; Austra Skujytė, Lithuanian pentathlete
*1980 &ndash; Javier Chevantón, Uruguayan footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Maggie Lawson, American actress
* 1980 &ndash; Dominique Swain, American actress
* 1980 &ndash; Matt Thiessen, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1981 &ndash; Tony Capaldi, Norwegian–Northern Irish footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Djibril Cissé, French footballer
*1982 &ndash; Boban Grnčarov, Macedonian footballer
* 1982 &ndash; Alexandros Tzorvas, Greek footballer
*1983 &ndash; Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, Dutch footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Kléber Giacomance de Souza Freitas, Brazilian footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Manoa Vosawai, Italian rugby player
*1984 &ndash; Bryan Pata, American football player (d. 2006)
*1985 &ndash; Danny Graham, English footballer
* 1985 &ndash; Franck Moutsinga, German rugby player
*1986 &ndash; Andrei Agius, Maltese footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Kyle Arrington, American football player
*1987 &ndash; Vanessa Watts, West Indian cricketer
*1988 &ndash; Tyson Fury, English boxer
* 1988 &ndash; Matt Gillett, Australian rugby league player
*1989 &ndash; Tom Cleverley, English footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Hong Jeong-ho, South Korean footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Sunye, South Korean singer<ref>{{cite book |authorMark Russell |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idetDZAwAAQBAJ |titleK-Pop Now!: The Korean Music Revolution |date2014 |publisherTuttle Publishing |isbn978-1-4629-1411-1 |page80}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Mario Balotelli, Italian footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Marvin Zeegelaar, Dutch footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Martin Zurawsky, German footballer
*1991 &ndash; Jesinta Campbell, Australian model
* 1991 &ndash; Sam Hoare, Australian rugby league player
* 1991 &ndash; Khris Middleton, American basketball player<ref>{{Cite web |titleKhris Middleton |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/203114/khris-middleton |access-date12 April 2024 |publisherNational Basketball Association}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; LaKeith Stanfield, American actor and musician<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1992 &ndash; Cara Delevingne, English model and actress<ref>{{cite web |lastHaynes |firstGavin |date10 April 2013 |titleA Moron's Guide to Cara Delevingne |urlhttps://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/a-morons-guide-to-cara-delevingne |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140503200227/http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/a-morons-guide-to-cara-delevingne |archive-date3 May 2014 |access-date3 May 2014 |workVice}}</ref>
* 1992 &ndash; Jacob Loko, Australian rugby player
* 1992 &ndash; Teo Gheorghiu, Swiss pianist and actor
*1993 &ndash; Ewa Farna, Czech singer-songwriter
* 1993 &ndash; Luna, South Korean singer, actress and presenter<ref>{{cite book |lastRussell |firstMark |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idetDZAwAAQBAJ |titleK-Pop Now!: The Korean Music Revolution |date2014 |publisherTuttle Publishing |isbn978-1-4629-1411-1 |page93 |viaGoogle Books}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Ian Happ, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleIan Happ |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/ian-happ-664023 |websiteMLB.com |access-dateAugust 10, 2024}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Choi Yu-jin, South Korean singer and actress<ref>{{cite web |lastMoon |firstWan-sik |dateMarch 13, 2015 |script-titleko:큐브 新걸그룹 씨엘씨 '비율종결자' 최유진 프로필 공개 |trans-titleCube's new girl group CLC's 'Ratio Finalist' Choi Yoo-jin's profile revealed |urlhttps://star.mt.co.kr/stview.php?no2015031310224714859&type1&outlink1 |access-dateJuly 25, 2021 |workStar News |languageko}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Julio Urías, Mexican baseball player
* 1996 &ndash; Arthur Melo, Brazilian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleFIFA Club World Cup UAE 2017: List of Players: Grêmio FBPA |urlhttp://www.fifadata.com/documents/FCWC/2017/pdf/FCWC_2017_Squadlists.pdf |publisherFIFA |page4 |date29 November 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201043355/http://www.fifadata.com/documents/FCWC/2017/pdf/FCWC_2017_Squadlists.pdf |archive-date1 December 2017 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Samuel Moutoussamy, Congolese footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleSamuel Moutoussamy |url https://www.fcnantes.com/groupepro/20212022/fiche.php?numjoueur189 |publisher FC Nantes |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220725165652/https://www.fcnantes.com/groupepro/20212022/fiche.php?numjoueur189 |archive-date=25 July 2022 }}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Stefanos Tsitsipas, Greek tennis player
*1999 &ndash; Matthijs de Ligt, Dutch footballer
* 1999 &ndash; Dream, American YouTuber<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://kotaku.com/minecraft-megastar-admits-to-cheating-after-months-of-d-1847009623|access-date31 July 2021|titleMinecraft Megastar Admits to Cheating After Months of Denial, Death Threats|dateJune 2021 }}</ref>
* 1999 &ndash; Jule Niemeier, German tennis player<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/325940/jule-niemeier|titleWTAtennis.com Profile: Jule Niemeier|publisherWomen's Tennis Association|access-date17 October 2022}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Tristan Charpentier, French racing driver<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.indylights.com/teams-drivers/current-drivers/tristan-charpentier|titleTristan Charpentier|access-date21 April 2020|archive-date11 August 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200811035731/https://www.indylights.com/teams-drivers/current-drivers/tristan-charpentier|url-statusdead}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Dixie D'Amelio, American social media personality and singer<ref>{{Cite web|lastGrant|firstStacey|dateJuly 16, 2020|titleEverything You Need to Know About Dixie D'Amelio, Charli's Older Sister|urlhttps://www.seventeen.com/celebrity/celebrity-couples/g31816740/who-is-dixie-d-amelio/|url-statuslive|access-dateJune 8, 2021|websiteSeventeen|languageen-US|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200325215333/https://www.seventeen.com/celebrity/celebrity-couples/g31816740/who-is-dixie-d-amelio/ |archive-date=2020-03-25 }}</ref>
<!-- Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*30 BC &ndash; Cleopatra, Egyptian queen (b. 69 BC)
* 792 &ndash; Jænberht, archbishop of Canterbury
* 875 &ndash; Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 825)
* 960 &ndash; Li Gu, chancellor of Later Zhou (b. 903)
* 961 &ndash; Yuan Zong, emperor of Southern Tang (b. 916)
*1222 &ndash; Vladislaus III, duke of Bohemia
*1295 &ndash; Charles Martel, king of Hungary (b. 1271)
*1319 &ndash; Rudolf I, duke of Bavaria (b. 1274)
*1315 &ndash; Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick, English nobleman
*1335 &ndash; Prince Moriyoshi, Japanese shōgun (b. 1308)
*1399 &ndash; Demetrius I Starshy, Prince of Trubczewsk (in battle) (b. 1327)
*1424 &ndash; Yongle, emperor of the Ming Empire (b. 1360)
*1484 &ndash; Sixtus IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1414)<ref>{{cite web |titleSixtus IV {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Sixtus-IV |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date26 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1546 &ndash; Francisco de Vitoria, Spanish theologian (b. 1492)
*1577 &ndash; Thomas Smith, English scholar and diplomat (b. 1513)
*1588 &ndash; Alfonso Ferrabosco the elder, Italian-English composer (b. 1543)
1601–1900
*1602 &ndash; Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, Mughal vizier and historian (b. 1551)
*1612 &ndash; Giovanni Gabrieli, Italian organist and composer (b. 1557)
*1638 &ndash; Johannes Althusius, German jurist and philosopher (b. 1557)
*1674 &ndash; Philippe de Champaigne, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1602)
*1689 &ndash; Pope Innocent XI (b. 1611)
*1778 &ndash; Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Lincolnshire (b. 1714)
*1809 &ndash; Mikhail Kamensky, Russian field marshal (b. 1738)
*1810 &ndash; Étienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (b. 1725)
*1822 &ndash; Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Irish-English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (b. 1769)
*1827 &ndash; William Blake, English poet and painter (b. 1757)<ref>{{cite web |titleWilliam Blake |urlhttps://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/william-blake/ |websiteWestminster Abbey |access-date27 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
*1829 &ndash; Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie, French general (b. 1760)
*1848 &ndash; George Stephenson, English engineer and academic (b. 1781)
*1849 &ndash; Albert Gallatin, Swiss-American ethnologist, linguist, and politician, 4th United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1761)
*1861 &ndash; Eliphalet Remington, American inventor and businessman, founded Remington Arms (b. 1793)
*1864 &ndash; Sakuma Shōzan, Japanese scholar and politician (b. 1811)
*1865 &ndash; William Jackson Hooker, English botanist and academic (b. 1785)
*1891 &ndash; James Russell Lowell, American poet and critic (b. 1819)
*1896 &ndash; Thomas Chamberlain, American colonel (b. 1841)
*1900 &ndash; Wilhelm Steinitz, Austrian chess player and theoretician (b. 1836)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Finnish-Swedish botanist, geologist, mineralogist, and explorer (b. 1832)
*1904 &ndash; William Renshaw, English tennis player (b. 1861)
*1914 &ndash; John Philip Holland, Irish engineer, designed {{HMS|Holland 1}} (b. 1840)
*1918 &ndash; William Thompson, American archer (b. 1848)
*1921 &ndash; Pyotr Boborykin, Russian playwright and journalist (b. 1836)
*1922 &ndash; Arthur Griffith, Irish journalist and politician, 3rd President of Dáil Éireann (b. 1871)
*1924 &ndash; Sándor Bródy, Hungarian journalist and author (b. 1863)
*1928 &ndash; Leoš Janáček, Czech composer and educator (b. 1854)
*1934 &ndash; Hendrik Petrus Berlage, Dutch architect, designed the Beurs van Berlage (b. 1856)
*1935 &ndash; Friedrich Schottky, German mathematician and academic (b. 1851)
*1940 &ndash; Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter, illustrator, and academic (b. 1884)
*1941 &ndash; Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, English soldier and politician, 56th Governor General of Canada (b. 1866)
* 1941 &ndash; Bobby Peel, English cricketer and umpire (b. 1857)
*1943 &ndash; Vittorio Sella, Italian photographer and mountaineer (b. 1859)
*1944 &ndash; Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1915)
* 1944 &ndash; Jacques Pellegrin, French zoologist (b. 1873)<ref>[http://www.kmae-journal.org/articles/kmae/pdf/1944/04/kmae194413504.pdf KMAE Journal] Bull. Fr. Piscic. (1944) 135 : 94–96 DOI: 10.1051/kmae:1944004</ref>
*1952 &ndash; David Bergelson, Ukrainian author and playwright (b. 1884)
*1955 &ndash; Thomas Mann, German author and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1875)
* 1955 &ndash; James B. Sumner, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)
*1959 &ndash; Mike O'Neill, Irish-American baseball player and manager (b. 1877)
*1964 &ndash; Ian Fleming, English spy, journalist, and author (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite web |titleIan Fleming {{!}} Biography, Novels, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Ian-Fleming |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date9 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (b. 1923)
*1967 &ndash; Esther Forbes, American historian and author (b. 1891)<ref>{{cite book|lastKingman|firstLee|chapterForbes, Esther|editor-firstD.L.|editor-lastKirkpatrick|titleTwentieth-century Children's Writers|locationLondon|publisherMacmillan|year1978|isbn978-0-33323-414-3|page=466}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
* 1973 &ndash; Karl Ziegler, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1898)
*1976 &ndash; Tom Driberg, British politician/journalist (b. 1905)<ref nameHines>{{cite ODNB|urlhttp://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31047|titleTom Driberg|lastDavenport-Hines|firstRichard|year2004|doi10.1093/ref:odnb/31047|access-date12 February 2010}}{{subscription required}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; John Williams, English motorcycle racer (b. 1946)
*1979 &ndash; Ernst Boris Chain, German-Irish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
*1982 &ndash; Henry Fonda, American actor (b. 1905)
* 1982 &ndash; Salvador Sánchez, Mexican boxer (b. 1959)
*1983 &ndash; Theodor Burchardi, German admiral (b. 1892)
*1984 &ndash; Ladi Kwali, Nigerian potter (b. 1925)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.thistrend.com.ng/2017/03/15-facts-about-ladi-kwali-pottery-woman.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170317101452/http://www.thistrend.com.ng/2017/03/15-facts-about-ladi-kwali-pottery-woman.html|url-statusdead|archive-date2017-03-17|title15 Facts about Ladi Kwali: The Pottery Woman on N20 Note – ThisTrend Blog|date2017-03-17|access-date=2018-08-06}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Kyu Sakamoto, Japanese singer-songwriter (b. 1941)
* 1985 &ndash; Manfred Winkelhock, German race car driver (b. 1951)
*1986 &ndash; Evaline Ness, American author and illustrator (b. 1911)
*1988 &ndash; Jean-Michel Basquiat, American painter (b. 1960)
*1989 &ndash; Aimo Koivunen, Finnish soldier and corporal (b. 1917)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.sotapolku.fi/henkilot/koivunen_aimo-allan_1917-11-14_alastaro/|title Aimo Allan Koivunen|author<!--Not stated--> |date 2016|websitewww.sotapolku.fi|publisher |access-date19 October 2018|languagefi}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; William Shockley, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910)
*1990 &ndash; Dorothy Mackaill, English-American actress (b. 1903)
*1992 &ndash; John Cage, American composer and theorist (b. 1912)
*1996 &ndash; Victor Ambartsumian, Georgian-Armenian astrophysicist and academic (b. 1908)
* 1996 &ndash; Mark Gruenwald, American author and illustrator (b. 1953)
*1997 &ndash; Jack Delano, American photographer and composer (b. 1914)
*1999 &ndash; Jean Drapeau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Mayor of Montreal (b. 1916)
*2000 &ndash; Gennady Lyachin, Russian captain (b. 1955)
* 2000 &ndash; Loretta Young, American actress (b. 1913)<ref>{{cite web |titleBBC News {{!}} Americas {{!}} Elegant beauty Loretta Young dies |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/849409.stm |websitenews.bbc.co.uk |access-date26 June 2020}}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Enos Slaughter, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916)
*2004 &ndash; Godfrey Hounsfield, English biophysicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1919)
*2005 &ndash; John Loder, English sound engineer and producer, founded Southern Studios (b. 1946)
*2006 &ndash; Victoria Gray Adams, American civil rights activist (b. 1926)
*2007 &ndash; Merv Griffin, American actor, singer, and producer, created Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune (b. 1925)
* 2007 &ndash; Mike Wieringo, American author and illustrator (b. 1963)
*2008 &ndash; Christie Allen, English-Australian singer (b. 1954)
* 2008 &ndash; Helge Hagerup, Norwegian playwright, poet and novelist (b. 1933)
*2009 &ndash; Les Paul, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1915)
*2010 &ndash; Isaac Bonewits, American Druid, author, and activist; founded Ár nDraíocht Féin (b. 1949)
* 2010 &ndash; Guido de Marco, Maltese lawyer and politician, 6th President of Malta (b. 1931)
* 2010 &ndash; Richie Hayward, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1946)
* 2010 &ndash; André Kim, South Korean fashion designer (b. 1935)
*2011 &ndash; Robert Robinson, English journalist and author (b. 1927)
*2012 &ndash; Jimmy Carr, American football player and coach (b. 1933)
* 2012 &ndash; Jerry Grant, American race car driver (b. 1935)
* 2012 &ndash; Joe Kubert, Polish-American illustrator, founded The Kubert School (b. 1926)
* 2012 &ndash; Édgar Morales Pérez, Mexican engineer and politician
* 2012 &ndash; Alf Morris, English politician and activist (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite web |titleLord Morris of Manchester obituary {{!}} Politics |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/aug/14/lord-morris-of-manchester |websiteThe Guardian |access-date27 February 2021}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Tereza de Arriaga, Portuguese painter (b. 1915)
* 2013 &ndash; Hans-Ekkehard Bob, German soldier and pilot (b. 1917)
* 2013 &ndash; Pauline Maier, American historian and academic (b. 1938)
* 2013 &ndash; David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (b. 1952)
* 2013 &ndash; Vasiliy Mihaylovich Peskov, Russian ecologist and journalist (b. 1930)
*2014 &ndash; Lauren Bacall, American model, actress, and singer (b. 1924)
* 2014 &ndash; Futatsuryū Jun'ichi, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1950)
* 2014 &ndash; Kongō Masahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1948)
*2015 &ndash; Jaakko Hintikka, Finnish philosopher and academic (b. 1929)
* 2015 &ndash; Stephen Lewis, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)
* 2015 &ndash; Meshulim Feish Lowy, Hungarian-Canadian rabbi and author (b. 1921)
* 2015 &ndash; John Scott, English organist and conductor (b. 1956)
*2016 &ndash; Juan Pedro de Miguel, Spanish handball player (b. 1958)
*2017 &ndash; Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (b. 1942)
*2019 &ndash; DJ Arafat, Ivorian DJ and singer (b. 1986)
*2020 &ndash; Bill Yeoman, American college football player and coach (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/deaths/date/2020/august|titleFamous People Who Died in August 2020|websiteOn This Day|dateAugust 2020 |access-date=2020-08-23}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Una Stubbs, English actress, TV personality, and dancer (b. 1937)<ref>{{Cite web|lastChung|firstGabrielle|date2021-08-12|titleSherlock Actress Una Stubbs Dies at 84: 'What a Talent'|urlhttps://people.com/tv/sherlock-actress-una-stubbs-dead/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210814202922/https://people.com/tv/sherlock-actress-una-stubbs-dead/|archive-date2021-08-14|access-date2021-08-20|websitePeople|language=en}}</ref>
*2024 – Kim Kahana, American actor and stunt performer (b. 1929)<ref>{{Cite web |lastBarnes |firstMike |date2024-08-13 |titleKim Kahana, Stuntman Who Starred in 'Danger Island' and Doubled for Charles Bronson, Dies at 94 |urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/kim-kahana-dead-stuntman-danger-island-charles-bronson-1235973467/ |access-date2024-08-18 |websiteThe Hollywood Reporter |languageen-US}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Euplius
** Eusebius of Milan
** Herculanus of Brescia
** Pope Innocent XI
** Jænberht
** Jane Frances de Chantal
** Muiredach (or Murtagh)
** Porcarius II
** August 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom)
* HM the Queen Mother's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand)
* International Youth Day (United Nations)<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
* Russian Air Force Day (Russia)
* Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
* Sea Org Day (Scientology)
* World Elephant Day (International)<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld Elephant Day – August 12 |urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/video/tv/world-elephant-day-august-12 |websiteNational Geographic |access-date26 June 2020 |languageen-gb |date16 October 2017}}</ref>
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/12 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day12}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/12 |titleHistorical Events on August 12 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 12}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_12 | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.802718 |
1494 | Alfred Russel Wallace | {{Short description|English naturalist (1823–1913)}}
{{Redirect|Alfred Wallace|the artist|Alfred Wallis}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Alfred Russel Wallace
| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals|countryGBR|size=100%|OM|FRS}}
| image = Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg
| caption = Wallace in 1895
| birth_date {{birth date|dfyes|1823|01|08}}
| birth_place Llanbadoc, Monmouthshire<!--Whether Monmouthshire was in Wales in 1872 is debatable. Please leave this alone; this page is not the place for this debate-->{{efn|namefn1|Though today in Wales, Monmouthshire's status was ambiguous at the time and was even considered by some to be in England, which it borders.}}
| death_date {{nowrap|{{death date and age|dfyes|1913|11|07|1823|01|08}}}}
| death_place = Broadstone, Dorset, England
| known_for = {{Plainlist|
* Co-discovery of natural selection
* Pioneering work on biogeography
* Wallace Line
* Wallace effect
}}
| author_abbrev_bot = Wallace
| spouse = Annie Mitten (m. 1866)
| children = Herbert, Violet, William
| field = {{cslist|Exploration|evolutionary biology|zoology|biogeography|social reform}}
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
* Royal Medal (1868)
* Gold Medal of the {{lang|fr|Société de Géographie}} (1870)
* Darwin Medal (1890)
* Founder's Medal (1892)
* Linnean Medal (1892)
* Copley Medal (1908)
* Darwin–Wallace Medal (Gold, 1908)
* Order of Merit (1908)
}}
}}
Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was an English<ref>{{Cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |urlhttp://archive.org/details/b31360580_0002 |titleMy Life: A Record of Events and Opinions |date1905 |publisherLondon: Chapman & Hall, Ld |othersWellcome Library |pages34 |quote"I was the only Englishman who had lived some months alone in that country...."}}</ref>{{Sfn|Wallace|1869|page261|loc"Now we Englishmen do not like despotism— we hate the name and the thing, and we would rather see people ignorant, lazy, and vicious, than use any but moral force to make them wise, industrious, and good...."}}{{Sfn|Wallace|1869|p552|loc"and being (as far as I am aware) the only Englishman who has seen these wonderful birds in their native forests, and obtained specimens of many of them, I propose to give here, in a connected form, the result of my observations and inquiries...."}} naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator.<ref name"Smith">{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/FAQ.htm |titleResponses to Questions Frequently Asked About Alfred Russel Wallace |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |author-linkCharles H. Smith (historian) |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> He independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection; his 1858 paper on the subject was published that year alongside extracts from Charles Darwin's earlier writings on the topic.<ref name"tendency"/>{{sfn|Darwin|Wallace|1858}} It spurred Darwin to set aside the "big species book" he was drafting and to quickly write an abstract of it, which was published in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.
Wallace did extensive fieldwork, starting in the Amazon River basin. He then did fieldwork in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia. He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species, and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography", or more specifically of zoogeography.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/chsarwin.htm |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Evolution of an Evolutionist Introduction |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |author-linkCharles H. Smith (historian) |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>
Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century, working on warning color<!--yes, BE uses -or- not -our- here-->ation in animals and reinforcement (sometimes known as the Wallace effect), a way that natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Wallace's 1904 book ''Man's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He was one of the first scientists to write a serious exploration of whether there was life on Mars.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S730.htm |titleIs Mars Habitable?, by Alfred Russel Wallace |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |author-linkCharles H. Smith (historian) |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>
Aside from scientific work, he was a social activist, critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system in 19th-century Britain. His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with other scientists. He was one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. He wrote prolifically on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Southeast Asia, The Malay Archipelago'', was first published in 1869. It continues to be both popular and highly regarded.
Biography
Early life
Alfred Russel Wallace was born on 8 January 1823 in Llanbadoc, Monmouthshire.<!--Whether Monmouthshire was in Wales in 1872 is debatable. Please leave this alone; this page is not the place for this debate-->{{efn|namefn1}}{{sfn|Wilson|2000|p1}} He was the eighth of nine children born to Mary Anne Wallace ({{née|Greenell}}) and Thomas Vere Wallace. His mother was English, while his father was of Scottish ancestry. His family claimed a connection to William Wallace, a leader of Scottish forces during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century.<ref name=WKU_bio/>
Wallace's father graduated in law but never practised it. He owned some income-generating property, but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family's financial position. Wallace's mother was from a middle-class family of Hertford,<ref name"WKU_bio">{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/BIOG.htm |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Capsule Biography |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |author-linkCharles H. Smith (historian)|websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> to which place his family moved when Wallace was five years old. He attended Hertford Grammar School until 1837, when he reached the age of 14, the normal leaving age for a pupil not going on to university.<ref name"Wyhe bio sketch">{{cite web |lastvan Wyhe |firstJohn |author-linkJohn van Wyhe |titleAlfred Russel Wallace. A biographical sketch |websiteWallace Online | urlhttp://wallace-online.org/Wallace-Bio-Sketch_John_van_Wyhe.html |access-date22 September 2022 }}</ref>{{sfn|Wilson|2000|pp=6–10}}
.|alt=a building designed by Wallace and his brother]]
Wallace then moved to London to board with his older brother John, a 19-year-old apprentice builder. This was a stopgap measure until William, his oldest brother, was ready to take him on as an apprentice surveyor. While in London, Alfred attended lectures and read books at the London Mechanics Institute. Here he was exposed to the radical political ideas of the Welsh social reformer Robert Owen and of the English-born political theorist Thomas Paine. He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years. They moved repeatedly to different places in Mid-Wales. Then at the end of 1839, they moved to Kington, Herefordshire, near the Welsh border, before eventually settling at Neath in Wales. Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace worked as a land surveyor in the countryside of the west of England and Wales.{{sfn|Raby|2002|pp77–78}}{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp11–14}} The natural history of his surroundings aroused his interest; from 1841 he collected flowers and plants as an amateur botanist.<ref name="Wyhe bio sketch" />
One result of Wallace's early travels is a modern controversy about his nationality. Since he was born in Monmouthshire, some sources have considered him to be Welsh.<ref>{{cite web |title28. Alfred Russel Wallace |publisher100 Welsh heroes |urlhttp://www.100welshheroes.com/en/biography/alfredrussellwallace |access-date23 September 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100124191414/http://www.100welshheroes.com/en/biography/alfredrussellwallace |archive-date24 January 2010}}</ref> Other historians have questioned this because neither of his parents were Welsh, his family only briefly lived in Monmouthshire, the Welsh people Wallace knew in his childhood considered him to be English, and because he consistently referred to himself as English rather than Welsh. One Wallace scholar has stated that the most reasonable interpretation is therefore that he was an Englishman born in Wales.<ref name"Smith"/>
In 1843 Wallace's father died, and a decline in demand for surveying meant William's business no longer had work available.<ref name"Wyhe bio sketch" /> For a short time Wallace was unemployed, then early in 1844 he was engaged by the Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing, mapmaking, and surveying.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p53}}{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp22–26}} He had already read George Combe's The Constitution of Man, and after Spencer Hall lectured on mesmerism, Wallace as well as some of the older pupils tried it out. Wallace spent many hours at the town library in Leicester; he read An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus, Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative, Darwin's Journal (The Voyage of the Beagle), and Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology.<ref name"Wyhe bio sketch" />{{sfn|Wallace|1905a|pp[http://wallace-online.org/content/frameset?pageseq275&itemIDS729.1&viewtypeside 232–235], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDA237.1&pageseq289 256]}} One evening Wallace met the entomologist Henry Bates, who was 19 years old, and had published an 1843 paper on beetles in the journal Zoologist. He befriended Wallace and started him collecting insects.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p53}}{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp=22–26}}
When Wallace's brother William died in March 1845, Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother's firm in Neath, but his brother John and he were unable to make the business work. After a few months, he found work as a civil engineer for a nearby firm that was working on a survey for a proposed railway in the Vale of Neath. Wallace's work on the survey was largely outdoors in the countryside, allowing him to indulge his new passion for collecting insects. Wallace persuaded his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm. It carried out projects including the design of a building for the Neath Mechanics' Institute, founded in 1843.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tlysau.org.uk/cgi-bin/anw/search2?coll_id11281&inst_id35&termNeath |titleNeath Mechanics' Institute |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110014026/http://www.tlysau.org.uk/cgi-bin/anw/search2?coll_id11281&inst_id35&termNeath |archive-date10 November 2013 |publisherSwansea University |access-date21 April 2013}}</ref> During this period, he exchanged letters with Bates about books. By the end of 1845, Wallace was convinced by Robert Chambers's anonymously published treatise on progressive development, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, but he found Bates was more critical.{{sfn|Wallace|1905a|p[https://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq293&itemIDA237.1&viewtypetext 254]}}{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p65}} Wallace re-read Darwin's Journal, and on 11 April 1846 wrote "As the Journal of a scientific traveller, it is second only to Humboldt's 'Personal Narrative'—as a work of general interest, perhaps superior to it."{{sfn|Wallace|1905a|p[https://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq295&itemIDA237.1&viewtypetext 256]}}
William Jevons, the founder of the Neath institute, was impressed by Wallace and persuaded him to give lectures there on science and engineering. In the autumn of 1846, Wallace and his brother John purchased a cottage near Neath, where they lived with their mother and sister Fanny.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp26–29}}{{sfn|Wilson|2000|pp19–20}}
Exploration and study of the natural world
Inspired by the chronicles of earlier and contemporary travelling naturalists, Wallace decided to travel abroad.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp34–37}} He later wrote that Darwin's Journal and Humboldt's Personal Narrative were "the two works to whose inspiration I owe my determination to visit the tropics as a collector."{{sfn|Wallace|1905a|p [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDA237.1&pageseq289 256]}} After reading A Voyage up the River Amazon by William Henry Edwards, Wallace and Bates estimated that by collecting and selling natural history specimens such as birds and insects they could meet their costs, with the prospect of good profits.<ref name"Wyhe bio sketch" /> They therefore engaged as their agent Samuel Stevens who would advertise and arrange sales to institutions and private collectors, for a commission of 20% on sales plus 5% on despatching freight and remittances of money.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp=34–36}}
In 1848, Wallace and Bates left for Brazil aboard the Mischief. They intended to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon Rainforest for their private collections, selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain to fund the trip. Wallace hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species. Bates and he spent most of their first year collecting near Belém, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings. In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, the botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace's younger brother Herbert. Herbert soon left (dying two years later from yellow fever), but Spruce, like Bates, would spend over ten years collecting in South America.{{sfn|Wilson|2000|p36}}{{sfn|Raby|2002|pp89, 98–99, 120–121}} Wallace spent four years charting the Rio Negro, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography, flora, and fauna.{{sfn|Raby|2002|pp=89–95}}
On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig Helen. After 25 days at sea, the ship's cargo caught fire, and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All the specimens Wallace had on the ship, mostly collected during the last, and most interesting, two years of his trip, were lost. He managed to save a few notes and pencil sketches, but little else. Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson, which was sailing from Cuba to London. The Jordeson{{'s}} provisions were strained by the unexpected passengers, but after a difficult passage on short rations, the ship reached its destination on 1 October 1852.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp72–73}}{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp84–88}}
The lost collection had been insured for £200 by Stevens.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|p36}} After his return to Britain, Wallace spent 18 months in London living on the insurance payment, and selling a few specimens that had been shipped home. During this period, despite having lost almost all the notes from his South American expedition, he wrote six academic papers (including "On the Monkeys of the Amazon") and two books, Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses and Travels on the Amazon.{{sfn|Wilson|2000|p45}} At the same time, he made connections with several other British naturalists.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp84–88}}{{sfn|Raby|2002|p148}}<ref name="Bibliography"/>
'' shows the physical geography of the archipelago and Wallace's travels around the area. The thin black lines indicate where Wallace travelled; the red lines indicate chains of volcanoes.|alt=Map of Wallace's travels in the Malay Archipelago]]
Bates and others were collecting in the Amazon area, Wallace was more interested in new opportunities in the Malay Archipelago as demonstrated by the travel writings of Ida Laura Pfeiffer, and valuable insect specimens she collected which Stevens sold as her agent. In March 1853 Wallace wrote to Sir James Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak, who was then in London, and who arranged assistance in Sarawak for Wallace.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp37–40}}<ref name"WCP3072">{{cite web|urlhttps://epsilon.ac.uk/view/wallace/letters/WCP3072|titleLetter WCP3072 – James Brooke to Alfred Russel Wallace, 1 April (1853), from Ranger's Lodge, Hyde Park, London| publisher Beccaloni, G. W. (ed.), Ɛpsilon: The Alfred Russel Wallace Collection|access-date13 October 2022}}</ref> In June Wallace wrote to Murchison at the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) for support, proposing to again fund his exploring entirely from sale of duplicate collections.<ref name"WCP4308">{{cite web|urlhttps://epsilon.ac.uk/view/wallace/letters/WCP4308|titleLetter WCP4308 – Alfred Russel Wallace to Roderick Impey Murchison, Royal Geographical Society, June 1853| publisherBeccaloni, G. W. (ed.), Ɛpsilon: The Alfred Russel Wallace Collection|access-date14 October 2022}}</ref> He later recalled that, while researching in the insect-room of the British Museum, he was introduced to Darwin and they "had a few minutes' conversation." After presenting a paper and a large map of the Rio Negro to the RGS, Wallace was elected a Fellow of the society on 27 February 1854.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|p41}}<ref name"Black & White 1903">{{cite web | urlhttp://wallace-online.org/content/frameset?pageseq1&itemIDS599&viewtypetext |titleAlfred Russel Wallace, The dawn of a great discovery: 'My relations with Darwin in reference to the theory of natural selection' |date17 January 1903 |magazineBlack & White| access-date14 October 2022}}</ref> Free passage arranged on Royal Navy ships was stalled by the Crimean War, but eventually the RGS funded first class travel by P&O steamships. Wallace and a young assistant, Charles Allen, embarked at Southampton on 4 March 1854. After the overland journey to Suez and another change of ship at Ceylon they disembarked at Singapore on 19 April 1854.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp41, 46, 54–59}}
From 1854 to 1862, Wallace travelled around the islands of the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia).<ref name"travels Malay Archipelago">{{cite web | titleChronology of Wallace's travels in the Malay Archipelago | websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Website | date4 April 2018 | urlhttps://wallacefund.myspecies.info/content/chronology-wallaces-travels-malay-archipelago | access-date20 October 2022}}</ref> His main objective "was to obtain specimens of natural history, both for my private collection and to supply duplicates to museums and amateurs". In addition to Allen, he "generally employed one or two, and sometimes three Malay servants" as assistants, and paid large numbers of local people at various places to bring specimens. His total was 125,660 specimens, most of which were insects including more than 83,000 beetles,{{sfn|Wallace|1869|pp[http://wallace-online.org/content/frameset?pageseq25&itemIDS715.1&viewtypetext xiii–xiv]}}<ref name"Wallace's Help">{{cite journal | lastvan Wyhe | firstJohn | titleWallace's Help: The Many People Who Aided A. R. Wallace in the Malay Archipelago | journalJournal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society | publisherProject Muse | volume91 | issue1 | year2018 | issn2180-4338 | doi10.1353/ras.2018.0003 | pages41–68| s2cid201769115 }} [http://darwin-online.org.uk/people/2018,%20John%20van%20Wyhe,%20Wallace's%20help.pdf pdf at Darwin Online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221031162707/http://darwin-online.org.uk/people/2018%2C%20John%20van%20Wyhe%2C%20Wallace%27s%20help.pdf |date31 October 2022 }}</ref> Several thousand of the specimens represented species new to science,{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p14}} Overall, more than thirty men worked for him at some stage as full-time paid collectors. He also hired guides, porters, cooks and boat crews, so well over 100 individuals worked for him.<ref name="ali" />
around 1855, watercolour by missionary Harriette McDougall]]
After collecting expeditions to Bukit Timah Hill in Singapore, and to Malacca, Wallace and Allen reached Sarawak in October 1854, and were welcomed at Kuching by Sir James Brooke's (then) heir Captain John Brooke. Wallace hired a Malay named Ali as a general servant and cook, and spent the early 1855 wet season in a small Dyak house at the foot of Mount Santubong, overlooking a branch outlet of the Sarawak River. He read about species distribution, notes on Pictets's Palaeontology, and wrote his "Sarawak Paper".{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp97, 99–101, 103–105}} In March he moved to the Simunjon coal-works, operated by the Borneo Company under Ludvig Verner Helms, and supplemented collecting by paying workers a cent for each insect. A specimen of the previously unknown gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus (now called Wallace's flying frog) came from a Chinese workman who told Wallace that it glided down. Local people also assisted with shooting orangutans.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://wallacefund.myspecies.info/file/225 |titleWallace's Flying Frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus) |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Website |access-date20 October 2022}}</ref><ref name"Wallace's Help" /> They spent time with Sir James, then in February 1856 Allen chose to stay on with the missionaries at Kuching.<ref name"Alen">{{cite journal | last1Rookmaaker | first1Kees | last2Wyhe | first2John van | titleIn Alfred Russel Wallace's Shadow: His Forgotten Assistant, Charles Allen (1839–1892) | journalJournal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society | volume85 | issue2 303 | year2012 | issn0126-7353 | jstor24894190 | pages17–54 | urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/24894190 | access-date24 October 2022}} [http://darwin-online.org.uk/people/2012,%20Rookmaaker%20&%20van%20Wyhe,%20In%20Wallace's%20shadow,%20Charles%20Allen.pdf pdf at Darwin Online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221031162707/http://darwin-online.org.uk/people/2012%2C%20Rookmaaker%20%26%20van%20Wyhe%2C%20In%20Wallace%27s%20shadow%2C%20Charles%20Allen.pdf |date31 October 2022 }}</ref>{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp133–137}}
On reaching Singapore in May 1856, Wallace hired a bird-skinner. With Ali as cook, they collected for two days on Bali, then from 17 June to 30 August on Lombok.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp137, 145–147}} In December 1856, Darwin had written to contacts worldwide to get specimens for his continuing research into variation under domestication.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp133–134}}<ref name"Letter 1812, CD memo">{{cite web | title Letter no. 1812, CD memorandum | websiteDarwin Correspondence Project | dateDecember 1855 | urlhttps://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docIdletters/DCP-LETT-1812.xml | access-date30 October 2022}}</ref> At Lombok's port city, Ampanam, Wallace wrote telling his agent, Stevens, about specimens shipped, including a domestic duck variety "for Mr. Darwin & he would perhaps also like the jungle cock, which is often domesticated here & is doubtless one of the originals of the domestic breed of poultry."<ref name"WCP1703 Lombok">{{cite web|urlhttps://epsilon.ac.uk/view/wallace/letters/WCP1703 |titleLetter WCP1703 – Alfred Russel Wallace to Samuel Stevens, from Ampanam, Lombock Island, 21 August 1856 | publisher Beccaloni, G. W. (ed.), Ɛpsilon: The Alfred Russel Wallace Collection|access-date30 October 2022}}</ref>
In the same letter, Wallace said birds from Bali and Lombok, divided by a narrow strait, "belong to two quite distinct zoological provinces, of which they form the extreme limits", Java, Borneo, Sumatra and Malacca, and Australia and the Moluccas. Stevens arranged publication of relevant paragraphs in the January 1857 issue of The Zoologist. After further investigation, the zoogeographical boundary eventually became known as the Wallace Line.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|pp149–151}}<ref name"Zoologist 1857">{{cite web |titleS31. Wallace, A. R. 1857. [Letter dated 21 August 1856, Lombock]. Zoologist 15 (171–172): 5414–5416. | websiteWallace Online | urlhttp://wallace-online.org/content/frameset?pageseq1&itemIDS031&viewtypeside | access-date=8 November 2022}}, also [https://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S031.htm Proceedings of Natural-History Collectors in Foreign Countries, by Alfred Russel Wallace]</ref>
Ali became Wallace's most trusted assistant, a skilled collector and researcher. Wallace collected and preserved the delicate insect specimens, while most of the birds were collected and prepared by his assistants; of those, Ali collected and prepared around 5000.<ref name"ali">{{cite journal |last1van Wyhe |first1John |last2Drawhorn |first2Gerrell M. |title'I am Ali Wallace': The Malay Assistant of Alfred Russel Wallace |journalJournal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume88 |pages3–31 |year2015 |doi10.1353/ras.2015.0012 |s2cid159453047 }} [http://darwin-online.org.uk/people/2015,%20John%20van%20Wyhe,%20I%20am%20Ali%20Wallace.pdf pdf at Darwin Online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221031163208/http://darwin-online.org.uk/people/2015,%20John%20van%20Wyhe,%20I%20am%20Ali%20Wallace.pdf |date31 October 2022 }}</ref>
While exploring the archipelago, Wallace refined his thoughts about evolution, and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's theory, that same year.{{sfn|Browne|2002|pp=35–42}}
Accounts of Wallace's studies and adventures were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago. This became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century, and has never been out of print. It was praised by scientists such as Darwin (to whom the book was dedicated), by Lyell, and by non-scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad. Conrad called the book his "favorite bedside companion" and used information from it for several of his novels, especially Lord Jim.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p=267}}
A set of 80 bird skeletons Wallace collected in Indonesia are held in the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, and described as of exceptional historical significance.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.museum.zoo.cam.ac.uk/collections.archives/historical.significance/ |titleHistorical significance |publisherCambridge University Museum of Zoology |date18 April 2009 |access-date13 March 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101119040924/https://www.museum.zoo.cam.ac.uk/collections.archives/historical.significance |archive-date=19 November 2010}}</ref>
{| class="center toccolours"
|+ Specimens and illustrations
|<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px" style="line-height:130%">
File:Alfred Russel Wallace01.jpg|Arenga pinnata sketched by Wallace in Celebes, reworked by Walter Hood Fitch|alt=Wallace's sketch of a tree
File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.144722 2 - Mino anais anais (Lesson, 1839) - Sturnidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg|Wallace collected many specimens, such as this Mino anais anais from South West Papua, 1863.|alt=photograph of a bird specimen collected by Wallace
File:Wallace frog.jpg|An illustration from The Malay Archipelago depicts the flying frog that a workman handed to Wallace.|alt=illustration of Wallace's flying frog
</gallery>
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
|}
Return to Britain, marriage and children
In 1862, Wallace returned to Britain, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas. While recovering from his travels, Wallace organised his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London. Later that year, he visited Darwin at Down House, and became friendly with both Lyell and the philosopher Herbert Spencer.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp151–152}} During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection. He corresponded with Darwin about topics including sexual selection, warning coloration<!--yes, BE uses -or- here-->, and the possible effect of natural selection on hybridisation and the divergence of species.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp249–258}} In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p=235}}
After a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L. Miss L. was the daughter of Lewis Leslie who played chess with Wallace,{{sfn|van Wyhe|2013|p210}} but to Wallace's great dismay, she broke off the engagement.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p156}} In 1866, Wallace married Annie Mitten. Wallace had been introduced to Mitten through the botanist Richard Spruce, who had befriended Wallace in Brazil and who was a friend of Annie Mitten's father, William Mitten, an expert on mosses. In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876. The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867–1874), Violet (1869–1945), and William (1871–1951).{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp239–240}} Financial struggles In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family. While he was in the Malay Archipelago, the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money, which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace. On his return to the UK, Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of the money, and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of The Malay Archipelago.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp265–267}}
Despite assistance from his friends, he was never able to secure a permanent salaried position such as a curatorship in a museum. To remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their works.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp=299–300}}
In 1876, Wallace needed a £500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p325}} Darwin was very aware of Wallace's financial difficulties and lobbied long and hard to get Wallace awarded a government pension for his lifetime contributions to science. When the £200 annual pension was awarded in 1881, it helped to stabilise Wallace's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp361–364}}
Social activism
In 1881, Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society. In the next year, he published a book, Land Nationalisation; Its Necessity and Its Aims,<ref>{{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1906 |titleLand Nationalisation; Its Necessity and Its Aims |publisherSwan Sonnenschein <!--|urlhttp://wallacefund.info/land-nationalisation-its-necessity-and-its-aims-being-comparison-system-landlord-and-tenant-occupyin |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120621134408/http://wallacefund.info/land-nationalisation-its-necessity-and-its-aims-being-comparison-system-landlord-and-tenant-occupyin |archive-date2012-06-21--> }}</ref> on the subject. He criticised the UK's free trade policies for the negative impact they had on working-class people.<ref name"Bibliography">{{cite web |urlhttp://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/bibintro.htm|titleBibliography of the Writings of Alfred Russel Wallace|lastSmith |firstCharles H. |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp365–372}} In 1889, Wallace read Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist, despite his earlier foray as a speculative investor.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p436}} After reading Progress and Poverty, the bestselling book by the progressive land reformist Henry George, Wallace described it as "Undoubtedly the most remarkable and important book of the present century."<ref>{{cite book |lastStanley |firstBuder |titleVisionaries and Planners: The Garden City Movement and the Modern Community |year1990 |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idevBdKUyXY7UC |isbn978-0195362886 |page20 }}</ref>
Wallace opposed eugenics, an idea supported by other prominent 19th-century evolutionary thinkers, on the grounds that contemporary society was too corrupt and unjust to allow any reasonable determination of who was fit or unfit.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp436–438}} In his 1890 article "Human Selection" he wrote, "Those who succeed in the race for wealth are by no means the best or the most intelligent&nbsp;..."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S427.htm |titleHuman Selection (S427: 1890) |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> He said, "The world does not want the eugenicist to set it straight," "Give the people good conditions, improve their environment, and all will tend towards the highest type. Eugenics is simply the meddlesome interference of an arrogant, scientific priestcraft."<ref>{{Cite book |lastSaini |firstAngela |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1091260230 |titleSuperior : the return of race science |date2019 |isbn978-0-8070-7691-0 |publisherBeacon Press |locationBoston |pages66 |oclc=1091260230}}</ref>
In 1898, Wallace wrote a paper advocating a pure paper money system, not backed by silver or gold, which impressed the economist Irving Fisher so much that he dedicated his 1920 book Stabilizing the Dollar to Wallace.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S557.htm |titlePaper Money as a Standard of Value (S557: 1898)|firstAlfred Russel |lastWallace |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref>
Wallace wrote on other social and political topics, including in support of women's suffrage and repeatedly on the dangers and wastefulness of militarism.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp366, 453, 487–488}}{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp23, 279}} In an 1899 essay, he called for popular opinion to be rallied against warfare by showing people "that all modern wars are dynastic; that they are caused by the ambition, the interests, the jealousies, and the insatiable greed of power of their rulers, or of the great mercantile and financial classes which have power and influence over their rulers; and that the results of war are never good for the people, who yet bear all its burthens (burdens)".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S567.htm |titleThe Causes of War, and the Remedies (S567: 1899) |firstAlfred Russel |lastWallace |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> In a letter published by the Daily Mail in 1909, with aviation in its infancy, he advocated an international treaty to ban the military use of aircraft, arguing against the idea "that this new horror is 'inevitable', and that all we can do is to be sure and be in the front rank of the aerial assassins—for surely no other term can so fitly describe the dropping of, say, ten thousand bombs at midnight into an enemy's capital from an invisible flight of airships."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S670.htm |titleFlying Machines in War. (S670: 1909) |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref>
In 1898, Wallace published The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Its Failures, about developments in the 19th century. The first part of the book covered the major scientific and technical advances of the century; the second part covered what Wallace considered to be its social failures including the destruction and waste of wars and arms races, the rise of the urban poor and the dangerous conditions in which they lived and worked, a harsh criminal justice system that failed to reform criminals, abuses in a mental health system based on privately owned sanatoriums, the environmental damage caused by capitalism, and the evils of European colonialism.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp453–455}}<ref>{{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |titleThe Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Its Failures |year1903 |orig-year1898 |publisherSwan Sonnenschein |urlhttps://archive.org/details/wonderfulcentur03wallgoog |oclc935283134 }}</ref> Wallace continued his social activism for the rest of his life, publishing the book The Revolt of Democracy just weeks before his death.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S734.htm |titleThe Revolt of Democracy (S734: 1913) |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> Further scientific work In 1880, he published Island Life as a sequel to The Geographic Distribution of Animals. In November 1886, Wallace began a ten-month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures. Most of the lectures were on Darwinism (evolution through natural selection), but he also gave speeches on biogeography, spiritualism, and socio-economic reform. During the trip, he was reunited with his brother John who had emigrated to California years before. He spent a week in Colorado, with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide, exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe, Asia and North America, which he published in 1891 in the paper "English and American Flowers". He met many other prominent American naturalists and viewed their collections. His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip and information he had compiled for the lectures.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp274–278}}{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp379–400}} Death Cemetery, Dorset, restored by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund in 2000. It features a fossil tree trunk 7 feet (2.1 m) tall from Portland, mounted on a block of Purbeck limestone.|altphotograph of Wallace's grave]]
On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home, aged 90, in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p490}} His death was widely reported in the press. The New York Times called him "the last of the giants [belonging] to that wonderful group of intellectuals composed of Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Lyell, Owen, and other scientists, whose daring investigations revolutionized and evolutionized the thought of the century".<ref>{{cite news |authorAnon |titleWe Are Guarded by Spirits, Declares Dr. A. R. Wallace |newspaperThe New York Times |date8 October 1911 |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S748A.htm }}</ref> Another commentator in the same edition said: "No apology need be made for the few literary or scientific follies of the author of that great book on the 'Malay Archipelago'." ([https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2530 Vol.1], [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2539 Vol.2]){{sfn|Slotten|2004|p=491}}
Some of Wallace's friends suggested that he be buried in Westminster Abbey, but his wife followed his wishes and had him buried in the small cemetery at Broadstone, Dorset.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p490}} Several prominent British scientists formed a committee to have a medallion of Wallace placed in Westminster Abbey near where Darwin had been buried. The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915.<ref>{{cite book |lastHall |firstA. R. |titleThe Abbey Scientists |page52 |publisherRoger & Robert Nicholson |year1966 |oclc2553524 }}</ref>
Theory of evolution
Early evolutionary thinking
Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist who already believed in the transmutation of species. The concept had been advocated by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant, among others. It was widely discussed, but not generally accepted by leading naturalists, and was considered to have radical, even revolutionary connotations.{{sfn|Larson|2004|p73}}{{sfn|Bowler|Morus|2005|p141}} Prominent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier, Richard Owen, Adam Sedgwick, and Lyell attacked transmutation vigorously.{{sfn|McGowan|2001|pp101, 154–155}}{{sfn|Larson|2004|pp23–24, 37–38}} It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour radical ideas in politics, religion and science,{{sfn|Larson|2004|p73}} and because he was unusually open to marginal, even fringe, ideas in science.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p54}}
Wallace was profoundly influenced by Robert Chambers's Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, a controversial work of popular science published anonymously in 1844. It advocated an evolutionary origin for the Solar System, the Earth, and living things.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p31}} Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845 describing it as "an ingenious hypothesis strongly supported by some striking facts and analogies, but which remains to be proven by ... more research".{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p54}} In 1847, he wrote to Bates that he would "like to take some one family [of beetles] to study thoroughly, ... with a view to the theory of the origin of species."<ref>Wallace Family Archive, 11 October 1847, quoted in {{harvnb|Raby|2002|p=1}}.</ref>
Wallace planned fieldwork to test the evolutionary hypothesis that closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories.{{sfn|Larson|2004|p73}} During his work in the Amazon basin, he came to realise that geographical barriers—such as the Amazon and its major tributaries—often separated the ranges of closely allied species. He included these observations in his 1853 paper "On the Monkeys of the Amazon". Near the end of the paper he asked the question, "Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country?"{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p94}}
In February 1855, while working in Sarawak on the island of Borneo, Wallace wrote "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species". The paper was published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in September 1855.<ref>{{cite web |titleWallace Collection – Wallace's 'Sarawak law' paper |urlhttp://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/collections-at-the-museum/wallace-collection/closeup.jsp?itemID138&themeEvolution |publisherNatural History Museum |year2012 |access-date14 February 2012 }}</ref> In this paper, he discussed observations of the geographic and geologic distribution of both living and fossil species, a field that became biogeography. His conclusion that "Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species" has come to be known as the "Sarawak Law", answering his own question in his paper on the monkeys of the Amazon basin. Although it does not mention possible mechanisms for evolution, this paper foreshadowed the momentous paper he would write three years later.<ref>{{cite web |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |titleOn the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of Species |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithch/wallace/S020.htm |year1855 |publisherWestern Kentucky University |access-date8 May 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070428194531/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S020.htm |archive-date28 April 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The paper challenged Lyell's belief that species were immutable. Although Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation, Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea. Around the start of 1856, he told Darwin about Wallace's paper, as did Edward Blyth who thought it "Good! Upon the whole!&nbsp;... Wallace has, I think put the matter well; and according to his theory the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species." Despite this hint, Darwin mistook Wallace's conclusion for the progressive creationism of the time, writing that it was "nothing very new&nbsp;... Uses my simile of tree [but] it seems all creation with him." Lyell was more impressed, and opened a notebook on species in which he grappled with the consequences, particularly for human ancestry. Darwin had already shown his theory to their mutual friend Joseph Hooker and now, for the first time spelt out the full details of natural selection to Lyell. Although Lyell could not agree, he urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. Darwin demurred at first, but began writing up a species sketch of his continuing work in May 1856.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p438}}{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp537–546}}
Natural selection and Darwin
{{see also|Publication of Darwin's theory|Natural selection}}
By February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago that evolution was real. He later wrote in his autobiography that the problem was of how species change from one well-marked form to another.{{sfn|Wallace|1905a|p361}} He stated that it was while he was in bed with a fever that he thought about Malthus's idea of positive checks on human population, and had the idea of natural selection. His autobiography says that he was on the island of Ternate at the time; but the evidence of his journal suggests that he was in fact on the island of Gilolo.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp144–145}} From 1858 to 1861, he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode, which he used as a base for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo.<ref>{{cite book |lastHeij |firstC. J. |year2011 |titleBiographical Notes of Antonie Augustus Bruijn (1842–1890) |publisherIBP Press |placeBogor |isbn=978-979-493-294-0}}</ref>
Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows:
{{blockquote|It then occurred to me that these causes or their equivalents are continually acting in the case of animals also; and as animals usually breed much more quickly than does mankind, the destruction every year from these causes must be enormous to keep down the numbers of each species, since evidently they do not increase regularly from year to year, as otherwise the world would long ago have been crowded with those that breed most quickly. Vaguely thinking over the enormous and constant destruction which this implied, it occurred to me to ask the question, why do some die and some live? And the answer was clearly, on the whole the best fitted live&nbsp;... and considering the amount of individual variation that my experience as a collector had shown me to exist, then it followed that all the changes necessary for the adaptation of the species to the changing conditions would be brought about&nbsp;... In this way every part of an animals organization could be modified exactly as required, and in the very process of this modification the unmodified would die out, and thus the definite characters and the clear isolation of each new species would be explained.{{sfn|Wallace|1905a|pp=361–362}} }}
was issued by the Linnean Society on the 50th anniversary of the reading of Darwin and Wallace's papers on natural selection. Wallace received the only gold example.<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Darwin-Wallace Medal|urlhttps://wallacefund.myspecies.info/content/darwin-wallace-medal|websiteThe Wallace Website}}</ref>|altphotograph of the Darwin-Wallace medal]]
Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories. Although Wallace's first letter to Darwin has been lost, Wallace carefully kept the letters he received.{{sfn|Marchant|1916|loc[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemIDF1593&viewtypeimage&pageseq116 p. 105]}} In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species" of 1855, showed that they thought alike, with similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time.{{sfn|Darwin|2009|p[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemIDF1452.2&viewtypetext&pageseq111 95]}} The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that "without speculation there is no good and original observation" but commented that "I believe I go much further than you".{{sfn|Darwin|2009|p[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemIDF1452.2&viewtypetext&pageseq124 108]}} Wallace believed this and sent Darwin his February 1858 essay, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type", asking Darwin to review it and pass it to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile.<ref name"tendency">{{cite web|lastWallace |firstAlfred |titleOn the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S043.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University |access-date22 April 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070429183411/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S043.htm |archive-date29 April 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Although Wallace had sent several articles for journal publication during his travels through the Malay archipelago, the Ternate essay was in a private letter. Darwin received the essay on 18 June 1858. Although the essay did not use Darwin's term "natural selection", it did outline the mechanics of an evolutionary divergence of species from similar ones due to environmental pressures. In this sense, it was very similar to the theory that Darwin had worked on for 20 years, but had yet to publish. Darwin sent the manuscript to Charles Lyell with a letter saying "he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters&nbsp;... he does not say he wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal."{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp153–154}}{{sfn|Darwin|2009|loc[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemIDF1452.2&viewtypetext&pageseq132 p. 116]}} Distraught about the illness of his baby son, Darwin put the problem to Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker, who decided to publish the essay in a joint presentation together with unpublished writings which highlighted Darwin's priority. Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857.{{sfn|Browne|2002|pp33–42}}
Communication with Wallace in the far-off Malay Archipelago involved months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication. Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, happy that he had been included at all, and never expressed bitterness in public or in private. Darwin's social and scientific status was far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that, without Darwin, Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken seriously. Lyell and Hooker's arrangement relegated Wallace to the position of co-discoverer, and he was not the social equal of Darwin or the other prominent British natural scientists. All the same, the joint reading of their papers on natural selection associated Wallace with the more famous Darwin. This, combined with Darwin's (as well as Hooker's and Lyell's) advocacy on his behalf, would give Wallace greater access to the highest levels of the scientific community.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp148–150}} The reaction to the reading was muted, with the president of the Linnean Society remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries;{{sfn|Browne|2002|pp40–42}} but, with Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species later in 1859, its significance became apparent. When Wallace returned to the UK, he met Darwin. Although some of Wallace's opinions in the ensuing years would test Darwin's patience, they remained on friendly terms for the rest of Darwin's life.<ref name"Browne 2013">{{cite journal |last1Browne |first1Janet |author1-linkJanet Browne |titleWallace and Darwin |journalCurrent Biology |year2013 |volume23 |issue24 |pagesR1071–R1072 |doi10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.045 |pmid24501768 |bibcode2013CBio...23R1071B |s2cid4281426 |url=https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(13)01320-1.pdf}}</ref>
Over the years, a few people have questioned this version of events. In the early 1980s, two books, one by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks, suggested not only that there had been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit, but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory. These claims have been examined and found unconvincing by a number of scholars.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp157–162}}{{sfn|Shermer|2002|loc[https://web.archive.org/web/20081007080247/http://www.michaelshermer.com/darwins-shadow/excerpt/ Chapter 5: "A Gentlemanly Arrangement: Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin & the Scientific Priority Dispute"]}}<ref>{{cite web |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |author-linkCharles H. Smith (historian) |titleResponses to Questions Frequently Asked About Wallace: Did Darwin really steal material from Wallace to complete his theory of natural selection? |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/FAQ.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University |access-date29 April 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080509183747/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/FAQ.htm |archive-date9 May 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Shipping schedules show that, contrary to these accusations, Wallace's letter could not have been delivered earlier than the date shown in Darwin's letter to Lyell.<ref>{{cite journal |last1van Wyhe |first1John|author1-linkJohn van Wyhe |last2Rookmaaker |first2Kees |year2012 |titleA new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858 |journalBiological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume105 |pages249–252 |doi10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|doi-access }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |lastBall |firstPhilip |author-linkPhilip Ball |titleShipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations |journalNature |urlhttp://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date12 December 2011 |doi10.1038/nature.2011.9613 |s2cid178946874 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
Defence of Darwin and his ideas
After Wallace returned to England in 1862, he became one of the staunchest defenders of Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In an incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper "Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species". This rebutted a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin's comments in the Origin on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp=197–199}}
An even longer defence was a 1867 article in the Quarterly Journal of Science called "Creation by Law". It reviewed George Campbell, the 8th Duke of Argyll's book, The Reign of Law, which aimed to refute natural selection.<ref>{{cite web |lastWallace |firstAlfred |titleCreation by Law (S140: 1867) |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S140.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University |access-date23 May 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070602121908/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S140.htm |archive-date 2 June 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>
After an 1870 meeting of the British Science Association, Wallace wrote to Darwin complaining that there were "no opponents left who know anything of natural history, so that there are none of the good discussions we used to have".{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p261}}Differences between Darwin and WallaceHistorians of science have noted that, while Darwin considered the ideas in Wallace's paper to be essentially the same as his own, there were differences.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastKutschera |firstUlrich |author-linkUlrich Kutschera |titleA comparative analysis of the Darwin–Wallace papers and the development of the concept of natural selection |journalTheory in Biosciences |date19 December 2003 |doi10.1007/s12064-003-0063-6 |volume122 |issue4 |pages343–359 |s2cid24297627 }}</ref> Darwin emphasised competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, whereas Wallace emphasised environmental pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local conditions, leading populations in different locations to diverge.{{sfn|Larson|2004|p75}}{{sfn|Bowler|Morus|2005|p149}} The historian of science Peter J. Bowler has suggested that in the paper he mailed to Darwin, Wallace might have been discussing group selection.{{sfn|Bowler|2013|pp61–63}} Against this, Malcolm Kottler showed that Wallace was indeed discussing individual variation and selection.<ref>{{cite book |lastKottler |firstMalcolm |year1985 |chapterCharles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace: Two decades of debate over natural selection |editor-lastKohn |editor-firstDavid Kohn |titleThe Darwinian Heritage |publisherPrinceton University Press |pages367–432 |isbn=978-0691083568 }}</ref>
Others have noted that Wallace appeared to have envisioned natural selection as a kind of feedback mechanism that kept species and varieties adapted to their environment (now called 'stabilizing", as opposed to 'directional' selection).<ref name"Unfinished Business"/> They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace's famous 1858 paper, in which he likened "this principle ... [to] the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities".<ref name"tendency"/> The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson observed in the 1970s that, although writing it only as an example, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that'd been said in the 19th Century".<ref>{{cite web |lastBrand |firstStewart |titleFor God's Sake, Margaret |urlhttp://www.oikos.org/forgod.htm |publisherCoEvolutionary Quarterly, June 1976 |access-date4 April 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070415185352/http://www.oikos.org/forgod.htm |archive-date15 April 2007 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory.<ref name"Unfinished Business">{{cite journal |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |titleWallace's Unfinished Business |journalComplexity |volume10 |issue2 |year2004 |doi10.1002/cplx.20062 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> Warning coloration and sexual selection
{{further|The Colours of Animals}}
: a wasp (top) mimicked by a beetle in Wallace's 1889 book Darwinism|alt=see caption]]
Warning coloration<!--Brit. usage is colour, but coloration, see structural coloration for detailed explanation--> was one of Wallace's contributions to the evolutionary biology of animal coloration.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp251–254}} In 1867, Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem in explaining how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes. Darwin had come to believe that many conspicuous animal colour schemes were due to sexual selection, but he saw that this could not apply to caterpillars. Wallace responded that he and Bates had observed that many of the most spectacular butterflies had a peculiar odour and taste, and that he had been told by John Jenner Weir that birds would not eat a certain kind of common white moth because they found it unpalatable. Since the moth was as conspicuous at dusk as a coloured caterpillar in daylight, it seemed likely that the conspicuous colours served as a warning to predators and thus could have evolved through natural selection. Darwin was impressed by the idea. At a later meeting of the Entomological Society, Wallace asked for any evidence anyone might have on the topic.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSmith |firstFrederick |year1867 |titleMarch 4, 1867 |journalTransactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London |volume15 |issue7 |pages509–566 |doi10.1111/j.1365-2311.1967.tb01466.x}}</ref> In 1869, Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace's idea.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp253–254}}<!--mentioned also in Wallace's Darwinism, ch. 9, and in [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDF1548.1&pageseq322 a letter by Darwin to A. Weismann on 1 May 1875]--> Wallace attributed less importance than Darwin to sexual selection. In his 1878 book [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73563 Tropical Nature and Other Essays], he wrote extensively about the coloration of animals and plants, and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp353–356}} He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book Darwinism. In 1890, he wrote a critical review in Nature of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton's The Colours of Animals which supported Darwin on sexual selection, attacking especially Poulton's claims on the "aesthetic preferences of the insect world".<ref>{{cite journal |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |title[Review] The Colours of Animals |journalNature |volume42 |pages289–291 |date24 July 1890 |issue1082 |doi10.1038/042289a0 |bibcode1890Natur..42..289W |s2cid27117910 |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1429319 }}</ref><ref name"Nature">{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S424.htm | titleThe Colours of Animals |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022 }}</ref>
Wallace effect
{{further|Reinforcement (speciation)}}
In 1889, Wallace wrote the book Darwinism, which explained and defended natural selection. In it, he proposed the hypothesis that natural selection could drive the reproductive isolation of two varieties by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Thus it might contribute to the development of new species. He suggested the following scenario: When two populations of a species had diverged beyond a certain point, each adapted to particular conditions, hybrid offspring would be less adapted than either parent form and so natural selection would tend to eliminate the hybrids. Furthermore, under such conditions, natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridisation, as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring, and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species. This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect,{{sfn|Wallace|1889|pp174–179, 353}}{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp413–415}} later called reinforcement.<ref name"Speciation">{{cite book |last1Coyne |first1Jerry |author1-linkJerry Coyne |last2Orr |first2H. Allen | titleSpeciation | date2004 | pages353–381 | publisherSinauer Associates | isbn978-0-87893-091-3 }}</ref> Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p404}} It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today, with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity.<ref>{{cite journal |lastOllerton |firstJ. |titleSpeciation: Flowering time and the Wallace Effect |journalHeredity |dateSeptember 2005 |volume95 |issue3 |pages181–182 |pmid16077739 |doi10.1038/sj.hdy.6800718 |s2cid13300641}}</ref> Application of theory to humans, and role of teleology in evolution to humans in Wallace's 1889 book Darwinism shows a chimpanzee.|altillustration of a chimpanzee from one of Wallace's books]]
In 1864, Wallace published a paper, "The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection{{' "}}, applying the theory to humankind. Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject, although Thomas Huxley had in ''Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature''. Wallace explained the apparent stability of the human stock by pointing to the vast gap in cranial capacities between humans and the great apes. Unlike some other Darwinists, including Darwin himself, he did not "regard modern primitives as almost filling the gap between man and ape".<ref nameeiseley>{{cite book |lastEiseley |firstLoren |author-linkLoren Eiseley |titleDarwin's Century |publisherAnchor Books |year1958 |pages305–306}}</ref> He saw the evolution of humans in two stages: achieving a bipedal posture that freed the hands to carry out the dictates of the brain, and the "recognition of the human brain as a totally new factor in the history of life".<ref nameeiseley/> Wallace seems to have been the first evolutionist to see that the human brain effectively made further specialisation of the body unnecessary.<ref nameeiseley/> Wallace wrote the paper for the Anthropological Society of London to address the debate between the supporters of monogenism, the belief that all human races shared a common ancestor and were one species, and the supporters of polygenism, who held that different races had separate origins and were different species. Wallace's anthropological observations of Native Americans in the Amazon, and especially his time living among the Dayak people of Borneo, had convinced him that human beings were a single species with a common ancestor. He still felt that natural selection might have continued to act on mental faculties after the development of the different races; and he did not dispute the nearly universal view among European anthropologists of the time that Europeans were intellectually superior to other races.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp207–213}}{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp218–221}} According to political scientist Adam Jones, "Wallace found little difficulty in reconciling the extermination of native peoples with his progressive political views".<ref>{{Cite book |lastJones |firstAdam |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/672333335 |titleGenocide : a comprehensive introduction |date2011 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-203-84696-4 |edition2nd |locationLondon |pages209–210 |oclc672333335}}</ref> In 1864, in the aforementioned paper, he stated "It is the same great law of the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, which leads to the inevitable extinction of all those low and mentally undeveloped populations with which Europeans come in contact."<ref>{{Cite journal |lastWallace |firstAlfred |date2010-01-01 |titleThe Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced From the Theory of "Natural Selection" (1864) |urlhttps://digitalcommons.wku.edu/dlps_fac_arw/6 |journalAlfred Russel Wallace Classic Writings |pages164}}</ref> He argued that the natives die out due to an unequal struggle.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBrantlinger |firstPatrick |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1287f39 |titleDark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 |date2003 |publisherCornell University Press |isbn978-0-8014-3809-7 |edition1st |pages185–186 |jstor10.7591/j.ctt1287f39 |quote=...The red Indian in North America and in Brazil; the Tasmanian, Australian, and New Zealander in the southern hemisphere, die out, not from any one special cause, but from the inevitable effects of an unequal mental and physical struggle. The intellectual and moral, as well as the physical qualities of the European are superior; ...}}</ref>
Shortly afterwards, Wallace became a spiritualist. At about the same time, he began to maintain that natural selection could not account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, metaphysical musings, or wit and humour. He stated that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history: the creation of life from inorganic matter; the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals; and the generation of the higher mental faculties in humankind. He believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit.{{sfn|Wallace|1889|p=477}}
While some historians have concluded that Wallace's belief that natural selection was insufficient to explain the development of consciousness and the higher functions of the human mind was directly caused by his adoption of spiritualism, other scholars have disagreed, and some maintain that Wallace never believed natural selection applied to those areas.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp157–160}}<ref>{{cite web |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Evolution of an Evolutionist Chapter Six. A Change of Mind? |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/chsarw6.htm |publisherWestern Kentucky University |access-date29 April 2007 |archive-date18 June 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090618030426/http://wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/chsarw6.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref> Reaction to Wallace's ideas on this topic among leading naturalists at the time varied. Lyell endorsed Wallace's views on human evolution rather than Darwin's.{{sfn|Larson|2004|p100}}{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p160}} Wallace's belief that human consciousness could not be entirely a product of purely material causes was shared by a number of prominent intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp231–233}} All the same, many, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were critical of Wallace's views.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp280–296}}
As the historian of science and sceptic Michael Shermer has stated, Wallace's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of the emerging Darwinian philosophy. These were that evolution was not teleological (purpose-driven), and that it was not anthropocentric (human-centred).{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp208–209}} Much later in his life Wallace returned to these themes, that evolution suggested that the universe might have a purpose, and that certain aspects of living organisms might not be explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes. He set out his ideas in a 1909 magazine article entitled The World of Life, later expanded into a book of the same name.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S669.htm |titleThe World of Life: As Visualised and Interpreted by Darwinism (S669: 1909) |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |publisherWestern Kentucky University |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> Shermer commented that this anticipated ideas about design in nature and directed evolution that would arise from religious traditions throughout the 20th century.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp231–233}}
Assessment of Wallace's role in history of evolutionary theory
{{further|History of evolutionary thought}}
In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p6}} In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p149}} Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's Descent of Man, occasionally in strong disagreement.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp289–290}} Darwin and Wallace agreed on the importance of natural selection, and some of the factors responsible for it: competition between species and geographical isolation. But Wallace believed that evolution had a purpose ("teleology") in maintaining species' fitness to their environment, whereas Darwin hesitated to attribute any purpose to a random natural process. Scientific discoveries since the 19th century support Darwin's viewpoint, by identifying additional mechanisms and triggers such as mutations triggered by environmental radiation or mutagenic chemicals.<ref name"Hamilton 2008">{{cite magazine |lastHamilton |firstGarry |titleViruses: The unsung heroes of evolution |magazineNew Scientist |date27 August 2008 |urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926711-600-viruses-the-unsung-heroes-of-evolution}}</ref> Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but natural selection less so. Wallace's 1889 Darwinism was a response to the scientific critics of natural selection.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p409}} Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p18}}
Other scientific contributions
Biogeography and ecology
In 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals. Initial progress was slow, in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p301}} He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p315}} Extending the system developed by Sclater for birds—which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution—to cover mammals, reptiles and insects as well, Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions in use today. He discussed the factors then known to influence the current and past geographic distribution of animals within each geographic region.<ref name"Holt Lessard Borregaard 2013">{{cite journal |last1Holt |first1Ben G. |last2Lessard |first2Jean-Philippe |last3Borregaard |first3Michael K. |last4Fritz |first4Susanne A. |last5Araújo |first5Miguel B. |last6Dimitrov |first6Dimitar |last7Fabre |first7Pierre-Henri |last8Graham |first8Catherine H. |last9Graves |first9Gary R. |last10Jønsson |first10Knud A. |last11Nogués-Bravo |first11David |last12Wang |first12Zhiheng |last13Whittaker |first13Robert J. |last14Fjeldså |first14Jon |last15Rahbek |first15Carsten |display-authors3 |titleAn Update of Wallace's Zoogeographic Regions of the World |journalScience |volume339 |issue6115 |date4 January 2013 |doi10.1126/science.1228282 |pages74–78|pmid23258408 |bibcode2013Sci...339...74H |s2cid1723657 }}</ref>
These factors included the effects of the appearance and disappearance of land bridges (such as the one currently connecting North America and South America) and the effects of periods of increased glaciation. He provided maps showing factors, such as elevation of mountains, depths of oceans, and the character of regional vegetation, that affected the distribution of animals. He summarised all the known families and genera of the higher animals and listed their known geographic distributions. The text was organised so that it would be easy for a traveller to learn what animals could be found in a particular location. The resulting two-volume work, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, was published in 1876 and served as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp=320–325}}
The book included evidence from the fossil record to discuss the processes of evolution and migration that had led to the geographical distribution of modern species. For example, he discussed how fossil evidence showed that tapirs had originated in the Northern Hemisphere, migrating between North America and Eurasia and then, much more recently, to South America after which the northern species became extinct, leaving the modern distribution of two isolated groups of tapir species in South America and Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Bowler|2013|p152}} Wallace was very aware of, and interested in, the mass extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene. In The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) he wrote, "We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared".{{sfn|Wallace|1876|p150}} He added that he believed the most likely cause for the rapid extinctions was glaciation, but by the time he wrote World of Life (1911) he had come to believe those extinctions were "due to man's agency".{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=246}}
In 1880, Wallace published the book Island Life as a sequel to The Geographical Distribution of Animals. It surveyed the distribution of both animal and plant species on islands. Wallace classified islands into oceanic and two types of continental islands. Oceanic islands, in his view, such as the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands (then called Sandwich Islands) formed in mid-ocean and never part of any large continent. Such islands were characterised by a complete lack of terrestrial mammals and amphibians, and their inhabitants (except migratory birds and species introduced by humans) were typically the result of accidental colonisation and subsequent evolution. Continental islands, in his scheme, were divided into those that were recently separated from a continent (like Britain) and those much less recently (like Madagascar). Wallace discussed how that difference affected flora and fauna. He discussed how isolation affected evolution and how that could result in the preservation of classes of animals, such as the lemurs of Madagascar that were remnants of once widespread continental faunas. He extensively discussed how changes of climate, particularly periods of increased glaciation, may have affected the distribution of flora and fauna on some islands, and the first portion of the book discusses possible causes of these great ice ages. Island Life was considered a very important work at the time of its publication. It was discussed extensively in scientific circles both in published reviews and in private correspondence.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p361}} Environmentalism Wallace's extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world. In Tropical Nature and Other Essays (1878), he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion, especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall. Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate, he warned that the extensive clearing of rainforest for coffee cultivation in Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka) and India would adversely impact the climate in those countries and lead to their impoverishment due to soil erosion.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp352–353}} In Island Life, Wallace again mentioned deforestation and invasive species. On the impact of European colonisation on the island of Saint Helena, he wrote that the island was "now so barren and forbidding that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile".{{sfn|Wallace|1881|pp283–284}} He explained that the soil was protected by the island's vegetation; once that was destroyed, the soil was washed off the steep slopes by heavy tropical rain, leaving "bare rock or sterile clay".{{sfn|Wallace|1881|pp283–284}} He attributed the "irreparable destruction"{{sfn|Wallace|1881|pp283–284}} to feral goats, introduced in 1513. The island's forests were further damaged by the "reckless waste"{{sfn|Wallace|1881|pp283–284}} of the East India Company from 1651, which used the bark of valuable redwood and ebony trees for tanning, leaving the wood to rot unused.{{sfn|Wallace|1881|pp283–284}} Wallace's comments on environment grew more urgent later in his career. In The World of Life (1911) he wrote that people should view nature "as invested with a certain sanctity, to be used by us but not abused, and never to be recklessly destroyed or defaced."{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p279}}
Astrobiology
Wallace's 1904 book ''Man's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He concluded that the Earth was the only planet in the Solar System that could possibly support life, mainly because it was the only one in which water could exist in the liquid phase.<ref name"Kutschera 2012">{{cite journal |lastKutschera |firstUlrich |author-linkUlrich Kutschera |titleWallace pioneered astrobiology too |journalNature |volume489 |issue7415 |year2012 |doi10.1038/489208e |pages208 |pmid22972286 |s2cid4333070 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> His treatment of Mars in this book was brief, and in 1907, Wallace returned to the subject with the book Is Mars Habitable?'' to criticise the claims made by the American astronomer Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings. Wallace did months of research, consulted various experts, and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p474}} He pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere, that Lowell's analysis of Mars's climate badly overestimated the surface temperature, and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water, let alone a planet-girding irrigation system, impossible.<ref>{{cite web |lastWallace |firstAlfred |titleIs Mars Habitable (S730: 1907) |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S730.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University |access-date13 May 2007 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070405172431/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S730.htm |archive-date5 April 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Richard Milner comments that Wallace "effectively debunked Lowell's illusionary network of Martian canals."<ref>{{cite web|titleA Wet Red World? The Search for Water on Mars Goes On |lastMilner |firstRichard |workAstrobiology Magazine |date4 November 2011 |urlhttp://www.space.com/13510-water-mars-search-life.html |access-date22 November 2012}}</ref> Wallace became interested in the topic because his anthropocentric philosophy inclined him to believe that man would be unique in the universe.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p294}}
Other activities
<!--Poetry
Wallace included metrical verse such as his "A Description of Javíta" in his book Travels on the Amazon.<ref>Travels on the Amazon (1889 ed.), [https://archive.org/details/travelsonamazon00wall_0/page/176/mode/2up pp. 176–180]</ref>-->
Spiritualism<!--linked from 'Spiritualism (philosophy)'-->
Wallace was an enthusiast of phrenology.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp203–205}} Early in his career, he experimented with hypnosis, then known as mesmerism, managing to hypnotise some of his students in Leicester.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp234–235}} When he began these experiments, the topic was very controversial: early experimenters, such as John Elliotson, had been harshly criticised by the medical and scientific establishment.<ref name"Belief and Spiritualism">{{cite web |lastSmith |firstCharles H. |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Evolution of an Evolutionist Chapter One. Belief and Spiritualism |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/chsarw1.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University |access-date20 April 2007 |archive-date18 February 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090218002120/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/chsarw1.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref> Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and spiritualism, arguing that one should not deny observations on "a priori grounds of absurdity or impossibility".<ref>{{cite web |lastWallace |firstAlfred |titleNotes on the Growth of Opinion as to Obscure Psychical Phenomena During the Last Fifty Years |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S478.htm |publisherWestern Kentucky University |access-date20 April 2007 |archive-date18 February 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090218003415/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S478.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
taken by Frederick Hudson of Wallace and his late mother in 1882; he may have used double exposure.|alt=a purported spirit photograph of Wallace and his late mother as if together]]
Wallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865, possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p231}} After reviewing the literature and attempting to test what he witnessed at séances, he came to believe in it. For the rest of his life, he remained convinced that at least some séance phenomena were genuine, despite accusations of fraud and evidence of trickery. One biographer suggested that the emotional shock when his first fiancée broke their engagement contributed to his receptiveness to spiritualism.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p236}} Other scholars have emphasised his desire to find scientific explanations for all phenomena.<ref name"Belief and Spiritualism"/>{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp199–201}} In 1874, Wallace visited the spirit photographer Frederick Hudson. He declared that a photograph of him with his deceased mother was genuine.{{sfn|Wallace|1875|pp190–191}} Others reached a different conclusion: Hudson's photographs had previously been exposed as fraudulent in 1872.<ref>{{cite book |lastMcCabe |firstJoseph |year1920 |titleSpiritualism: A Popular History from 1847 |publisherDodd, Mead and Company |page157 |oclc2683858 }}</ref>
Wallace's public advocacy of spiritualism and his repeated defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud in the 1870s damaged his scientific reputation. In 1875 he published the evidence he believed proved his position in On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism.{{sfn|Wallace|1875|pv}} His attitude permanently strained his relationships with previously friendly scientists such as Henry Bates, Thomas Huxley, and even Darwin.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/collections/library-collections/wallace-letters-online/index.html |titleWallace Letters Online |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |date16 November 2010 |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Correspondence Project}} See Wallace's letters dated 22 November and 1 December 1866 to Thomas Huxley, and Huxley's reply that he was not interested.</ref>{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp298–351}} Others, such as the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter and zoologist E. Ray Lankester became publicly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace was heavily criticised by the press; The Lancet was particularly harsh.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp298–351}} When, in 1879, Darwin first tried to rally support among naturalists to get a civil pension awarded to Wallace, Joseph Hooker responded that "Wallace has lost caste considerably, not only by his adhesion to Spiritualism, but by the fact of his having deliberately and against the whole voice of the committee of his section of the British Association, brought about a discussion on Spiritualism at one of its sectional meetings&nbsp;... This he is said to have done in an underhanded manner, and I well remember the indignation it gave rise to in the B.A. Council."{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp357–358}}{{sfn|Shermer|2002|p274}} Hooker eventually relented and agreed to support the pension request.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p362}}
Flat Earth wager
{{see also|Bedford Level experiment}}
In 1870, a flat-Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £500 wager (roughly {{inflation|UK|500|1870|r-3|fmteq|cursign£}}{{inflation-fn|UK}}) in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river, canal, or lake. Wallace, intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time, designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a {{convert|6|mi|km|spellin|adjon|0}} stretch of canal. Both objects were at the same height above the water, and he mounted a telescope on a bridge at the same height above the water as well. When seen through the telescope, one object appeared higher than the other, showing the curvature of the Earth. The judge for the wager, the editor of Field magazine, declared Wallace the winner, but Hampden refused to accept the result. He sued Wallace and launched a campaign, which persisted for several years, of writing letters to various publications and to organisations of which Wallace was a member denouncing him as a swindler and a thief. Wallace won multiple libel suits against Hampden, but the resulting litigation cost Wallace more than the amount of the wager, and the controversy frustrated him for years.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp258–261}}
Anti-vaccination campaign
In the early 1880s, Wallace joined the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination.<ref>{{Cite book |lastJohnson |firstSteven |authorlinkSteven Johnson (author) |titleExtra Life |publisherRiverhead Books |year2021 |isbn978-0-525-53885-1 |edition1st |pages55}}</ref> Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty; but, after studying statistics provided by anti-vaccination activists, he began to question the efficacy of vaccination. At the time, the germ theory of disease was new and far from universally accepted. Moreover, no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked. Wallace discovered instances where supporters of vaccination had used questionable, in a few cases completely false, statistics to support their arguments. Always suspicious of authority, Wallace suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination, and became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp422–436}}
Another factor in Wallace's thinking was his belief that, because of the action of natural selection, organisms were in a state of balance with their environment, and that everything in nature, served a useful purpose.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp215–216}} Wallace pointed out that vaccination, which at the time was often unsanitary, could be dangerous.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp 215–216}}
In 1890, Wallace gave evidence to a Royal Commission investigating the controversy. It found errors in his testimony, including some questionable statistics. The Lancet averred that Wallace and other activists were being selective in their choice of statistics. The commission found that smallpox vaccination was effective and should remain compulsory, though they recommended some changes in procedures to improve safety, and that the penalties for people who refused to comply be made less severe. Years later, in 1898, Wallace wrote a pamphlet, Vaccination a Delusion; Its Penal Enforcement a Crime, attacking the commission's findings. It, in turn, was attacked by The Lancet, which stated that it repeated many of the same errors as his evidence given to the commission.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|pp422–436}} Legacy and historical perception Honours '' (1889)|altfrontispiece of one of Wallace's books]]
As a result of his writing, Wallace became a well-known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist, and was often sought out for his views.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp292–294}} He became president of the anthropology section of the British Association in 1866,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S120.htm|titleAnthropology at the British Association (S120: 1866) |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> and of the Entomological Society of London in 1870.<ref nameeb1911/> He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1873.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAPS Member History |urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year1873;year-max1873;smodeadvanced;f1-memInternational |access-date12 September 2022 |websitesearch.amphilsoc.org |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210501233158/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year1873;year-max1873;smodeadvanced;f1-memInternational |archive-date1 May 2021}}</ref> The British Association elected him as head of its biology section in 1876.<ref name"chronology">{{cite web |titleChronology of the Main Events in Wallace's Life |urlhttp://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/chronol.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date5 December 2015}}</ref> He was elected to the Royal Society in 1893.<ref name"chronology"/> He was asked to chair the International Congress of Spiritualists meeting in London in 1898.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p454}} He received honorary doctorates and professional honours, such the Royal Society's Royal Medal in 1868 and its Darwin Medal in 1890,<ref nameeb1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitleWallace, Alfred Russel}}</ref> and the Order of Merit in 1908.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue28194 |suppy |page8162 |date9 November 1908}}</ref>
Obscurity and rehabilitation
Wallace's fame faded quickly after his death. For a long time, he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science.{{sfn|Slotten|2004|p6}} Reasons for this lack of attention may have included his modesty, his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation, and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his unconventional ideas.<ref name"Laserna">{{cite book |lastLaserna |firstDavid Blanco |date2016 |titleLa evolución, el fenómeno más complejo del universo |trans-titleEvolution, the most complex process of the universe |languageSpanish |publisherRBA |isbn978-84-473-8675-8 |page11}}</ref> The reason that the theory of evolution is popularly credited to Darwin is likely the impact of Darwin's On the Origin of Species.<ref name"Laserna"/>
Recently, Wallace has become better known, with the publication of at least five book-length biographies and two anthologies of his writings published since 2000.<ref>{{cite journal |lastRosen |firstJonathan |titleMissing Link: Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin's neglected double |journalNew Yorker |date4 February 2007 |pages76–81 |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/atlarge/2007/02/12/070212crat_atlarge_rosen |publisherThe New Yorker Feb 2007|pmid17323543 |access-date25 April 2007}}</ref> A web page dedicated to Wallace scholarship is maintained at Western Kentucky University.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/index1.htm |publisherhosted by Western Kentucky University |access-date13 May 2007 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070523065328/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/index1.htm| archive-date 23 May 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In a 2010 book, the environmentalist Tim Flannery argued that Wallace was "the first modern scientist to comprehend how essential cooperation is to our survival", and suggested that Wallace's understanding of natural selection and his later work on the atmosphere should be seen as a forerunner to modern ecological thinking.{{sfn|Flannery|2010|p32}} A collection of his medals, including the Order of Merit, were sold at auction for £273,000 in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |firstNick |lastHartland |titleEvolution guru's medals auctioned for £273,000 |publisherMonmouthshire Beacon |page9 |date10 August 2022 }}</ref> Centenary celebrations
{{main|Alfred Russel Wallace centenary}}
statue of Wallace, looking up at a bronze model of a Wallace's golden birdwing butterfly. Natural History Museum, London, unveiled 7 November 2013.|alt=photograph of a statue of Wallace in London]]
The Natural History Museum, London, co-ordinated commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the 'Wallace100' project in 2013.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/20/alfred-russel-wallace-forgotten-man-evolution | titleAlfred Russel Wallace, the forgotten man of evolution, gets his moment | newspaperThe Guardian | date20 January 2013 | access-date6 October 2013 | authorMcKie, Robin}}</ref><ref nameNHM>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/wallace/index.html | titleWallace100 – celebrating Alfred Russel Wallace's life and legacy | publisherNatural History Museum | year2013 | access-date5 October 2013}}</ref> On 24 January, his portrait was unveiled in the Main Hall of the museum by Bill Bailey, a fervent admirer.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/20/alfred-russel-wallace-forgotten-man-evolution "Alfred Russel Wallace, the forgotten man of evolution, gets his moment"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221031163210/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/20/alfred-russel-wallace-forgotten-man-evolution |date31 October 2022 }} The Guardian. Retrieved 3 May 2013.</ref> Bailey further championed Wallace in his 2013 BBC Two series "Bill Bailey's Jungle Hero".<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/tv/posts/Bill-Baileys-Jungle-Hero-An-audience-with-the-Sultan Bill Bailey's Jungle Hero: An audience with the sultan"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221031163218/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/tv/entries/42aee192-d20c-3109-b7a9-19d3c5787b7e |date31 October 2022 }} BBC TV Blog. Retrieved 3 May 2013.</ref> On 7 November 2013, the 100th anniversary of Wallace's death, Sir David Attenborough unveiled a statue of Wallace at the museum.<ref>[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2013/november/sir-david-attenborough-unveils-wallace-statue125452.html Natural History Museum: David Attenborough unveils Wallace Statue] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131113140230/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2013/november/sir-david-attenborough-unveils-wallace-statue125452.html |date13 November 2013 }}. Retrieved 13 November 2013.</ref> The statue, sculpted by Anthony Smith, was donated by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund.<ref>[https://wallacefund.myspecies.info/bronze-statue-wallace "Bronze statue of Wallace"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220204225020/https://wallacefund.myspecies.info/bronze-statue-wallace |date4 February 2022 }}. Retrieved 10 January 2014.</ref> It depicts Wallace as a young man, collecting in the jungle. November 2013 marked the debut of The Animated Life of A. R. Wallace, a paper-puppet animation film dedicated to Wallace's centennial.<ref nameNYT>{{cite news|last1Lichtman|first1Flora|titleThe Animated Life of A.R. Wallace|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/opinion/the-animated-life-of-ar-wallace.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/opinion/the-animated-life-of-ar-wallace.html |archive-date1 January 2022 |url-accesslimited|newspaperThe New York Times|date5 November 2013|access-date27 June 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In addition, Bailey unveiled a bust of Wallace, sculpted by Felicity Crawley, in Twyn Square in Usk, Monmouthshire in November 2021.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.abergavennychronicle.com/news/comedian-to-unveil-bronze-bust-of-famous-son-wallace-75960 |firstNick |lastHartland |titleComedian to unveil bust of famous son Wallace |workAbergavenny Chronicle |date6 November 2021 |access-date11 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220811063826/https://www.abergavennychronicle.com/news/comedian-to-unveil-bronze-bust-of-famous-son-wallace-75960 |archive-date11 August 2022 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Bicentenary celebrations Commemorations of the 200th anniversary of Wallace's birth celebrated during the course of 2023 range from naturalist walk events<ref>{{Cite news |lastManoj |firstE. M. |date2023-01-12 |titleBicentenary celebrations of 'forgotten' father of evolution begin in Wayanad |workThe Hindu |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/bicentenary-celebrations-of-forgotten-father-of-evolution-begin-in-wayanad/article66370545.ece |access-date2023-02-12}}</ref> to scientific congresses and presentations.<ref>{{Cite web |lastBeccaloni |firstGeorge |date2022-12-02 |titleEvents, Books etc to Commemorate the 200th Anniversary of Wallace's Birth in 2023 |urlhttps://wallacefund.myspecies.info/content/events-books-etc-commemorate-200th-anniversary-wallaces-birth-2023 |access-date2023-02-12 |websiteThe Alfred Russel Wallace Website}}</ref> A Harvard Museum of Natural History event in April 2023 will also include a mixologist-designed special cocktail to honor Wallace's legacy.<ref>{{Cite web |lastBerry |firstAndrew |date2023-02-12 |titleDarwin Day Talk: How Science Works: Darwin, Wallace, and Evolution |urlhttps://www.meetup.com/greaterbostonhumanists/events/290814767/ |access-date2023-02-12 |websiteMeetup}}</ref>
Memorials
Mount Wallace in California's Sierra Nevada mountain range was named in his honour in 1895.<ref>Browning, Peter, Place Names of the Sierra Nevada From Abbot to Zumwalt, 1986, Wilderness Press, {{ISBN|9780899970479}}.</ref> In 1928, a house at Richard Hale School (then called Hertford Grammar School, where he had been a pupil) was named after Wallace.<ref name"fun facts">{{cite web|titleJust for Fun |urlhttp://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/just.htm |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date30 November 2015}}</ref><ref name"other things"/> The Alfred Russel Wallace building is a prominent feature of the Glyntaff campus at the University of South Wales, by Pontypridd, with several teaching spaces and laboratories for science courses. The Natural Sciences Building at Swansea University and lecture theatre at Cardiff University are named after him,<ref name"other things">{{cite web |titleOther things named after Wallace |urlhttp://wallacefund.info/other-things-named-after-wallace |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Website |access-date30 November 2015 |archive-date27 June 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120627165434/http://wallacefund.info/other-things-named-after-wallace |url-statusdead }}</ref> as are impact craters on Mars and the Moon.<ref name"fun facts"/> In 1986, the Royal Entomological Society mounted a year-long expedition to the Dumoga-Bone National Park in North Sulawesi named Project Wallace.<ref name"other things"/> A group of Indonesian islands is known as the Wallacea biogeographical region in his honour, and Operation Wallacea, named after the region, awards "Alfred Russel Wallace Grants" to undergraduate ecology students.<ref>{{cite web |titleAlfred Russel Wallace Grants |urlhttp://opwall.com/about-us/alfred-russel-wallace-grants/ |publisherOperation Wallacea |access-date22 November 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151123092245/http://opwall.com/about-us/alfred-russel-wallace-grants/ |archive-date23 November 2015}}</ref> Several hundred species of plants and animals, both living and fossil, have been named after Wallace,<ref>{{cite web |lastBeccaloni |firstH. |dateOctober 2017 |titlePlants and animals named after Wallace |urlhttp://wallacefund.info/plants-and-animals-named-after-wallace |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Website |access-date26 October 2017 |archive-date31 January 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200131013833/http://wallacefund.info/plants-and-animals-named-after-wallace |url-statusdead }}</ref> such as the gecko Cyrtodactylus wallacei,<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Wallace", p. 279).</ref> and the freshwater stingray Potamotrygon wallacei.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Carvalho, M.R.d. |author2Rosa, R.S.|author3Araújo, M.L.G. |year2016 |titleA new species of Neotropical freshwater stingray (Chondrichthyes: Potamotrygonidae) from the Rio Negro, Amazonas, Brazil: the smallest species of Potamotrygon |journalZootaxa |volume4107 |issue4 |pages566–586 |doi10.11646/zootaxa.4107.4.5 |pmid27394840 }}</ref> More recently, several new species have been named during the bicentenary year of Wallace's birth, including a large spider from Peru, Linothele wallacei Sherwood et al., 2023<ref>{{cite journal |author1Sherwood, D. |author2Drolshagen, B. |author3Osorio, L. V. |author4Benavides, L. |author5Seiter, M. |year2023 |titleAn inordinate fondness for spinnerets: on some spiders of the genera Diplura C. L. Koch, 1850 and Linothele Karsch, 1879 with new species, records, and notes on types (Araneae: Dipluridae) |journalZooNova |volume29 |pages1–22 | urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/375863887}}</ref> and a South African weevil, Nama wallacei Meregalli & Borovec, 2023.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Meregalli, M. |author2Borovec, R. |year2023 |titleThe genus Nama, with the description of 14 new species (Curculionidae, Entiminae, Namaini) |journalDiversity |volume15 |issue8 |pages944|doi10.3390/d15080944 |doi-accessfree |bibcode2023Diver..15..944M }}</ref>
Writings
Wallace was a prolific author. In 2002, historian of science Michael Shermer published a quantitative analysis of Wallace's publications. He found that Wallace had published 22 full-length books and at least 747 shorter pieces, 508 of which were scientific papers (191 of them published in Nature). He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects: 29% were on biogeography and natural history, 27% were on evolutionary theory, 25% were social commentary, 12% were on anthropology, and 7% were on spiritualism and phrenology.{{sfn|Shermer|2002|pp15–17}} An online bibliography of Wallace's writings has more than 750 entries.<ref name"Bibliography"/>
<!--standardised notice-->
{{botanist|Wallace|inlineyes}} References Notes {{notelist}}Citations{{reflist|24em}}Sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1Bowler |first1Peter J. |author-linkPeter J. Bowler |last2Morus |first2Iwan Rhys |titleMaking Modern Science |publisherThe University of Chicago Press |year2005 |isbn978-0-226-06861-9|urlhttps://archive.org/details/makingmodernscie0000bowl_b4z3|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastBowler |firstPeter J. |author-linkPeter J. Bowler |titleEvolution: The History of an Idea |year1989 |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn0520063864 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastBowler |firstPeter J. |author-linkPeter J. Bowler |titleDarwin Deleted |publisherThe University of Chicago Press |year2013 |isbn=978-0-226-00984-1}}
* {{cite book |lastBrowne |firstJanet |author-linkJanet Browne |titleCharles Darwin: Voyaging: Volume I of a Biography |publisherPrinceton University Press |year1995 |isbn978-1-84413-314-7|urlhttps://archive.org/details/charlesdarwinbio0001brow|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastBrowne |firstJanet |author-linkJanet Browne |titleCharles Darwin: The Power of Place: Volume II of a Biography |publisherPrinceton University Press |year2002 |isbn978-0-691-11439-2|urlhttps://archive.org/details/charlesdarwinbio0002brow|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |last1Darwin |first1Charles |author-link1Charles Darwin |last2Wallace |first2Alfred Russel |year1858 |titleOn the Tendency of Species to Form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection |journalZoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume3 |issue9 |pages46–62 |doi10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x |urlhttp://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemIDF350&viewtypetext&pageseq1 |access-date20 September 2022 |doi-accessfree }}
* {{cite book |lastDarwin |firstCharles |author-linkCharles Darwin |editor-lastDarwin |editor-firstFrancis |editor-linkFrancis Darwin |titleThe life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter |seriesVol. 2 |year2009 |orig-year1887 |publisher=John Murray }}
* {{cite book |last1Desmond |first1Adrian |author-linkAdrian Desmond |last2Moore |first2James |author-link2James Moore (biographer) |titleDarwin |publisherMichael Joseph, Penguin Group |year1991 |isbn978-0-7181-3430-3 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/darwin0000desm|url-accessregistration}}
* {{cite book |lastFlannery |firstTim |author-linkTim Flannery |titleHere on Earth: A Natural History of the Planet |publisherAtlantic Monthly Press |year2010 |isbn978-0-8021-1976-6|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hereonearthnatur0000flan|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastLarson |firstEdward J. |author-linkEdward Larson |titleEvolution: The Remarkable History of Scientific Theory |publisherModern Library |year2004 |isbn978-0-679-64288-6 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastMarchant |firstJames |author-linkJames Marchant |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Letters and Reminiscences |urlhttp://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemIDF1593&viewtypeimage&pageseq1 |year1916 |publisherHarper & Brothers |location=New York}}<!--The UK edition published in the same year by Cassel is in 2 vols. Available on Int Arch-->
* {{cite book |lastMcGowan |firstChristopher |titleThe Dragon Seekers |publisherPerseus Pub |locationCambridge |year2001 |isbn978-0-7382-0282-2 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dragonseekershow00mcgo_0 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastRaby |firstPeter |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: A Life |publisherPrinceton University Press |year2002 |isbn978-0-691-10240-5}}
* {{cite book |lastShermer |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Shermer |titleIn Darwin's Shadow: The Life and Science of Alfred Russel Wallace |publisherOxford University Press |year2002 |isbn978-0-19-514830-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=gSSkPqmbeXIC}}
* {{cite book |lastSlotten |firstRoss A. |titleThe Heretic in Darwin's Court: The Life of Alfred Russel Wallace |publisherColumbia University Press |locationNew York |year2004 |isbn978-0-231-13010-3 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/hereticindarwins00ross |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |lastvan Wyhe |firstJohn |author-linkJohn van Wyhe |titleDispelling the Darkness: Voyage in the Malay Archipelago and the Discovery of Evolution by Wallace and Darwin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfpi6CgAAQBAJ&pgPA111 |year2013 |publisherWorld Scientific |isbn978-981-4458-79-5 }}
* {{cite book |last1Wallace |first1Alfred Russel |titleThe Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-utan, and the Bird of Paradise |date1869 |publisherMacmillan and Co. |locationLondon |urlhttp://wallace-online.org/content/frameset?pageseq1&itemIDS715.1&viewtypetext |volume=1}}
* {{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1875 |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/onmiraclesmodern00wall#page/172/mode/2up |titleOn Miracles and Modern Spiritualism |publisherJames Burns |isbn9780837056876 |oclc22744309 }}
* {{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1876 |titleThe Geographical Distribution of Animals |publisherMacmillan |urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8lAPAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |titleIsland Life |urlhttps://archive.org/details/islandlifeorphe02wallgoog |year1881 |publisherHarper and brothers }}
* {{cite web |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1889 |publisherThe Alfred Russel Wallace Page |access-date4 April 2007 |urlhttp://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S724CH15.htm |titleDarwinism, Chapter 15 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070313182223/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S724CH15.htm |archive-date13 March 2007 |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1905a |titleMy Life: A Record of Events and Opinions |volumeI |publisherChapman and Hall |urlhttps://archive.org/details/b31360580_0001}} [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDA237.1&pageseq1 Vol. 1] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111126193559/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDA237.1&pageseq1 |date=26 November 2011 }}
* {{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1905b |titleMy Life: A Record of Events and Opinions |volumeII |publisherChapman and Hall |urlhttps://archive.org/details/b31360580_0002}}. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDA237.2&pageseq1 Vol. 2] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111126193111/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtypeside&itemIDA237.2&pageseq1 |date=26 November 2011 }}
* {{cite book |lastWallace |firstAlfred Russel |year1911 |titleThe World of Life |publisherMoffat, Yard |urlhttps://archive.org/details/worldlifeamanif00wallgoog}}
* {{cite book |lastWilson |firstJohn |titleThe Forgotten Naturalist: In search of Alfred Russel Wallace |publisherArcadia/Australian Scholarly Publishing |year2000 |isbn978-1-875606-72-6 }}
{{refend}}
Further reading
There is an extensive literature on Wallace. Recent books on him<!-- other than those used as Sources, see below--> include:
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |lastBenton |firstTed |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Explorer, Evolutionist, Public Intellectual: A Thinker for Our Own Times? |year2013 |isbn978-0-9574530-2-9 |publisherSiri Scientific Press |locationManchester |refnone }}
* {{cite book |lastBerry |firstAndrew |titleInfinite Tropics: An Alfred Russel Wallace Anthology |year2003 |isbn978-1-85984-478-6 |publisherVerso |locationLondon |refnone }}
* {{cite book |lastCosta |firstJames T. |year2023 |titleRadical by Nature: The Revolutionary Life of Alfred Russel Wallace|locationPrinceton, New Jersey |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-0691233796 |refnone }}
* {{cite book |lastCosta |firstJames T. |year2014 |titleWallace, Darwin, and the Origin of Species |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn978-0-674-72969-8 |refnone }}
* {{cite book | editor-lastCosta |editor-firstJames T. |titleOn the Organic Law of Change, A Facsimile Edition and Annotated Transcription of Alfred Russel Wallace's Species Notebook of 1855–1859 |year2013 |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn978-0-674-72488-4 |ref=none }}
* {{cite book |lastFichman |firstMartin |titleAn Elusive Victorian: The Evolution of Alfred Russel Wallace |year2004 |isbn978-0-226-24613-0 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |locationChicago |urlhttps://archive.org/details/elusivevictorian00fich |ref=none }}
* {{cite book |editor-lastMarchant |editor-firstJames |editor-linkJames Marchant |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Letters and Reminiscences, Vol. 1 (Parts I and II) |year1916 |formatProject Gutenberg |urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15997 |refnone }} [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15998 Vol. 2 (Parts III – VII)] (Project Gutenberg). London: Cassell and Company. Published in a single volume by Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York and London, June 1916.
* {{cite book |lastSeverin |firstTim |author-linkTim Severin |titleThe Spice Islands Voyage: The Quest for Alfred Wallace, the Man Who Shared Darwin's Discovery of Evolution |year1997 |isbn978-0-7867-0518-4 |publisherCarroll & Graf Publishers |locationNew York |urlhttps://archive.org/details/spiceislandsvoya00seve |refnone }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1Smith |editor-first1Charles H. |editor1-linkCharles H. Smith (historian) |editor2-lastCosta |editor2-firstJames T. |editor3-lastCollard |editor3-firstDavid |year2019 |titleAn Alfred Russel Wallace Companion |placeChicago |publisherThe University of Chicago Press |refnone }}
* {{cite book |lastSochaczewski |firstPaul Spencer |author-linkPaul Spencer Sochaczewski |titleAn Inordinate Fondness for Beetles: Campfire Conversations with Alfred Russel Wallace on People and Nature Based on Common Travel in the Malay Archipelago |year2012 |isbn978-981-4385-20-6 |publisherEditions Didier Millet |locationSingapore |ref=none }}
* {{cite book | last1van Wyhe |first1John |last2Rookmaaker |first2Kees |titleAlfred Russel Wallace: Letters from The Malay Archipelago |year2013 |publisherOxford University Press |placeOxford |isbn978-0-19-968399-4 |refnone }}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Library resources box |byyes |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |label=Alfred Russel Wallace }}
* [https://wallacefund.myspecies.info/ The Alfred Russel Wallace Website] by George Beccaloni
* [http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/index1.htm Alfred Russel Wallace] at Western Kentucky University
* [https://wallaceletters.myspecies.info/ The Alfred Russel Wallace Correspondence Project]
* [http://wallace-online.org/ Wallace Online], ed. John van Wyhe – The first complete online edition of the writings of Alfred Russel Wallace
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m000cldv Great Lives – Bill Bailey on his hero Alfred Russel Wallace] on BBC Radio 4
* {{Gutenberg author|id=955}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Alfred Russel Wallace}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4452}}
{{Natural history}}
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Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.857450 |
1495 | Australian Labor Party | {{Short description|Federal political party in Australia}}
{{About|the federal Labor Party|state and territory Labor parties|List of state branches of the Australian Labor Party|}}
{{Use Australian English|date=January 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = Australian Labor Party
| logo_size = 200px
| colorcode = {{party color|Australian Labor Party}}
| logo = ALP logo 2017.svg
| abbreviation = ALP
| slogan = ''Building Australia's Future''
| leader1_title = Leader
| leader1_name = Anthony Albanese
| leader2_title = Deputy Leader
| leader2_name = Richard Marles
| leader3_title = Senate Leader
| leader3_name = Penny Wong
| leader4_title = National President
| leader4_name Wayne Swan<ref>{{cite web |titleNational Executive |urlhttps://www.alp.org.au/about/national-executive/ |websiteAustralian Labor Party |access-date30 September 2021 |archive-date28 September 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210928144722/https://www.alp.org.au/about/national-executive/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
| leader5_title = National Secretary
| leader5_name = Paul Erickson
| foundation {{ubl|Oldest branches:<br />{{start date and age|1891}}|Federal Caucus:<br />{{start date and age|dfy|1901|05|08}}}}
| headquarters = 5/9 Sydney Avenue, Barton, Australian Capital Territory
| womens_wing = Labor Women's Network
| youth_wing = Australian Young Labor
| wing2_title = Indigenous wing
| wing2 Aboriginal Labor Network<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.alp.org.au/media/3572/alp-national-constitution-adopted-19-august-2023.pdf|titleALP national Constitution 2024|websitealp.org.au|access-date23 November 2024|archive-date10 November 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241110044643/https://www.alp.org.au/media/3572/alp-national-constitution-adopted-19-august-2023.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>
| wing3_title = Overseas wing
| wing3 ALP Abroad<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://alpabroad.org/|titleALP Abroad|websitealpabroad.org|access-date21 September 2023|archive-date22 September 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230922140834/https://alpabroad.org/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
| blank1_title = Governing body
| blank1 = National Executive
| blank2_title = Parliamentary party
| blank2 = Caucus
| blank3_title = Party branches
| blank3 = {{hlist|ACT|NI|NSW|NT|Qld|SA|Tas|Vic|WA}}
| affiliation1_title = Union affiliate
| affiliation1 = ACTU
| think_tank = Chifley Research Centre
| membership {{Increase}} 60,085<ref>{{cite web |last1Davies |first1Anne |titleParty hardly: why Australia's big political parties are struggling to compete with grassroots campaigns |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/dec/13/party-hardly-why-australias-big-political-parties-are-struggling-to-compete-with-grassroots-campaigns?CMPsoc_567 |websiteThe Guardian |access-date13 December 2020 |languageen |date13 December 2020 |archive-date11 October 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211011171753/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/dec/13/party-hardly-why-australias-big-political-parties-are-struggling-to-compete-with-grassroots-campaigns?CMPsoc_567 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
| membership_year = 2020
| ideology <!-- It is important to seek and gain broad consensus on the article talk page before changing this --> Social democracy<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMcAllister |firstIan |dateFebruary 1991 |titleParty Adaptation and Factionalism within the Australian Party System |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/2111444 |journalAmerican Journal of Political Science |volume35 |issue1 |pages206–227 |doi10.2307/2111444 |jstor2111444 |access-date=4 September 2024}}</ref>
| position = <!-- It is important to seek and gain broad consensus on the article talk page before changing this --> Centre-left
| national | international {{Plainlist|
* Progressive Alliance <!-- perhaps an expansion of its affiliation in the socialist international below?
* Socialist International (1966–2014) -->
}}
| colours {{color box|{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}|borderdarkgray}} Red
| seats1_title = House of Representatives
| seats1 {{composition bar|78|151|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| seats2_title = Senate
| seats2 {{composition bar|25|76|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| seats3_title = State/territory governments
| seats3 {{composition bar|5|8|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| seats4 {{composition bar|267|465|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| seats4_title = State/territory lower houses
| seats5 {{composition bar|65|155|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| seats5_title = State upper houses
| website = {{URL|https://alp.org.au|alp.org.au}}
| country = Australia
| wing1 Rainbow Labor<ref name"ALPOrganisationalPolices">{{cite web |titleOrganisational Polices |urlhttps://www.alp.org.au/media/3571/alp-organisational-policies-adopted-19-august-2023.pdf |websitealp.org.au |publisherAustralian Labor Party |access-date2 December 2024 |refYes}}</ref>
| wing1_title = LGBT wing
}}
The Australian Labor Party (ALP), also known simply as the Labor Party or Labor, is the major centre-left political party in Australia and one of two major parties in Australian politics,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Labor-Party |titleAustralian Labor Party |encyclopediaBritannica |access-date6 November 2021 |languageen |archive-date14 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181214202332/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Labor-Party |url-statuslive }}</ref> along with the centre-right Liberal Party of Australia. The party has been in government since the 2022 federal election, and with political branches active in all the Australian states and territories, they currently hold government in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory. As of 2025, Queensland, Tasmania and Northern Territory are the only states or territories where Labor currently forms the opposition. It is the oldest continuously operating political party in Australian history, having been established on 8 May 1901 at Parliament House, Melbourne; the meeting place of the first Federal Parliament.
The ALP is descended from the labour parties founded in the various Australian colonies by the emerging labour movement. Colonial Labour parties contested seats from 1891, and began contesting federal seats following Federation at the 1901 federal election. In 1904, the ALP briefly formed what is considered the world's first labour party government and the world's first democratic socialist or social democratic government at a national level.<ref>{{cite web |lastRhodes |firstCampbell |urlhttps://moadoph.gov.au/blog/a-perfect-picture-of-the-statesman-john-christian-watson/ |titleA perfect picture of the statesman: John Christian Watson |publisherMuseum of Australian Democracy |date27 April 1904 |access-date19 September 2017 |archive-date2 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402162747/https://moadoph.gov.au/blog/a-perfect-picture-of-the-statesman-john-christian-watson/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> At the 1910 federal election, Labor became the first party in Australia to win a majority in either house of the Australian parliament. In every election since 1910 Labor has either served as the governing party or the opposition. There have been 13 Labor prime ministers and 10 periods of federal Labor governments, including under Billy Hughes from 1915 to 1916, James Scullin from 1929 to 1932, John Curtin from 1941 to 1945, Ben Chifley from 1945 to 1949, Gough Whitlam from 1972 to 1975, Bob Hawke from 1983 to 1991, Paul Keating from 1991 to 1996, Kevin Rudd from 2007 to 2010 and 2013, and Julia Gillard from 2010 to 2013.
The Labor Party is often called the party of unions due to its close ties to the labour movement in Australia and historical founding by trade unions, with the majority of Australian trade unions being affiliated with the Labor Party. The party's structure allocates 50% of delegate representation at state and national conferences to affiliated unions, with the remaining 50% to rank-and-file party members.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/title/953976806 |titleLeft-of-centre parties and trade unions in the twenty-first century |date2017 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-879047-1 |editor-lastAllern |editor-firstElin Haugsgjerd |edition1st |locationOxford |pages58 |oclc953976806 |editor-last2Bale |editor-first2Tim}}</ref> At the federal and state/colony level, the Australian Labor Party predates both the British Labour Party and the New Zealand Labour Party in party formation, government, and policy implementation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://australianpolitics.com/political-parties/alp|titleAustralian Labor Party|websiteAustralianPolitics.com|date6 October 2013|access-date11 December 2014|archive-date10 January 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150110050258/http://australianpolitics.com/political-parties/alp|url-statuslive}}</ref> Internationally, the ALP is a member of the Progressive Alliance, a network of progressive, democratic socialist and social democratic parties,<ref>{{cite web |url http://progressive-alliance.info/participants/ |title Participants |publisherProgressive Alliance |access-date 11 June 2015 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150302142054/http://progressive-alliance.info/participants/ |archive-date2 March 2015 |url-statusdead }}</ref> having previously been a member of the Socialist International.{{TOC limit|3}}
Name and spelling
In standard Australian English, the word labour is spelt with a u. However, the political party uses the spelling Labor, without a u. There was originally no standardised spelling of the party's name, with Labor and Labour both in common usage. According to Ross McMullin, who wrote an official history of the Labor Party, the title page of the proceedings of the Federal Conference used the spelling "Labor in 1902, "Labour" in 1905 and 1908, and then "Labor" from 1912 onwards.{{sfn|McMullin|1991|pix}} In 1908, James Catts put forward a motion at the Federal Conference that "the name of the party be the Australian Labour Party", which was carried by 22 votes to 2. A separate motion recommending state branches adopt the name was defeated. There was no uniformity of party names until 1918 when the Federal party resolved that state branches should adopt the name "Australian Labor Party", now spelt without a u. Each state branch had previously used a different name, due to their different origins.{{sfn|McMullin|1991|p116}}{{efn|According to The Australian Worker, in 1918 the state parties comprised the Political Labor League (New South Wales), the Queensland Labor Party, the United Labor Party (South Australia), the Workers' Political Labor League (Tasmania), the Political Labor Council (Victoria), and the Australian Labor Federation (Western Australia).<ref>{{cite news |url https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/72188541 |title 'The Australian Labor Party: Labor's Uniform Name |newspaper The Australian Worker |date 12 December 1918 |access-date 15 May 2020 |archive-date 2 April 2020 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200402162807/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/72188541 |url-status live }}</ref> However, according to the South Australian Register, the state parties in New South Wales, South Australia, and Victoria had already adopted the standardised name by 1917.<ref>{{cite news |url https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/60323264 |title What's in a Name? |newspaper South Australian Register |date 15 September 1917 |access-date 15 May 2020 |archive-date 2 April 2020 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200402162809/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/60323264 |url-status live }}</ref>}}
Although the ALP officially adopted the spelling without a u, it took decades for the official spelling to achieve widespread acceptance.<ref>{{cite book |quote The Commonwealth conference of the party adopted the spelling 'Labor' in the official title of the Labor Party, but the parliamentary debates did not follow suit. Thereafter the debates recorded the same proceedings with different spellings, and it was many years before the spelling 'Labor' was accepted officially or used consistently in print. |first Frank |last Crowley |title Big John Forrest: A Founding Father of the Commonwealth of Australia |publisher UWA Press |year 2000 |page 394 }}</ref>{{efn|In 1954, Labor MP Ted Johnson complained in the Parliament of Western Australia that both Hansard and the daily newspapers were still using the spelling "Labour".<ref>{{cite news |url http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Hansard/hansard1870to1995.nsf/0/1cc22d0f70c1928948257a41000ff21d/$FILE/19540707_Assembly.pdf |publisher Hansard / Parliament of Western Australia |date 7 July 1954 |title Australian Labour Party, as to spelling of "Labour" |page 302 |access-date 20 November 2018 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181120095713/http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Hansard/hansard1870to1995.nsf/0/1cc22d0f70c1928948257a41000ff21d/$FILE/19540707_Assembly.pdf |archive-date 20 November 2018 |url-status dead }}</ref> As late as the 1980s, historian Finlay Crisp used the spelling "Labour" in academic works about the party.<ref>Crisp, Finlay (1978) [1951]. The Australian Federal Labour Party, 1901–1951.</ref><ref>Crisp, Finlay; Atkinson, Barbara (1981). Australian Labour Party Federal Parliamentarians, 1901–1981.</ref>}} According to McMullin, "the way the spelling of 'Labor Party' was consolidated had more to do with the chap who ended up being in charge of printing the federal conference report than any other reason".<ref>{{cite journal |journal Papers on Parliament |publisher Australian Parliamentary Library |url https://www.aph.gov.au/~/~/link.aspx?_id0C7E239290F64DD8BD55C6C1E9F185EA&_zz |title First in the World: Australia's Watson Labor government |last McMullin |first Ross |author-link Ross McMullin |year 2006 |issue 44 |access-date 15 May 2020 |archive-date 10 May 2020 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200510045446/https://www.aph.gov.au/~/~/link.aspx?_id0C7E239290F64DD8BD55C6C1E9F185EA&_zz |url-status live }}</ref> Some sources have attributed the official choice of Labor to influence from King O'Malley, who was born in the United States and was reputedly an advocate of English-language spelling reform; the spelling without a u is the standard form in American English.<ref>{{cite book |title Andrew Fisher: An Underestimated Man |first Peter |last Bastian |year2009 |publisherUNSW Press |page 372 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-23079177 |titleDisemvowelled |workBBC News |date27 June 2013 |access-date20 November 2018 |archive-date2 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402162743/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-23079177 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Andrew Scott, who wrote "Running on Empty: 'Modernising' the British and Australian Labour Parties", suggests that the adoption of the spelling without a u "signified one of the ALP's earliest attempts at modernisation", and served the purpose of differentiating the party from the Australian labour movement as a whole and distinguishing it from other British Empire labour parties. The decision to include the word "Australian" in the party's name, rather than just "Labour Party" as in the United Kingdom, Scott attributes to "the greater importance of nationalism for the founders of the colonial parties".<ref>{{cite book |url https://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30034395/scott-runningonempty-2000.pdf |publisher Pluto Press |first Andrew |last Scott |year 2000 |title Running on Empty: 'Modernising' the British and Australian Labour Parties |page 39 |access-date 20 November 2018 |archive-date 11 April 2019 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190411203148/https://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30034395/scott-runningonempty-2000.pdf |url-status dead }}</ref> History
{{main|History of the Australian Labor Party}}
's ministry leaving Parliament House, Brisbane, after being sworn in on 1 December 1899. His was the first government formed by a Labour party in the world]]
The Australian Labor Party has its origins in the Labour parties founded in the 1890s in the Australian colonies prior to federation. Labor tradition ascribes the founding of Queensland Labour to a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a ghost gum tree (the Tree of Knowledge) in Barcaldine, Queensland in 1891. The 1891 shearers' strike is credited as being one of the factors for the formation of the Australian Labor Party. On 9 September 1892 the Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party was read out under the well known Tree of Knowledge at Barcaldine following the Great Shearers' Strike.<ref>{{Cite web|date2017-09-08|title125th anniversary of the Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party |urlhttps://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/125th-anniversary-manifesto-queensland-labour-party|access-date2021-03-23|websiteState Library Of Queensland|languageen|archive-date11 December 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231211195940/https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/125th-anniversary-manifesto-queensland-labour-party|url-statuslive}}</ref> The State Library of Queensland now holds the manifesto;<ref>{{SLQ-CC-BY|urlhttps://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/charles-seymour-papers-1880-1924-treasure-collection-john-oxley-library|titleCharles Seymour Papers 1880–1924: Treasure collection of the John Oxley Library|date8 November 2021|author(s)Anne Scheu|access-date2 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleOM69-18 Charles Seymour Papers 1880–1924|urlhttp://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docidslq_alma21148463600002061&vidSLQ&search_scopeDT&tabdt&langen_US&contextL|url-statuslive|access-date2021-03-23|websiteState Library of Queensland|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109054559/http://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docidslq_alma21148463600002061&vidSLQ&search_scopeDT&tabdt&langen_US&contextL |archive-date9 November 2021 }}</ref> in 2008 the historic document was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Australian Register<ref>{{Cite web|titleManifesto of the Queensland Labour Party, 1892 |urlhttps://www.amw.org.au/register/listings/manifesto-queensland-labour-party-1892|access-date2021-03-23|websiteAustralian Memory of the World|archive-date29 March 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210329200053/https://www.amw.org.au/register/listings/manifesto-queensland-labour-party-1892|url-statuslive}}</ref>&nbsp;and, in 2009, the document was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World International Register.<ref>{{Cite web|titleManifesto of the Queensland Labour Party to the people of Queensland (dated 9 September 1892) |urlhttp://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-5/manifesto-of-the-queensland-labour-party-to-the-people-of-queensland-dated-9-september-1892/|access-date2021-03-23|websiteUNESCO|archive-date31 March 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220331174524/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-5/manifesto-of-the-queensland-labour-party-to-the-people-of-queensland-dated-9-september-1892|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Balmain, New South Wales branch of the party claims to be the oldest in Australia. However, the Scone Branch has a receipt for membership fees for the Labour Electoral League dated April 1891. This predates the Balmain claim. This can be attested in the Centenary of the ALP book.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2024}} Labour as a parliamentary party dates from 1891 in New South Wales and South Australia, 1893 in Queensland, and later in the other colonies.
The first election contested by Labour candidates was the 1891 New South Wales election, when Labour candidates (then called the Labor Electoral League of New South Wales) won 35 of 141 seats. The major parties were the Protectionist and Free Trade parties and Labour held the balance of power. It offered parliamentary support in exchange for policy concessions.<ref>{{cite book |last1McMullen |first1Ross |year2004 |titleSo Monstrous a Travesty: Chris Watson and the World's First National Labour Government |locationCarlton North, Victoria |publisherScribe Publications |page4 |isbn978-1-920769-13-0}}</ref> The United Labor Party (ULP) of South Australia was founded in 1891, and three candidates were that year elected to the South Australian Legislative Council.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sahistorians.org.au/175/chronology/may/9-may-1891-united-labor-party-elected-to-legislati.shtml|title9 May 1891 United Labor Party elected to Legislative Council (Celebrating South Australia)|authorAlison Painter|access-date11 June 2015|archive-date6 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160306103358/http://www.sahistorians.org.au/175/chronology/may/9-may-1891-united-labor-party-elected-to-legislati.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> The first successful South Australian House of Assembly candidate was John McPherson at the 1892 East Adelaide by-election. Richard Hooper however was elected as an Independent Labor candidate at the 1891 Wallaroo by-election, while he was the first labor member of the House of Assembly he was not a member of the newly formed ULP.
At the 1893 South Australian elections, the ULP was immediately elevated to balance of power status with 10 of 54 lower house seats. The liberal government of Charles Kingston was formed with the support of the ULP, ousting the conservative government of John Downer. So successful, less than a decade later at the 1905 state election, Thomas Price formed the world's first stable Labor government. John Verran led Labor to form the state's first of many majority governments at the 1910 state election.
In 1899, Anderson Dawson formed a minority Labour<!-- do not change spelling, it is correct in historical context --> government in Queensland, the first in the world, which lasted one week while the conservatives regrouped after a split.
The colonial Labour<!-- Do not change spelling, it is correct in historical context. --> parties and the trade unions were mixed in their support for the Federation of Australia. Some Labour representatives argued against the proposed constitution, claiming that the Senate as proposed was too powerful, similar to the anti-reformist colonial upper houses and the British House of Lords. They feared that federation would further entrench the power of the conservative forces. However, the first Labour<!-- Do not change spelling, it is correct in historical context. --> leader and Prime Minister Chris Watson was a supporter of federation.
Historian Celia Hamilton, examining New South Wales, argues for the central role of Irish Catholics. Before 1890, they opposed Henry Parkes, the main Liberal leader, and of free trade, seeing them both as the ideals of Protestant Englishmen who represented landholding and large business interests. In the strike of 1890 the leading Catholic, Sydney's Archbishop Patrick Francis Moran was sympathetic toward unions, but Catholic newspapers were negative. After 1900, says Hamilton, Irish Catholics were drawn to the Labour Party because its stress on equality and social welfare fitted with their status as manual labourers and small farmers. In the 1910 elections Labour gained in the more Catholic areas and the representation of Catholics increased in Labour's parliamentary ranks.<ref>Celia Hamilton, "Irish-Catholics of New South Wales and the Labor Party, 1890–1910." Historical Studies: Australia & New Zealand (1958) 8#31: 254–267.</ref>
Early decades at the federal level
The federal parliament in 1901 was contested by each state Labour Party. In total, they won 15 of the 75 seats in the House of Representatives, collectively holding the balance of power, and the Labour members now met as the Federal Parliamentary Labour<!-- do not change spelling, it is correct in historical context --> Party (informally known as the caucus) on 8 May 1901 at Parliament House, Melbourne, the meeting place of the first federal Parliament.{{sfn|Faulkner|Macintyre|2001|p3}} The caucus decided to support the incumbent Protectionist Party in minority government, while the Free Trade Party formed the opposition. It was some years before there was any significant structure or organisation at a national level. Labour <!-- Do not change spelling, is correct in historical context. -->under Chris Watson doubled its vote at the 1903 federal election and continued to hold the balance of power. In April 1904, however, Watson and Alfred Deakin fell out over the issue of extending the scope of industrial relations laws concerning the Conciliation and Arbitration bill to cover state public servants, the fallout causing Deakin to resign. Free Trade leader George Reid declined to take office, which saw Watson become the first Labour<!-- Do not change spelling, is correct in historical context. --> Prime Minister of Australia, and the world's first Labour head of government at a national level (Anderson Dawson had led a short-lived Labour government in Queensland in December 1899), though his was a minority government that lasted only four months. He was aged only 37, and is still the youngest prime minister in Australia's history.<ref>{{Australian Dictionary of Biography |last Nairn |firstBede |year 1990 |idA120450b |title Watson, John Christian (Chris) (1867–1941) |volume12 | access-date9 February 2010 }}</ref>
George Reid of the Free Trade Party adopted a strategy of trying to reorient the party system along Labour vs. non-Labour lines prior to the 1906 federal election and renamed his Free Trade Party to the Anti-Socialist Party. Reid envisaged a spectrum running from socialist to anti-socialist, with the Protectionist Party in the middle. This attempt struck a chord with politicians who were steeped in the Westminster tradition and regarded a two-party system as very much the norm.<ref>{{cite web|authorCharles Richardson |urlhttps://www.cis.org.au/app/uploads/2015/04/images/stories/policy-magazine/2009-autumn/25-1-09-charles-richardson.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cis.org.au/app/uploads/2015/04/images/stories/policy-magazine/2009-autumn/25-1-09-charles-richardson.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleFusion: The Party System We Had To Have? |date25 January 2009 |access-date19 September 2017}}</ref>
Although Watson led the party to a plurality victory (though not government, thanks to the union of Free Traders and Protectionists) in 1906, he stepped down from the leadership the following year, to be succeeded by Andrew Fisher's minority government for seven months until it fell in June 1909. At the 1910 federal election, Fisher led Labor to victory, forming Australia's first elected federal majority government, Australia's first elected Senate majority, the world's first Labour Party majority government at a national level, and after the 1904 Chris Watson minority government the world's second Labour Party government at a national level. It was the first time a Labour Party had controlled any house of a legislature, and the first time the party controlled both houses of a bicameral legislature.<ref>{{Cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |year1981 |firstD. J. |lastMurphy |titleAndrew Fisher (1862–1928) |volume8 |id2fisher-andrew-378 |access-date 31 May 2007 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070619030028/http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A080529b.htm |archive-date19 June 2007 |url-status live}}</ref> The state branches were also successful, except in Victoria, where the strength of Deakinite liberalism inhibited the party's growth. The state branches formed their first majority governments in New South Wales and South Australia in 1910, Western Australia in 1911, Queensland in 1915 and Tasmania in 1925. Such success eluded the other Commonwealth Labour parties for another decade; the Labour Party in Great Britain would not form even a minority government until 1929, and would have to wait another sixteen years to win a majority in its own right. Even in neighboring New Zealand, Labour would not take power until 1935. In Canada, a national labour party was not even formed until 1932 and never formed government.
Analysis of the early NSW Labor caucus reveals "a band of unhappy amateurs",{{Quote without source|date=July 2024}} made up of blue collar workers, a squatter, a doctor, and even a mine owner, indicating that the idea that only the socialist working class formed Labor is untrue. In addition, many members from the working class supported the liberal notion of free trade between the colonies; in the first grouping of state MPs, 17 of the 35 were free-traders.
In the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, support for socialism grew in trade union ranks, and at the 1921 All-Australian Trades Union Congress a resolution was passed calling for "the socialisation of industry, production, distribution and exchange".{{Quote without source|dateJuly 2024}} The 1922 Labor Party National Conference adopted a similarly worded socialist objective which remained official policy for many years. The resolution was immediately qualified, however, by the Blackburn amendment, which said that "socialisation" was desirable only when was necessary to "eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features".{{sfn|McKinlay|1981|p53}} Only once has a federal Labor government attempted to nationalise any industry (Ben Chifley's bank nationalisation of 1947), and that was held by the High Court to be unconstitutional. The commitment to nationalisation was dropped by Gough Whitlam, and Bob Hawke's government carried out the floating of the dollar.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2024}} privatisation of state enterprises such as Qantas airways and the Commonwealth Bank was carried out by the Paul Keating government.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://jacobin.com/2021/03/australian-labor-party-paul-keating-privatization-neoliberalism |titleHow the Labor Party Sold Australia's Public Assets for a Song |year2021 |workMax Chandler-Mather |publisherJacobin.com |access-date=6 January 2025 }}</ref>
The Labor Party is commonly described{{By whom|dateJuly 2024}} as a social democratic party, and its constitution stipulates that it is a democratic socialist party.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.alp.org.au/platform/chapter_12.php |titleNational Constitution of the ALP |year2009 |workOfficial Website of the Australian Labor Party |publisherAustralian Labor Party |access-date26 December 2009 |quoteThe Australian Labor Party is a democratic socialist party and has the objective of the democratic socialisation of industry, production, distribution and exchange, to the extent necessary to eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features in these fields. |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091030014535/http://www.alp.org.au/platform/chapter_12.php |archive-date30 October 2009 }}</ref> The party was created by, and has always been influenced by, the trade unions, and in practice its policy at any given time has usually been the policy of the broader labour movement. Thus at the first federal election 1901 Labor's platform called for a White Australia policy, a citizen army and compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes.{{sfn|McKinlay|1981|p19}} Labor has at various times supported high tariffs and low tariffs, conscription and pacifism, White Australia and multiculturalism, nationalisation and privatisation, isolationism and internationalism.
From 1900 to 1940, Labor and its affiliated unions were strong defenders of the White Australia policy, which banned all non-European migration to Australia. This policy was motivated by fears of economic competition from low-wage overseas workers which was shared by the vast majority of Australians and all major political parties.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2019}} In practice the Labor party opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages, until after World War II, when the Chifley government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of Arthur Calwell as leader in 1967. Subsequently, Labor has become an advocate of multiculturalism. World War II and beyond The Curtin and Chifley governments governed Australia through the latter half of the Second World War and initial stages of transition to peace. Labor leader John Curtin became prime minister in October 1941 when two independents crossed the floor of Parliament. Labor, led by Curtin, then led Australia through the years of the Pacific War. In December 1941, Curtin announced that "Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom", thus helping to establish the Australian-American alliance (later formalised as ANZUS by the Menzies Government). Remembered as a strong war time leader and for a landslide win at the 1943 federal election, Curtin died in office just prior to the end of the war and was succeeded by Ben Chifley.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/curtin/ |titleJohn Curtin – Australia's PMs – Australia's Prime Ministers |publisherPrimeministers.naa.gov.au |access-date5 July 2013 |archive-date26 July 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100726084256/http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/curtin/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> Chifley Labor won the 1946 federal election and oversaw Australia's initial transition to a peacetime economy.
Labor was defeated at the 1949 federal election. At the conference of the New South Wales Labor Party in June 1949, Chifley sought to define the labour movement as follows: "We have a great objective – the light on the hill – which we aim to reach by working for the betterment of mankind.{{Nbs}}... [Labor would] bring something better to the people, better standards of living, greater happiness to the mass of the people."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/chifley/in-office.aspx |titleIn office – Ben Chifley – Australia's PMs – Australia's Prime Ministers |access-date13 July 2011 |date24 February 2009 |publisherNational Archives of Australia | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110613100927/http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/chifley/in-office.aspx| archive-date13 June 2011 | url-status live}}</ref>
To a large extent, Chifley saw centralisation of the economy as the means to achieve such ambitions. With an increasingly uncertain economic outlook, after his attempt to nationalise the banks and a strike by the Communist-dominated Miners' Federation, Chifley lost office in 1949 to Robert Menzies' Liberal-National Coalition. Labor commenced a 23-year period in opposition.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/chifley/ |titleBen Chifley – Australia's PMs – Australia's Prime Ministers |publisherPrimeministers.naa.gov.au |date13 June 1951 |access-date5 July 2013 |archive-date16 February 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170216203242/http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/chifley/ |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/menzies/elections.aspx |titleElections – Robert Menzies – Australia's PMs – Australia's Prime Ministers |publisherPrimeministers.naa.gov.au |access-date5 July 2013 |archive-date12 May 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160512011252/http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/menzies/elections.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> The party was primarily led during this time by H. V. Evatt and Arthur Calwell.
on 24 November 1975.]]
Various ideological beliefs were factionalised under reforms to the ALP under Gough Whitlam, resulting in what is now known as the Socialist Left who tend to favour a more interventionist economic policy and more socially progressive ideals, and Labor Right, the now dominant faction that tends to be more economically liberal and focus to a lesser extent on social issues. The Whitlam Labor government, marking a break with Labor's socialist tradition, pursued social democratic policies rather than democratic socialist policies. In contrast to earlier Labor leaders, Whitlam also cut tariffs by 25 percent.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.whitlam.org/collection/1973/19730718_Tariff_Reduction/ |titleTariff Reduction |workThe Whitlam Collection |publisherThe Whitlam Institute |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050720062736/http://www.whitlam.org/collection/1973/19730718_Tariff_Reduction/ |archive-date20 July 2005 }}</ref> Whitlam led the Federal Labor Party back to office at the 1972 and 1974 federal elections, and passed a large amount of legislation. The Whitlam government lost office following the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis and dismissal by Governor-General John Kerr after the Coalition blocked supply in the Senate after a series of political scandals, and was defeated at the 1975 federal election in the largest landslide of Australian federal history.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/news/general/the-dismissal-a-brief-history/2005/11/10/1131578175136.html | locationMelbourne | workThe Age | titleThe dismissal: a brief history | date11 November 2005 | access-date22 March 2012 | archive-date2 November 2012 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121102130937/http://www.theage.com.au/news/general/the-dismissal-a-brief-history/2005/11/10/1131578175136.html | url-statuslive }}</ref> Whitlam remains the only Prime Minister to have his commission terminated in that manner. Whitlam also lost the 1977 federal election and subsequently resigned as leader.
Bill Hayden succeeded Whitlam as leader. At the 1980 federal election, the party achieved a big swing, though the unevenness of the swing around the nation prevented an ALP victory. In 1983, Bob Hawke became leader of the party after Hayden resigned to avoid a leadership spill.
Bob Hawke led Labor back to office at the 1983 federal election and the party won four consecutive elections under Hawke. In December 1991 Paul Keating defeated Bob Hawke in a leadership spill. The ALP then won the 1993 federal election. It was in power for five terms over 13 years, until severely defeated by John Howard at the 1996 federal election. This was the longest period the party has ever been in government at the national level.
Kim Beazley led the party to the 1998 federal election, winning 51 percent of the two-party-preferred vote but falling short on seats, and the ALP lost ground at the 2001 federal election. After a brief period when Simon Crean served as ALP leader, Mark Latham led Labor to the 2004 federal election but lost further ground. Beazley replaced Latham in 2005; not long afterwards he in turn was forced out of the leadership by Kevin Rudd.
Rudd went on to defeat John Howard at the 2007 federal election with 52.7 percent of the two-party vote (Howard became the first prime minister since Stanley Melbourne Bruce to lose not just the election but his own parliamentary seat). The Rudd government ended prior to the 2010 federal election with the overthrow of Rudd as leader of the party by deputy leader Julia Gillard. Gillard, who was also the first woman to serve as prime minister of Australia,<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/julia-gillard|titleAbout Julia Gillard|publisherNational Archives of Australia|access-date22 May 2022|archive-date12 November 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221112211542/https://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/julia-gillard#:~:textOn%2024%20June%202010%2C%20Julia,by%20the%20Parliamentary%20Labor%20Party.|url-statuslive}}</ref> remained prime minister in a hung parliament following the election. Her government lasted until 2013, when Gillard lost a leadership spill, with Rudd becoming leader once again. Later that year the ALP lost the 2013 election.
After this defeat, Bill Shorten became leader of the party. The party narrowly lost the 2016 election, yet gained 14 seats. It remained in opposition after the 2019 election, despite having been ahead in opinion polls for the preceding two years. The party lost in 2019 some of the seats which it had won back in 2016. After the 2019 defeat, Shorten resigned from the leadership, though he remained in parliament. Anthony Albanese was elected as leader unopposed and led the party to victory in the 2022 election, and became the new prime minister.{{thumb|content={{center|Membership of the Australian Labor Party (1948–present)}}
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</timeline>
|caption{{legend0|red|Members<ref>{{cite web |titleDATABASE BY COUNTRY |urlhttp://www.projectmapp.eu/database-by-country/ |websiteMembers & Activists of Political Parties |languageen |access-date19 January 2021 |archive-date18 January 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210118193100/http://www.projectmapp.eu/database-by-country/ |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1Davies |first1Anne |titleParty hardly: why Australia's big political parties are struggling to compete with grassroots campaigns |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/dec/13/party-hardly-why-australias-big-political-parties-are-struggling-to-compete-with-grassroots-campaigns |workThe Guardian |date12 December 2020 |access-date21 February 2024 |archive-date22 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220722044942/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/dec/13/party-hardly-why-australias-big-political-parties-are-struggling-to-compete-with-grassroots-campaigns |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleMark Butler: factions are destroying Labor's capacity to campaign |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jan/23/mark-butler-factions-are-destroying-labors-capacity-to-campaign |access-date19 January 2021 |workThe Guardian |date23 January 2018 |languageen |archive-date27 January 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210127221300/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jan/23/mark-butler-factions-are-destroying-labors-capacity-to-campaign |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}}}
Between the 2007 federal election and the 2008 Western Australian state election, Labor was in government nationally and in all eight state and territory parliaments. This was the first time any single party or any coalition had achieved this since the ACT and the NT gained self-government.<ref>In 1969–1970, before the ACT and NT achieved self-government, the Liberal and National Coalition was in power federally and in all six states. [http://elections.uwa.edu.au/ University of WA elections database] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150118085343/http://elections.uwa.edu.au/ |date18 January 2015 }}</ref> Labor narrowly lost government in Western Australia at the 2008 state election and Victoria at the 2010 state election. These losses were further compounded by landslide defeats in New South Wales in 2011, Queensland in 2012, the Northern Territory in 2012, Federally in 2013 and Tasmania in 2014.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://www.news.com.au/national/barry-ofarrell-smashes-labor-in-nsw-election/story-e6frfkvr-1226028779988 | workThe Sunday Telegraph | firstBarclay | lastCrawford | titleBarry O'Farrell smashes Labor in NSW election | date27 March 2011 | access-date29 March 2011 | archive-date30 June 2011 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110630194232/http://www.news.com.au/national/barry-ofarrell-smashes-labor-in-nsw-election/story-e6frfkvr-1226028779988 | url-statuslive }}</ref> Labor secured a good result in the Australian Capital Territory in 2012 and, despite losing its majority, the party retained government in South Australia in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-24/weatherill-pledges-more-regional-focus/5340926 |workthe Australian Broadcasting Corporation |titleWeatherill pledges more regional focus amid Brock support |date24 March 2014 |access-date4 May 2015 |archive-date6 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140806021503/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-24/weatherill-pledges-more-regional-focus/5340926 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
However, most of these reversals proved only temporary with Labor returning to government in Victoria in 2014 and in Queensland in 2015 after spending only one term in opposition in both states.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/queensland-state-election-2015/queensland-election-state-wakes-to-new-political-landscape-20150131-132ybk.html | workthe Brisbane Times | firstAmy | lastRemeikis | titleQueensland election: State wakes to new political landscape | date1 February 2015 | access-date4 May 2015 | archive-date26 May 2016 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160526163240/http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/queensland-state-election-2015/queensland-election-state-wakes-to-new-political-landscape-20150131-132ybk.html | url-statuslive }}</ref> Furthermore, after winning the 2014 Fisher by-election by nine votes from a 7.3 percent swing, the Labor government in South Australia went from minority to majority government.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-16/labor-nat-cook-takes-seat-of-fisher-by-election-recount/5969402|workthe Australian Broadcasting Corporation|titleFisher by-election: Recount sees Labor's Nat Cook win by nine votes|date16 December 2014|access-date4 May 2015|archive-date30 June 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150630081154/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-16/labor-nat-cook-takes-seat-of-fisher-by-election-recount/5969402|url-statuslive}}</ref> Labor won landslide victories in the 2016 Northern Territory election, the 2017 Western Australian election and the 2018 Victorian state election. However, Labor lost the 2018 South Australian state election after 16 years in government.
In 2022, Labor returned to government after defeating the Liberal Party in the 2022 South Australian state election. Despite favourable polling, the party also did not return to government in the 2019 New South Wales state election or the 2019 federal election. The latter has been considered a historic upset due to Labor's consistent and significant polling lead; the result has been likened to the Coalition's loss in the 1993 federal election, with 2019 retrospectively referred to in the media as the "unloseable election".<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/may/19/labor-unloseable-election-morrison-australia-plan |titleLabor lost the unlosable election – now it's up to Morrison to tell Australia his plan |date19 May 2019 |newspaperThe Guardian |firstKatharine |lastMurphy |access-date21 August 2019 |archive-date31 May 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190531001527/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/may/19/labor-unloseable-election-morrison-australia-plan |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-22/labor-strategising-on-how-to-rebuild-fortunes/11530354 |titleLabor was going to hit the ground running – it hit a brick wall instead |date22 September 2019 |workABC News |firstJane |lastNorman |access-date9 October 2019 |archive-date11 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191011201914/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-22/labor-strategising-on-how-to-rebuild-fortunes/11530354 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Anthony Albanese later led the party into the 2022 Australian federal election, in which the party once again won a majority government. Despite Labor's win, Labor nevertheless recorded its lowest primary vote since either 1903 or 1934, depending on whether the Lang Labor vote is included.<ref>{{cite news |date4 July 2022 |titleBarnaby Joyce says Labor's 2022 primary vote was its lowest since 1910. Is that correct? |workABC News |publisher |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-05/fact-check-barnaby-joyce-labor-primary-vote/101129054 |access-date5 July 2022}}</ref>
In 2023, Labor won the march 2023 New South Wales state election returning to government for the first time since 2011. This victory marked the first time in 15 years that Labor were in government in all mainland states.
In 2024, Labor lost in a landslide in the 2024 Northern Territory election. losing its first mainland state or territory since the 2018 South Australian election. Labor would also lose in the 2024 Queensland state election.
National platform
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2018}}
The policy of the Australian Labor Party is contained in its National Platform, which is approved by delegates to Labor's National Conference, held every three years. According to the Labor Party's website, "The Platform is the result of a rigorous and constructive process of consultation, spanning the nation and including the cooperation and input of state and territory policy committees, local branches, unions, state and territory governments, and individual Party members. The Platform provides the policy foundation from which we can continue to work towards the election of a federal Labor government."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.alp.org.au/platform/index.php |publisherAustralian Labor Party |titleALP National Platform and Constitution 2007 |access-date23 August 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060820193739/http://www.alp.org.au/platform/index.php |archive-date20 August 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The platform gives a general indication of the policy direction which a future Labor government would follow, but does not commit the party to specific policies. It maintains that "Labor's traditional values will remain a constant on which all Australians can rely." While making it clear that Labor is fully committed to a market economy, it says that: "Labor believes in a strong role for national government – the one institution all Australians truly own and control through our right to vote." Labor "will not allow the benefits of change to be concentrated in fewer and fewer hands, or located only in privileged communities. The benefits must be shared by all Australians and all our regions." The platform and Labor "believe that all people are created equal in their entitlement to dignity and respect, and should have an equal chance to achieve their potential." For Labor, "government has a critical role in ensuring fairness by: ensuring equal opportunity; removing unjustifiable discrimination; and achieving a more equitable distribution of wealth, income and status." Further sections of the platform stress Labor's support for equality and human rights, labour rights and democracy.
In practice, the platform provides only general policy guidelines to Labor's federal, state and territory parliamentary leaderships. The policy Labor takes into an election campaign is determined by the Cabinet (if the party is in office) or the Shadow Cabinet (if it is in opposition), in consultation with key interest groups within the party, and is contained in the parliamentary Leader's policy speech delivered during the election campaign. When Labor is in office, the policies it implements are determined by the Cabinet, subject to the platform. Generally, it is accepted that while the platform binds Labor governments, how and when it is implemented remains the prerogative of the parliamentary caucus. It is now rare for the platform to conflict with government policy, as the content of the platform is usually developed in close collaboration with the party's parliamentary leadership as well as the factions. However, where there is a direct contradiction with the platform, Labor governments have sought to change the platform as a prerequisite for a change in policy. For example, privatisation legislation under the Hawke government occurred only after holding a special national conference to debate changing the platform.
Party structure
{{labour|spuk|expandedparties}}
{{labour politics in Australia}}
National executive and secretariat
The Australian Labor Party National Executive is the party's chief administrative authority, subject only to Labor's national conference. The executive is responsible for organising the triennial national conference; carrying out the decisions of the conference; interpreting the national constitution, the national platform and decisions of the national conference; and directing federal members.<ref name"Australian Labor Party-2015">{{cite web|titleALP National Platform 2011. |urlhttp://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/australianlaborparty/pages/121/attachments/original/1365135867/Labor_National_Platform.pdf?1365135867 |websiteAustralian Labor Party |access-date9 July 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923182841/http://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/australianlaborparty/pages/121/attachments/original/1365135867/Labor_National_Platform.pdf?1365135867 |archive-date23 September 2015 }}</ref>
The party holds a national conference every three years, which consists of delegates representing the state and territory branches (many coming from affiliated trade unions, although there is no formal requirement for unions to be represented at the national conference). The national conference decides the party's platform, elects the national executive and appoints office-bearers such as the national secretary, who also serves as national campaign director during elections. The current national secretary is Paul Erickson. The most recent national conference was the 48th conference held in December 2018.<ref>ALP: 2018 Australian Labor Party National Conference</ref>
The head office of the ALP, the national secretariat, is managed by the national secretary. It plays a dual role of administration and a national campaign strategy. It acts as a permanent secretariat to the national executive by managing and assisting in all administrative affairs of the party. As the national secretary also serves as national campaign director during elections, it is also responsible for the national campaign strategy and organisation.
Federal Parliamentary Labor Party
{{Main|Australian Labor Party Caucus}}
The elected members of the Labor party in both houses of the national Parliament meet as the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party, also known as the Caucus (see also caucus).<ref>{{cite web|titleNational Platform of the Australian Labor Party|urlhttps://cdn.australianlabor.com.au/documents/ALP_National_Platform.pdf|publisherAustralian Labor Party|access-date16 March 2016|page215|archive-date22 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160322193603/https://cdn.australianlabor.com.au/documents/ALP_National_Platform.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref> Besides discussing parliamentary business and tactics, the Caucus also is involved in the election of the federal parliamentary leaders.
Federal parliamentary leaders
{{main|Leaders of the Australian Labor Party}}
Until 2013, the parliamentary leaders were elected by the Caucus from among its members. The leader has historically been a member of the House of Representatives. Since October 2013, a ballot of both the Caucus and by the Labor Party's rank-and-file members determined the party leader and the deputy leader.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/bill-shorten-elected-labor-leader-20131013-2vfzy.html|titleBill Shorten elected Labor leader|authorHarrison, Bill|date13 October 2013|access-date19 July 2014|workThe Sydney Morning Herald|archive-date13 October 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131013232934/http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/bill-shorten-elected-labor-leader-20131013-2vfzy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> When the Labor Party is in government, the party leader is the prime minister and the deputy leader is the deputy prime minister. If a Labor prime minister resigns or dies in office, the deputy leader acts as prime minister and party leader until a successor is elected. The deputy prime minister also acts as prime minister when the prime minister is on leave or out of the country. Members of the Ministry are also chosen by Caucus, though the leader may allocate portfolios to the ministers.
Anthony Albanese is the leader of the federal Labor party, serving since 30 May 2019. The deputy leader is Richard Marles, also serving since 30 May 2019.
State and territory branches
{{main|List of state branches of the Australian Labor Party}}
The Australian Labor Party is a federal party, consisting of eight branches from each state and territory. While the National Executive is responsible for national campaign strategy, each state and territory are an autonomous branch and are responsible for campaigning in their own jurisdictions for federal, state and local elections. State and territory branches consist of both individual members and affiliated trade unions, who between them decide the party's policies, elect its governing bodies and choose its candidates for public office.
Members join a state branch and pay a membership fee, which is graduated according to income. The majority of trade unions in Australia are affiliated to the party at a state level. Union affiliation is direct and not through the Australian Council of Trade Unions. Affiliated unions pay an affiliation fee based on the size of their membership. Union affiliation fees make up a large part of the party's income. Other sources of funds for the party include political donations and public funding.
Members are generally expected to attend at least one meeting of their local branch each year, although there are differences in the rules from state to state. In practice, only a dedicated minority regularly attend meetings. Many members are only active during election campaigns.
The members and unions elect delegates to state and territory conferences (usually held annually, although more frequent conferences are often held). These conferences decide policy, and elect state or territory executives, a state or territory president (an honorary position usually held for a one-year term), and a state or territory secretary (a full-time professional position). However, ACT Labor directly elects its president. The larger branches also have full-time assistant secretaries and organisers. In the past the ratio of conference delegates coming from the branches and affiliated unions has varied from state to state, however under recent national reforms at least 50% of delegates at all state and territory conferences must be elected by branches.
In some states, the party also contests local government elections or endorses local candidates. In others it does not, preferring to allow its members to run as non-endorsed candidates. The process of choosing candidates is called preselection. Candidates are preselected by different methods in the various states and territories. In some they are chosen by ballots of all party members, in others by panels or committees elected by the state conference, in still others by a combination of these two.
The state and territory Labor branches are the following:
{|class"wikitable" style"font-size:95%; text-align: center;"
!colspan2 rowspan3 |Branch
!rowspan=3 |Leader
!colspan=6| Last state/territory election
!rowspan=3| Status
! colspan="2" | Federal representatives
|-
!colspan=4| Lower house
!colspan=2| Upper house
! rowspan="2" |MPs
! rowspan="2" |Senators
|-
!Year
!Votes (%)
!Seats
!TPP (%)
!Votes (%)
!Seats
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{party color|Australian Labor Party}};"|
|New South Wales Labor
|Chris Minns
|2023
|37.1
|{{composition bar|45|93|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|54.3
|37.1
|{{composition bar|15|42|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{yes2|Minority}}
|{{composition bar|27|47|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|4|12|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{Australian politics/party colours|labor vic}};"|
|Victorian Labor
|Jacinta Allan {{small|(since 2023)}}
|2022
|36.7
|{{composition bar|56|88|hex={{Australian politics/party colours|labor vic}}}}
|55.0
|33.0
|{{composition bar|15|40|hex={{Australian politics/party colours|labor vic}}}}
|{{yes2|Majority}}
|{{composition bar|24|39|hex={{Australian politics/party colours|labor vic}}}}
|{{composition bar|4|12|hex={{Australian politics/party colours|labor vic}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{Australian politics/party colours|labor qld}};"|
|Queensland Labor
|Steven Miles {{small|(since 2023)}}
|2024
|32.6
|{{composition bar|36|93|hex={{Australian politics/party colours|labor qld}}}}
|46.2
|aligncenter colspan2 {{N/A}}{{efn|Queensland has maintained a unicameral legislature since 1922.}}
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|{{composition bar|5|30|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|3|12|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{party color|Australian Labor Party}};"|
|Western Australian Labor
|Roger Cook {{small|(since 2023)}}
|2021
|59.1
|{{composition bar|53|59|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|69.2
|60.3
|{{composition bar|22|36|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{yes2|Majority}}
|{{composition bar|9|15|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|5|12|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{party color|Australian Labor Party}};"|
|South Australian Labor
|Peter Malinauskas
|2022
|40.0
|{{composition bar|27|47|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|54.6
|37.0
|{{composition bar|9|22|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{yes2|Majority}}
|{{composition bar|6|10|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|4|12|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{party color|Australian Labor Party}};"|
|Tasmanian Labor
|Dean Winter
|2024
|29.0
|{{composition bar|10|35|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|align=right {{N/A}}{{efn|Tasmania uses a semi-proportional system and thus TPP is not calculated.}}
|align=right {{N/A}}{{efn|Tasmania elects legislative council representatives on a periodic basis, with elections held almost every year.}}
|{{composition bar|3|15|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|{{composition bar|2|5|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|4|12|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{party color|Australian Labor Party}};"|
|ACT Labor
|Andrew Barr
|2024
|34.5
|{{composition bar|10|25|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|align=right {{N/A}}{{efn|The ACT uses a semi-proportional system and thus TPP is not calculated.}}
|aligncenter colspan2 {{N/A}}{{efn|The ACT has a unicameral parliament.}}
|{{yes2|Coalition}}
|{{composition bar|3|3|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|1|2|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|-
|style="width:2px;background:{{party color|Australian Labor Party}};"|
|Territory Labor
|Selena Uibo
|2024
|28.7
|{{composition bar|4|25|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|42.0
|aligncenter colspan2 {{N/A}}{{efn|The Northern Territory has a unicameral parliament.}}
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|{{composition bar|2|2|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|{{composition bar|1|2|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|}
Country Labor
The Country Labor Party, commonly known as Country Labor, was an affiliated organisation of the Labor Party. Although not expressly defined, Country Labor operated mainly within rural New South Wales, and was mainly seen as an extension of the New South Wales branch that operates in rural electorates.
Country Labor was used as a designation by candidates contesting elections in rural areas. The Country Labor Party was registered as a separate party in New South Wales,<ref>[http://www.elections.nsw.gov.au/candidates_and_parties/registered_political_parties/list_of_registered_parties List of Registered Parties] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330055833/https://www.elections.nsw.gov.au/candidates_and_parties/registered_political_parties/list_of_registered_parties |date30 March 2019 }}, Electoral Commission NSW.</ref> and was also registered with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) for federal elections.<ref name"Current register of political parties">[http://www.aec.gov.au/Parties_and_Representatives/party_registration/Registered_parties/ Current register of political parties] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180418193211/https://www.aec.gov.au/Parties_and_Representatives/party_registration/Registered_parties/ |date=18 April 2018 }}, Australian Electoral Commission.</ref> It did not have the same status in other states and, consequently, that designation could not be used on the ballot paper.
The creation of a separation designation for rural candidates was first suggested at the June 1999 ALP state conference in New South Wales. In May 2000, following Labor's success at the 2000 Benalla by-election in Victoria, Kim Beazley announced that the ALP intended to register a separate "Country Labor Party" with the AEC;<ref>[https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/country-labor-new-direction Country Labor: a new direction?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228083258/https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/country-labor-new-direction |date28 February 2020 }}, 7 June 2000. Retrieved 29 September 2017</ref> this occurred in October 2000.<ref name="Current register of political parties"/> The Country Labor designation was most frequently used in New South Wales. According to the ALP's financial statements for the 2015–16 financial year, NSW Country Labor had around 2,600 members (around 17 percent of the party total), but almost no assets. It recorded a severe funding shortfall at the 2015 New South Wales election, and had to rely on a $1.68-million loan from the party proper to remain solvent. It had been initially assumed that the party proper could provide the money from its own resources, but the NSW Electoral Commission ruled that this was impermissible because the parties were registered separately. Instead the party proper had to loan Country Labor the required funds at a commercial interest rate.<ref>[http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/state-politics/nearinsolvent-country-labor-may-never-repay-168m-to-party/news-story/b760e84faa14fda082bbb33600ec4743 Near-insolvent Country Labor 'may never repay' $1.68m to party], The Australian, 28 July 2017.</ref>
The Country Labor Party was de-registered by the New South Wales Electoral Commission in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |titleCancellation of Registration of Political Party |urlhttps://www.elections.nsw.gov.au/NSWEC/media/NSWEC/Registers/Register%20of%20parties/Public-notice-Country-Labor-Party.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.elections.nsw.gov.au/NSWEC/media/NSWEC/Registers/Register%20of%20parties/Public-notice-Country-Labor-Party.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websiteNew South Wales Electoral Commission}}</ref>
Australian Young Labor
{{main|Australian Young Labor}}
Australian Young Labor is the youth wing of the Australian Labor Party, where all members under age 26 are automatically members. It is the peak youth body within the ALP. Former presidents of AYL have included former NSW Premier Bob Carr, Federal Leader of the House Tony Burke, former Special Minister of State Senator John Faulkner, former Australian Workers Union National Secretary, current Member for Maribyrnong and former Federal Labor Leader Bill Shorten as well as dozens of State Ministers and MPs. The current National President is Manu Risoldi.
Networks
{{primary sources|section|date=October 2023}}
The Australian Labor Party (ALP) includes a variety of networks and associations that connect members, advocate for issues, and contribute to the party’s policy development. The national platform currently mandates or encourages state branches to formally establish these groups along with calling for generalised interest groups known as policy action caucuses.<ref>{{cite web|titleNational Platform of the Australian Labor Party|urlhttps://cdn.australianlabor.com.au/documents/ALP_National_Platform.pdf|publisherAustralian Labor Party|access-date16 March 2016|page232|archive-date22 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160322193603/https://cdn.australianlabor.com.au/documents/ALP_National_Platform.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref> Examples of such groups include the Labor Environment Action Network,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.lean.net.au/|titleLabor Environment Action Network|access-date11 June 2015|archive-date30 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150530075629/http://www.lean.net.au/|url-statuslive}}</ref> the LGBTQ wing Rainbow Labor,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.rainbowlabor.org/pages/ |titleRainbow Labor |access-date16 May 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110923163414/http://www.rainbowlabor.org/pages/ |archive-date23 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name"ANUPressChapter28">{{cite web |titleChapter 28: [Insert Title Here] |urlhttps://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4149/pdf/ch28.pdf?utm_sourcechatgpt.com |websiteANU Press |formatPDF |access-date28 December 2024}}</ref> Labor For Choice, the women's wing Labor Women's Network,<ref>{{Cite web |titleNational Labor Women's Network |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/NationalLaborWomensNetwork |access-date2022-03-15 |websiteFacebook |languageen |archive-date12 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230512151749/https://www.facebook.com/NationalLaborWomensNetwork |url-statuslive }}</ref> Labor for Drug Law Reform<ref>{{Cite web |titleLabor for Drug Law Reform – NSW |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/L4DLR/ |access-date2022-03-15 |websiteFacebook |languageen |archive-date8 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220608062722/https://www.facebook.com/L4DLR/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Labor for Refugees,<ref>{{Cite web |titleLabor for Refugees NSW/ACT |urlhttp://www.labor4refugees.com/ |access-date2024-05-14 |languageen-AU}}</ref> Labor for Housing,<ref>{{Cite web |titleLabor for Housing |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/laborforhousing |access-date2022-03-15 |websiteFacebook |languageen |archive-date13 November 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201113223255/https://www.facebook.com/laborforhousing/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Labor Teachers Network,<ref>{{Cite web |titleLabor Teachers |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/laborteachers/ |access-date2022-03-15 |websiteFacebook |languageen |archive-date12 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230512151752/https://www.facebook.com/laborteachers/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Aboriginal Labor Network,<ref>{{Cite web |titleNSW Aboriginal Labor Network |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/NSWNILN |access-date2022-03-15 |websiteFacebook |languageen |archive-date12 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230512152922/https://www.facebook.com/NSWNILN |url-statuslive }}</ref> and recently, Labor Enabled – the action group for Disability Advocacy<ref>{{Cite web |titleNSW Labor Enabled |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/nswlaborenabled |access-date2022-03-15 |websiteFacebook |languageen |archive-date12 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230512151755/https://www.facebook.com/nswlaborenabled |url-status=live }}</ref>
These groups operate under different names across states and territories and are categorized into equity groups, which focus on representation based on identity or shared characteristics, and policy-focused groups, which emphasize thematic advocacy. In Queensland, these networks are formally referred to as Equity Groups and Associations, which are distinct entities.<ref name"QLDLaborRules">{{cite web |titleQueensland Labor Rules |urlhttps://queenslandlabor.org/rules/ |websiteQueensland Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref> Other states use terms such as forums, caucuses, or committees.
{| class=wikitable
|+ Equity Groups
|-
!colspan1 rowspan2 |Organisation
!colspan=9| Branches Organisation is Present in
|-
!colspan=1| Federal
!colspan=1| NSW
!colspan=1| QLD
!colspan=1| Vic
!colspan=1| WA
!colspan=1| SA
!colspan=1| Tas
!colspan=1| ACT
!colspan=1| NT
|-
|National Labor Women’s Network
| <ref name"ALPNationalConstitution2023">{{cite web |titleALP National Constitution (Adopted 19 August 2023) |urlhttps://www.alp.org.au/media/3572/alp-national-constitution-adopted-19-august-2023.pdf |websiteAustralian Labor Party |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name"NSWLaborRules2024">{{cite web |titleALP NSW Branch Rules (31 October 2024) |urlhttps://assets.nationbuilder.com/nswlabor/pages/820/attachments/original/1730683425/ALP_Rules_Book_31.10.2024.pdf?1730683425 |websiteNSW Labor |formatPDF |access-date28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name"QLDEquityGroups">{{cite web |titleEquity Groups |urlhttps://queenslandlabor.org/members/get-involved/equity-groups/ |websiteQueensland Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name"VicLaborNewMemberInfo">{{cite web |titleVictorian Labor: New Member Information |urlhttps://thisislabor.org/media/3617/victorian-labor-new-member-info.pdf |websiteVictorian Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name"WALaborRules2023">{{cite web |titleWA Labor Rules 2023 |urlhttps://walabor.org.au/media/exhhf3ox/2023-rules.pdf |websiteWA Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name"SALaborRules2023">{{cite web |titleALP South Australian Branch Rules (May 2023) |urlhttps://sa.alp.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/2023_May_Finalised_ALP_Rules_Word_Doc.pdf |websiteSouth Australian Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name"TasLaborRules2023">{{cite web |titleAustralian Labor Party Tasmanian Branch Rules (June 2023) |urlhttps://www.taslabor.org.au/media/0xyn0bdl/australian-labor-party-tasmanian-branch-rules-current-june-2023.pdf |websiteTasmanian Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name="ACTLaborRules2023" />
| <ref name"NTLaborRules2023">{{cite web |titleALP NT 2023 Constitution and Rules |urlhttps://ntec.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/1225486/ALP-NT-2023-Constitution-Rules.pdf |websiteNorthern Territory Electoral Commission |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Rainbow Labor
| <ref name"ALPOrganisationalPolicies2023">{{cite web |titleALP Organisational Policies (Adopted 19 August 2023) |urlhttps://www.alp.org.au/media/3571/alp-organisational-policies-adopted-19-august-2023.pdf |websiteAustralian Labor Party |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
|
| <ref name="QLDEquityGroups" />
| <ref name="VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
|
|
| <ref name"TasPolicyCaucuses">{{cite web |titlePolicy Action Caucuses |urlhttps://taslabor.org.au/members/policy-action-caucuses/ |websiteTasmanian Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
|
|
|-
|Aboriginal Labor Network
| <ref name="ALPOrganisationalPolicies2023" />
| <ref name="NSWLaborRules2024" />
| <ref name="QLDEquityGroups" />
| <ref name="VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
|
| <ref name="SALaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="TasLaborRules2023" />
| <ref name"ACTLaborRules2023">{{cite web |titleACT Labor Party Rules 2022-23 (Final) |urlhttps://www.actlabor.org.au/media/otnpyykd/act-labor-party-rules-2022-23-final.pdf |websiteACT Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name="NTLaborRules2023" />
|-
|Labor Enabled
|
|
| <ref name="QLDEquityGroups" />
| <ref name="VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
|
|
| <ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|
|
|-
|Young Labor
| <ref name="ALPNationalConstitution2023" />
| <ref name="NSWLaborRules2024" />
| <ref name="QLDEquityGroups" />
| <ref name="VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
| <ref name="WALaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="SALaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="TasLaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="ACTLaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="NTLaborRules2023" />
|-
|Multicultural Labor
|
|
| <ref name="QLDEquityGroups" />
| <ref name"VicMulticulturalLabor">{{cite web |titleVictorian Multicultural Labor |urlhttps://viclabor.com.au/about/victorian-multicultural-labor/ |websiteVictorian Labor |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref>
| <ref name="WALaborRules2023" />
|
|
|
|
|-
|Regional Labor / Country Labor
| <ref name="ALPNationalConstitution2023" />
| <ref name="NSWLaborRules2024" />
| <ref name="QLDEquityGroups" />
| <ref name="VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
| <ref name="WALaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="SALaborRules2023" />
| <ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|
|
|}
{|class"wikitable" style"font-size:95%; text-align: center;"
|+ Interest Groups
!Organisation
!Branches Organisation is Present in
!{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
|Labor Environment Action Network (LEAN)
| NSW, QLD, Vic, WA, SA, Tas, ACT, NT
|<ref name"QLDLaborAssociations">{{cite web |titleLabor Associations |urlhttps://queenslandlabor.org/members/get-involved/labor-associations/ |websiteQueensland Labor |access-date28 December 2024}}</ref><ref name"NSWActionCommittees">{{cite web |titleAction Committees |urlhttps://www.nswlabor.org.au/action_committees |websiteNSW Labor |access-date28 December 2024}}</ref><ref name"VicLaborNewMemberInfo" /><ref name"TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|-
|Labor for Drug Law Reform
|
|
|-
|Labor For Choice
| QLD(Retired), Tas,
|<ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|-
|Labor for Housing
| QLD,
|<ref name="QLDLaborAssociations" />
|-
|Labor Teachers Network
| QLD,
|<ref name="QLDLaborAssociations" />
|-
|Business with Labor
| QLD,
|<ref name="QLDLaborAssociations" />
|-
|Labor for Brisbane City Council
| QLD
|<ref name="QLDLaborAssociations" />
|-
|Australian Israel Labor Dialogue
| QLD, NSW,
|<ref name"QLDLaborAssociations" /><ref name"NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor for the Future
| QLD
|<ref name="QLDLaborAssociations" />
|-
|Labor for Decriminalisation
| QLD
|
|-
|Labor for Refugees
| QLD, Vic,
|<ref name"QLDLaborAssociations" /><ref name"VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
|-
|Labor Friends of Palestine
| QLD, NSW,
|<ref name"QLDLaborAssociations" /><ref name"NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor Friends of Palestine
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor Ending Homelessness Action Committee
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor for the Arts (L4TA)
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor for Innovation
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor for Treaty
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor Science Network
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor Action for Multiculturalism Policy (LAMP)
| NSW,
|<ref name="NSWActionCommittees" />
|-
|Labor for An Australian Republic (LFAR)
| Vic,
|<ref name="VicLaborNewMemberInfo" />
|-
|Labor for the Wise Use of Resources
| Tas,
|<ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|-
|Tasmanian Labor Affiliated Unions Policy Action Caucus
| Tas,
|<ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|-
|Labor for the Wise Use of Resources
| Tas,
|<ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|-
|Local Government PAC
| Tas,
|<ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|-
|Labor for Civil & Political Rights Policy Action Caucus
| Tas,
|<ref name="TasPolicyCaucuses" />
|}
Ideology and factions
Labor's constitution has long stated: "The Australian Labor Party is a democratic socialist party and has the objective of the democratic socialisation of industry, production, distribution and exchange, to the extent necessary to eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features in these fields".<ref name"Australian Labor Party-2015"/> This "socialist objective" was introduced in 1921, but was later qualified by two further objectives: "maintenance of and support for a competitive non-monopolistic private sector" and "the right to own private property". Labor governments have not attempted the "democratic socialisation" of any industry since the 1940s, when the Chifley government failed to nationalise the private banks, and in fact have privatised several industries such as aviation and banking.<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttps://newleftreview.org/issues/I221/articles/boris-frankel-beyond-labourism-and-socialism-how-the-australian-labor-party-developed-the-model-of-new-labour.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://newleftreview.org/issues/I221/articles/boris-frankel-beyond-labourism-and-socialism-how-the-australian-labor-party-developed-the-model-of-new-labour.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleBeyond Labourism and Socialism: How the Australian Labor Party developed the Model of 'New Labour'|lastFrankel|firstBoris|journalNew Left Review|date1997|volume1|issue221|pages3–33|access-date12 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|titleSocial Democrats and Neo-Liberalism: A Case Study of the Australian Labor Party|lastLavelle|firstAshley|journalPolitical Studies|date1 December 2005|volume53|issue4|pages753–771|doi10.1111/j.1467-9248.2005.00555.x|s2cid144842245}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|titleThe Ties that Unwind? Social Democratic Parties and Unions in Australia and Britain|lastLavelle|firstAshley|s2cid152364613|journalLabour History|dateMay 2010|volume53|issue98|pages55–75|doi10.5263/labourhistory.98.1.55|jstor10.5263/labourhistory.98.1.55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastHumphrys |firstElizabeth |titleHow Labour Built Neoliberalism: Australia's Accord, the Labour Movement and the Neoliberal Project |date8 October 2018 |publisherBrill Academic Publishers |isbn978-90-04-38346-3 |author-linkElizabeth Humphrys}}</ref>
Factions
{{Infobox political party
| name Parliamentary caucus seats{{cn|dateJanuary 2025}}
| native_name | logo File:Australian Labor Party Federal Caucus.svg
| colorcode = {{party color|Australian Labor Party}}
| seats1_title = Labor Right
| seats1 {{composition bar|53|103|color#FFF|hex=#FF0000}}
| seats2_title = Labor Left
| seats2 {{composition bar|48|103|color#FFF|hex=#B00D0D}}
}}
The Labor Party has always had a left wing and a right wing; however, since 1989, it has been organised into formal factions.<ref name"Chen-2019">{{cite book |last1Chen |first1Peter |urlhttps://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/327988307.pdf#page116 |titleAustralian Politics and Policy |last2Barry |first2Nicholas |last3Butcher |first3John |last4Clune |first4David |last5Cook |first5Ian |last6Garnier |first6Adele |last7Haigh |first7Yvonne |last8Motta |first8Sara |last9Taflaga |first9Marija |date1 November 2019 |publisherSydney University Press |isbn9781743326671 |locationAustralia |publication-date2019 |page254 |languageEnglish |access-date20 December 2023 |archive-date20 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231220200751/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/327988307.pdf#page116 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The two largest factional groupings are the Labor Left, who are supportive of democratic socialist ideals, and the Labor Right who generally support social democratic traditions. The national factional groupings are themselves divided into formal factions, primarily state-based such as Centre Unity in New South Wales and Labor Forum in Queensland.<ref name="Chen-2019" />
Some trade unions are affiliated with the Labor Party and are also factionally aligned. Important unions supporting the right faction are the Australian Workers' Union (AWU), the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees Association (SDA) and the Transport Workers Union of Australia (TWU).<ref name"Marin-Guzman-2018">{{cite web |last1Marin-Guzman |first1David |titleInside the union factions that rule the ALP conference |urlhttps://www.afr.com/news/policy/industrial-relations/inside-the-union-factions-that-rule-the-alp-conference-20181216-h19692 |websiteAustralian Financial Review |access-date6 August 2019 |date16 December 2018 |archive-date6 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190806125938/https://www.afr.com/news/policy/industrial-relations/inside-the-union-factions-that-rule-the-alp-conference-20181216-h19692 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Important unions supporting the left include the Australian Manufacturing Workers Union (AMWU), United Workers Union, the Construction, Forestry and Maritime Employees Union (CFMEU) and the Community and Public Sector Union (CPSU).<ref name"Marin-Guzman-2018" />
Federal election results
House of Representatives
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! Election
! Leader
! Votes
! %
! Seats
! ±
! Position
! Status
|-
!1901
| rowspan=1 | None
| 79,736
| 15.8
| {{composition bar|14|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 14
| {{increase}} 3rd
| {{partial2|External support}}
|-
!rowspan="4"|1903
| rowspan=7 | Chris Watson
|rowspan="4"| 223,163
|rowspan="4"| 31.0
|rowspan"4"| {{composition bar|22|75|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|rowspan="4"| {{increase}} 7
|rowspan="4"| {{steady}} 3rd
| {{partial2|Support (1903–04)}}
|-
| {{yes2|Minority (1904)}}
|-
| {{no2|Opposition (1904–05)}}
|-
| {{partial2|Support (1905–06)}}
|-
!rowspan="3"|1906
|rowspan="3"| 348,711
|rowspan="3"| 36.6
|rowspan"3"| {{composition bar|26|75|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|rowspan="3"| {{increase}} 4
|rowspan="3"| {{increase}} 1st
| {{partial2|Support (1906–08)}}
|-
| {{yes2|Minority (1908–09)}}
|-
| {{no2|Opposition (1909–10)}}
|-
!1910
| rowspan=3|Andrew Fisher
| 660,864
| 50.0
| {{composition bar|42|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 16
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1913
| 921,099
| 48.5
| {{composition bar|37|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 5
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1914
| 858,451
| 50.9
| {{composition bar|42|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 5
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1917
| rowspan=2|Frank Tudor
| 827,541
| 43.9
| {{composition bar|22|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 20
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1919
| 811,244
| 42.5
| {{composition bar|26|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{steady}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1922
| rowspan=2|Matthew Charlton
| 665,145
| 42.3
| {{composition bar|29|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 3
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1925
| 1,313,627
| 45.0
| {{composition bar|23|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 6
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1928
| rowspan=4|James Scullin
| 1,158,505
| 44.6
| {{composition bar|31|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 8
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1929
| 1,406,327
| 48.8
| {{composition bar|46|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 15
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1931
| 859,513
| 27.1
| {{composition bar|14|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 32
| {{decrease}} 3rd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1934
| 952,251
| 26.8
| {{composition bar|18|74|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{increase}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1937
| rowspan=4|John Curtin
| 1,555,737
| 43.2
| {{composition bar|29|74|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 11
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!rowspan=2|1940
|rowspan=2| 1,556,941
|rowspan=2| 40.2
|rowspan2| {{composition bar|32|74|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|rowspan=2| {{increase}} 3
|rowspan=2| {{steady}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition (1940–41)}}
|-
| {{yes2|Minority (1941–43)}}
|-
!1943
| 2,058,578
| 49.9
| {{composition bar|49|74|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 17
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1946
| rowspan=3|Ben Chifley
| 2,159,953
| 49.7
| {{composition bar|43|75|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 6
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1949
| 2,117,088
| 46.0
| {{composition bar|47|121|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1951
| 2,174,840
| 47.6
| {{composition bar|52|121|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 5
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1954
| rowspan=3|H. V. Evatt
| 2,280,098
| 50.0
| {{composition bar|57|121|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 5
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1955
| 1,961,829
| 44.6
| {{composition bar|47|122|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 10
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1958
| 2,137,890
| 42.8
| {{composition bar|45|122|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 2
| {{steady}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1961
| rowspan=3|Arthur Calwell
| 2,512,929
| 47.9
| {{composition bar|60|122|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 15
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1963
| 2,489,184
| 45.5
| {{composition bar|50|122|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 10
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1966
| 2,282,834
| 40.0
| {{composition bar|41|124|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 9
| {{steady}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1969
| rowspan=6|Gough Whitlam
| 2,870,792
| 47.0
| {{composition bar|59|125|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 18
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1972
| 3,273,549
| 49.6
| {{composition bar|67|125|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 8
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!rowspan="2"|1974
|rowspan="2"| 3,644,110
|rowspan="2"| 49.3
|rowspan"2"| {{composition bar|66|127|hex{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
|rowspan="2"| {{decrease}} 1
|rowspan="2"| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority (1974–75)}}{{efn|The Whitlam-led party became the Opposition after the Governor-General, John Kerr, dismissed it during the 1975 constitutional crisis, despite Labor maintaining a majority in the House of Representatives.}}
|-
| {{no2|Opposition (1975)}}
|-
!1975
| 3,313,004
| 42.8
| {{composition bar|36|127|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 30
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1977
| 3,141,051
| 39.7
| {{composition bar|38|124|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 2
| {{steady}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1980
| Bill Hayden
| 3,749,565
| 45.2
| {{composition bar|51|125|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 13
| {{steady}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1983
| rowspan=4|Bob Hawke
| 4,297,392
| 49.5
| {{composition bar|75|125|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 24
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1984
| 4,120,130
| 47.6
| {{composition bar|82|148|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 7
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1987
| 4,222,431
| 45.8
| {{composition bar|86|148|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1990
| 3,904,138
| 39.4
| {{composition bar|78|148|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 8
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1993
| rowspan=2|Paul Keating
| 4,751,390
| 44.9
| {{composition bar|80|147|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 2
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!1996
| 4,217,765
| 38.7
| {{composition bar|49|148|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 31
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!1998
| rowspan=2|Kim Beazley
| 4,454,306
| 40.1
| {{composition bar|67|148|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 18
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!2001
| 4,341,420
| 37.8
| {{composition bar|65|150|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 2
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!2004
| Mark Latham
| 4,408,820
| 37.6
| {{composition bar|60|150|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 5
| {{steady}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!2007
| Kevin Rudd
| 5,388,184
| 43.4
| {{composition bar|83|150|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 23
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|-
!2010
| Julia Gillard
| 4,711,363
| 38.0
| {{composition bar|72|150|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 11
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Minority}}
|-
!2013
| Kevin Rudd
| 4,311,365
| 33.4
| {{composition bar|55|150|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 17
| {{decrease}} 2nd
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!2016
| rowspan=2|Bill Shorten
| 4,702,296
| 34.7
| {{composition bar|69|150|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 14
| {{increase}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!2019
| 4,752,110
| 33.3
| {{composition bar|68|151|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{decrease}} 1
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
!2022
| Anthony Albanese
| 4,776,030
|32.6
|{{composition bar|77|151|hex={{party color|Australian Labor Party}}}}
| {{increase}} 9
| {{steady}} 1st
| {{yes2|Majority}}
|}
Donors
{{See also|Political funding in Australia}}
For the 2015–2016 financial year, the top ten disclosed donors to the ALP were the Health Services Union NSW ($389,000), Village Roadshow ($257,000), Electrical Trades Union of Australia ($171,000), National Automotive Leasing and Salary Packaging Association ($153,000), Westfield Corporation ($150,000), Randazzo C&G Developments ($120,000), Macquarie Telecom ($113,000), Woodside Energy ($110,000), ANZ Bank ($100,000) and Ying Zhou ($100,000),<ref>{{cite web|titleDonor Summary by Party Group|urlhttp://periodicdisclosures.aec.gov.au/SummaryDonorGroup.aspx|websiteperiodicdisclosures.aec.gov.au|access-date6 September 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170831171109/http://periodicdisclosures.aec.gov.au/SummaryDonorGroup.aspx|archive-date31 August 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleDonor Summary by Party|urlhttp://periodicdisclosures.aec.gov.au/SummaryDonor.aspx|websiteperiodicdisclosures.aec.gov.au|access-date6 September 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170920120002/http://periodicdisclosures.aec.gov.au/SummaryDonor.aspx|archive-date20 September 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref> all significantly lower than the 2014 donations by a Chinese donor Zi Chun Wang, which at $850,000<ref>{{cite web|titleAustralian Electoral Commission Donor to Political Party Disclosure Return|urlhttps://transparency.aec.gov.au/Download/ReturnImageByMoniker?moniker55-SVNG9|publisherAustralian Electoral Commission|access-date16 April 2021|archive-date16 April 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210416165328/https://transparency.aec.gov.au/Download/ReturnImageByMoniker?moniker55-SVNG9|url-statuslive}}</ref> was the largest donation to any political party in the 2013–2014 financial year.<ref>{{cite web|titleChinese man tops list of Australian political donorsReturn|date3 February 2015 |urlhttps://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/business-spectator/news-story/chinese-man-tops-list-of-australian-political-donors/f4f842e78bc0fbf77ed4c764308068c3|publisherThe Australianaccess-date22 April 2021|access-date21 February 2024|archive-date18 January 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220118182353/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/business-spectator/news-story/chinese-man-tops-list-of-australian-political-donors/f4f842e78bc0fbf77ed4c764308068c3|url-statuslive}}</ref> At least one newspaper report queried the identity of this donor stating "news archive searches do not produce results for this name, suggesting Wang operates under another name".<ref>{{cite news |lastAston |firstHeath |last2Knott |first2Matthew |last3Ting |first3Inga |titleMystery Chinese donor Zi Chun Wang tops political donations with $850,000 gift to Labor |urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/mystery-chinese-donor-zi-chun-wang-tops-political-donations-with-850000-gift-to-labor-20150202-133ofe.html |access-date18 April 2021 |workThe Sydney Morning Herald |date2 February 2015 |archive-date18 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418080036/https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/mystery-chinese-donor-zi-chun-wang-tops-political-donations-with-850000-gift-to-labor-20150202-133ofe.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Another report mentions that in addition to a hotel and a travel agency, the donor's listed address at the Old Communist Cadres Activity Centre in Shijiazhuang houses several Chinese government entities, stating also that another publisher "tried many times without success" to contact the donor on the phone number listed in the donation return form.<ref>{{cite web|titleChinese man tops list of Australian political donorsReturn|date3 February 2015 |urlhttps://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/business-spectator/news-story/chinese-man-tops-list-of-australian-political-donors/f4f842e78bc0fbf77ed4c764308068c3|publisherThe Australian|access-date22 April 2021|archive-date18 January 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220118182353/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/business-spectator/news-story/chinese-man-tops-list-of-australian-political-donors/f4f842e78bc0fbf77ed4c764308068c3|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The Labor Party also receives undisclosed funding through several methods, such as "associated entities". John Curtin House, Industry 2020, IR21 and the Happy Wanderers Club are entities which have been used to funnel donations to the Labor Party without disclosing the source.<ref>{{cite web|titleAustralian political donations: Who gave how much?|websiteAustralian Broadcasting Corporation|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-24/aec-political-donations-table/7959394|access-date7 September 2017|date24 October 2016|archive-date2 April 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402162754/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-24/aec-political-donations-table/7959394|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleSlush fund royal commission: the labour movement faces its demons|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/national/slush-fund-royal-commission-the-labour-movement-faces-its-demons-20140307-34cqu.html|access-date7 September 2017|date7 March 2014|archive-date7 September 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170907170951/http://www.smh.com.au/national/slush-fund-royal-commission-the-labour-movement-faces-its-demons-20140307-34cqu.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleBill Shorten: Campaign for Labor leadership received money from allegedly dodgy, multi-million-dollar-union slush fund|urlhttp://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/bill-shorten-campaign-for-labor-leadership-received-money-from-allegedly-dodgy-multimilliondollarunion-slush-fund/news-story/0e42db612fbc73f93f03a9bb97bbad29|access-date7 September 2017|archive-date2 April 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402162800/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/bill-shorten-campaign-for-labor-leadership-received-money-from-allegedly-dodgy-multimilliondollarunion-slush-fund/news-story/0e42db612fbc73f93f03a9bb97bbad29|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleUnion set up Labor slush fund, court told|urlhttp://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/politics-news/union-set-up-labor-slush-fund-court-told/news-story/91229aa02919a20dcf8fa75749b26dfb|access-date7 September 2017|archive-date2 April 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402162804/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/politics-news/union-set-up-labor-slush-fund-court-told/news-story/91229aa02919a20dcf8fa75749b26dfb|url-status=live}}</ref>
A 2019 report found that the Labor Party received $33,000 from pro-gun groups during the 2011–2018 periods compared to $82,000 received by the Coalition.<ref name"Knowles-2019">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-27/australian-gun-lobby-as-well-organised-as-nra-report-finds/10940384|titleGun lobby's 'concerted and secretive' bid to undermine Australian laws|lastKnowles|firstLorna|date27 March 2019|workABC News|access-date15 July 2019|archive-date2 April 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402162805/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-27/australian-gun-lobby-as-well-organised-as-nra-report-finds/10940384|url-statuslive}}</ref>See also
* Australian labour movement
* Labor Against War
* Socialism in Australia
* Third Way
* Tasmanian Labor–Green Accord (1989-1990)
* Australian Capital Territory Labor–Greens coalition (2012–2024)
Further reading
* Ormonde, Paul (1982). A Foolish Passionate Man: a biography of Jim Cairns. Ringwood, Vic, Australia: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|014005975X}}.
* Ormonde, Paul (1972). The Movement. Sydney: Thomas Nelson. {{ISBN|0170019683}}
* Charlesworth, M. J. (2000) Ormonde, Paul (Ed). Santamaria : the politics of fear : critical reflections. Richmond, Vic.: Spectrum Publications. {{ISBN|0867862947}}
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
* Bramble, Tom, and Rick Kuhn. ''Labor's Conflict: Big Business, Workers, and the Politics of Class (Cambridge University Press; 2011) 240 pages.
* Calwell, A. A. (1963). Labor's Role in Modern Society''. Melbourne, Lansdowne Press.
* {{cite book |first1John |last1Faulkner |first2Stuart |last2Macintyre |titleTrue Believers – The story of the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party |publisherAllen & Unwin |locationSydney |year2001 |isbn=1-86508-609-6}}
* {{cite book |firstBrian |lastMcKinlay |titleThe ALP: A Short History of the Australian Labor Party |publisherDrummond/Heinemann |locationMelbourne |year1981 |isbn=0-85859-254-1}}
* {{cite book |firstRoss |lastMcMullin |titleThe Light on the Hill: The Australian Labor Party 1891–1991 |publisherOxford University Press Australia |locationSouth Melbourne |year1991 |isbn=0-19-553451-4 }}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Australian Labor Party}}
* [https://www.viclabor.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Final-Rules-April-2013.pdf Australian Labor Party Victorian Branch Rules, April 2013] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190411203137/https://www.viclabor.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Final-Rules-April-2013.pdf |date11 April 2019 }}
* [https://www.amw.org.au/register/listings/manifesto-queensland-labour-party-1892 Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party, 1892] – UNESCO Australian Memory of the World Register
* [https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/125th-anniversary-manifesto-queensland-labour-party 125th anniversary of the Manifesto of the Queensland Labour Party] – John Oxley Library Blog, State Library of Queensland.
* [http://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/f/1upgmng/slq_alma21148463600002061 OM69-18 Charles Seymour Papers 1880–1924] – Collection record, State Library of Queensland
* [https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/charles-seymour-papers-1880-1924-treasure-collection-john-oxley-library Charles Seymour Papers 1880–1924: Treasure collection of the John Oxley Library] – John Oxley Library Blog, State Library of Queensland.
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1496 | August 18 | {{Redirect|18/8|the steel alloy|18/8 stainless steel}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 684 &ndash; Battle of Marj Rahit:<ref>{{cite book|authorDavid James|titleEarly Islamic Spain: The History of Ibn Al-Qutiyah|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF6d9AgAAQBAJ&pgPA79|date25 February 2009|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-134-02531-2|pages=79}}</ref> Umayyad partisans defeat the supporters of Ibn al-Zubayr and cement Umayyad control of Syria.
*707 &ndash; Princess Abe accedes to the imperial Japanese throne as Empress Genmei.<ref>{{Cite book |lastJien |titleThe Future and the Past: A translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretive history of Japan written in 1219 |publisherUniversity of California Press |year1979 |isbn9780520034600 |locationBerkeley, California |page271 |languageen |translator-lastBrown |translator-firstDelmer M. |translator-last2Ichirō |translator-first2Ishida}}</ref>
*1304 &ndash; The Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle is fought to a draw between the French army and the Flemish militias.<ref>{{cite book|authorJ. F. Verbruggen|titleThe Battle of the Golden Spurs (Courtrai, 11 July 1302): A Contribution to the History of Flanders' War of Liberation, 1297-1305|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgD5rjC_9Q08C&pgPA55|year2002|publisherBoydell & Brewer|isbn978-0-85115-888-4|pages=55}}</ref>
*1487 &ndash; The Siege of Málaga ends with the taking of the city by Castilian and Aragonese forces.
*1492 &ndash; The first grammar of the Spanish language (Gramática de la lengua castellana) is presented to Queen Isabella I.<ref>{{cite journal|lastHardman-De-Bautista|firstM.J.|titleA Thousand and One Years of the Spanish Language|journalThe Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress|dateFall 1983|page350}}</ref>
*1572 &ndash; The Huguenot King Henry III of Navarre marries the Catholic Margaret of Valois, ostensibly to reconcile the feuding Protestants and Catholics of France.<ref>{{cite book|titleThe history of France, from the earliest period|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCKak4Olp-SQC&pgPA94|year1852|pages94}}</ref>
*1590 &ndash; John White, the governor of the Roanoke Colony, returns from a supply trip to England and finds his settlement deserted.<ref>{{cite book|lastCoogan|firstTimothy C.|chapter1590 - Lost Colony of Roanoke|titleDisasters, Accidents, and Crises in American History: A Reference Guide to the Nation's Most Catastrophic Events|editor-lastCampbell|editor-firstBallard C.|locationNew York|publisherFacts On File|date2008|isbn9780816066032|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVitlO1mWxzAC|page6}}</ref>1601–1900
*1612 &ndash; The trial of the Pendle witches, one of England's most famous witch trials, begins at Lancaster Assizes.
*1634 &ndash; Urbain Grandier, accused and convicted of sorcery, is burned alive in Loudun, France.
*1721 &ndash; The city of Shamakhi in Safavid Shirvan is sacked.{{sfn|Kazemzadeh|1991|p316}}{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|page761}}
*1783 &ndash; A huge fireball meteor is seen across Great Britain as it passes over the east coast.
*1809 &ndash; The Senate of Finland is established in the Grand Duchy of Finland after the official adoption of the Statute of the Government Council by Tsar Alexander I of Russia.<ref>Titus Hjelm & George Maude: Historical Dictionary of Finland, p. 296.</ref>
*1826 &ndash; Major Gordon Laing becomes the first European to enter Timbuktu.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Laing, Alexander Gordon}}</ref>
*1838 &ndash; The Wilkes Expedition, which would explore the Puget Sound and Antarctica, weighs anchor at Hampton Roads.
*1848 &ndash; Camila O'Gorman and Ladislao Gutierrez are executed on the orders of Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas.
*1864 &ndash; American Civil War: Battle of Globe Tavern: Union forces try to cut a vital Confederate supply-line into Petersburg, Virginia, by attacking the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad.
*1868 &ndash; French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium.
*1870 &ndash; Franco-Prussian War: Battle of Gravelotte is fought.
*1877 &ndash; American astronomer Asaph Hall discovers Phobos, one of Mars’s moons.<ref>{{Cite journal |urlhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0001//0000181.000.html |titleNotes: The Satellites of Mars |journalThe Observatory |volume1 |issue6 |date20 September 1877 |pages181–185 |access-date4 February 2009 |bibcode 1877Obs.....1..181. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |urlhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013.000.html |titleObservations of the Satellites of Mars |lastHall |firstAsaph |journalAstronomische Nachrichten |volume91 |issue2161 |pages11/12–13/14 |date17 October 1877 |typeSigned 21 September 1877 |bibcode 1877AN.....91...11H |doi10.1002/asna.18780910103 }}</ref><ref name"Morley1989">{{Cite journal |lastMorley |firstTrevor A. |urlhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/A+AS./0077//0000220.000.html |titleA Catalogue of Ground-Based Astrometric Observations of the Martian Satellites, 1877–1982 |journalAstronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series |volume77 |issue2 |dateFebruary 1989 |pages209–226 |bibcode1989A&AS...77..209M }} (Table II, p. 220: first observation of Phobos on 18 August 1877.38498)</ref>
*1891 &ndash; A major hurricane strikes Martinique, leaving 700 dead.
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; German engineer Karl Jatho allegedly flies his self-made, motored gliding airplane four months before the first flight of the Wright brothers.
*1917 &ndash; A Great Fire in Thessaloniki, Greece, destroys 32% of the city leaving 70,000 individuals homeless.
*1920 &ndash; The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, guaranteeing women's suffrage.
*1923 &ndash; The first British Track and Field championships for women are held in London, Great Britain.
*1933 &ndash; The Volksempfänger is first presented to the German public at a radio exhibition; the presiding Nazi Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, delivers an accompanying speech heralding the radio as the ‘eighth great power’.<ref>{{Cite web |lastBytwerk |firstRandall |date1999 |titleGoebbels on Radio (1933) |urlhttps://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/goeb56.htm |access-date18 August 2022 |website=German Propaganda Archive}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; A lightning strike starts the Blackwater Fire of 1937 in Shoshone National Forest, killing 15 firefighters within three days and prompting the United States Forest Service to develop their smokejumper program.<ref>{{cite web|titleStaff Ride to the Blackwater Fire|publisherWildland Fire Leadership Development Program|urlhttp://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/staffride/library_staff_ride5.html|access-dateJune 29, 2013|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130630035137/http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/staffride/library_staff_ride5.html|archive-date2013-06-30|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; The Thousand Islands Bridge, connecting New York, United States, with Ontario, Canada, over the Saint Lawrence River, is dedicated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
*1940 &ndash; World War II: The Hardest Day air battle, part of the Battle of Britain, takes place. At that point, it is the largest aerial engagement in history with heavy losses sustained on both sides.
*1945 &ndash; Sukarno takes office as the first president of Indonesia, following the country's declaration of independence the previous day.
* 1945 &ndash; Soviet-Japanese War: Battle of Shumshu: Soviet forces land at Takeda Beach on Shumshu Island and launch the Battle of Shumshu; the Soviet Union’s Invasion of the Kuril Islands commences.<ref>{{Cite book |lastHasegawa |firstTsuyoshi |titleRacing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan |publisherBelknap Press |year2005 |isbn9780674022416 |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |page261 |language=en}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; 1949 Kemi strike: Two protesters die in the scuffle between the police and the strikers' protest procession in Kemi, Finland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.palkkatyolainen.fi/pt99/p990907-p2.html |titleKemin lakosta puoli vuosisataa |publisherPalkkatyöläinen |date7 September 1999 |languagefi |accessdate11 April 2014 |url-statusdead |archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927222436/http://www.palkkatyolainen.fi/pt99/p990907-p2.html |archivedate=September 27, 2007 }}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Julien Lahaut, the chairman of the Communist Party of Belgium, is assassinated. The Party newspaper blames royalists and Rexists.
*1958 &ndash; Vladimir Nabokov's controversial novel Lolita is published in the United States.
* 1958 &ndash; Brojen Das from Bangladesh swims across the English Channel in a competition as the first Bengali and the first Asian to do so, placing first among the 39 competitors.
*1963 &ndash; Civil rights movement: James Meredith becomes the first African American to graduate from the University of Mississippi.
*1965 &ndash; Vietnam War: Operation Starlite begins: United States Marines destroy a Viet Cong stronghold on the Van Tuong peninsula in the first major American ground battle of the war.
*1966 &ndash; Vietnam War: The Battle of Long Tan ensues after a patrol from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment clashes with a Viet Cong force in Phước Tuy Province.
*1971 &ndash; Vietnam War: Australia and New Zealand decide to withdraw their troops from Vietnam.
*1973 &ndash; Aeroflot Flight A-13 crashes after takeoff from Baku-Bina International Airport in Azerbaijan, killing 56 people and injuring eight.<ref name"Ranter 1973">{{cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |date1973-08-18 |titleASN Aircraft accident Antonov 24B CCCP-46435 Baku-Bina International Airport (BAK) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19730818-0 |access-date2018-02-11 |website=Aviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; The Korean axe murder incident in Panmunjom results in the deaths of two US Army officers.
* 1976 &ndash; The Soviet Union’s robotic probe Luna 24 successfully lands on the Moon.<ref name"solarsystem.nasa">{{citation-attribution|1[http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?Print0&SortNation&MCodeLuna_24&NationUSSR&DisplayReadMore&FIELDNAMES Solar System Exploration: USSR: Luna 24] {{web archive|urlhttp://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?Print0&SortNation&MCodeLuna_24&NationUSSR&DisplayReadMore&FIELDNAMES|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150430002507/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?Print0&SortNation&MCodeLuna_24&NationUSSR&DisplayReadMore&FIELDNAMES|url-statusdead|archive-date2015-04-30 |date=30 April 2015}} solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA Retrieved: 16 November 2016}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Steve Biko is arrested at a police roadblock under Terrorism Act No. 83 of 1967 in King William's Town, South Africa. He later dies from injuries sustained during this arrest, bringing attention to South Africa's apartheid policies.
*1983 &ndash; Hurricane Alicia hits the Texas coast, killing 21 people and causing over US$1 billion in damage (1983 dollars).
*1989 &ndash; Leading presidential hopeful Luis Carlos Galán is assassinated near Bogotá in Colombia.
*1993 &ndash; American International Airways Flight 808 crashes at Leeward Point Field at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, injuring the three crew members.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-8-61 N814CK Guantánamo NAS (NBW) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19930818-0 |access-date2022-08-17 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; One-year-old Zachary Turner is murdered in Newfoundland by his mother, who was awarded custody despite facing trial for the murder of Zachary's father. The case was documented in the film Dear Zachary and led to reform of Canada's bail laws.<ref>[https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/after-canadian-mother-killed-herself-and-their-only-grandchild-u-s-couple-started-10-year-fight-to-change-canadas-bail-laws After Canadian mother killed herself and their only grandchild, U.S. couple started 10-year fight to change Canada's bail laws | National Post<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*2005 &ndash; A massive power blackout hits the Indonesian island of Java; affecting almost 100 million people, it is one of the largest and most widespread power outages in history.
*2008 &ndash; The President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf, resigns under threat of impeachment.
* 2008 &ndash; War of Afghanistan: The Uzbin Valley ambush occurs.
*2011 &ndash; A terrorist attack on Israel's Highway 12 near the Egyptian border kills 16 and injures 40.<ref name"haaretz1">{{cite news |lastIssacharoff |firstAvi |titleReport: Three Egyptians took part in terrorist attacks on southern Israel |newspaperHaaretz |urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/report-three-egyptians-took-part-in-terrorist-attacks-on-southern-israel-1.380321}}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; The first terrorist attack ever sentenced as a crime in Finland kills two and injures eight.
*2019 &ndash; One hundred activists, officials, and other concerned citizens in Iceland hold a funeral for Okjökull glacier, which has completely melted after having once covered six square miles (15.5&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>).<ref>{{citation|websiteHuffington Post.com|dateAugust 19, 2019|access-dateAugust 19, 2019|titleIceland Holds Funeral Honoring Glacier That Melted Away|urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/okjokull-glacier-funeral_n_5d5abf64e4b0eb875f271eb3?ncidfcbklnkushpmg00000013&sectionpolitics|authorDavid Moye}}</ref>
Births
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Pre-1600
*1305 &ndash; Ashikaga Takauji, Japanese Shōgun (d. 1358)
*1450 &ndash; Marko Marulić, Croatian poet and author (d. 1524)<ref>{{cite book|author1Marko Marulić|author2Josip Bratulić|titleEpistola domini Marci Marvli Spalatensis ad Adrianvm VI. Pontificem maximvm ...|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfBcsAQAAMAAJ|year1994|publisherNacionalna i sveučilišna biblioteka|isbn978-953-6000-57-9|page=27}}</ref>
*1458 &ndash; Lorenzo Pucci, Catholic cardinal (d. 1531)
*1497 &ndash; Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer (d. 1543)
*1542 &ndash; Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland (d. 1601)
*1579 &ndash; Countess Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau (d. 1640)
*1587 &ndash; Virginia Dare, granddaughter of Governor John White of the Colony of Roanoke, first child born to English parents in the Americas (date of death unknown)<ref>{{cite book|titleHistory of North Carolina: Embracing the period between the first voyage to the colony in 1584, to the last in 1591|firstFrancis L.|lastHawks|urlhttps://play.google.com/store/books/details?idKzo_AAAAYAAJ&rdidbook-Kzo_AAAAYAAJ&rdot1|year1857|publisher=E.J. Hale & Son}}</ref>
*1596 &ndash; Jean Bolland, Flemish priest and hagiographer (d. 1665)
1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; Henry Hammond, English churchman and theologian (d. 1660)
*1606 &ndash; Maria Anna of Spain (d. 1646)
*1629 &ndash; Agneta Horn, Swedish writer (d. 1672)<ref>{{cite book|author1Katharina M. Wilson|author2M. Wilson|titleAn Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2Wf1SVbGFg8C&pgPA569|year1991|publisherTaylor & Francis|isbn978-0-8240-8547-6|pages569}}</ref>
*1657 &ndash; Ferdinando Galli-Bibiena, Italian architect and painter (d. 1743)<ref name"Prokhorov1982">{{cite book|authorAleksandr Mikhaĭlovich Prokhorov|titleGreat Soviet encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUU0NAQAAMAAJ|year1982|publisherMacmillan|page61}}</ref>
*1685 &ndash; Brook Taylor, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1731)
*1692 &ndash; Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1740)
*1700 &ndash; Baji Rao I, first Peshwa of Maratha Empire (d. 1740)
*1720 &ndash; Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, English politician (d. 1760)
*1750 &ndash; Antonio Salieri, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1825)
*1754 &ndash; François, marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat, French general and engineer (d. 1833)
*1774 &ndash; Meriwether Lewis, American soldier, explorer, and politician (d. 1809)
*1792 &ndash; John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1878)
*1803 &ndash; Nathan Clifford, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, 19th United States Attorney General (d. 1881)
*1807 &ndash; B. T. Finniss, Australian politician, 1st Premier of South Australia (d. 1893)
*1819 &ndash; Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1876)
*1822 &ndash; Isaac P. Rodman, American general and politician (d. 1862)
*1830 &ndash; Franz Joseph I of Austria (d. 1916)
*1831 &ndash; Ernest Noel, Scottish businessman and politician (d. 1931)
*1834 &ndash; Marshall Field, American businessman, founded Marshall Field's (d. 1906)
*1841 &ndash; William Halford, English-American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1919)
*1855 &ndash; Alfred Wallis, English painter and illustrator (d. 1942)
*1857 &ndash; Libert H. Boeynaems, Belgian-American bishop and missionary (d. 1926)
*1866 &ndash; Mahboob Ali Khan, 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (d. 1911)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.dailypioneer.com/2016/india/hyderabad-remembers-6th-nizam-mahbub-ali-pasha.html | titleHyderabad remembers 6th Nizam Mahbub Ali Pasha }}</ref>
*1869 &ndash; Carl Rungius, German-American painter and educator (d. 1959)
*1870 &ndash; Lavr Kornilov, Russian general and explorer (d. 1918)
*1879 &ndash; Alexander Rodzyanko, Russian general (d. 1970)
*1885 &ndash; Nettie Palmer, Australian poet and critic (d. 1964)
*1887 &ndash; John Anthony Sydney Ritson, English rugby player, mines inspector, engineer and professor of mining (d. 1957)
*1890 &ndash; Walther Funk, German economist and politician, Reich Minister of Economics (d. 1960)
*1893 &ndash; Burleigh Grimes, American baseball player and manager (d. 1985)
* 1893 &ndash; Ernest MacMillan, Canadian conductor and composer (d. 1973)
*1896 &ndash; Jack Pickford, Canadian-American actor and director (d. 1933)
*1898 &ndash; Clemente Biondetti, Italian race car driver (d. 1955)
*1900 &ndash; Ruth Bonner, Soviet Communist activist, sentenced to a labor camp during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge (d. 1987)
* 1900 &ndash; Ruth Norman, American religious leader (d. 1993)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Adamson-Eric, Estonian painter (d. 1968)
* 1902 &ndash; Margaret Murie, American environmentalist and author (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite book|first1Paul R.|last1Krausman|first2James W.|last2Cain|titleWildlife Management and Conservation: Contemporary Principles and Practices|locationBaltimore|publisherJohns Hopkins University Press|year2013|page222|isbn978-1-42140-987-0}}</ref>
*1903 &ndash; Lucienne Boyer, French singer (d. 1983)
*1904 &ndash; Max Factor, Jr., American businessman (d. 1996)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1905 &ndash; Enoch Light, American bandleader, violinist, and recording engineer (d. 1978)
*1906 &ndash; Marcel Carné, French director and screenwriter (d. 1996)
* 1906 &ndash; Curtis Jones, American blues pianist and singer (d. 1971)
*1908 &ndash; Edgar Faure, French historian and politician, 139th Prime Minister of France (d. 1988)
* 1908 &ndash; Olav H. Hauge, Norwegian poet and gardener (d. 1994)
* 1908 &ndash; Bill Merritt, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1977)
*1909 &ndash; Gérard Filion, Canadian businessman and journalist (d. 2005)
*1910 &ndash; Herman Berlinski, Polish-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2001)
* 1910 &ndash; Robert Winters, Canadian colonel, engineer, and politician, 26th Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 1969)
*1911 &ndash; Amelia Boynton Robinson, American activist (d. 2015)
* 1911 &ndash; Klara Dan von Neumann, Hungarian computer scientist and programmer (d. 1963)
* 1911 &ndash; Maria Ulfah Santoso, Indonesian politician and women's rights activist (d. 1988)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/cabinet_personnel/popup_profil_pejabat.php?id52&presiden_id1&presidensukarno|titleMaria Ulfah Soebadio Sastrosatomo|language Indonesian|publisher Presidential Library of Indonesia|access-date 11 March 2012|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130107194844/http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/cabinet_personnel/popup_profil_pejabat.php?id52&presiden_id1&presidensukarno|archive-date 7 January 2013|url-status dead
}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; Otto Ernst Remer, German general (d. 1997)
*1913 &ndash; Romain Maes, Belgian cyclist (d. 1983)
*1914 &ndash; Lucy Ozarin, United States Navy lieutenant commander and psychiatrist (d. 2017)
*1915 &ndash; Max Lanier, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)
*1916 &ndash; Neagu Djuvara, Romanian historian, journalist, and diplomat (d. 2018)
* 1916 &ndash; Moura Lympany, English pianist (d. 2005)
*1917 &ndash; Caspar Weinberger, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 2006)
*1918 &ndash; Cisco Houston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1961)
*1919 &ndash; Wally Hickel, American businessman and politician, 2nd Governor of Alaska (d. 2010)
*1920 &ndash; Godfrey Evans, English cricketer (d. 1999)
* 1920 &ndash; Bob Kennedy, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005)
* 1920 &ndash; Shelley Winters, American actress (d. 2006)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1921 &ndash; Lydia Litvyak, Russian lieutenant and pilot (d. 1943)
* 1921 &ndash; Zdzisław Żygulski, Polish historian and academic (d. 2015)
*1922 &ndash; Alain Robbe-Grillet, French director, screenwriter, and novelist (d. 2008)
*1923 &ndash; Katherine Victor, American actress (d. 2004)<ref>{{cite book|lastLentz|firstHarris M.|titleObituaries in the Performing Arts, 2004 : Film, Television, Radio, Theatre, Dance, Music, Cartoons, and Pop Culture|locationJefferson, N.C.|publisherMcfarland & Co.|date2005|isbn978-0-7864-2103-9|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIHvGCwAAQBAJ|pages362–363}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; Brian Aldiss, English author and critic (d. 2017)
* 1925 &ndash; Pierre Grondin, Canadian surgeon and academic (d. 2006)
* 1925 &ndash; Anis Mansour, Egyptian journalist and author (d. 2011)
*1927 &ndash; Rosalynn Carter, 41st First Lady of the United States (d. 2023)<ref>{{Cite news |dateNovember 19, 2023 |titleRosalynn Carter, former first lady, dies at age 96|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/rosalynn-carter-dies-age-96-former-first-lady/ |access-dateNovember 19, 2023 |agency=CBS News}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Marge Schott, American businesswoman (d. 2004)
* 1928 &ndash; Sonny Til, American R&B singer (d. 1981)
*1929 &ndash; Hugues Aufray, French singer-songwriter
*1930 &ndash; Liviu Librescu, Romanian-American engineer and academic (d. 2007)
* 1930 &ndash; Rafael Pineda Ponce, Honduran academic and politician (d. 2014)
*1931 &ndash; Bramwell Tillsley, Canadian 14th General of The Salvation Army (d. 2019)
* 1931 &ndash; Hans van Mierlo, Dutch journalist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2010)
* 1931 &ndash; Grant Williams, American film, theater and television actor (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite book|lastStampalia|firstGiancarlo|titleGrant Williams|locationAlbany, Ga.|publisherBearManor Media|date2017|isbn9781629332338|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5MBeDwAAQBAJ|page1}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Luc Montagnier, French virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022)
*1933 &ndash; Just Fontaine, Moroccan-French footballer and manager (d. 2023)
* 1933 &ndash; Roman Polanski, French-Polish director, producer, screenwriter, and actor<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1933 &ndash; Frank Salemme, American gangster and hitman (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/us/frank-salemme-dead.html|titleFrank Salemme, Onetime Head of the New England Mafia, Dies at 89|lastRisen|firstClay|newspaperThe New York Times|dateDecember 21, 2022|access-date=December 22, 2022}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; Vincent Bugliosi, American lawyer and author (d. 2015)
* 1934 &ndash; Roberto Clemente, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and soldier (d. 1972)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Gulzar, Indian poet, lyricist and film director
* 1934 &ndash; Rafer Johnson, American decathlete and actor (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite web |last1Martin |first1Jill |last2Almasy |first2Steve |titleRafer Johnson, 1960 Olympic decathlon champion, dies at 86 |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2020/12/02/us/rafer-johnson-obit-spt-intl/index.html |publisherCNN |access-date16 August 2023 |date=2 December 2020}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; Michael May, German-Swiss race car driver and engineer
*1935 &ndash; Gail Fisher, American actress (d. 2000)
* 1935 &ndash; Hifikepunye Pohamba, Namibian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Namibia
*1936 &ndash; Robert Redford, American actor, director, and producer<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1937 &ndash; Sheila Cassidy, English physician and author
*1939 &ndash; Maxine Brown, American soul/R&B singer-songwriter
* 1939 &ndash; Robert Horton, English businessman (d. 2011)
* 1939 &ndash; Johnny Preston, American pop singer (d. 2011)
*1940 &ndash; Adam Makowicz, Polish-Canadian pianist and composer
* 1940 &ndash; Gil Whitney, American journalist (d. 1982)
*1942 &ndash; Henry G. Sanders, American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1943 &ndash; Martin Mull, American actor and comedian<ref name"AP"></ref> (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-06-29 |titleMartin Mull, hip comic and actor from 'Fernwood Tonight' and 'Roseanne,' dies at 80 |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/martin-mull-dead-9e388ada08324634fe763b798abd0bc4 |access-date2024-06-29 |websiteAP News |language=en}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Gianni Rivera, Italian footballer and politician
* 1943 &ndash; Carl Wayne, English singer and actor (d. 2004)
*1944 &ndash; Paula Danziger, American author (d. 2004)
* 1944 &ndash; Robert Hitchcock, Australian sculptor and illustrator
*1945 &ndash; Sarah Dash, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2021)
* 1945 &ndash; Värner Lootsmann, Estonian lawyer and politician
* 1945 &ndash; Lewis Burwell Puller, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and author (d. 1994)
*1948 &ndash; James Jones, English bishop
* 1948 &ndash; John Scarlett, English intelligence officer
*1949 &ndash; Nigel Griggs, English bass player, songwriter, and producer
*1950 &ndash; Dennis Elliott, English drummer and sculptor
*1952 &ndash; Elayne Boosler, American actress, director, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1952 &ndash; Patrick Swayze, American actor and dancer (d. 2009)
* 1952 &ndash; Ricardo Villa, Argentinian footballer and coach
*1953 &ndash; Louie Gohmert, American captain, lawyer, and politician
* 1953 &ndash; Marvin Isley, American R&B bass player and songwriter (d. 2010)
*1954 &ndash; Umberto Guidoni, Italian astrophysicist, astronaut, and politician
*1955 &ndash; Bruce Benedict, American baseball player and coach
* 1955 &ndash; Taher Elgamal, Egyptian-American cryptographer
*1956 &ndash; John Debney, American composer and conductor
* 1956 &ndash; Sandeep Patil, Indian cricketer and coach
* 1956 &ndash; Jon Schwartz, American drummer and producer
* 1956 &ndash; Kelly Willard, American singer-songwriter
* 1956 &ndash; Rainer Woelki, German cardinal
*1957 &ndash; Carole Bouquet, French actress<ref>{{cite web |titleCarole Bouquet - Opéra national de Paris |urlhttps://www.operadeparis.fr/en/artists/carole-bouquet |websiteoperadeparis.fr |publisherOpéra national de Paris |access-date=5 May 2024}}</ref>
* 1957 &ndash; Tan Dun, Chinese composer
* 1957 &ndash; Denis Leary, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1957 &ndash; Ron Strykert, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1958 &ndash; Didier Auriol, French race car driver
* 1958 &ndash; Madeleine Stowe, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1959 &ndash; Tom Prichard, American wrestler and trainer
*1960 &ndash; Mike LaValliere, American baseball player
* 1960 &ndash; Fat Lever, American basketball player and sportscaster
*1961 &ndash; Huw Edwards, Welsh journalist and author
* 1961 &ndash; Timothy Geithner, American banker and politician, 75th United States Secretary of the Treasury
* 1961 &ndash; Bob Woodruff, American journalist and author<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1962 &ndash; Felipe Calderón, Mexican lawyer and politician, 56th President of Mexico<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.buscabiografias.com/biografia/verDetalle/9582/Felipe%20Calderon%20Hinojosa|titleFelipe Calderón Hinojosa|publisherBusca Biografias|languagees|access-date=May 30, 2019}}</ref>
* 1962 &ndash; Geoff Courtnall, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1962 &ndash; Adam Storke, American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1964 &ndash; Craig Bierko, American actor and singer<ref>{{Cite news |date1964-08-23 |titleBirths |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/23/archives/births.html |access-date2022-12-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Andi Deris, German singer and songwriter
* 1964 &ndash; Mark Sargent, Australian rugby league player
* 1964 &ndash; Kenny Walker, American basketball player and sportscaster
*1965 &ndash; Ikue Ōtani, Japanese voice actress
*1966 &ndash; Gustavo Charif, Argentinian director and producer
*1967 &ndash; Daler Mehndi, Indian Punjabi singer, songwriter and record producer
* 1967 &ndash; Brian Michael Bendis, American author and illustrator
*1969 &ndash; Everlast, American singer, rapper, and musician<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Masta Killa, American rapper<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Mark Kuhlmann, German rugby player and coach
* 1969 &ndash; Edward Norton, American actor<ref>{{cite web | url http://www.biography.com/people/edward-norton-9542130 | title Edward Norton | date 29 August 2019 | publisher Biography.com}}</ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Christian Slater, American actor and producer<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-18-2022-includes-celebrities-edward-norton-andy-samberg.html |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 18, 2022 includes celebrities Edward Norton, Andy Samberg |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date16 August 2023 |date=18 August 2022}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Jason Furman, American economist and politician
* 1970 &ndash; Malcolm-Jamal Warner, American actor and producer<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1971 &ndash; Patrik Andersson, Swedish footballer
* 1971 &ndash; Richard David James, English musician and record producer<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/education/2007/jun/12/furthereducation.uk1 |titleRichard David James |newspaperThe Guardian|date2007-06-12 |last1Murray |first1Janet }}</ref>
*1974 &ndash; Nicole Krauss, American novelist and critic
*1975 &ndash; Kaitlin Olson, American actress and comedian<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1977 &ndash; Paraskevas Antzas, Greek footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Even Kruse Skatrud, Norwegian musician and educator<ref namemic>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mic.no/symfoni/kontakt.nsf/pub_e/per2006091911412438310826 |titleEven Kruse Skatrud, alias Eveneven Trombonist |publisherMIC.no}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Andy Samberg, American actor and comedian<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1979 &ndash; Stuart Dew, Australian footballer
*1980 &ndash; Esteban Cambiasso, Argentinian footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Rob Nguyen, Australian race car driver
* 1980 &ndash; Ryan O'Hara, Australian rugby league player
* 1980 &ndash; Bart Scott, American football player
* 1980 &ndash; Jeremy Shockey, American football player
*1981 &ndash; César Delgado, Argentinian footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Dimitris Salpingidis, Greek footballer
*1983 &ndash; Mika, Lebanese-born English recording artist and singer-songwriter <ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/mika-mn0000476425/biography|titleMika &#124; Biography & History|website=AllMusic}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Cameron White, Australian cricketer
*1984 &ndash; Sigourney Bandjar, Dutch footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Robert Huth, German footballer
*1985 &ndash; Inge Dekker, Dutch swimmer
* 1985 &ndash; Bryan Ruiz, Costa Rican footballer
*1986 &ndash; Evan Gattis, American baseball player
* 1986 &ndash; Ross McCormack, Scottish footballer
*1987 &ndash; Joanna Jędrzejczyk, Polish mixed martial artist
* 1987 &ndash; Justin Wilson, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJustin Wilson |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/justin-wilson-458677 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date16 August 2023}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Jack Hobbs, English footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Eggert Jónsson, Icelandic footballer
* 1988 &ndash; G-Dragon, South Korean rapper, singer-songwriter and record producer
*1989 &ndash; Anna Akana, American actress, comedian, musician, and YouTuber<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Yu Mengyu, Singaporean table tennis player<ref nameTokyo2020>{{cite web |urlhttps://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/olympic-games/en/results/table-tennis/athlete-profile-n1360557-yu-mengyu.htm |titleTable Tennis: YU Mengyu |url-statusdead |workTokyo 2020 Olympics |publisherTokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210729062538/https://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/olympic-games/en/results/table-tennis/athlete-profile-n1360557-yu-mengyu.htm |archive-date2021-07-29 }}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Liz Cambage, Australian basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleLiz Cambage |urlhttps://www.wnba.com/player/202633/liz-cambage |publisherWNBA |access-date16 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Richard Harmon, Canadian actor<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1992 &ndash; Elizabeth Beisel, American swimmer
* 1992 &ndash; Bogdan Bogdanović, Serbian basketball player
* 1992 &ndash; Frances Bean Cobain, American visual artist and model <ref>Cross, Charles R. Heavier Than Heaven, Hyperion, 2001. {{ISBN|0-7868-6505-9}} p. 246.</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Jung Eun-ji, South Korean singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://people.search.naver.com/search.naver?wherenexearch&query%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%80%EC%A7%80&smtab_txc&ieutf8&keyPeopleService&os215030 |script-titleko:정은지 |publisherNaver |languageko |dateJuly 1, 2013 |access-dateDecember 12, 2013 |archive-dateAugust 24, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200824190218/http://people.search.naver.com/search.naver?wherenexearch&query%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%80%EC%A7%80&smtab_txc&ieutf8&keyPeopleService&os215030 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno2011052601545747351|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170814045113/http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno2011052601545747351|url-statusdead|archive-dateAugust 14, 2017|title[Interview] Girl group A PINK - Part 2|website10Asia|dateMay 26, 2011}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Maia Mitchell, Australian actress and singer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.apimages.com/Collection/Landing/Maia-Mitchell-Portrait-Session/8cbb7d33f6774f32b91cf6667d539364 |titleMaia Mitchell Portrait Session |publisherAP Images |date11 July 2013 |access-date=12 August 2013}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Madelaine Petsch, American actress and YouTuber<ref name"BDay-tweet">{{cite tweet|number898641276161085440|usermadelainepetsch|titleThank you for all the bday wishes! Already having the best day. 23 ain't so bad 😉💥|dateAugust 18, 2017|firstMadelaine|last=Petsch}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Morgan Sanson, French footballer
* 1994 &ndash; Seiya Suzuki, Japanese baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleSeiya Suzuki |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/seiya-suzuki-673548 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date16 August 2023}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Alīna Fjodorova, Latvian figure skater
* 1995 &ndash; Parker McKenna Posey, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1997 &ndash; Josephine Langford, Australian actress<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 18: Robert Redford, Josephine Langford |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2022/08/18/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-18-Robert-Redford-Josephine-Langford/7951660605529/ |publisherUPI |access-date16 August 2023 |date18 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Renato Sanches, Portuguese footballer
*1998 &ndash; Brian To'o, Australian-Samoan rugby league player<ref>[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/brian-to--o/summary.html Rugby League Project]</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Clairo, American singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite magazine |titleKhalid Dresses as Elmo, Surprises Clairo For Her 21st Birthday: See the Video |urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/pop/khalid-dresses-elmo-surprises-clairo-birthday-8527710/ |magazineBillboard |access-date10 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Nick Fuentes, American far-right political commentator<ref>{{Cite tweet |number1162677061812707328 |userNickJFuentes |titleLol my birthday is on sunday but thanks!! |firstNicholas |lastFuentes |access-dateApril 12, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190817104737/https://twitter.com/NickJFuentes/status/1162677061812707328 |archive-dateAugust 17, 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Cassius Stanley, American basketball player<ref>{{Cite web |titleCassius Stanley Biography |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/bio/_/id/4431686/cassius-stanley |access-date2022-12-18 |websiteESPN |language=en}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this day in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 353 &ndash; Decentius, Roman usurper
* 440 &ndash; Pope Sixtus III<ref>{{cite book |last1Hughes |first1Philip |titleHistory of the Church: Volume 2: The Church In The World The Church Created: Augustine To Aquinas |date1 January 1979 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-0-7220-7982-9 |page447 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOiTUAwAAQBAJ&pgPA447 |language=en}}</ref>
* 472 &ndash; Ricimer, Roman general and politician (b. 405)
* 670 &ndash; Fiacre, Irish hermit
* 673 &ndash; Kim Yu-shin, general of Silla (b. 595)
* 849 &ndash; Walafrid Strabo, German monk and theologian (b. 808)
*911 &ndash; Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, first Zaydi Imam of Yemen (b. 859)<ref>{{EI2|volume12|lastMadelung|firstW.|authorlinkWilferd Madelung|titleal-Ḥādī Ila ’l-Ḥaḳḳ|pages334–335|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8582}}</ref>
*1095 &ndash; King Olaf I of Denmark
*1211 &ndash; Narapatisithu, king of Burma (b. 1150)
*1258 &ndash; Theodore II Laskaris, emperor of Nicea (Byzantine emperor in exile)
*1276 &ndash; Pope Adrian V (b. 1220)
*1318 &ndash; Clare of Montefalco, Italian nun and saint (b. 1268)
*1430 &ndash; Thomas de Ros, 8th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician (b. 1406)
*1500 &ndash; Alfonso of Aragon, Spanish prince (b. 1481)
*1502 &ndash; Knut Alvsson, Norwegian nobleman and politician (b. 1455)
*1503 &ndash; Pope Alexander VI (b. 1431)
*1550 &ndash; Antonio Ferramolino, Italian architect and military engineer
*1559 &ndash; Pope Paul IV (b. 1476)<ref>{{cite web |titlePaul IV {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-IV |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date13 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1563 &ndash; Étienne de La Boétie, French judge and philosopher (b. 1530)
*1600 &ndash; Sebastiano Montelupi, Italian businessman (b. 1516)
1601–1900
*1613 &ndash; Giovanni Artusi, Italian composer and theorist (b. 1540)
*1620 &ndash; Wanli Emperor of China (b. 1563)
*1625 &ndash; Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche, English diplomat (b. 1556)
*1634 &ndash; Urbain Grandier, French priest (b. 1590)
*1642 &ndash; Guido Reni, Italian painter and educator (b. 1575)
*1648 &ndash; Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1615)
*1683 &ndash; Charles Hart, English actor (b. 1625)
*1707 &ndash; William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire (b. 1640)
*1712 &ndash; Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Essex (b. 1660)
*1765 &ndash; Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1708)
*1815 &ndash; Chauncey Goodrich, American lawyer and politician, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (b. 1759)
*1823 &ndash; André-Jacques Garnerin, French balloonist and the inventor of the frameless parachute (b. 1769)
*1842 &ndash; Louis de Freycinet, French explorer and navigator (b. 1779)
*1850 &ndash; Honoré de Balzac, French novelist and playwright (b. 1799)
*1852 &ndash; James Finlayson, Scottish Quaker (b. 1772)<ref>Brian D. J. Denoon: Finlayson, James (1772–1852), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>
*1886 &ndash; Eli Whitney Blake, American inventor, invented the Mortise lock (b. 1795)
1901–present
*1919 &ndash; Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company (b. 1841)
*1940 &ndash; Walter Chrysler, American businessman, founded Chrysler (b. 1875)
*1942 &ndash; Erwin Schulhoff, Austro-Czech composer and pianist (b. 1894)<ref name"Ross">{{cite book |lastRoss |firstAlex |date2008 |titleThe Rest Is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century |publisherMacmillan Publishers |isbn978-0-312-42771-9 |page363 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu_g_uPZO-tkC&pg=PA363}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Ali-Agha Shikhlinski, Azerbaijani general (b. 1865)
*1944 &ndash; Ernst Thälmann, German soldier and politician (b. 1886)
*1945 &ndash; Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian activist and politician (b. 1897)
*1946 &ndash; Che Yaoxian, Chinese communist (b. 1894)<ref name="Annals">{{Cite web
|url=http://scdfz.sc.gov.cn/scyx/scrw/scszrwz/content_8060
|script-title=zh:罗世文
|trans-title=Luo Shiwen
|language=Chinese
|work=Sichuan Annals
|date=7 December 2017
|publisher=Sichuan Provincial Government
|accessdate=18 October 2024
|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20241018114343/http://scdfz.sc.gov.cn/scyx/scrw/scszrwz/content_8060
|archivedate=18 October 2024
}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Luo Shiwen, Chinese communist (b. 1904)<ref name="Annals"/>
*1949 &ndash; Paul Mares, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1900)
*1950 &ndash; Julien Lahaut, Belgian soldier and politician (b. 1884)
*1952 &ndash; Alberto Hurtado, Chilean priest, lawyer, and saint (b. 1901)
*1961 &ndash; Learned Hand, American lawyer, jurist, and philosopher (b. 1872)<ref>{{citation |lastGunther |firstGerald |titleLearned Hand: The Man and the Judge |year1994 |publisherKnopf |placeNew York |isbn978-0-394-58807-0 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/learnedhandmanan00gunt}} </ref>
*1964 &ndash; Hildegard Trabant, Berlin Wall victim (b. 1927)
*1968 &ndash; Arthur Marshall, American pianist and composer (b. 1881)
*1975 &ndash; Odd Lindbäck-Larsen, Norwegian Army general and war historian (b. 1897)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleOdd Lindbäck-Larsen |first1Aksel Schreiner |last1Brakestad |first2Dag |last2Leraand |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date23 August 2023 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Odd_Lindbäck-Larsen |languageno|access-date15 March 2024}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Vasantrao Naik, Indian politician (b. 1913)
*1981 &ndash; Anita Loos, American author and screenwriter (b. 1889)
*1983 &ndash; Nikolaus Pevsner, German-English historian and scholar (b. 1902)
*1986 &ndash; Harun Babunagari, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and educationist (b. 1902)<ref name"m.dailyinqilab.com">{{Cite news |lastPratibedak |firstNijaswa |date4 October 2016 |script-titlebn:ওলিয়ে কামেল হযরত মাওলানা হারুন বাবুনগরী রহ.|urlhttps://www.dailyinqilab.com/article/41021/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2-%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9 |workDaily Inqilab |languagebn |access-date=2020-07-23}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; B. F. Skinner, American psychologist and philosopher, invented the Skinner box (b. 1904)
*1994 &ndash; Francis Raymond Shea, American bishop (b. 1913)
*1998 &ndash; Persis Khambatta, Indian model and actress, Femina Miss India 1965 (b. 1948)<ref>{{cite news |title'Star Trek' actress Persis Khambatta, 49 |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id5AxbAAAAIBAJ&pg5217,917115&dqpersis+khambatta+miss+india |access-dateJuly 13, 2018 |workBangor Daily News |dateAugust 20, 1998}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; David Peakall, English chemist and toxicologist (b. 1931)
*2002 &ndash; Dean Riesner, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1918)
*2003 &ndash; Tony Jackson, English singer and bassist (b. 1938)
*2004 &ndash; Elmer Bernstein, American composer and conductor (b. 1922)
* 2004 &ndash; Hiram Fong, American soldier and politician (b. 1906)
*2005 &ndash; Chri$ Ca$h, American wrestler (b. 1982)
*2006 &ndash; Ken Kearney, Australian rugby player (b. 1924)
*2007 &ndash; Michael Deaver, American soldier and politician, White House Deputy Chief of Staff (b. 1938)
* 2007 &ndash; Magdalen Nabb, English author (b. 1947)
*2009 &ndash; Kim Dae-jung, South Korean lieutenant and politician, 15th President of South Korea, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)
* 2009 &ndash; Rose Friedman, Ukrainian-American economist and author (b. 1910)
* 2009 &ndash; Robert Novak, American journalist and author (b. 1931)
*2010 &ndash; Hal Connolly, American hammer thrower and coach (b. 1931)
* 2010 &ndash; Benjamin Kaplan, American scholar and jurist (b. 1911)
*2012 &ndash; Harrison Begay, American painter (b. 1917)
* 2012 &ndash; John Kovatch, American football player (b. 1920)
* 2012 &ndash; Scott McKenzie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1939)
* 2012 &ndash; Ra. Ki. Rangarajan, Indian journalist and author (b. 1927)
* 2012 &ndash; Jesse Robredo, Filipino public servant and politician, 23rd Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (b. 1958)
*2013 &ndash; Josephine D'Angelo, American baseball player (b. 1924)
* 2013 &ndash; Jean Kahn, French lawyer and activist (b. 1929)
* 2013 &ndash; Albert Murray, American author and critic (b. 1916)
*2014 &ndash; Gordon Faber, American soldier and politician, 39th Mayor of Hillsboro, Oregon (b. 1930)
* 2014 &ndash; Jim Jeffords, American captain, lawyer, and politician (b. 1934)
* 2014 &ndash; Levente Lengyel, Hungarian chess player (b. 1933)
* 2014 &ndash; Don Pardo, American radio and television announcer (b. 1918)
*2015 &ndash; Khaled al-Asaad, Syrian archaeologist and author (b. 1932)
* 2015 &ndash; Roger Smalley, English-Australian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1943)
* 2015 &ndash; Suvra Mukherjee, Wife of former Indian president Pranab Mukherjee (b. 1940)
* 2015 &ndash; Louis Stokes, American lawyer and politician (b. 1925)
* 2015 &ndash; Bud Yorkin, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1926)
*2016 &ndash; Ernst Nolte, German historian (b. 1923)
*2017 &ndash; Bruce Forsyth, English television presenter and entertainer (b. 1928)
* 2017 &ndash; Zoe Laskari, Greek actress and beauty pageant winner (b. 1944)
*2018 &ndash; Denis Edozie, Nigerian Supreme Court judge (b. 1935)<ref>{{cite news |titleFormer Justice of the Supreme Court, Denis Edozie, is dead |urlhttps://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/280696-former-justice-of-the-supreme-court-denis-edozie-is-dead.html |access-date28 December 2019 |publisherPREMIUM TIMES |date=18 August 2018}}</ref>
* 2018 &ndash; Kofi Annan, Ghanaian diplomat and seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations (b. 1938)<ref nameBBC>{{Cite news|date2018-08-18|titleKofi Annan, former UN chief, dies at 80|languageen-GB|workBBC News|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45232892|access-date=2022-04-15}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Ben Cross, English stage and film actor (b. 1947)
*2023 &ndash; Lolita, the second-oldest orca in captivity (b. ca. 1966)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/orca-death-lolita-seaquarium-007e82ed0afb5cb44fa686188963efb2|titleLolita the orca dies at Miami Seaquarium after half-century in captivity|date18 August 2023|websiteapnews.com}}</ref>
* 2023 &ndash; Al Quie, American politician, 35th Governor of Minnesota (b. 1923)<ref name"startribune1">{{cite web | urlhttps://www.startribune.com/former-minnesota-gov-al-quie-dies-at-age-99/600298294/ | authorEmma Nelson | dateAugust 19, 2023 | websiteMinneapolis Star Tribune | titleFormer Minnesota Governor Al Quie Dies at Age 99}}</ref>
*2024 – Ruth Johnson Colvin, American author and educator, founded ProLiteracy Worldwide (b. 1916)<ref>{{Cite web |dateAugust 19, 2024 |titleRuth Johnson Colvin, who founded Literacy Volunteers of America, has died at 107 |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/ruth-johnson-colvin-founded-literacy-volunteers-america-died-112960561 |access-date2024-08-20 |websiteABC News |languageen}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Alain Delon, French-Swiss actor (b. 1935)<ref>[https://www.lefigaro.fr/cinema/alain-delon-la-legende-du-cinema-est-mort-20240818 Alain Delon, la légende du cinéma, est mort]{{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*2024 – Phil Donahue, American talk show host and producer (b. 1935)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-08-19 |titlePhil Donahue, talk show host pioneer and husband of Marlo Thomas, dies at 88 |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/news/obituaries/phil-donahue-talk-show-host-pioneer-dies-rcna129601 |access-date2024-08-19 |websiteNBC News |languageen}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Agapitus of Palestrina
**Alberto Hurtado
**Daig of Inniskeen
**Evan (or Inan)
**Fiacre
**Florus and Laurus
**Helena of Constantinople (Roman Catholic Church)
**August 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Arbor Day (Pakistan)
*Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia)
*Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island)
*Constitution Day (Indonesia)
*Long Tan Day, also called Vietnam Veterans' Day (Australia)
*National Science Day (Thailand)
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
* {{cite book|lastKazemzadeh|firstFiruz|author-linkFiruz Kazemzadeh|chapterIranian relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, to 1921|titleThe Cambridge History of Iran|volume7|publisherCambridge University Press|year1991|isbn978-0-521-20095-0| editor-given1 Peter | editor-surname1 Avery | editor-given2 Gavin | editor-surname2 Hambly | editor-given3 Charles | editor-surname3 Melville | editor-link Peter Avery }}
* {{cite book|editor-last1Mikaberidze|editor-first1Alexander|editor-link1Alexander Mikaberidze|titleConflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date2011|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-1-59884-336-1|chapterRusso-Iranian Wars}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/18 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day18}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/18 |titleHistorical Events on August 18 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 18}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_18 | 2025-04-05T18:25:40.998720 |
1497 | August 19 | {{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*295 BC &ndash; The first temple to Venus, the Roman goddess of love, beauty and fertility, is dedicated by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges during the Third Samnite War.<ref>{{cite book|authorSabine G. Oswalt|titleConcise Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCdQnAAAAYAAJ|year1969|publisherCollins|page296|isbn9780695861094}}</ref>
*43 BC &ndash; Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later known as Augustus, compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.
* 947 &ndash; Abu Yazid, a Kharijite rebel leader, is defeated and killed in the Hodna Mountains in modern-day Algeria by Fatimid forces.
*1153 &ndash; Baldwin III of Jerusalem takes control of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from his mother Melisende, and also captures Ascalon.
*1458 &ndash; Pope Pius II is elected the 211th Pope.<ref>{{cite book|authorRenaissance Society of America|titleThe Italian Renaissance|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxtJoDXWcL3kC&pgPA79|date1 January 1993|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press|isbn978-0-8020-7735-6|pages=79}}</ref>
*1504 &ndash; In Ireland, the Hiberno-Norman de Burghs (Burkes) and Cambro-Norman Fitzgeralds fight in the Battle of Knockdoe.<ref>{{cite book|authorTony Jaques|titleDictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDh6jydKXikoC&pgPA536|year2007|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group|isbn978-0-313-33538-9|pages=536}}</ref>
*1561 &ndash; Mary, Queen of Scots, aged 18, returns to Scotland after spending 13 years in France.<ref>{{cite book|authorHenry Ellis|titleTo 1572|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV4rVAAAAMAAJ&pgPA318|year1846|publisherR. Bentley|pages318}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1604 &ndash; Eighty Years War: a besieging Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange forces the Spanish garrison of Sluis to capitulate.<ref>{{cite book|last1Duffy|first1Christopher|titleSiege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World 1494–1660 Volume 1 of Siege warfare|date2013|page89|publisherRoutledge|isbn=9781136607875}}</ref>
*1612 &ndash; The "Samlesbury witches", three women from the Lancashire village of Samlesbury, England, are put on trial, accused of practicing witchcraft, one of the most famous witch trials in British history.
*1666 &ndash; Second Anglo-Dutch War: Rear Admiral Robert Holmes leads a raid on the Dutch island of Terschelling, destroying 150 merchant ships, an act later known as "Holmes's Bonfire".
*1692 &ndash; Salem witch trials: In Salem, province of Massachusetts Bay, five people, one woman and four men, including a clergyman, are executed after being convicted of witchcraft.
*1745 &ndash; Prince Charles Edward Stuart raises his standard in Glenfinnan: The start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion, known as "the 45".
* 1745 &ndash; Ottoman–Persian War: In the Battle of Kars, the Ottoman army is routed by Persian forces led by Nader Shah.
*1759 &ndash; Battle of Lagos: Naval battle during the Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France.
*1772 &ndash; Gustav III of Sweden stages a coup d'état, in which he assumes power and enacts a new constitution that divides power between the Riksdag and the King.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Barton |first1H. Arnold |titleGustav III of Sweden and the Enlightenment |journalEighteenth-Century Studies |date1972 |volume6 |issue1 |page11 |doi10.2307/3031560 |jstor3031560}}</ref>
*1782 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: Battle of Blue Licks: The last major engagement of the war, almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander Charles Cornwallis following the Siege of Yorktown.
*1812 &ndash; War of 1812: American frigate {{USS|Constitution}} defeats the British frigate {{HMS|Guerriere|1806|6}} off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada earning the nickname "Old Ironsides".
*1813 &ndash; Gervasio Antonio de Posadas joins Argentina's Second Triumvirate.
*1839 &ndash; The French government announces that Louis Daguerre's photographic process is a gift "free to the world".
*1848 &ndash; California Gold Rush: The New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States of the gold rush in California (although the rush started in January).
*1854 &ndash; The First Sioux War begins when United States Army soldiers kill Lakota chief Conquering Bear and in return are massacred.
*1861 &ndash; First ascent of Weisshorn, fifth highest summit in the Alps.
*1862 &ndash; Dakota War: During an uprising in Minnesota, Lakota warriors decide not to attack heavily defended Fort Ridgely and instead turn to the settlement of New Ulm, killing white settlers along the way.
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; The Transfiguration Uprising breaks out in East Thrace, resulting in the establishment of the Strandzha Commune.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Khadzhiev |first1Georgi |translator1-lastFirth |translator1-firstWill |chapterThe Transfiguration Uprising and the 'Strandzha Commune': The First Libertarian Commune in Bulgaria |titleНационалното освобождение и безвластният федерализъм |trans-titleNational Liberation and Libertarian Federalism |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDDFOAQAAIAAJ |languagebg |pages99–148 |date1992 |publisherArtizdat-5 |locationSofia |chapter-urlhttp://www.savanne.ch/tusovka/en/will-firth/bulgaria.html#strandzha |oclc27030696 }}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; The Indianapolis Motor Speedway opens for automobile racing. William Bourque and his mechanic are killed during the first day's events.<ref>{{cite book|titleIndianapolis Medical Journal|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsM0yAQAAMAAJ|year1922|page=151}}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; The Tambov Rebellion breaks out, in response to the Bolshevik policy of Prodrazvyorstka.<ref name="black book">Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, {{ISBN|0-674-07608-7}}.</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Patriarch Sergius of Moscow proclaims the declaration of loyalty of the Russian Orthodox Church to the Soviet Union.
*1934 &ndash; The first All-American Soap Box Derby is held in Dayton, Ohio.
* 1934 &ndash; The German referendum of 1934 approves Adolf Hitler's appointment as head of state with the title of Führer.
*1936 &ndash; The Great Purge of the Soviet Union begins when the first of the Moscow Trials is convened.
*1940 &ndash; First flight of the B-25 Mitchell medium bomber.
*1941 &ndash; Germany and Romania sign the Tiraspol Agreement, rendering the region of Transnistria under control of the latter.<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/309415043|titleThe beginning of war in the East and hastening the approaches against the Jewish population|first1Adina|last1Babeș|first2Alexandru|last2Florian|journalHolocaust. Studii și cercetări|issue7|year2014|pages30–44}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; World War II: Operation Jubilee (The Dieppe Raid): The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division leads an amphibious assault by allied forces on Dieppe, France and fails.
*1944 &ndash; World War II: Liberation of Paris: Paris, France rises against German occupation with the help of Allied troops.
*1945 &ndash; August Revolution: Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh take power in Hanoi, Vietnam.
*1953 &ndash; Cold War: The CIA and MI6 help to overthrow the government of Mohammad Mosaddegh in Iran and reinstate the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
*1955 &ndash; In the Northeast United States, severe flooding caused by Hurricane Diane, claims 200 lives.
*1960 &ndash; Cold War: In Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union, downed American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the Soviet Union for espionage.
* 1960 &ndash; Sputnik program: Korabl-Sputnik 2: The Soviet Union launches the satellite with the dogs Belka and Strelka, 40 mice, two rats and a variety of plants.
*1964 &ndash; Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite, is launched. Two months later, it would enable live coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics.
*1965 &ndash; Japanese prime minister Eisaku Satō becomes the first post-World War II sitting prime minister to visit Okinawa Prefecture.
*1978 &ndash; In Iran, the Cinema Rex fire causes more than 400 deaths.
*1980 &ndash; Saudia Flight 163, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar burns after making an emergency landing at Riyadh International Airport in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, killing 301 people.
* 1980 &ndash; Otłoczyn railway accident: In Poland's worst post-war railway accident, 67 people lose their lives and a further 62 are injured.<ref>{{cite book |authorHaine |firstEdgar A. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS7t8DW4iYDMC&pgPA182 |titleRailroad Wrecks |publisherAssociated University Presses |year1993 |isbn978-0-8453-4844-4 |pages182}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Gulf of Sidra Incident: United States F-14A Tomcat fighters intercept and shoot down two Libyan Sukhoi Su-22 fighter jets over the Gulf of Sidra.
*1987 &ndash; Hungerford massacre: In the United Kingdom, Michael Ryan kills sixteen people with a semi-automatic rifle and then commits suicide.
*1989 &ndash; Polish president Wojciech Jaruzelski nominates Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be the first non-communist prime minister in 42 years.
* 1989 &ndash; Several hundred East Germans cross the frontier between Hungary and Austria during the Pan-European Picnic, part of the events that began the process of the Fall of the Berlin Wall.
*1991 &ndash; Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The August Coup begins when Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev is placed under house arrest while on holiday in the town of Foros, Ukraine.
* 1991 &ndash; Crown Heights riot begins.<ref>Shapiro, Edward S. (2002). "Interpretations of the Crown Heights Riot". American Jewish History.</ref>
*1999 &ndash; In Belgrade, Yugoslavia, tens of thousands of Serbians rally to demand the resignation of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President Slobodan Milošević.
*2002 &ndash; Khankala Mi-26 crash: A Russian Mil Mi-26 helicopter carrying troops is hit by a Chechen missile outside Grozny, killing 118 soldiers.
*2003 &ndash; A truck-bomb attack on United Nations headquarters in Iraq kills the agency's top envoy Sérgio Vieira de Mello and 21 other employees.<ref>{{cite book|titleReport of the Security Council: 1 August 2013 - 31 July 2014|publisherUnited Nations|year2014|page72}}</ref>
* 2003 &ndash; Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing: A suicide attack on a bus in Jerusalem, planned by Hamas, kills 23 Israelis, seven of them children.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFA-Archive/2003/Pages/Suicide%20bombing%20of%20No%202%20Egged%20bus%20in%20Jerusalem%20-%201.aspx|titleSuicide bombing of No 2 Egged bus in Jerusalem-19-Aug-2003|publisherIsrael Ministry of Foreign Affairs|access-date17 August 2020}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Google Inc. has its initial public offering on Nasdaq.<ref>{{Cite web |last|first |date30 June 2014 |titleGoogle Fast Facts |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2014/06/30/business/google-fast-facts/index.html |access-date2022-01-12 |website=CNN }}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; The first-ever joint military exercise between Russia and China, called Peace Mission 2005 begins.
*2009 &ndash; A series of bombings in Baghdad, Iraq, kills 101 and injures 565 others.
*2010 &ndash; Operation Iraqi Freedom ends, with the last of the United States brigade combat teams crossing the border to Kuwait.
*2013 &ndash; The Dhamara Ghat train accident kills at least 37 people in the Indian state of Bihar.
*2017 &ndash; Tens of thousands of farmed non-native Atlantic salmon are accidentally released into the wild in Washington waters in the 2017 Cypress Island Atlantic salmon pen break.
Births
Pre-1600
* 232 &ndash; Marcus Aurelius Probus, Roman emperor (d. 282)<ref>{{cite book|titleDissertation Abstracts|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYjlFAQAAIAAJ|dateSeptember 1955|publisherUniversity Microfilms|page2519}}</ref>
*1342 &ndash; Catherine of Bohemia, duchess of Austria (d. 1395)
*1398 &ndash; Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Spanish poet and politician (d. 1458)<ref>{{cite book|authorIñigo López de Mendoza Santillana (marqués de)|titleLetter of the Marquis of Santillana to Don Peter, Constable of Portugal|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8aZfAAAAMAAJ|year1927|publisherClarendon Press|page=15}}</ref>
*1570 &ndash; Salamone Rossi, Italian violinist and composer (probable;<ref>{{cite book|authorWilli Apel|titleItalian Violin Music of the Seventeenth Century|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDP5i52zOXcIC&pgPA19|year1990|publisherIndiana University Press|isbn0-253-30683-3|pages=19}}</ref> d. 1630)
*1583 &ndash; Daišan, Chinese prince and statesman (d. 1648)
*1590 &ndash; Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1649)
*1596 &ndash; Elizabeth Stuart, queen of Bohemia (d. 1662)<ref>{{cite web |titleElizabeth Stuart {{!}} Facts, Family, & Queen of Bohemia {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Elizabeth-Stuart |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date4 May 2022 |languageen}}</ref>1601–1900
*1609 &ndash; Jan Fyt, Flemish painter (d. 1661)<ref>[https://rkd.nl/explore/artists/29840 Joannes Fijt] at the Netherlands Institute for Art History {{in lang|nl}}</ref>
*1621 &ndash; Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Dutch painter, etcher, and poet (d. 1674)
*1631 &ndash; John Dryden, English poet, literary critic and playwright (d. 1700)
*1646 &ndash; John Flamsteed, English astronomer and academic (d. 1719)
*1686 &ndash; Eustace Budgell, English journalist and politician (d. 1737)
*1689 (baptized) &ndash; Samuel Richardson, English author and publisher (d. 1761)<ref>{{cite book|authorJohn Richetti|titleThe Cambridge Companion to the Eighteenth-Century Novel|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4HqlJqJ8dUEC&pgPA92|date5 September 1996|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-42945-0|pages=92}}</ref>
*1711 &ndash; Edward Boscawen, English admiral and politician (d. 1761)
*1719 &ndash; Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1781)
*1743 &ndash; Madame du Barry, French mistress of Louis XV of France (d. 1793)<ref>{{cite book|authorErhard Breitner|titleMadame Du Barry|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQSoJAQAAIAAJ|year1938|publisherCobden-Sanderson|page=1}}</ref>
*1777 &ndash; Francis I, king of the Two Sicilies (d. 1830)<ref>{{cite book|titleCompanion to the Almanac, Or Yearbook of General Information for ....|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7zdNAAAAcAAJ&pgRA1-PA76|pages=76}}</ref>
*1815 &ndash; Harriette Newell Woods Baker, American editor and children's book writer (d. 1893)<ref>{{cite book|last1Derby|first1George|last2White|first2James Terry|titleThe National Cyclopædia of American Biography: Being the History of the United States as Illustrated in the Lives of the Founders, Builders, and Defenders of the Republic, and of the Men and Women who are Doing the Work and Moulding the Thought of the Present Time|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZToOAQAAMAAJ&pgPA154|editionPublic domain|volume14|year1910|publisherJ. T. White|pages=154–}}</ref>
*1819 &ndash; Julius van Zuylen van Nijevelt, Luxembourger-Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1894)
*1830 &ndash; Julius Lothar Meyer, German chemist (d. 1895)
*1835 &ndash; Tom Wills, Australian cricketer and pioneer of Australian rules football (d. 1880)
*1843 &ndash; C. I. Scofield, American minister and theologian (d. 1921)
*1846 &ndash; Luis Martín, Spanish religious leader, 24th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1906)
*1848 &ndash; Gustave Caillebotte, French painter and engineer (d. 1894)
*1849 &ndash; Joaquim Nabuco, Brazilian politician and diplomat (d. 1910)
*1858 &ndash; Ellen Willmott, English horticulturalist (d. 1934)<ref>{{Cite ODNB|urlhttps://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-48838|titleWillmott, Ellen Ann (1858–1934), horticulturist|lastle Lièvre|firstAudrey|year2004|languageen|doi10.1093/ref:odnb/48838|access-date2019-08-12}}</ref>
*1870 &ndash; Bernard Baruch, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1965)
*1871 &ndash; Orville Wright, American engineer and pilot, co-founded the Wright Company (d. 1948)<ref>{{cite book|authorArthur George Renstrom|titleWilbur & Orville Wright: A Reissue of a Chronology Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Orville Wright, August 19, 1871|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhpI9AQAAMAAJ&pgPA1|year2003|publisherNational Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of External Relations, NASA History Office, NASA Headquarters|pages1|isbn=9781467941402}}</ref>
*1873 &ndash; Fred Stone, American actor and producer (d. 1959)
*1878 &ndash; Manuel L. Quezon, Filipino soldier, lawyer, and politician, 2nd President of the Philippines (d. 1944)
*1881 &ndash; George Enescu, Romanian violinist, pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1955)<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Strad|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7Gk9AQAAIAAJ|year1981|publisherOrpheus|page259}}</ref>
* 1881 &ndash; George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd (d. 1954)
*1883 &ndash; Coco Chanel, French fashion designer, founded the Chanel Company (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite book|author1Amy De la Haye|author2Shelley Tobin|titleChanel: The Couturiere at Work|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYGpAAQAAIAAJ|year1994|publisherVictoria & Albert Museum|isbn978-1-85177-119-6|page=7}}</ref>
* 1883 &ndash; José Mendes Cabeçadas, Portuguese admiral and politician, 9th President of Portugal (d. 1965)
*1885 &ndash; Grace Hutchins, American labor reformer and researcher (d. 1969)<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastWhitman |editor1-firstAlden |titleAmerican Reformers: An H.W. Wilson Biographical Dictionary |date1985 |publisherH.W. Wilson Company |locationNew York |isbn9780824207052 |page460}}</ref>
*1887 &ndash; S. Satyamurti, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1943)
*1895 &ndash; C. Suntharalingam, Sri Lankan lawyer, academic, and politician (d. 1985)
*1899 &ndash; Colleen Moore, American actress (d. 1988)
*1900 &ndash; Gontran de Poncins, French author and adventurer (d. 1962)
* 1900 &ndash; Gilbert Ryle, English philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1976)
* 1900 &ndash; Dorothy Burr Thompson, American archaeologist and art historian (d. 2001)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Ogden Nash, American poet (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite book|firstDavid |lastLehman |titleThe Oxford Book of American Poetry |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgO0AK7qCvmoC&pgPA475 |year2006 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-516251-6 |page475}}</ref>
*1903 &ndash; James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1978)<ref>{{Cite news|lastAldridge|firstJohn W.|dateJuly 3, 1983|titleNOVELIST OF POWER AND PRIVILEGE|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/03/books/novelist-of-power-and-privilege.html}}</ref>
*1904 &ndash; Maurice Wilks, English engineer and businessman (d. 1963)
*1906 &ndash; Philo Farnsworth, American inventor, invented the Fusor (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite book|authorDonald G. Godfrey|titlePhilo T. Farnsworth: The Father of Television|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrVLbAAAAMAAJ|year2001|publisherUniversity of Utah Press|isbn978-0-87480-675-5|pages8–9}}</ref>
*1907 &ndash; Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Indian historian, author, and scholar (d. 1979)
*1909 &ndash; Ronald King, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1988)
*1910 &ndash; Saint Alphonsa, first woman of Indian origin to be canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church (d. 1946)<ref name"Bombay1964">{{cite book|authorCatholic Association of Bombay|titleIndian Catholic Reference Book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idji3SAAAAMAAJ|year1964|publisherA.W. Menezes|page74}}</ref>
*1911 &ndash; Anna Terruwe, Dutch psychiatrist and author (d. 2004)
*1912 &ndash; Herb Narvo, Australian rugby league player, coach, and boxer (d. 1958)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nrl.com/hall-of-fame/players/herb-narvo/|titleHerb Narvo|websiteNRL Hall of Fame|access-date18 August 2020}}</ref>
*1913 &ndash; John Argyris, Greek engineer and academic (d. 2004)
* 1913 &ndash; Peter Kemp, Indian-English soldier and author (d. 1993)
* 1913 &ndash; Richard Simmons, American actor (d. 2003)
*1914 &ndash; Lajos Baróti, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2005)
* 1914 &ndash; Fumio Hayasaka, Japanese composer (d. 1955)<ref>{{cite web |titleFumio Hayasaka |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba16301b0 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160720195301/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba16301b0 |url-statusdead |archive-dateJuly 20, 2016 |websiteBFI |access-date23 November 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1914 &ndash; Rose Heilbron, British barrister and judge (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite web |last1Morton |first1James |titleObituary: Dame Rose Heilbron |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/dec/13/guardianobituaries.gender |websiteThe Guardian |access-date8 April 2020 |date=13 December 2005}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; Ring Lardner, Jr., American journalist and screenwriter (d. 2000)
* 1915 &ndash; Alfred Rouleau, Canadian businessman (d. 1985)
*1916 &ndash; Dennis Poore, English racing driver and businessman (d. 1987)
*1918 &ndash; Jimmy Rowles, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1996)
*1919 &ndash; Malcolm Forbes, American publisher and politician (d. 1990)<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 19: John Stamos, Bill Clinton |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2018/08/19/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-19-John-Stamos-Bill-Clinton/7271534646305/ |publisherUPI |access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; Gene Roddenberry, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1991)<ref name="UPI" />
*1922 &ndash; Jack Holland, Australian rugby league player (d. 1994)<ref>{{Cite web|titleJack Holland - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/jack-holland/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
*1923 &ndash; Edgar F. Codd, English computer scientist, inventor of relational model of data (d. 2003)<ref>{{Cite web |titleEdgar F. Codd - A.M. Turing Award Laureate |urlhttps://amturing.acm.org/award_winners/codd_1000892.cfm |access-date2022-08-19 |websiteamturing.acm.org}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Willard Boyle, Canadian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)
* 1924 &ndash; William Marshall, American actor, director, and opera singer (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite news|lastBergan|firstRonald|titleWilliam Marshall: Gifted African-American actor famed for blaxploitation films|workThe Guardian |date22 June 2003|access-date19 August 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jun/23/guardianobituaries.film}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; Claude Gauvreau, Canadian poet and playwright (d. 1971)
*1926 &ndash; Angus Scrimm, American actor and author (d. 2016)
*1928 &ndash; Shiv Prasaad Singh, Indian Hindi writer (d. 1998)
* 1928 &ndash; Bernard Levin, English journalist, author, and broadcaster (d. 2004)
*1929 &ndash; Bill Foster, American basketball player and coach (d. 2016)
* 1929 &ndash; Ion N. Petrovici, Romanian-German neurologist and academic (d. 2021)
*1930 &ndash; Frank McCourt, American author and educator (d. 2009)<ref name="UPI" />
*1931 &ndash; Bill Shoemaker, American jockey and author (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite book|author1Contemporary Books|author2McGraw-Hill Trade|titleChase's Sports Calendar of Events 1997|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idt1vS43orTU0C|year1996|publisherMcGraw-Hill|isbn978-0-8092-3133-1|page=180}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Thomas P. Salmon, American lawyer and politician, 75th Governor of Vermont
* 1932 &ndash; Banharn Silpa-archa, Thai politician, Prime Minister (1995–1996) (d. 2016)
*1933 &ndash; Bettina Cirone, American model and photographer
* 1933 &ndash; David Hopwood, English microbiologist and geneticist
* 1933 &ndash; Debra Paget, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1934 &ndash; David Durenberger, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2023)
* 1934 &ndash; Renée Richards, American tennis player and ophthalmologist
*1935 &ndash; Bobby Richardson, American baseball player and coach
*1936 &ndash; Richard McBrien, American priest, theologian, and academic (d. 2015)
*1937 &ndash; Richard Ingrams, English journalist, founded The Oldie
* 1937 &ndash; William Motzing, American composer and conductor (d. 2014)
*1938 &ndash; Diana Muldaur, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1938 &ndash; Nelly Vuksic, Argentine conductor and musician
*1939 &ndash; Ginger Baker, English drummer and songwriter (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite book |lastLentz III |firstHarris M. |titleObituaries in the Performing Arts, 2019 |date28 October 2020 |publisherMcFarland |page22 |isbn9781476640594 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgW0HEAAAQBAJ&pgPT36}}</ref>
*1940 &ndash; Roger Cook, English songwriter, singer, and producer
* 1940 &ndash; Johnny Nash, American singer-songwriter (d. 2020)<ref name="UPI" />
* 1940 &ndash; Jill St. John, American model and actress<ref name="AP" />
*1941 &ndash; John Cootes, Australian rugby league player, priest, and businessman<ref>{{Cite web|titleJohn Cootes - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/john-cootes/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Mihalis Papagiannakis, Greek educator and politician (d. 2009)
*1942 &ndash; Fred Thompson, American actor, lawyer, and politician (d. 2015)<ref name="UPI" />
*1943 &ndash; Don Fardon, English pop singer
* 1943 &ndash; Sid Going, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-05-20 |titleAll Blacks legend Sid Going dies |urlhttps://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/rugby/all-blacks/sid-going-death-former-all-blacks-and-northland-rugby-legend-dies/RVDPYBBXDVGO7KFH7VFF5W3PAE/ |access-date2024-05-20 |websiteThe New Zealand Herald |languageen-NZ}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Billy J. Kramer, English pop singer<ref name="AP" />
*1944 &ndash; Jack Canfield, American author
* 1944 &ndash; Stew Johnson, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleStewart Johnson |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/bio/_/id/395/stewart-johnson |publisherESPN |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1944 &ndash; Bodil Malmsten, Swedish author and poet (d. 2016)
* 1944 &ndash; Eddy Raven, American country music singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1944 &ndash; Charles Wang, Chinese-American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Computer Associates International (d. 2018)
*1945 &ndash; Dennis Eichhorn, American author and illustrator (d. 2015)
* 1945 &ndash; Charles Wellesley, 9th Duke of Wellington, English politician
* 1945 &ndash; Ian Gillan, English singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
*1946 &ndash; Charles Bolden, American general and astronaut
* 1946 &ndash; Bill Clinton, American lawyer and politician, 42nd President of the United States<ref>{{cite web |author1Frank Freidel |author2Hugh Sidey |titleWilliam J. Clinton |urlhttps://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/william-j-clinton/ |websiteThe Presidential biographies on WhiteHouse.gov |publisherWhite House Historical Association |access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Dawn Steel, American film producer (d. 1997)
*1947 &ndash; Dave Dutton, English actor and screenwriter
* 1947 &ndash; Terry Hoeppner, American football player and coach (d. 2007)
* 1947 &ndash; Gerald McRaney, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1947 &ndash; Gerard Schwarz, American conductor and director
* 1947 &ndash; Anuška Ferligoj, Slovenian mathematician
*1948 &ndash; Jim Carter, English actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1948 &ndash; Tipper Gore, American activist and author, former Second Lady of the United States<ref name="UPI" />
* 1948 &ndash; Robert Hughes, Australian actor
* 1948 &ndash; Christy O'Connor Jnr, Irish golfer and architect (d. 2016)
*1949 &ndash; Michael Nazir-Ali, Pakistani-English bishop
*1950 &ndash; Jennie Bond, English journalist and author
* 1950 &ndash; Sudha Murty, Indian author and teacher, head of Infosys Foundation<ref>{{Cite web|titleHappy Birthday, Sudha Murty: The Philanthropist who found her life's purpose in serving people|urlhttps://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/article/happy-birthday-sudha-murty-the-philanthropist-who-found-her-life-s-purpose-in-serving-people/639258|access-date2020-08-19|websitewww.timesnownews.com|date19 August 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; John Deacon, English bass player and songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1951 &ndash; Gustavo Santaolalla, Argentinian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1952 &ndash; Jonathan Frakes, American actor and director<ref name="AP" />
* 1952 &ndash; Gabriela Grillo, German equestrian (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |titleGabriela Grillo |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/11341 |websiteolympedia.org |access-date25 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last Tönjes| first Jan| url https://www.st-georg.de/news/pferde-und-leute/gabriela-grillo-lebt-nicht-mehr-dressur-mannschaftsolympiasiegerin-wurde-71-jahre-alt/| title Gabriela Grillo lebt nicht mehr, Dressur-Mannschaftsolympiasiegerin wurde 71 Jahre alt| website st-georg.de| date 27 February 2024| language de| access-date 25 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1952 &ndash; Jimmy Watson, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleJimmy Watson |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/jimmy-watson-8452319 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; Oscar Larrauri, Argentinian racing driver
*1955 &ndash; Mary-Anne Fahey, Australian actress
* 1955 &ndash; Peter Gallagher, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1955 &ndash; Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal, Dominica-born English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales
* 1955 &ndash; Ned Yost, American baseball player and manager
*1956 &ndash; Adam Arkin, American actor, director, and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1956 &ndash; José Rubén Zamora, Guatemalan journalist
*1957 &ndash; Paul-Jan Bakker, Dutch cricketer
* 1957 &ndash; Gary Chapman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP" />
* 1957 &ndash; Martin Donovan, American actor and director<ref name="AP" />
* 1957 &ndash; Ian Gould, English cricketer and umpire
* 1957 &ndash; Cesare Prandelli, Italian footballer and manager
* 1957 &ndash; Christine Soetewey, Belgian high jumper
* 1957 &ndash; Gerda Verburg, Dutch trade union leader and politician, Dutch Minister of Agriculture
*1958 &ndash; Gary Gaetti, American baseball player, coach, and manager
* 1958 &ndash; Anthony Muñoz, American football player and sportscaster
* 1958 &ndash; Brendan Nelson, Australian physician and politician, 47th Minister for Defence for Australia
* 1958 &ndash; Rick Snyder, American politician and businessman, 48th Governor of Michigan
* 1958 &ndash; Darryl Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleDarryl Sutter |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/darryl-sutter-8451801 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Chris Mortimer, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web|titleChris Mortimer - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/chris-mortimer/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
* 1959 &ndash; Ivan Neville, American singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1959 &ndash; Ricky Pierce, American basketball player
*1960 &ndash; Morten Andersen, Danish-American football player
* 1960 &ndash; Ron Darling, American baseball player and commentator<ref>{{cite web |titleRon Darling |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/ron-darling-113054 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1961 &ndash; Jonathan Coe, English author and academic<ref>{{cite book|titleDebrett's People of Today 2005|year2005 |edition18th|isbn1-870520-10-6|publisherDebrett's|page329}}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; John Stamos, American actor<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://www.biography.com/people/john-stamos-10073503|titleJohn Stamos Biography: Drummer, Film Actor, Television Actor, Singer (1963–)|publisherBiography.com (FYI / A&E Networks)| access-date June 23, 2016}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Kevin Dillon, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1965 &ndash; Kyra Sedgwick, American actress and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1965 &ndash; James Tomkins, Australian rower<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/james-tomkins|titleJames Tomkins|websiteIOC|access-dateJanuary 12, 2021}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Lee Ann Womack, American singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
*1967 &ndash; Khandro Rinpoche, Indian spiritual leader
* 1967 &ndash; Satya Nadella, Indian-American business executive, chairman and CEO of Microsoft<ref>{{Cite web|titleSatya Nadella {{!}} Biography & Facts|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Satya-Nadella|access-date2021-10-27|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Douglas Allen Tunstall Jr., American professional wrestler and politician<ref>{{cite AV media | date2008 | titleA Man Among Giants | mediumDocumentary | publisherRod Webber Productions|minutes=1:28}}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; Nate Dogg, American rapper (d. 2011)
* 1969 &ndash; Matthew Perry, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web |last1Koseluk |first1Chris |titleMatthew Perry, the Sweet and Snarky Chandler on 'Friends, Dies at 54 |urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/matthew-perry-dead-friends-1235630953/ |websiteThe Hollywood Reporter |access-date29 October 2023 |date=29 October 2023}}</ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Kazuyoshi Tatsunami, Japanese baseball player and coach
* 1969 &ndash; Clay Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://gazettereview.com/2016/10/happened-clay-walker-news-updates/|titleWhat Happened to Clay Walker-News & Updates|lastCarter|firstBrooke|date2016-10-17|websiteGazette Review|languageen-US|access-date2019-08-17}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Fat Joe, American rapper<ref name="AP" />
*1971 &ndash; Mary Joe Fernández, Dominican-American tennis player and coach
* 1971 &ndash; João Vieira Pinto, Portuguese footballer
*1972 &ndash; Roberto Abbondanzieri, Argentinian footballer and manager
* 1972 &ndash; Chihiro Yonekura, Japanese singer-songwriter
*1973 &ndash; Marco Materazzi, Italian footballer and manager
* 1973 &ndash; Roy Rogers, American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleRoy Rogers |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/_/id/733/roy-rogers |publisherESPN |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Tasma Walton, Australian actress<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.panscript.com.au/birthdays.html |titlePanscript |publisherPanscript |access-date2010-09-01 |archive-date2018-03-11 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180311205908/http://panscript.com.au/birthdays.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Tracie Thoms, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1976 &ndash; Régine Chassagne, Canadian singer-songwriter
*1977 &ndash; Iban Mayo, Spanish cyclist
*1978 &ndash; Chris Capuano, American baseball player
* 1978 &ndash; Jakub Dvorský, Czech game designer <ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://alternativemagazineonline.co.uk/2009/11/24/interview-in-conversation-with-jakub-dvorsky-founder-of-amanita-design-and-creator-of-machinarium/|title INTERVIEW – in Conversation with Jakub Dvorsky, Founder of Amanita Design and Creator of Machinarium|date = November 24, 2009}}</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Thomas Jones, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleThomas Jones |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/2138/thomas-jones |publisherESPN |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Oumar Kondé, Swiss footballer
*1980 &ndash; Darius Campbell, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2022)
* 1980 &ndash; Craig Frawley, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web|titleCraig Frawley - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/craig-frawley/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Jun Jin, South Korean singer
* 1980 &ndash; Paul Parry, Welsh footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Michael Todd, American bass player
*1981 &ndash; Nick Kennedy, English rugby player
* 1981 &ndash; Taylor Pyatt, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleTaylor Pyatt |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/taylor-pyatt-8467881 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Percy Watson, American football player and wrestler
*1982 &ndash; Erika Christensen, American actress<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 19, 2022 includes celebrities John Stamos, Matthew Perry |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-19-2022-includes-celebrities-john-stamos-matthew-perry.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date17 August 2023 |date=19 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1982 &ndash; Melissa Fumero, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1982 &ndash; J. J. Hardy, American baseball player
* 1982 &ndash; Kevin Rans, Belgian pole vaulter
* 1982 &ndash; Stipe Miocic, American professional mixed martial artist
* 1982 &ndash; Steve Ott, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleSteve Ott |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/steve-ott-8468505 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Mike Conway, English racing driver
* 1983 &ndash; Missy Higgins, Australian singer-songwriter
* 1983 &ndash; Tammin Sursok, South African-Australian actress and singer<ref name="AP" />
*1984 &ndash; Simon Bird, English actor and screenwriter
* 1984 &ndash; Alessandro Matri, Italian footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Ryan Taylor, English footballer
*1985 &ndash; David A. Gregory, American actor
* 1985 &ndash; Lindsey Jacobellis, American snowboarder
*1986 &ndash; Sotiris Balafas, Greek footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Saori Kimura, Japanese volleyball player
* 1986 &ndash; Christina Perri, American singer and songwriter<ref name="UPI" />
*1987 &ndash; Patrick Chung, Jamaican-American football player<ref>{{cite web |titlePatrick Chung |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/12527/patrick-chung |publisherESPN |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Nick Driebergen, Dutch swimmer
* 1987 &ndash; Nico Hülkenberg, German racing driver
*1988 &ndash; Kirk Cousins, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleKirk Cousins |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/14880/kirk-cousins |publisherESPN |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Veronica Roth, American author<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://locusmag.com/2020/07/veronica-roth-chosen-one/|titleVeronica Roth Chosen One|websiteLocus|date20 July 2020|access-date=18 August 2020}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Romeo Miller, American basketball player, rapper, actor<ref>{{cite book|authorCherie D. Abbey|titleBiography Today: Profiles of People of Interest to Young Readers|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQbsvbCDufEQC|year2006|publisherOmnigraphics|isbn978-0-7808-0815-7|page318}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Danny Galbraith, Scottish footballer
*1991 &ndash; Salem Al-Dawsari, Saudi Arabian footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://int.soccerway.com/players/salem-al-dawsari/197872/|titleSalem Al Dawsari|websiteSoccerway|access-date22 November 2022}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; David Rittich, Czech ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleDavid Rittich |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/david-rittich-8479496 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Pio Seci, Fijian rugby league player<ref>{{cite web|titlePio Seci - Career Stats & Summary|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/pio-seci/summary.html|website=Rugby League Project}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Nafissatou Thiam, Belgian pentathlete and heptathlete<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/belgium/nafissatou-thiam-14428253|titleNafissatou Thiam profile|websiteWorld Athletics|access-date18 August 2020}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Fernando Gaviria, Colombian cyclist<ref>{{cite web|titleFernando Gaviria Rendon|urlhttp://www.cyclingarchives.com/coureurfiche.php?coureurid79781|publisherCycling Archive|access-date=19 September 2018}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Jung Ye-rin, South Korean singer and actress<ref>{{cite web |dateAugust 2, 2015 |title[스타의 보물SONG]'여친소' 화제의 걸그룹 '여자친구'의 자기소개 |urlhttp://www.sportsseoul.com/news/read/270395 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20160308164030/http://www.sportsseoul.com/news/read/270395 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2016 |access-dateFebruary 25, 2020 |publisherSports Seoul |language=ko}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Lachlan Lewis, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web|titleLachlan Lewis - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/lachlan-lewis/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Ethan Cutkosky, American actor and musician<ref name="AP" />
* 1999 &ndash; Thomas Flegler, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web|titleThomas Flegler - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/thomas-flegler/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Keegan Murray, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleKeegan Murray |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/_/id/4594327/keegan-murray |publisherESPN |access-date17 August 2023}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Awak Kuier, Finnish basketball player<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.fiba.basketball/womenseurobasket/2021/qualifiers/player/Awak-Kuier|titleAwak Kuier|publisherInternational Basketball Federation|access-dateOctober 1, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.wnba.com/news/five-things-to-know-about-awak-kuier/amp/|titleFive Things to Know About Awak Kuier|firstBrian|lastMartin|publisherWNBA|access-dateOctober 1, 2021}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 607 BC &ndash; Duke Ling of Jin, Chinese monarch<ref>{{Cite book |lastSima |firstQian |titleThe Grand Scribe's Records—Volume V.1: The Hereditary Houses of Pre-Han China, Part I |publisherIndiana University Press |year2006 |isbn9780253340252 |edition1st |page351 |languageEnglish |translator-lastNienhauser |translator-first=William H.}}</ref>
*AD 14 &ndash; Augustus, Roman emperor (b. 63 BC)<ref>{{cite web |titleBBC - History - Augustus |urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/augustus.shtml#:~:textAugustus%20was%20born%20Gaius%20Octavius,at%20the%20Battle%20of%20Actium. |websiteBBC |access-date=5 April 2021}}</ref>
* 780 &ndash; Credan, English abbot and saint
* 947 &ndash; Abu Yazid, Kharijite rebel leader (b. 873)
* 998 &ndash; Fujiwara no Sukemasa, Japanese noble, statesman and calligrapher (b. 944)
*1072 &ndash; Hawise, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1037)
*1085 &ndash; Al-Juwayni, Muslim scholar and imam (b. 1028)
*1186 &ndash; Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)
*1245 &ndash; Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (b. 1195)
*1284 &ndash; Alphonso, Earl of Chester (b. 1273)
*1297 &ndash; Louis of Toulouse, French bishop and saint (b. 1274)
*1457 &ndash; Andrea del Castagno, Italian painter (b. 1421)
*1470 &ndash; Richard Olivier de Longueil, French cardinal (b. 1406)
*1493 &ndash; Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1415)
*1506 &ndash; King Alexander Jagiellon of Poland (b. 1461)
*1541 &ndash; Vincenzo Cappello, Venetian admiral and statesman (b. 1469)<ref>{{DBI | last Olivieri | first Achille | title CAPPELLO, Vincenzo | volume 18 | url = http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/vincenzo-cappello_(Dizionario-Biografico)-(Dizionario-Biografico)/}}</ref>
*1580 &ndash; Andrea Palladio, Italian architect, designed the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore and Il Redentore (b. 1508)
1601–1900
*1646 &ndash; Alexander Henderson, Scottish theologian and academic (b. 1583)
*1654 &ndash; Yom-Tov Lipmann Heller, Bohemian rabbi (b. 1579)
*1662 &ndash; Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1623)
*1674 &ndash; František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect (d. 1766)<ref>{{cite web |titleFrantišek Maxmilián Kaňka|urlhttps://cs2.isabart.org/person/56855|publisherArchive of Fine Arts|languagecs|access-date=2024-08-16}}</ref>
*1680 &ndash; Jean Eudes, French priest, founded the Congregation of Jesus and Mary (b. 1601)
*1691 &ndash; Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha, Ottoman commander and politician, 117th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1637)
*1702 &ndash; Anthony Grey, 11th Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1645)
*1753 &ndash; Johann Balthasar Neumann, German engineer and architect, designed Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (b. 1687)
*1808 &ndash; Fredrik Henrik af Chapman, Swedish admiral and shipbuilder (b. 1721)
*1822 &ndash; Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1749)
*1883 &ndash; Jeremiah S. Black, American lawyer and politician, 24th United States Attorney General (b. 1810)
*1889 &ndash; Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1838)
*1895 &ndash; John Wesley Hardin, American Old West outlaw, gunfighter (b. 1853)<ref>{{cite web |last1Metz |first1Leon C. |titleHARDIN, JOHN WESLEY |urlhttps://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fha63 |websitetshaonline.org |access-date19 July 2020 |languageen |date15 June 2010}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Accolay, Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1833)
1901–present
*1914 &ndash; Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1844)
*1915 &ndash; Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (b. 1867)
*1923 &ndash; Vilfredo Pareto, Italian sociologist and economist (b. 1845)
*1928 &ndash; Stephanos Skouloudis, Greek banker and diplomat, 97th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1838)
*1929 &ndash; Sergei Diaghilev, Russian critic and producer, founded Ballets Russes (b. 1872)
*1932 &ndash; Louis Anquetin, French painter (b. 1861)
*1936 &ndash; Federico García Lorca, Spanish poet, playwright, and director (b. 1898)
*1942 &ndash; Harald Kaarmann, Estonian footballer (b. 1901)
* 1942 &ndash; Heinrich Rauchinger, Kraków-born painter (b. 1858)<ref>{{cite book|authorW. Aichelburg|chapterRauchinger Heinrich, Maler|chapter-urlhttps://www.biographien.ac.at/oebl_8/438.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.biographien.ac.at/oebl_8/438.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleÖsterreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950|languagede|volume8|page438|access-date=Nov 23, 2020}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; Henry Wood, English conductor (b. 1869)<ref>{{cite web |last1van der Pas |first1Natasha |titleThe enduring legacy of Proms co-founder Sir Henry Wood |urlhttps://www.royalalberthall.com/about-the-hall/news/2014/august/the-enduring-legacy-of-proms-co-founder-sir-henry-wood/#:~:textWood%20passed%20away%20on%2019,orchestral%20concerts%20in%20the%20world. |websiteRoyal Albert Hall |access-date=6 August 2023}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; Tomás Burgos, Chilean philanthropist (b. 1875)
*1950 &ndash; Giovanni Giorgi, Italian physicist and engineer (b. 1871)
*1954 &ndash; Alcide De Gasperi, Italian journalist and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1881)
*1957 &ndash; David Bomberg, English soldier and painter (b. 1890)
*1967 &ndash; Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourg-born American author and publisher (b. 1884)
* 1967 &ndash; Isaac Deutscher, Polish-English journalist and historian (b. 1907)
*1968 &ndash; George Gamow, Ukrainian-American physicist and cosmologist (b. 1904)
*1970 &ndash; Paweł Jasienica, Polish soldier and historian (b. 1909)
*1975 &ndash; Mark Donohue, American race car driver and engineer (b. 1937)
*1976 &ndash; Alastair Sim, Scottish-English actor (b. 1900)
* 1976 &ndash; Ken Wadsworth, New Zealand cricketer (b. 1946)
*1977 &ndash; Aleksander Kreek, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (b. 1914)
* 1977 &ndash; Groucho Marx, American comedian and actor (b. 1890)
*1980 &ndash; Otto Frank, German-Swiss businessman, father of Anne Frank (b. 1889)
*1981 &ndash; Jessie Matthews, English actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1907)
*1982 &ndash; August Neo, Estonian wrestler (b. 1908)
*1986 &ndash; Hermione Baddeley, English actress (b. 1906)
* 1986 &ndash; Viv Thicknesse, Australian rugby player (b. 1910)<ref>{{Cite web|titleViv Thicknesse - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project|urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/viv-thicknesse/summary.html|access-date2021-09-17|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Utpal Dutt, Bangladeshi actor, director, and playwright (b. 1929)
*1994 &ndash; Linus Pauling, American chemist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)
*1995 &ndash; Pierre Schaeffer, French composer and musicologist (b. 1910)
*2000 &ndash; Bineshwar Brahma, Indian poet, author, and educator (b. 1948)
*2001 &ndash; Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (b. 1933)
*2003 &ndash; Carlos Roberto Reina, Honduran lawyer and politician, President of Honduras (b. 1926)
* 2003 &ndash; Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilian diplomat (b. 1948)
*2005 &ndash; Mo Mowlam, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1949)
*2008 &ndash; Levy Mwanawasa, Zambian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Zambia (b. 1948)
*2009 &ndash; Don Hewitt, American television producer, created 60 Minutes (b. 1922)
*2011 &ndash; Raúl Ruiz, Chilean director and producer (b. 1941)
*2012 &ndash; Donal Henahan, American journalist and critic (b. 1921)
* 2012 &ndash; Ivar Iversen, Norwegian canoe racer (b. 1914)<ref>{{cite web |titleOlympedia – Ivar Iversen |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/10399 |websitewww.olympedia.org |access-date23 November 2020}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Tony Scott, English-American director and producer (b. 1944)
* 2012 &ndash; Edmund Skellings, American poet and academic (b. 1932)
*2013 &ndash; Musa'id bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi Arabian prince (b. 1923)
* 2013 &ndash; Russell S. Doughten, American director and producer (b. 1927)
* 2013 &ndash; Abdul Rahim Hatif, Afghan politician, 8th President of Afghanistan (b. 1926)
* 2013 &ndash; Donna Hightower, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926)
*2014 &ndash; Samih al-Qasim, Palestinian poet and journalist (b. 1939)
* 2014 &ndash; Simin Behbahani, Iranian poet and activist (b. 1927)
* 2014 &ndash; James Foley, American photographer and journalist (b. 1973)
* 2014 &ndash; Candida Lycett Green, Anglo-Irish journalist and author (b. 1942)
*2015 &ndash; George Houser, American minister and activist (b. 1916)
* 2015 &ndash; Sanat Mehta, Indian activist and politician (b. 1935)
*2016 &ndash; Jack Riley, American actor and voice artist (b. 1935)
*2017 &ndash; Dick Gregory, American comedian, author and activist (b. 1932)<ref>{{Cite web|date2017-08-20|titleDick Gregory obituary|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/aug/20/dick-gregory-obituary|access-date2021-09-17|websiteThe Guardian |languageen}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Lars Larsen, Danish businessman and billionaire, founder and owner of the Danish retail chain JYSK (b. 1948)<ref name"bloo_Bill">{{Cite web |titleBillionaire Lars Larsen, Founder of Retail Chain Jysk, Has Died |workBloomberg.com |date19 August 2019 |access-date19 August 2019 |authorMorten Buttler |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-08-19/billionaire-lars-larsen-founder-of-retail-chain-jysk-has-died}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Sonny Chiba, Japanese actor (b. 1939)<ref>{{Cite web|lastGrater|firstTom|date2021-08-19|titleSonny Chiba Dies: 'Kill Bill' Actor & Martial Arts Legend Was 82|urlhttps://deadline.com/2021/08/sonny-chiba-dies-kill-bill-actor-martial-artist-82-1234817875/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210820095957/https://deadline.com/2021/08/sonny-chiba-dies-kill-bill-actor-martial-artist-82-1234817875/|archive-date2021-08-20|access-date2021-08-21|websiteDeadline|language=en-US}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Tekla Juniewicz, Polish supercentenarian (b. 1906)<ref>{{cite web |titleTekla Juniewicz, najstarsza Polka i druga najstarsza osoba na świecie, nie żyje |url https://www.rmf.fm/magazyn/news,50797,tekla-juniewicz-najstarsza-polka-i-druga-najstarsza-osoba-na-swiecie-nie-zyje.html |websitermf.fm |access-date19 August 2022 |languagepl |date19 August 2022}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Václav Patejdl, Slovak musician (b. 1954)<ref>{{cite web |titleOBROVSKÝ SMÚTOK V HUDOBNOM SVETE: ZOMREL VAŠO PATEJDL |urlhttps://www.teraz.sk/slovensko/zomrel-hudobnik-vaso-patejdl/735467-clanok.html |websiteTERAZ.sk |access-date21 August 2023 |languagesk |date19 August 2023}}</ref>
*2024 – Maria Branyas, American-Spanish supercentenarian (b. 1907)<ref>{{Cite news |lastWatkins |firstAli |date2024-08-20 |titleMaria Branyas Morera, World's Oldest Person, Dies at 117 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/20/world/europe/worlds-oldest-person-maria-branyas-dead.html |access-date2024-08-20 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Afghan Independence Day, commemorates the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, granting independence from Britain (Afghanistan)
*August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam)
*Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway)
*Christian Feast Day:
**Bernardo Tolomei
**Bertulf of Bobbio
**Saint Calminius
**Ezequiél Moreno y Díaz
**Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances:
***Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church)
***Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the "Apples Feast" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church)
**Jean-Eudes de Mézeray
**Louis of Toulouse
**Maginus
**Magnus of Anagni
**Magnus of Avignon
**Sebaldus
**August 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in the Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon)
*National Aviation Day (United States)
*World Humanitarian Day<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
References
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External links
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* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day19}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/19 |titleHistorical Events on August 19 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 19}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_19 | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.067539 |
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 959 &ndash; Eraclus becomes the 25th bishop of Liège.
*1140 &ndash; Song dynasty general Yue Fei defeats an army led by Jin dynasty general Wuzhu at the Battle of Yancheng during the Jin–Song Wars.
*1169 &ndash; Battle of the Blacks: Uprising by the black African forces of the Fatimid army, along with a number of Egyptian emirs and commoners, against Saladin.<ref>{{cite book | last1 Lyons | first1 Malcolm Cameron | last2 Jackson | first2 D. E. P. | year 1982 | title Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War | publisher Cambridge University Press | location Cambridge | url {{Gbooks|hGR5M0druJIC|plainurlyes}} | isbn 0-521-31739-8 | pages 34–36}}.</ref>
*1192 &ndash; Minamoto no Yoritomo becomes Sei-i Taishōgun and the de facto ruler of Japan. (Traditional Japanese date: the 12th day of the seventh month in the third year of the Kenkyū (建久) era).<ref>{{cite book|authorKan'ichi Asakawa|title荘園硏究: Studies|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIfvsAAAAMAAJ|year1965|publisherJapan Society for the Promotion of Science|page=280}}</ref>
*1331 &ndash; King Stefan Uroš III, after months of anarchy, surrenders to his son and rival Stefan Dušan, who succeeds as King of Serbia.<ref>{{cite book|author1Frank Northen Magill|author2Alison Aves|titleDictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCurSh3Sh_KMC&pgPA843|year1998|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-57958-041-4|pages843}}</ref>
*1415 &ndash; Henry the Navigator leads Portuguese forces to victory over the Marinids at the Conquest of Ceuta.<ref>{{cite book|authorAileen Gallagher|titlePrince Henry, the Navigator: Pioneer of Modern Exploration|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUYUVGuifR4EC&pgPA38|year2003|publisherThe Rosen Publishing Group|isbn978-0-8239-3621-2|pages38}}</ref>1601–1900
*1680 &ndash; Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe from the Spanish during the Pueblo Revolt.
*1689 &ndash; The Battle of Dunkeld in Scotland.<ref nameBTL32>{{Historic Environment Scotland|numBTL32|descBattle of Dunkeld|access-date19 June 2020}}</ref>
*1716 &ndash; Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War: The arrival of naval reinforcements and the news of the Battle of Petrovaradin force the Ottomans to abandon the Siege of Corfu, thus preserving the Ionian Islands under Venetian rule.<ref>{{cite book | lastChasiotis | firstIoannis | chapter Η κάμψη της Οθωμανικής δυνάμεως |trans-chapterThe decline of Ottoman power | pages 8–51 | script-titleel:Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, Τόμος ΙΑ′: Ο ελληνισμός υπό ξένη κυριαρχία, 1669–1821 |trans-titleHistory of the Greek Nation, Volume XI: Hellenism under foreign rule, 1669–1821 | location Athens | year 1975 | publisher Ekdotiki Athinon | language = el}}</ref>
*1770 &ndash; James Cook formally claims eastern Australia for Great Britain, naming it New South Wales.
*1772 &ndash; King Gustav III completes his coup d'état by adopting a new Constitution, ending half a century of parliamentary rule in Sweden and installing himself as an enlightened despot.
*1778 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: British forces begin besieging the French outpost at Pondichéry.
*1791 &ndash; A Vodou ceremony, led by Dutty Boukman, turns into a violent slave rebellion, beginning the Haitian Revolution.
*1808 &ndash; Battle of Vimeiro: British and Portuguese forces led by General Arthur Wellesley defeat French force under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro, Portugal, the first Anglo-Portuguese victory of the Peninsular War.
*1810 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France, is elected Crown Prince of Sweden by the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates.
*1821 &ndash; Jarvis Island is discovered by the crew of the ship, Eliza Frances.
*1831 &ndash; Nat Turner leads black slaves and free blacks in a rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, which will claim the lives of 55 to 65 whites and about twice that number of blacks.<ref>{{cite web|websiteThis Day in Alternate History|titleAugust 21, 1831 – Nat Turner Begins his Slave Exodus|urlhttp://thisdayinalternatehistory.blogspot.com/2010/08/august-21-1831-nat-turner-begins-his.html|dateAugust 21, 2010|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref>
*1852 &ndash; Tlingit Indians destroy Fort Selkirk, Yukon Territory.
*1858 &ndash; The first of the Lincoln–Douglas debates is held in Ottawa, Illinois.<ref>[https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/debate1.htm "First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois."] NPS.gov. 21 August 2019.</ref>
*1862 &ndash; The Stadtpark, the first public park in Vienna, opens to the public.<ref>{{Cite web |titleStadtpark |urlhttps://www.wien.gv.at/english/environment/parks/stadtpark.html |access-date20 August 2022 |websiteCity of Vienna}}</ref>
*1863 &ndash; Lawrence, Kansas is destroyed by pro-Confederate guerrillas known as Quantrill's Raiders.
*1878 &ndash; The American Bar Association is founded in Saratoga Springs, New York.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Kaplan |first1Howard |last2Middleton |first2Tiffany Willey |titleABA Timeline |urlhttps://www.americanbar.org/about_the_aba/timeline/ |access-date20 August 2022 |websiteAmerican Bar Association}}</ref>
*1879 &ndash; The locals of Knock, County Mayo, Ireland report their having seen an apparition of the Virgin Mary. The apparition is later named “Our Lady of Knock” and the spot transformed into a Catholic pilgrimage site.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHistory {{!}} Knock Shrine |urlhttps://www.knockshrine.ie/history/ |access-date20 August 2022 |websiteKnock Shrine: Ireland's International Eucharistic and Marian Shrine}}</ref>
*1883 &ndash; An F5 tornado strikes Rochester, Minnesota, leading to the creation of the Mayo Clinic.
*1888 &ndash; The first successful adding machine in the United States is patented by William Seward Burroughs.
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Six hundred American school teachers, Thomasites, arrived in Manila on the USAT Thomas.
*1911 &ndash; The Mona Lisa is stolen by Vincenzo Peruggia, a Louvre employee.<ref>{{cite web |titleStolen: How the Mona Lisa Became the World's Most Famous Painting |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/stolen-how-the-mona-lisa-became-the-worlds-most-famous-painting-16406234/ |websiteSmithsonian Magazine |access-date30 May 2022}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; World War I: The Battle of Charleroi, a successful German attack across the River Sambre that pre-empted a French offensive in the same area.
*1918 &ndash; World War I: The Second Battle of the Somme begins.
*1942 &ndash; World War II: The Guadalcanal Campaign: American forces defeat an attack by Imperial Japanese Army soldiers in the Battle of the Tenaru.
*1944 &ndash; Dumbarton Oaks Conference, prelude to the United Nations, begins.
* 1944 &ndash; World War II: Canadian and Polish units capture the strategically important town of Falaise, Calvados, France.
*1945 &ndash; Physicist Harry Daghlian is fatally irradiated in a criticality accident during an experiment with the Demon core at Los Alamos National Laboratory.
*1957 &ndash; The Soviet Union successfully conducts a long-range test flight of the R-7 Semyorka, the first intercontinental ballistic missile.<ref>{{cite book |last1Burgess |first1Colin |last2Hall |first2Rex |titleThe First Soviet Cosmonaut Team: Their Lives, Legacy, and Historical Impact |date2009 |publisherSpringer |locationBerlin |isbn9780387848235 |page16 |lccn=2008935694}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs an executive order proclaiming Hawaii the 50th state of the union. Hawaii's admission is currently commemorated by Hawaii Admission Day.
*1963 &ndash; Xá Lợi Pagoda raids: The Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu, brother of President Ngo Dinh Diem, vandalizes Buddhist pagodas across the country, arresting thousands and leaving an estimated hundreds dead.
*1965 &ndash; The Socialist Republic of Romania is proclaimed, following the adoption of a new constitution.<ref>{{cite web |titleCONSTITUŢIA REPUBLICII SOCIALISTE ROMÂNIA *** Republicată |urlhttps://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/14938 |websitelegislatie.just.ro |access-date24 June 2022}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Cold War: Nicolae Ceaușescu, leader of the Socialist Republic of Romania, publicly condemns the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, encouraging the Romanian population to arm itself against possible Soviet reprisals.
* 1968 &ndash; James Anderson Jr. posthumously receives the first Medal of Honor to be awarded to an African American U.S. Marine.
*1971 &ndash; A bomb exploded in the Liberal Party campaign rally in Plaza Miranda, Manila, Philippines with several anti-Marcos political candidates injured.
*1982 &ndash; Lebanese Civil War: The first troops of a multinational force lands in Beirut to oversee the Palestine Liberation Organization's withdrawal from Lebanon.
*1983 &ndash; Philippine opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. is assassinated at Manila International Airport (now renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport in his honor).
*1986 &ndash; Carbon dioxide gas erupts from volcanic Lake Nyos in Cameroon, killing up to 1,800 people within a {{convert|20|km|adj=on}} range.
*1988 &ndash; The 6.9 {{M|w}} Nepal earthquake shakes the Nepal–India border with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), leaving 709–1,450 people killed and thousands injured.
*1991 &ndash; Latvia declares renewal of its full independence after its occupation by the Soviet Union since 1940.<ref>{{cite web |titleLatvia {{!}} History - Geography |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Latvia |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date17 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Coup attempt against Mikhail Gorbachev collapses.
*1993 &ndash; NASA loses contact with the Mars Observer spacecraft.
*1994 &ndash; Royal Air Maroc Flight 630 crashes in Douar Izounine, Morocco, killing all 44 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19940821-1|titleASN Aircraft accident ATR 42-312 CN-CDT Tizounine|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-08-01}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 529, an Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, attempts to divert to West Georgia Regional Airport after the left engine fails, but the aircraft crashes in Carroll County near Carrollton, Georgia, killing nine of the 29 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19950821-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Embraer EMB-120ER Brasilia N256AS Carrollton, GA|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-07-25}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; American golfer Tiger Woods wins the 82nd PGA Championship and becomes the first golfer since Ben Hogan in 1953 to win three majors in a calendar year.
*2013 &ndash; Hundreds of people are reported killed by chemical attacks in the Ghouta region of Syria.
*2017 &ndash; A solar eclipse traverses the continental United States.
Births
Pre-1600
*1165 &ndash; Philip II of France (d. 1223)
*1481 &ndash; Jorge de Lencastre, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1550)
*1535 &ndash; Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese general (d. 1619)
*1552 &ndash; Muhammad Qadiri, Founder of the Naushahia branch of the Qadri order (d. 1654)
*1567 &ndash; Francis de Sales, Swiss bishop and saint (d. 1622)
*1579 &ndash; Henri, Duke of Rohan (d. 1638)
*1597 &ndash; Roger Twysden, English historian and politician (d. 1672)
1601–1900
*1625 &ndash; John Claypole, English politician (d. 1688)
*1643 &ndash; Afonso VI of Portugal (d. 1683)
*1660 &ndash; Hubert Gautier, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1737)
*1665 &ndash; Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer and mathematician (d. 1729)
*1670 &ndash; James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, French general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire (d. 1734)
*1725 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter and educator (d. 1805)
*1754 &ndash; William Murdoch, Scottish engineer and inventor, created gas lighting (d. 1839)
* 1754 &ndash; Banastre Tarleton, English general and politician (d. 1833)
*1765 &ndash; William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1837)
*1787 &ndash; John Owen, American governor of North Carolina (d. 1841)<ref>{{cite book|titleGovernor John Owen Family Bible Records|urlhttps://digital.ncdcr.gov/Documents/Detail/governor-john-owen-family-bible-records/1348382?item1348384|viaDigital Collections of the State Archives of North Carolina and the State Library of North Carolina}}</ref>
*1789 &ndash; Augustin-Louis Cauchy, French mathematician and academic (d. 1857)
*1798 &ndash; Jules Michelet, French historian and philosopher (d. 1874)
*1800 &ndash; Hiram Walden, American general and politician (d. 1880)
*1801 &ndash; Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, Dutch historian and politician (d. 1876)
*1813 &ndash; Jean Stas, Belgian chemist and physician (d. 1891)
*1816 &ndash; Charles Frédéric Gerhardt, French chemist and academic (d. 1856)
*1823 &ndash; Nathaniel Everett Green, English painter and astronomer (d. 1899)
*1826 &ndash; Carl Gegenbaur, German anatomist and academic (d. 1903)
*1829 &ndash; Otto Goldschmidt, German composer, conductor and pianist (d. 1907)
*1840 &ndash; Ferdinand Hamer, Dutch bishop and missionary (d. 1900)
*1851 &ndash; Charles Barrois, French geologist and palaeontologist (d. 1939)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf |page62 |titleFormer Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Biographical Index Part One |access-date2015-03-30 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150919152306/https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf |archive-date2015-09-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1856 &ndash; Medora de Vallombrosa, Marquise de Morès, American heiress (d. 1921)
*1858 &ndash; Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (d. 1889)
*1862 &ndash; Emilio Salgari, Italian journalist and author (d. 1911)
*1869 &ndash; William Henry Ogilvie, Scottish-Australian poet and author (d. 1963)
*1872 &ndash; Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (d. 1898)<ref>{{cite ODNB |last1Crawford |first1Alan |titleOxford Dictionary of National Biography |chapterBeardsley, Aubrey Vincent (1872–1898), illustrator |page<!-- online, no page numbers -->|date23 September 2004 |doi10.1093/ref:odnb/1821 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
*1878 &ndash; Richard Girulatis, German footballer and manager (d. 1963)
*1879 &ndash; Claude Grahame-White, English pilot and engineer (d. 1959)
*1884 &ndash; Chandler Egan, American golfer and architect (d. 1936)
*1885 &ndash; Édouard Fabre, Canadian runner (d. 1939)
*1886 &ndash; Ruth Manning-Sanders, Welsh-English author and poet (d. 1988)
*1887 &ndash; James Paul Moody, English sailor (d. 1912)
*1891 &ndash; Emiliano Mercado del Toro, Puerto Rican-American soldier (d. 2007)
*1892 &ndash; Charles Vanel, French actor and director (d. 1989)
*1894 &ndash; Christian Schad, German painter (d. 1982)
*1895 &ndash; Blossom Rock, American actress (d. 1978)
*1897 &ndash; Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Scottish soldier and peer (d. 1966)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Angel Karaliychev, Bulgarian author (d. 1972)
*1903 &ndash; Kostas Giannidis, Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1984)
*1904 &ndash; Count Basie, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1984)
*1905 &ndash; Bipin Gupta, Indian actor and producer (d. 1981)
*1906 &ndash; Friz Freleng, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1995)
*1907 &ndash; P. Jeevanandham, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1963)
*1909 &ndash; Nikolay Bogolyubov, Russian mathematician and physicist (d. 1992)
*1912 &ndash; Toe Blake, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1995)
*1914 &ndash; Doug Wright, English cricketer and coach (d. 1998)
*1916 &ndash; Bill Lee, American actor and singer (d. 1980)
* 1916 &ndash; Consuelo Velázquez, Mexican pianist and songwriter (d. 2005)
*1917 &ndash; Leonid Hurwicz, Russian economist and mathematician (d. 2008)
*1918 &ndash; Billy Reay, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2004)
*1921 &ndash; Reuven Feuerstein, Romanian-Israeli psychologist and academic (d. 2014)
*1922 &ndash; Albert Irvin, English soldier and painter (d. 2015)
*1923 &ndash; Keith Allen, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)
*1924 &ndash; Jack Buck, American sportscaster (d. 2002)
* 1924 &ndash; Jack Weston, American actor (d. 1996)
*1926 &ndash; Can Yücel, Turkish poet and translator (d. 1999)
*1927 &ndash; Thomas S. Monson, American religious leader, 16th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 2018)
*1928 &ndash; Addison Farmer, American bassist (d. 1963)
* 1928 &ndash; Art Farmer, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1999)
* 1928 &ndash; Bud McFadin, American football player (d. 2006)
*1929 &ndash; Herman Badillo, Puerto Rican-American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)
* 1929 &ndash; X. J. Kennedy, American poet, translator, anthologist, editor
* 1929 &ndash; Ahmed Kathrada, South African politician and political prisoner (d. 2017)
*1930 &ndash; Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (d. 2002)<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 21: Kim Cattrall, Loretta Devine |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2022/08/21/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-21-Kim-Cattrall-Loretta-Devine/2661660866954/ |publisherUPI |access-date19 August 2023 |date21 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Frank Perry, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995)
*1932 &ndash; Menashe Kadishman, Israeli sculptor and painter (d. 2015)
* 1932 &ndash; Melvin Van Peebles, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2021)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1933 &ndash; Janet Baker, English soprano and educator
* 1933 &ndash; Michael Dacher, German mountaineer (d. 1994)
* 1933 &ndash; Barry Norman, English author and critic (d. 2017)
* 1933 &ndash; Erik Paaske, Danish actor and singer (d. 1992)
*1934 &ndash; Sudhakarrao Naik, Indian lawyer and politician, 13th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2001)
* 1934 &ndash; Paul Panhuysen, Dutch composer (d. 2015)
*1936 &ndash; Wilt Chamberlain, American basketball player and coach (d. 1999)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Radish Tordia, Georgian painter and educator
*1937 &ndash; Donald Dewar, Scottish politician, first First Minister of Scotland (d. 2000)<ref>{{cite web |last1MacAskill |first1Ewen |titleDonald Dewar |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2000/oct/11/scotlanddevolution.devolution7 |websiteThe Guardian |access-date16 February 2023 |date11 October 2000 |archive-date9 May 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140509053911/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2000/oct/11/scotlanddevolution.devolution7 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 1937 &ndash; Gustavo Noboa, Ecuadorian academic and politician, 51st President of Ecuador (d. 2021)
* 1937 &ndash; Robert Stone, American novelist and short story writer (d. 2015)
*1938 &ndash; Steve Cowper, American politician, 6th Governor of Alaska<ref nameMullaney>Marie Marmo Mullaney. [https://books.google.com/books?idgN_LGy81_iIC&dq%22steve+cowper%22+%22governor+of+alaska%22&pgPA13 Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1988-1994], Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994. p. 13.</ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Kenny Rogers, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (d. 2020)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Mike Weston, English rugby player (d. 2023)
*1939 &ndash; James Burton, American Hall of Fame guitarist<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1939 &ndash; Festus Mogae, Botswana economist and politician, third President of Botswana
* 1939 &ndash; Clarence Williams III, American actor (d. 2021)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1940 &ndash; Dominick Harrod, English journalist, historian, and author (d. 2013)
* 1940 &ndash; Endre Szemerédi, Hungarian-American mathematician and computer scientist
*1941 &ndash; Jackie DeShannon, American singer-songwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1943 &ndash; Patrick Demarchelier, French photographer (d. 2022)
* 1943 &ndash; Jonathan Schell, American journalist and author (d. 2014)
* 1943 &ndash; Lucius Shepard, American author and critic (d. 2014)
* 1943 &ndash; Hugh Wilson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)
*1944 &ndash; Perry Christie, Bahamian politician, third Prime Minister of the Bahamas
* 1944 &ndash; Peter Weir, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1945 &ndash; Basil Poledouris, Greek-American composer, conductor<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-nov-10-me-poledouris10-story.html|titleBasil Poledouris, 61; film composer known for his bold sounds|lastNelson|firstValerie J.|date2006-11-10|workLos Angeles Times|access-date2018-11-13|languageen-US|issn=0458-3035}}</ref> (d. 2006)
* 1945 &ndash; Celia Brayfield, English journalist and author
* 1945 &ndash; Jerry DaVanon, American baseball player
* 1945 &ndash; Willie Lanier, American football player
* 1945 &ndash; Patty McCormack, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1947 &ndash; Carl Giammarese, American singer-songwriter and musician<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1949 &ndash; Loretta Devine, American actress and singer<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1949 &ndash; Daniel Sivan, Israeli scholar and academic
*1950 &ndash; Patrick Juvet, Swiss singer-songwriter and model (d. 2021)
* 1950 &ndash; Arthur Bremer, American attempted assassin of George Wallace<ref>{{cite news |titleNow, Arthur Bremer Is Known |workThe New York Times |date22 May 1972 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/22/archives/now-arthur-bremer-is-known-now-arthur-bremer-is-known-shooting-ends.html |access-date=17 April 2024}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Eric Goles, Chilean mathematician and computer scientist
* 1951 &ndash; Glenn Hughes, English musician<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1951 &ndash; Yana Mintoff, Maltese politician, economist and educator
* 1951 &ndash; Chesley V. Morton, American businessman and politician
*1952 &ndash; Keith Hart, Canadian firefighter, wrestler, and trainer
* 1952 &ndash; Jiří Paroubek, Czech soldier and politician, sixth Prime Minister of the Czech Republic
* 1952 &ndash; Bernadette Porter, English nun and educator
* 1952 &ndash; Joe Strummer, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1953 &ndash; Ivan Stang, American author, publisher, and director
*1954 &ndash; Archie Griffin, American football player<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1954 &ndash; Steve Smith, American drummer
* 1954 &ndash; Mark Williams, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter
*1956 &ndash; Kim Cattrall, English-Canadian actress<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 21, 2022 includes celebrities Kacey Musgraves, Alicia Witt |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-21-2022-includes-celebrities-kacey-musgraves-alicia-witt.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date19 August 2023 |date=21 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Jon Tester, American farmer and politician
*1957 &ndash; Frank Pastore, American baseball player and radio host (d. 2012)
*1958 &ndash; Steve Case, American businessman, co-founder of America Online (AOL)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1958 &ndash; Mark Williams, Australian footballer and coach
*1959 &ndash; Anne Hobbs, English tennis player and coach
* 1959 &ndash; Jim McMahon, American football player and coach
*1961 &ndash; Gerardo Barbero, Argentinian chess player and coach (d. 2001)
* 1961 &ndash; V. B. Chandrasekhar, Indian cricketer and coach (d. 2019)
* 1961 &ndash; Stephen Hillenburg, American marine biologist, cartoonist, animator and creator of SpongeBob SquarePants (d. 2018)
*1962 &ndash; Cleo King, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1962 &ndash; John Korfas, Greek-American basketball player and coach
* 1962 &ndash; Gilberto Santa Rosa, Puerto Rican bandleader and singer of salsa and bolero<ref>{{Cite web |titleGilberto Santa Rosa Biography, Songs, & Albums |urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/gilberto-santa-rosa-mn0000548020/biography |access-dateOctober 9, 2021 |websiteAllMusic}}</ref>
* 1962 &ndash; Pete Weber, American bowler
*1963 &ndash; Mohammed VI of Morocco, King of Morocco<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1963 &ndash; Nigel Pearson, English footballer and manager
*1964 &ndash; Gary Elkerton, Australian surfer
*1965 &ndash; Jim Bullinger, American baseball player
*1966 &ndash; John Wetteland, American baseball player and coach
*1967 &ndash; Darren Bewick, Australian footballer
* 1967 &ndash; Charb, French journalist and cartoonist (d. 2015)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1967 &ndash; Carrie-Anne Moss, Canadian actress<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1967 &ndash; Serj Tankian, Lebanese-born Armenian-American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and record producer<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1968 &ndash; Dina Carroll, English singer-songwriter
* 1968 &ndash; Goran Ćurko, Serbian footballer
* 1968 &ndash; Laura Trevelyan, English journalist and author
*1969 &ndash; Bruce Anstey, New Zealand motorcycle racer
* 1969 &ndash; Josée Chouinard, Canadian figure skater
*1970 &ndash; Craig Counsell, American baseball player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Erik Dekker, Dutch cyclist and manager
* 1970 &ndash; Cathy Weseluck, Canadian actress
*1971 &ndash; Mamadou Diallo, Senegalese footballer
* 1971 &ndash; Robert Harvey, Australian footballer and coach
* 1971 &ndash; Liam Howlett, English keyboard player, DJ, and producer<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1973 &ndash; Sergey Brin, Russian-American computer scientist and businessman, co-founded Google
* 1973 &ndash; Steve McKenna, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1974 &ndash; Martin Andanar, Filipino journalist and radio host
* 1974 &ndash; Paul Mellor, Australian rugby league player and referee
*1975 &ndash; Simon Katich, Australian cricketer and manager
* 1975 &ndash; Alicia Witt, American actress and musician<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1976 &ndash; Alex Brooks, American ice hockey player and scout
* 1976 &ndash; Jeff Cunningham, Jamaican-American soccer player
* 1976 &ndash; Robert Miles, Australian rugby league player
* 1976 &ndash; Ramón Vázquez, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach
*1978 &ndash; Peter Buxton, English rugby player and manager
* 1978 &ndash; Reuben Droughns, American football player and coach
* 1978 &ndash; Lee Gronkiewicz, American baseball player and coach
* 1978 &ndash; Alan Lee, Irish footballer and coach
* 1978 &ndash; Jason Marquis, American baseball player
*1979 &ndash; Kelis, American singer-songwriter, producer, chef and author<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1979 &ndash; Diego Klattenhoff, Canadian actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1980 &ndash; Bryan Allen, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleBryan Allen |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/bryan-allen-8467332 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Burney Lamar, American race car driver
* 1980 &ndash; Paul Menard, American race car driver
* 1980 &ndash; Jasmin Wöhr, German tennis player
*1981 &ndash; Jarrod Lyle, Australian golfer (d. 2018)
* 1981 &ndash; Cameron Winklevoss, American rower and businessman, co-founded ConnectU
* 1981 &ndash; Tyler Winklevoss, American rower and businessman, co-founded ConnectU
* 1981 &ndash; Ross Thomas, American actor
*1982 &ndash; Jason Eaton, New Zealand rugby player
* 1982 &ndash; Omar Sachedina, Canadian television journalist, correspondent, and news anchor
*1983 &ndash; Brody Jenner, American television personality and model<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Scott McDonald, Australian footballer
*1984 &ndash; Neil Dexter, South African cricketer
* 1984 &ndash; Melvin Upton, Jr., American baseball player
* 1984 &ndash; Alizée, French singer <ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.rfimusique.com/siteEn/biographie/biographie_7006.asp | titleALIZÉE | publisherRFI Musique | dateJuly 2003 | access-date15 January 2006 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060219165901/http://www.rfimusique.com/siteEn/biographie/biographie_7006.asp | archive-date19 February 2006 | url-statusdead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Nicolás Almagro, Spanish tennis player
* 1985 &ndash; Aleksandra Kiryashova, Russian pole vaulter
*1986 &ndash; Usain Bolt, Jamaican sprinter<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1986 &ndash; Wout Brama, Dutch footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Koki Sakamoto, Japanese gymnast
* 1986 &ndash; Brooks Wheelan, American comedian and actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1987 &ndash; DeWanna Bonner, American-Macedonian basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleDeWanna Bonner |urlhttps://www.wnba.com/player/201886/dewanna-bonner |publisherWNBA |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Cody Kasch, American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1987 &ndash; J. D. Martinez, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJ. D. Martinez |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/j-d-martinez-502110 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Jodie Meeks, American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleJodie Meeks |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/201975/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Robert Lewandowski, Polish footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Joanna Mitrosz, Polish rhythmic gymnast<ref>{{cite web|titleJoanna Mitrosz - Olympedia|urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/116843|publisherOlympedia|access-date21 August 2024}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Kacey Musgraves, American singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1989 &ndash; Charlison Benschop, Dutch footballer
* 1989 &ndash; James Davey, English rugby league player
* 1989 &ndash; Matteo Gentili, Italian footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Hayden Panettiere, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Aleix Vidal, Spanish footballer
*1990 &ndash; Bo Burnham, American comedian, musician, actor, filmmaker and poet<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Christian Vázquez, Puerto Rican baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleChristian Vázquez |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/christian-vazquez-543877 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Leandro Bacuna, Dutch footballer
* 1991 &ndash; Jesse Rutherford, American singer and songwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleJesse Rutherford |urlhttps://music.apple.com/us/artist/jesse-rutherford/1470030274 |websiteApple Music |access-dateAugust 20, 2024}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Brandon Drury, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleBrandon Drury |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/brandon-drury-592273 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1992 &ndash; RJ Mitte, American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1992 &ndash; Felipe Nasr, Brazilian race car driver
*1993 &ndash; Millie Bright, English footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleMillie Bright |urlhttps://www.chelseafc.com/en/teams/profile/millie-bright |publisherChelsea F.C. |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Mike Evans, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleMike Evans |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/16737/mike-evans |publisherESPN |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Alexandra Cooper, American podcaster<ref>{{cite web |last1Cuevas |first1Jailene |titleCall Her Daddy host Alex Cooper 'looking for a sponsor' for two-day 30th birthday party with A-list guests |urlhttps://www.themirror.com/entertainment/alex-cooper-30-birthday-party-642851 |websitethemirror.com |date13 August 2024 |access-date=August 20, 2024}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Ekin-Su Cülcüloğlu, British-Turkish reality television personality, actress and model
*1995 &ndash; Dominik Kubalík, Czech ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleDominik Kubalik |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/dominik-kubalik-8477330 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date19 August 2023}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Karolína Muchová, Czech tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleKarolina Muchova {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/322191/karolina-muchova |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Maxim Knight, American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*2000 &ndash; Corbin Carroll, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleCorbin Carroll Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Rookie Status |urlhttps://www.baseball-reference.com/players/c/carroco02.shtml |websitebaseball-reference.com |access-date20 April 2023}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this day in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 672 &ndash; Emperor Kōbun of Japan (b. 648)
* 784 &ndash; Alberic, archbishop of Utrecht
* 913 &ndash; Tang Daoxi, Chinese general
*1131 &ndash; King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
*1148 &ndash; William II, Count of Nevers (b. c. 1089)
*1157 &ndash; Alfonso VII of León and Castile (b. 1105)
*1245 &ndash; Alexander of Hales, English theologian
*1271 &ndash; Alphonse, Count of Poitiers (b. 1220)
*1534 &ndash; Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, 44th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1464)
*1568 &ndash; Jean Parisot de Valette, 49th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1495)
1601–1900
*1614 &ndash; Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian countess and purported serial killer (b. 1560)<ref>{{cite web |titleElizabeth Bathory {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Elizabeth-Bathory |websiteBritannica |first1Richard |last1Pallardy |access-date21 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1622 &ndash; Juan de Tassis, 2nd Count of Villamediana, Spanish poet and politician (b. 1582)
*1627 &ndash; Jacques Mauduit, French composer and academic (b. 1557)
*1673 &ndash; Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford, English soldier (b. 1599)
*1689 &ndash; William Cleland, Scottish poet and soldier (b. 1661)<ref name=BTL32/>
*1762 &ndash; Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1689)
*1763 &ndash; Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1710)
*1775 &ndash; Zahir al-Umar, Arabian ruler (b. 1690)
*1796 &ndash; John McKinly, American physician and politician, first Governor of Delaware (b. 1721)
*1814 &ndash; Benjamin Thompson, American-English physicist and colonel (b. 1753)
*1835 &ndash; John MacCulloch, Scottish geologist and academic (b. 1773)
*1836 &ndash; Claude-Louis Navier, French physicist and engineer (b. 1785)
*1838 &ndash; Adelbert von Chamisso, German botanist and poet (b. 1781)
*1853 &ndash; Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon, French general (b. 1783)
*1854 &ndash; Thomas Clayton, American lawyer and politician (b. 1777)
*1867 &ndash; Juan Álvarez, Mexican general and president (1855) (b. 1790)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://calderon.presidencia.gob.mx/mexico/gobernantes/mexico-1821-actualidad/juan-alvarez/|titleJuan Álvarez |publisherPresidencia de la Republica de Mexico|languagees|access-dateMay 27, 2019 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190706072306/http://calderon.presidencia.gob.mx:80/mexico/gobernantes/mexico-1821-actualidad/juan-alvarez |archive-date Jul 6, 2019 }}</ref>
*1870 &ndash; Ma Xinyi, Chinese general and politician, Viceroy of Liangjiang (b. 1821)
*1888 &ndash; James Farnell, Australian politician, eighth Premier of New South Wales (b. 1825)
1901–present
*1905 &ndash; Alexander von Oettingen, Estonian theologian and statistician (b. 1827)
*1910 &ndash; Bertalan Székely, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1835)
*1911 &ndash; Mahboob Ali Khan, sixth Nizam of Hyderabad State (b. 1866)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/hyderabad-remembers-mahbub-ali-pasha-1.1889879 |websiteGulf News |dateSeptember 2, 2016 |first1Mohammad |last1Siddique |titleHyderabad remembers Mahbub Ali Pasha|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Laurence Doherty, English tennis player (b. 1875)
*1935 &ndash; John Hartley, English tennis player (b. 1849)
*1940 &ndash; Hermann Obrecht, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1882)
* 1940 &ndash; Ernest Thayer, American poet and author (b. 1863)
* 1940 &ndash; Leon Trotsky, Russian theorist and politician, founded the Red Army (b. 1879)
*1943 &ndash; Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1857)
*1947 &ndash; Ettore Bugatti, Italian-French engineer and businessman, founded Bugatti (b. 1881)
*1951 &ndash; Constant Lambert, English composer and conductor (b. 1905)
*1957 &ndash; Mait Metsanurk, Estonian author and playwright (b. 1879)
* 1957 &ndash; Nels Stewart, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1902)
* 1957 &ndash; Harald Sverdrup, Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. 1888)
*1960 &ndash; David B. Steinman, American engineer, designed the Mackinac Bridge (b. 1886)
*1964 &ndash; Palmiro Togliatti, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1893)
*1968 &ndash; Germaine Guèvremont, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1893)<ref>{{cite book|firstKathleen|lastKuiper|titleMerriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature|locationSpringfield|publisherMerriam-Webster|year1995|isbn978-0-87779-042-6|page498}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; George Jackson, American activist and author, co-founded the Black Guerrilla Family (b. 1941)
*1974 &ndash; Buford Pusser, American police officer (b. 1937)
* 1974 &ndash; Kirpal Singh, Indian spiritual master (b. 1894)
*1978 &ndash; Charles Eames, American architect, co-designed the Eames House (b. 1907)
*1979 &ndash; Giuseppe Meazza, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1910)
*1981 &ndash; Kaka Kalelkar, Indian Hindi Writer(b. 1885)
*1983 &ndash; Benigno Aquino Jr., Filipino journalist and politician (b. 1932)
*1988 &ndash; Teodoro de Villa Diaz, Filipino guitarist and songwriter (b. 1963)
* 1988 &ndash; Ray Eames, American architect, co-designed the Eames House (b. 1912)
*1989 &ndash; Raul Seixas, Brazilian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1945)
*1993 &ndash; Tatiana Troyanos, American soprano and actress (b. 1938)
*1995 &ndash; Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-American astrophysicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910)
* 1995 &ndash; Chuck Stevenson, American race car driver (b. 1919)
*1996 &ndash; Mary Two-Axe Earley, Canadian indigenous women's rights activist (b. 1911)<ref>{{Cite web|lastRobinson|firstAmanda|dateMarch 23, 2017|titleMary Two-Axe Earley|urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/mary-two-axe-earley|access-date2020-09-06|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Tomata du Plenty, American singer-songwriter and playwright (b. 1948)
* 2000 &ndash; Daniel Lisulo, Zambian politician, third Prime Minister of Zambia (b. 1930)
* 2000 &ndash; Andrzej Zawada, Polish mountaineer and author (b. 1928)
*2001 &ndash; Calum MacKay, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1927)
*2003 &ndash; John Coplans, British artist (b. 1920)
* 2003 &ndash; Kathy Wilkes, English philosopher and academic (b. 1946)
*2004 &ndash; Sachidananda Routray, Indian Oriya-language poet (b. 1916)
*2005 &ndash; Martin Dillon, American tenor and educator (b. 1957)
* 2005 &ndash; Robert Moog, American businessman, founded Moog Music (b. 1934)
* 2005 &ndash; Dahlia Ravikovitch, Israeli poet and translator (b. 1936)
*2005 &ndash; Marcus Schmuck, Austrian mountaineer (b. 1925)
*2006 &ndash; Bismillah Khan, Indian musician, Bharat Ratna recipient (b. 1916)
*2006 &ndash; Paul Fentener van Vlissingen, Dutch businessman and philanthropist (b. 1941)
*2007 &ndash; Frank Bowe, American academic (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite book |titleGale Literature: Contemporary Authors |date2007 |publisherGale |isbn9780787639952 |urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1000010830/BIC?uwikipedia&sidbookmark-BIC&xid450b0273 |access-date30 January 2023 |formatCollection |chapter=Frank Bowe }}</ref>
* 2007 &ndash; Siobhan Dowd, British author (b. 1960)
* 2007 &ndash; Elizabeth P. Hoisington, American general (b. 1918)
*2008 &ndash; Jerry Finn, American engineer and producer (b. 1969)
*2009 &ndash; Rex Shelley, Singaporean engineer and author (b. 1930)
*2010 &ndash; Rodolfo Enrique Fogwill, Argentinean sociologist and author (b. 1941)
*2012 &ndash; Georg Leber, German soldier and politician, Federal Minister of Defence for Germany (b. 1920)
* 2012 &ndash; J. Frank Raley Jr., American soldier and politician (b. 1926)
* 2012 &ndash; Don Raleigh, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1926)
* 2012 &ndash; Guy Spitaels, Belgian academic and politician, seventh Minister-President of Wallonia (b. 1931)
* 2012 &ndash; William Thurston, American mathematician and academic (b. 1946)
*2013 &ndash; Jean Berkey, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938)
* 2013 &ndash; Sid Bernstein, American record producer (b. 1918)
* 2013 &ndash; C. Gordon Fullerton, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite book |last1O'Sullivan |first1John |titleJapanese Missions to the International Space Station: Hope from the East |date2019 |publisherSpringer Praxis Books |locationCham, Switzerland |isbn9783030045340 |page223}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Fred Martin, Scottish footballer (b. 1929)
* 2013 &ndash; Enos Nkala, Zimbabwean politician, Zimbabwean Minister of Defence (b. 1932)
*2014 &ndash; Gerry Anderson, Irish radio and television host (b. 1944)
* 2014 &ndash; Helen Bamber, English psychotherapist and academic (b. 1925)
* 2014 &ndash; Steven R. Nagel, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1946)
* 2014 &ndash; Jean Redpath, Scottish singer-songwriter (b. 1937)
* 2014 &ndash; Albert Reynolds, Irish businessman and politician, ninth Taoiseach of Ireland (b. 1932)
*2015 &ndash; Colin Beyer, New Zealand lawyer and businessman (b. 1938)
* 2015 &ndash; Wang Dongxing, Chinese commander and politician (b. 1916)
* 2015 &ndash; Jimmy Evert, American tennis player and coach (b. 1924)
*2017 &ndash; Bajram Rexhepi, First Kosovan Prime Ministers of UN mission administration in Kosovo (b. 1954)
*2018 &ndash; Stefán Karl Stefánsson, Icelandic actor and singer (b. 1975)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.frettabladid.is/frettir/stefan-karl-stefansson-er-latinn|titleStefán Karl Stefánsson er látinn|author1Þórarinn Þórarinsson|date21 August 2018|workFréttablaðið|access-date21 August 2018|language=is}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Celso Piña, Mexican singer, composer, arranger, and accordionist (b. 1953)<ref>{{citation |newspaperLa Jornanda|titleFallece Celso Piña, 'El rebelde del acordeón'|urlhttps://www.jornada.com.mx/ultimas/espectaculos/2019/08/21/fallece-el-celso-pina-3238.html|dateAugust 21, 2019|access-dateAugust 21, 2019 |languagees|trans-title=Celso Piña, 'the Rebel of the Accordion,' dies}}</ref>
*2024 – Nell McCafferty, Northern Irish journalist, playwright and civil rights campaigner (b. 1944)<ref>{{Cite news |last1Holland |first1Kitty |last2McClements |first2Freya |titleNell McCafferty: journalist and feminist campaigner dies aged 80 |urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/2024/08/21/nell-mccafferty-journalist-and-feminist-campaigner-dies-aged-80/ |access-date2024-08-28 |newspaperThe Irish Times |language=en}}</ref>
*2024 – Bill Pascrell, American politician (b. 1937)<ref>{{Cite web |lastShen |firstMichelle |date2024-08-21 |titleLongtime New Jersey Rep. Bill Pascrell dies at age 87 {{!}} CNN Politics |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2024/08/21/politics/new-jersey-rep-bill-pascrell-dies/index.html |access-date2024-08-21 |websiteCNN |languageen}}</ref>
*2024 – John Amos, American actor (b. 1939)<ref>{{Cite web |lastMoreau |firstJordan |date2024-10-01 |titleJohn Amos, 'Good Times' Dad and 'Roots' Actor, Dies at 84 |urlhttps://variety.com/2024/tv/obituaries-people-news/john-amos-dead-good-times-roots-1236161810/ |access-date2024-10-02 |websiteVariety |languageen-US}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
* Christian Feast Day:
** Abraham of Smolensk (Eastern Orthodox Church)
** Euprepius of Verona
** Maximilian of Antioch
** Our Lady of Knock
** Pope Pius X
** Sidonius Apollinaris
** August 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)
* Youth Day (Morocco)
* World Senior Citizen's Day<ref>{{cite news |titleWorld Senior Citizens Day: All you need to know about age-related macular degeneration |urlhttps://www.timesnownews.com/health/article/world-senior-citizens-day-age-related-macular-degeneration-symptoms-causes-treatment-prevention/272896 |publisherTimes Now |dateAugust 21, 2018}}</ref>
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day21}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/21 |titleHistorical Events on August 21 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 21}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_21 | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.102197 |
1500 | Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) | The Dodo is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the 1865 book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). The Dodo is a caricature of the author. A popular but unsubstantiated belief is that Dodgson chose the particular animal to represent himself because of his stammer, and thus would accidentally introduce himself as "Do-do-dodgson".
Historically, the dodo was a flightless bird that lived on the island of Mauritius, east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. It became extinct in the mid 17th century during the colonisation of the island by the Dutch.
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
thumb|left|upright|Depiction by Arthur Rackham, 1907
In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to the original boating expedition of 4 July 1862 during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as herself, and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Dodgson, and the Duck was Rev. Robinson Duckworth. In order to get dry after a swim, the Dodo proposes that everyone run a Caucus race – where the participants run in patterns of any shape, starting and leaving off whenever they like, so that everyone wins. At the end of the race, Alice distributes comfits from her pocket to all as prizes. However this leaves no prize for herself. The Dodo inquires what else she has in her pocket. As she has only a thimble, the Dodo requests it from her and then awards it to Alice as her prize. The Caucus Race, as depicted by Carroll, is a satire on the political caucus system, mocking its lack of clarity and decisiveness.
Interpretations
Disney animated film version
In the Disney film, the Dodo plays a much greater role in the story than in the book. He is merged with the character of Pat the Gardener, which leads to him sometimes being nicknamed Pat the Dodo, but this name is never mentioned in the film. The Dodo is also the leader of the caucus race. He has the appearance and personality of a sea captain. The Dodo is voiced by Bill Thompson and animated by Milt Kahl.
Dodo is first seen as Alice is floating on the sea in a bottle. Dodo is seen singing, but when Alice asks him for help, he does not notice her. On shore, Dodo is seen on a rock, organizing a caucus race. This race involves running around until one gets dry, but the attempts are hampered by incoming waves.
Dodo is later summoned by the White Rabbit, when the rabbit believes a monster, actually Alice having magically grown to a giant size, is inside his home. Dodo brings Bill the Lizard, and attempts to get him to go down the chimney. Bill refuses at first, but Dodo is able to convince him otherwise. However, the soot causes Alice to sneeze, sending Bill high up into the sky. Dodo then decides to burn the house down, much to the chagrin of the White Rabbit. He begins gathering wood, such as the furniture, for this purpose. However, Alice is soon able to return to a smaller size and exit the house by eating a carrot from the White Rabbit's garden.
The White Rabbit soon leaves, while Dodo asks for matches, not realizing that the situation has been resolved. He then asks Alice for a match, but when she doesn't have any, Dodo complains about the lack of cooperation and uses his pipe to light the fire.
The Dodo later appears briefly at the end of the film, conducting another Caucus Race while Alice is being chased by the Queen of Hearts and her card soldiers.
In Alice's Wonderland Bakery, appears Captain Dodo, being unknown if he is the same character from the film, or a descendant as is the case of other characters from Wonderland in the series (the plot placed several decades after the events in the film). Captain Dodo also has a son named Jojo.
Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland version
In Tim Burton's adaptation of Alice in Wonderland, the Dodo's appearance retains the subtle apparent nature from John Tenniel's illustration. He bears a down of brilliant blue and wears a navy blue waistcoat and white spats along with glasses and a cane. He is one of Alice's good-willed advisers, taking first note of her abilities as the true Alice. He is also one of the oldest inhabitants. His name is Uilleam, and he is portrayed by Michael Gough. He goes with the White Rabbit, Tweedledum and Tweedledee, and Dormouse to take Alice to Caterpillar to decide whether Alice is the real one. He is later captured by the Red Queen's forces. When Alice came to the Red Queen's castle, he was seen at the Red Queen's castle yard as a caddy for the Queen's croquet game. After the Red Queen orders the release of the Jubjub bird to kill all her subjects from rebelling, he is then seen briefly running from it when the Tweedles went to hide from it and escaped but was snatched by the Jubjub and was never seen again throughout the film.
His name may be based on a lecture on William the Conqueror from Chapter Three of the original novel. The character is voiced by Michael Gough in his final feature film role before his death in 2011. Gough came out of retirement to appear in the film but the character only speaks three lines, so Gough managed to record in one day.
References
Category:Lewis Carroll characters
Category:Fictional flightless birds
Category:Literary characters introduced in 1865
Category:Dodo
Category:Male characters in literature | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodo_(Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland) | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.106809 |
1501 | Lory (disambiguation) | A Lory is a small to medium-sized arboreal parrot.
Lory may also refer to:
People
Al De Lory (1930–2012), an American record producer, arranger, conductor and session musician
Donna De Lory (born 1964), an American singer, dancer and songwriter
Milo B. Lory (1903–1974), an American sound editor
Other uses
Lory, a fictional parrot, a minor character in the Alice series by Lewis Carroll
Lory Lake, in Minnesota, U.S.
Lory State Park, near Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.
See also
Lorry (disambiguation)
Lori (disambiguation)
Loris (disambiguation)
Loris, strepsirrhine primates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lory_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.108388 |
1504 | Albert | Albert may refer to:
Companies
Albert Computers, Inc., a computer manufacturer in the 1980s
Albert Czech Republic, a supermarket chain in the Czech Republic
Albert Heijn, a supermarket chain in the Netherlands
Albert Market, a street market in The Gambia
Albert Music, an Australian music company now known as Alberts
Albert Productions, a record label
Albert (organisation), an environmental organisation concerning film and television productions
Entertainment
Albert (1985 film), a Czechoslovak film directed by František Vláčil
Albert (2015 film), a film by Karsten Kiilerich
Albert (2016 film), an American TV movie
Albert (album), by Ed Hall, 1988
"Albert" (short story), by Leo Tolstoy
Albert (comics), a character in Marvel Comics
Albert (Discworld), a character in Terry Pratchett's Discworld series
Albert, a character in Dario Argento's 1977 film Suspiria
People
Albert (given name)
Albert (surname)
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Albert (dancer) (François-Ferdinand 1789–1865), French ballet dancer
Albert, a ring name of professional wrestler Matt Bloom (born 1972)
Places
Canada
Albert (1846–1973 electoral district), a provincial electoral district in New Brunswick from 1846 to 1973
Albert (federal electoral district), a federal electoral district in New Brunswick from 1867 to 1903
Albert (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district in New Brunswick
Albert County, New Brunswick
Rural Municipality of Albert, Manitoba, Canada
United States
Albert, Kansas
Albert Township, Michigan
Albert, Oklahoma
Albert, Texas, a ghost town
The Albert (Detroit), formerly the Griswold Building, an American apartment block
Elsewhere
Albert (Belize House constituency), a Belize City-based electoral constituency
Albert, New South Wales, a town in Australia
Electoral district of Albert, a former electoral district in Queensland, Australia
Albert, Somme, a French commune
Transportation
Albert (automobile), a 1920s British light car
Albert (motorcycle), a 1920s German vehicle brand
Albert (tugboat), a 1979 U.S. tugboat
Other
719 Albert, Amor asteroid
Albert (crater), a lunar crater
The Albert, a pub in London
Albert and Alberta Gator, mascots for the Florida Gators
See also
Alberta (disambiguation)
Alberts (disambiguation)
Alberte (born 1963), a Danish singer and actress
Albertet, a diminutive of Albert
Albret, a seigneurie in Landes, France
Aubert, an Anglo-Saxon surname | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.112578 |
1505 | Albert I | Albert I may refer to:
People
Born before 1300
Albert I, Count of Vermandois (917–987)
Albert I, Count of Namur ()
Albert I of Moha
Albert I of Brandenburg (), first margrave of Brandenburg
Albert I, Margrave of Meissen (1158–1195)
Albert I of Käfernburg (), Archbishop of Magdeburg
Albert I of Pietengau ()
Albert I, Lord of Mecklenburg (after 1230–1265)
Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1236–1279), second duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg
Albert I of Germany (1255–1308), king of Germany and archduke of Austria
Albert I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (–1316)
Born after 1300
Albert I, Duke of Bavaria (1336–1404), duke of Bavaria-Straubing, count of Holland, Hainault and Zealand
Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Stargard
Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen ()
Albert I, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels (1468–1511)
Albert I, Duke of Prussia (1490–1568), first Duke of Prussia
Albert I, Prince of Monaco (1848–1922)
Albert I of Belgium (1875–1934), king of the Belgians
Albert I Kalonji Ditunga (1929–2015), Congolese politician
Other uses
Albert I (monkey), the first mammal used in a subspace rocket launch, June 11, 1948
See also
Albert (given name) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_I | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.114600 |
1506 | Albert II | Albert II may refer to:
Monkeys
Albert II (monkey), first primate and first mammal in space, died on impact following V-2 flight June 14, 1949
People
Albert II, Count of Namur (died 1067)
Albert II, Count of Tyrol (died 1120s)
Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg (–1220)
Albert II, Archbishop of Riga (1200–1273)
Albert II, Margrave of Meissen (1240–1314),
Albert II, Duke of Saxony (1250–1298)
Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (–1318)
Albert II of Austria (1298–1358)
Albert II, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (died 1362)
Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg (1318–1379)
Albert II, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing (1368–1397)
Albert II, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (1369–1403)
Albert II of Germany (1397–1439), King of Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Duke of Austria
Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (1419–1485)
Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Stargard (1400s)
Albert II, Count of Hoya (1526–1563)
Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1620–1667)
Albert II of Belgium (born 1934), King of the Belgians
Albert II, Prince of Monaco (born 1958), ruler of the principality of Monaco
Albert II, Prince of Thurn and Taxis (born 1983), Prince of Thurn und Taxis, German prince | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_II | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.116385 |
1507 | Albert III | Albert III may refer to:
Albert III, Count of Namur (1048–1102)
Albert III, Count of Habsburg (died 1199)
Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel (–1300)
Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1281–1308)
Albert III, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (died 1359)
Albert III, Count of Gorizia (died 1374)
Albert III of Mecklenburg (c. 1338 – 1412)
Albert III, Duke of Austria (1349–1395)
Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg (1375/1380–1422)
Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg (1414–1486)
Albert III, Duke of Bavaria (1438–1460)
Albert III, Duke of Saxony (1443–1500) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_III | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.117724 |
1508 | Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach | {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{One source|date=April 2017}}
{{infobox royalty
| name = Albert Alcibiades
| title = Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach
| image = Andreas Riehl (I) - Bildnis des Markgrafen Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach.jpg
| caption = Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach
| succession = Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach
| reign = 1527–1553
| predecessor = Casimir
| successor = George Frederick
| house = House of Hohenzollern
| father = Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth
| mother = Susanna of Bavaria
| spouse | birth_date 28 March 1522
| birth_place = Ansbach
| death_date {{Death date and age|1557|1|8|1522|3|28|dfyes}}
| death_place = Pforzheim
}}
Albert II ({{langx|de|Albrecht}}; 28 March 1522{{snd}}8 January 1557) was the margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (Brandenburg-Bayreuth) from 1527 to 1553. He was a member of the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern. Because of his bellicose nature,{{says who|dateFebruary 2020}} Albert was given the cognomen Bellator ("the Warlike") during his lifetime. Posthumously, he became known as Alcibiades.Biography{{onesource|section|dateOctober 2021}}
Albert was born in Ansbach and, losing his father Casimir in 1527, he came under the regency of his uncle George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, a strong adherent of Protestantism.
In 1541, he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, but as the chief town of his principality was Kulmbach, he is sometimes referred to as the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach.
His restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted Emperor Charles V in his war with France in 1543.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
The Peace of Crépy in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he won a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the Schmalkaldic League, he took pains to win Albert's assistance.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Sharing in the attack on the Electorate of Saxony, Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by Elector John Frederick of Saxony, but was released as a result of the Emperor's victory at the Battle of Mühlberg in the succeeding April.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
He then followed the fortunes of his friend Elector Maurice of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the Emperor by an alliance with King Henry II of France.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the Peace of Passau was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Franconia,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} which led to the Second Margrave War.
Having extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French King, and offered his services to the Emperor.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of Würzburg and Bamberg; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the Emperor on the retreat from the Siege of Metz in January 1553.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
The rival forces met at Sievershausen on 9 July 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight. Henry, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the Imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
He there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on 8 January 1557.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
He is defined by Thomas Carlyle as "a failure of a Fritz," with "features" of a Frederick the Great in him, "but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent". He was buried at Heilsbronn Münster. His hymn "Was mein Got will, das g'scheh allzeit" was translated as "The will of God is always best".<ref>it is #477 in Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary, #758 in Lutheran Service Book, and #435 in Christian Worship: A Lutheran Hymnal, see also the [https://hymnary.org/text/my_heart_is_longing_to_praise_my_savior entry for the hymn on hymnary.org]</ref>
References
Citations
{{reflist}}
Works cited
*{{EB1911|wstitleAlbert (prince)|displayAlbert|volume1|pages493–494}} Endnote: See J. Voigt, Markgraf Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach (Berlin, 1852).
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Hohenzollern|28 March|1522|8 January|1557}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=Casimir}}
{{s-ttl|titleMargrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach|years1527/1541–1553}}
{{s-aft|after=George Frederick}}
{{s-end}}
{{Lutheran hymnody}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alcibiades, Albert, Margrave Of Brandenburg-Kulmbach}}
Category:1522 births
Category:1557 deaths
Category:House of Hohenzollern
Category:People from Ansbach
Category:People from the Principality of Ansbach
Category:Margraves of Bayreuth | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Alcibiades,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Kulmbach | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.121430 |
1509 | Albert the Bear | {{Short description|1st Margrave of Brandenburg (1157 to 1170)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=January 2013}}
{{infobox royalty
| image = Adalbertus Siegel.JPG
| caption = Effigy on Albert's seal
| succession = Margrave of Brandenburg
| reign = 1157–1170
| successor = Otto I
| succession1 = Duke of Saxony
| reign1 = 1139–1142
| predecessor1 = Henry the Proud
| successor1 = Henry the Lion
| house = House of Ascania
| father = Otto, Count of Ballenstedt
| mother = Eilika of Saxony
| spouse = Sophie of Winzenburg
| issue = Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg<br />Hermann I, Count of Orlamünde<br />Siegfried, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen<br />Bernhard, Count of Anhalt<br />Hedwig, Margravine of Meissen
| issue-link=#Marriage and children
| issue-pipe = more...
| birth_date = {{circa| 1100}}
| birth_place | death_date {{death date|1170|11|18|df=y}} (aged 70)
| death_place = possibly Stendal
| burial_place = Ballenstedt
}}
Albert the Bear ({{langx|de|Albrecht der Bär}}; {{c.}} 1100 – 18 November 1170) was the first margrave of Brandenburg from 1157 to his death and was briefly duke of Saxony between 1138 and&nbsp;1142.
Life
Albert was the only son of Otto, Count of Ballenstedt,{{sfn|Brooke|2019|p268}} and Eilika,{{sfn|Krömmelbein|Brogyanyi|2002|p73}} daughter of Magnus Billung, Duke of Saxony. He inherited his father's valuable estates in northern Saxony in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of Billung. Albert was a loyal vassal of his relation, Lothar I, Duke of Saxony, from whom, about 1123, he received the Margraviate of Lusatia, to the east; after Lothar became King of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to Bohemia against the upstart, Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia in 1126 at the Battle of Kulm, where he suffered a short imprisonment.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. After the death of his brother-in-law, Henry II, Margrave of the Nordmark, who controlled a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon Northern March, in 1128, Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo V, Count of Stade, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Udo, however, was said to have been assassinated by servants of Albert on 15 March 1130 near Aschersleben. In spite of this, Albert went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in 1134 by the investiture of the Northern March, which was again without a ruler.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
In 1138 Conrad III, the Hohenstaufen King of the Germans, deprived Albert's cousin and nemesis, Henry the Proud, of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, Albert was driven from Saxony, and also from his Northern March by a combined force of Henry and Jaxa of Köpenick, and compelled to take refuge in south Germany.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Henry died in 1139 and an arrangement was found. Henry's son, Henry the Lion, received the duchy of Saxony in 1142. In the same year, Albert renounced the Saxon duchy and received the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde.
Once he was firmly established in the Northern March, Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. For three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic Wends, who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the Wendish Crusade of 1147 in which Albert took part. Albert was a part of the army that besieged Demmin, and at the end of the war, recovered Havelberg, which had been lost since 983. Diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with the last of the Wendish princes of Brandenburg, Pribislav-Henry of the Hevelli, Albert secured this district when the prince died in 1150. Taking the title "Margrave in Brandenburg", he pressed the crusade against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged Dutch and German settlement in the Elbe-Havel region (Ostsiedlung), established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157, which his heirs — the House of Ascania — held until the line died out in 1320.
In 1158 a feud with Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was interrupted by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. On his return in 1160, he, with the consent of his sons, Siegfried not being mentioned, donated land to the Knights of Saint John in memory of his wife, Sofia, at Werben on the Elbe.{{sfn|Freller|2010|p40}}{{sfn|Freller|2010|p55}}{{sfn|Lyon|2013|p35}} Around this same time, he minted a pfennig in memory of his deceased wife.{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2023}} In 1162 Albert accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Italy, where he distinguished himself at the storming of Milan.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
In 1164 Albert joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among his six sons. He died on 18 November 1170, and was buried at Ballenstedt.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Cognomen
.]]
Albert's personal qualities won for him the cognomen of the Bear, "not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since," says Thomas Carlyle, who called Albert "a restless, much-managing, wide-warring man."{{sfn|Carlyle|1869|pp59–61}} He was also called "the Handsome."{{sfn|Carlyle|1869|pp59–61}}
Marriage and children
Albert was married in 1124 to Sophie of Winzenburg (died 25 March 1160) and they had the following children:
# Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg (1126/1128–7 March 1184){{sfn|Lyon|2013|p=241}}
# Count Hermann I of Orlamünde (died 1176),{{sfn|Lyon|2013|p241}} father of Siegfried III, Count of Weimar-Orlamünde{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p320}}
# Siegfried (died 24 October 1184), Bishop of Brandenburg from 1173 to 1180, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, the first ranked prince, from 1180 to 1184{{sfn|Lyon|2013|p=241}}
# Heinrich (died after 1185), a canon in Magdeburg{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p=320}}
# Count Albert of Ballenstedt{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p321}} (died after 6 December 1172){{citation needed|dateApril 2024}}
# Count Dietrich of Werben (died after 5 September 1183){{sfn|Lyon|2013|p=241}}
# Count Bernhard of Anhalt (1138/1142{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p293}}–9 February 1212), Duke of Saxony from 1180 to 1212 as Bernard III{{citation needed|dateApril 2024}}
# Hedwig (d. 1203), married to Otto II, Margrave of Meissen{{sfn|Lyon|2013|p=241}}
# Gertrude, married in {{Circa|1153}}{{efn|Mielzarek dates the marriage between 1140 and 1156 with 1153 as the most likely candidate{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p276}}}} to Duke Děpold of Moravia{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|pp275-276}}
# Unknown daughter,{{efn|Mielzarek suggests that this daughter is identical to the one that married Děpold of Moravia and that the record of "Wladizlaus dux" marrying said daughter is a mistake.{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|pp279-281}}}} married {{Circa|1153}} to Vladislav of Olomouc, the eldest son of Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|pp277-278}}
# Adelheid (died before 1162), a nun in Lamspringe{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p=274}}
# Unknown daughter,{{efn|Mielzarek suggests that she might have been the same daughter as Adelheid if she became a nun after her husband's death in 1148 or 1149.{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|p274}}}} married before 1146 Otto the Younger, son of Otto of Salm{{sfn|Mielzarek|2020|pp274-275}}
# Sybille (died {{Circa|1170}}), Abbess of Quedlinburg{{citation needed|dateApril 2024}}Notes{{noteslist}}References{{reflist|20em}}Works cited* {{cite book |titleA History of Europe 911–1198 |firstZ.N. |lastBrooke |publisherRoutledge |year2019 }}
* {{cite book | lastCarlyle | firstThomas | titleHistory of Friedrich II. of Prussia: Called Frederick the Great | publisherChapman and Hall | issuev. 1 | year1869 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQF1HAAAAYAAJ&pgPA59 | access-date2 Jul 2023 | pages=59–61}}
* {{EB1911|wstitleAlbert I. (Brandenburg)|displayAlbert I.|volume1|page494}}
* {{cite book|lastFreller |firstThomas |titleThe German Langue of the Order of Malta |publisherMidsea Books |locationMalta |year2010 |isbn=978-99932-7-299-1 }}
*{{cite book |titleGermanisches Altertum und christliches Mittelalter: Festschrift für Heinz Klingenberg zum 65. Geburtstag |editor-first1Thomas |editor-last1Krömmelbein |editor-first2Bela |editor-last2Brogyanyi |languagede |publisherKovač |year2002 }}
* {{cite book|lastLyon |firstJonathan R. |titlePrincely Brothers and Sisters: The Sibling Bond in German Politics, 1100–1250 |publisherCornell University Press |locationNew York |year2013 |isbn=978-0801451300 }}
* {{cite book|lastMielzarek |firstChristoph |titleAlbrecht der Bär und Konrad von Wettin: Fürstliche Herrschaft in den ostsächsichen Marken im 12. Jahrhundert |languagede |publisherBöhlau Verlag |locationCologne |year2020 |isbn978-3-412-51870-7 }}
General references
* {{cite book|lastCarlyle |firstThomas |titleHistory of Frederick the Great |year1898 }}
* {{cite book|lastPartenheimer |firstLutz |titleDie Entstehung der Mark Brandenburg: Mit einem lateinisch-deutschen Quellenanhang |publisherBöhlau |locationKöln |year2007 |isbn=978-3-412-17106-3}}
* {{cite book | last Partenheimer | first Lutz | title Albrecht der Bär | publisher Böhlau Verlag | location Cologne | year 2003 | isbn 3-412-16302-3|languagede}}
* {{cite book|lastSchultze |firstJohannes |titleDie Mark Brandenburg: (Bd. I–V in einem Band) |publisherDuncker & Humblot |year2011 |isbn978-3428134809}}
External links
{{Commons category|Albert the Bear}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080516030944/http://carlyle.classicauthors.net/Friedrich/Friedrich14.html Thomas Carlyle, History of Friedrich ii] Chapter iv: Albert the Bear
*The History Files: [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/GermanyBrandenburg.htm Rulers of Brandenburg]
{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Ascania||c. 1100|18 November|1170 in Stendal?||name=Albert (German: Albrecht) of Ballenstedt }}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=Otto the Rich}}
{{s-ttl|titleCount of Anhalt|years1123–1170}}
{{s-aft|after=Bernhard}}
{{s-bef|before=Henry II}}
{{s-ttl|titleDuke of Saxony|years1138–1142}}
{{s-aft|after=Henry III}}
{{S-new}}
{{s-ttl|titleMargrave of Brandenburg|years1157–1170}}
{{s-aft|after=Otto I}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Albert the Bear}}
Albert 00
Category:Margraves of Brandenburg
Category:Counts of Anhalt
Category:People from Brandenburg an der Havel
Category:Christians of the Wendish Crusade
Category:1100s births
Category:1170 deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:Place of birth unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_the_Bear | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.129618 |
1513 | Albert of Brandenburg | {{Short description|Catholic cardinal (1490–1545)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Cardinal
| honorific-prefix = His Eminence
| name = Albert of Brandenburg
| title = Archbishop of Mainz
| image = Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg (DE SPSG GKI10219).jpg
| alt | caption Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1526
| church = Catholic
| archdiocese = Electorate of Mainz
| diocese | see
| term = 1514–1545
| predecessor = Uriel von Gemmingen
| successor = Sebastian von Heusenstamm
| ordination = 4 April 1513
| ordained_by | consecration 2 July 1514
| consecrated_by = Dietrich von Bülow
| cardinal = 24 March 1518
| rank = <!-- Personal details -->
| birth_date {{birth date|1490|6|28|dfy}}
| birth_place = Kölln
| death_date {{death date and age|1545|9|24|1490|6|28|dfy}}
| death_place = Martinsburg, Mainz
| previous_post | nationality
| signature = Signatur Albrecht von Brandenburg.PNG
| created_cardinal_by = Leo X
}}
Albert of Brandenburg ({{langx|de|Albrecht von Brandenburg}}; 28 June 1490{{snd}}24 September 1545) was a German cardinal, elector, Archbishop of Mainz from 1514 to 1545, and Archbishop of Magdeburg from 1513 to 1545.
Through his notorious sale of indulgences, he became the catalyst for Martin Luther's Reformation and its staunch opponent.<ref>{{Cite journal |dateJanuary 1952 |titleHere I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, by Roland H. Bainton. 422 pp. New York, Nashville, Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1950. $4.75 |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004057365200800413 |journalTheology Today |volume8 |issue4 |pages558 |doi10.1177/004057365200800413 |s2cid220988389 |issn0040-5736}}</ref>
Biography
Career
]]
Born in Cölln on the Spree, now a central part of Berlin, into the ruling House of Hohenzollern, Albert was the younger son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg and Margaret of Thuringia.
After their father's death in 1499, Albert's older brother Joachim I Nestor became elector of Brandenburg while Albert held only the title of a margrave of Brandenburg. Albert studied at the university of Frankfurt (Oder), and in 1513 became Archbishop of Magdeburg at the age of 23 and administrator of the Diocese of Halberstadt.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline y|wstitleAlbert I. (elector of Mainz)|display Albert|volume1|pages 496-497}} Endnote: See
* J. H. Hennes, Albrecht von Brandenburg, Erzbischof von Mainz und Magdeburg (Mainz, 1858)
* J. May, Der Kurfürst, Kardinal, und Erzbischof Albrecht II. von Mainz und Magdeburg (Munich, 1865–1875)
* W. Schum, Kardinal Albrecht von Mainz und die Erfurter Kirchenreformation (Halle, 1878)
* P. Redlich, Kardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg, und das neue Stift zu Halle (Mainz, 1900).</ref>
In 1514 he was also elected Archbishop of Mainz and thus sovereign of the Electorate of Mainz and archchancellor of the Holy Roman Empire. By electing him, the Mainz cathedral chapter hoped for the support of the Elector of Brandenburg in defending the city of Erfurt, which belonged to the archbishopric of Mainz, against the expansionist efforts of the neighboring Saxon dukes. However, this choice violated the canonical prohibition to hold more than one bishopric. Albert also did not meet the requirements for taking over any diocese, since he had not yet reached the age, and he didn't have a college degree; therefore he received a study dispensation in 1513. Albert borrowed 20,000 guilders from Jacob Fugger to pay the confirmation fee to the Roman Curia (see: simony).<ref>[http://www.hab.de/ausstellungen/reformstau/kapitel02/bild06.html Luther's nuisance: indulgence for the new building of St. Peter's], Letter of indulgence for the good of the new building of St. Peter's in Rome, 1517, Herzog August Library, Wolfenbüttel</ref> In 1514 Albert suggested to Pope Leo X that a special indulgence be announced in his three dioceses as well as in his native diocese of Brandenburg and that half of the income should be used for the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica and half for Albert's own cash register. The papal bull was issued on 31 March 1515.<ref>Christiane Schuchard: What is an indulgence commissioner?; in: ed. H. Kühne, Johann Tetzel and the indulgence: Companion volume to the exhibition »Tetzel - indulgence - purgatory«; exhibition in St. Nikolai church (Jüterbog) and in the monks' monastery; ISBN 978-3-86732-262-1 publisher Lukas Verlag, July 2017, p. 122</ref> The indulgence was entrusted to Albert in 1517 for publication in Saxony and Brandenburg. It cost him the considerable sum of ten thousand ducats,<ref>At first, "the pope demanded twelve thousand ducats for the twelve apostles. Albert offered seven thousand ducats for the seven deadly sins. They compromised on ten thousand, presumably not for the Ten Commandments". Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 75, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.155980 online]</ref> and Albert employed Johann Tetzel for the actual preaching of the indulgence. Later, Martin Luther addressed a letter of protest to Albert concerning the conduct of Tetzel.<ref>{{cite web |last1O'Malia |first1Joseph |titleAlbert of Brandenburg |urlhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01262a.htm |websiteThe Catholic Encyclopedia |publisherNew York: Robert Appleton Company |access-date=16 May 2020}}</ref>
Largely in reaction to Tetzel's actions, Luther wrote his famous Ninety-five Theses, which led to the Reformation. Luther sent these to Albert on 31 October 1517, and according to a disputable<ref>According to Roland Bainton, for example, it is true. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 79, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.155980 online]</ref> tradition, nailed a copy to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg. Albert forwarded the theses to Rome, suspecting Luther of heresy.<ref>{{Cite book|lastWengert|firstTimothy|titleThe Annotated Luther: The Roots of Reform|publisher1517 Media|year2015|isbn9781451462692|locationMinneapolis|pages48}}</ref>
As Archbishop of Mainz, he tried unsuccessfully in 1515 and 1516 to expel the Jews living in Mainz.<ref>Arye Maimon: Der Judenvertreibungsversuch Albrechts II. von Mainz und sein Mißerfolg (1515/.16), in: Jahrbuch für westdeutsche Landesgeschichte Albert II of Mainz's attempt to expel the Jews and its failure (1515/16). In: Yearbook for West German regional history. Volume 4, 1978, pp. 191-220.</ref> In 1518, at the age of 28, he was made a cardinal. When the imperial election of 1519 drew near, partisans of the two leading candidates (kings Charles I of Spain and Francis I of France) eagerly solicited the vote of the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz, and Albert appears to have received a large amount of money for his vote. The electors eventually chose Charles, who became the Emperor Charles V.<ref name="EB1911"/>
Like other high-ranking clergymen of his time, Archbishop Albert lived in concubinage, gave his lovers gifts and favored his children as far as possible without causing much offense. Recent research assumes that he lived in a marriage-like relationship at first with Elisabeth "Leys" Schütz from Mainz and then with the Frankfurt widow Agnes Pless, née Strauss. With Leys Schütz he had a daughter named Anna, whom he married to his secretary Joachim Kirchner.<ref>Kerstin Merkel: Albrecht and Ursula. A hike through literature and the formation of legends. In: Andreas Tacke (ed.): »... we want to give love space«. Concubinage of ecclesiastical and secular princes around 1500 (publication series of the Moritzburg Foundation, Art Museum of the State of Saxony-Anhalt. Original title: Albrecht und Ursula. Eine Wanderung durch Literatur und Legendenbildung. In: Andreas Tacke (Hrsg.): »... wir wollen der Liebe Raum geben«. Konkubinate geistlicher und weltlicher Fürsten um 1500 ( Schriftenreihe der Stiftung Moritzburg, Kunstmuseum des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt; 3). Wallstein-Verlag, Göttingen 2006, ISBN 3-8353-0052-0, p. 157–187.</ref>
Albert's large and liberal ideas, his correspondence with leading humanists, his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten whom he drew to his court, and his political ambitions, appear to have raised hopes that he could be won over to Protestantism; but after the German Peasants' War of 1525 he ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism, and was among the princes who joined the League of Dessau in July 1525.<ref name="EB1911"/>
From 1514 until his flight on 21 February 1541, Albert ruled mostly from his residence Moritzburg in Halle. In 1531, he had a spacious new residential palace built there. Albert also needed a prestigious church that met his expectations at a central location in his residenz town. He feared for his peace of mind in heaven, and collected more than 8,100 relics and 42 holy skeletons which needed to be stored. From 1529, he had two parish churches standing next to each other demolished and only their four towers from {{circa|1400}} with pointed helmets stood. Between these towers he had a large new nave built, which was named Market Church of Our Lady since she received a Marian patronage. However, these precious treasures, known as Hallesches Heilthum (the Halle sanctuary), indirectly related to the sale of indulgences which had triggered the Reformation a few years before because it should attract pilgrims willing to pay. Then, the cardinal and the Catholic members of the town council wanted to repress the growing influence of the Reformation by holding far grander Masses and services in a new church dedicated solely to the Blessed Virgin Mary, whose excessive worship Luther disliked.{{Citation needed|date=January 2017}}
and Saint Maurice, by Matthias Grünewald, between 1517 and 1523. Grünewald used Albert of Mainz, who commissioned the painting, as the model for St. Erasmus (left).]]
Albert's hostility towards the reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I; and he appears to have exerted himself towards peace, although he was a member of the League of Nuremberg, formed in 1538 as a counterpoise to the League of Schmalkalden. New doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins. In his later years, he showed more intolerance towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in his dominions.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The Market Church of Our Lady in Halle, which had been built to defend against the spread of Reformation sympathies,{{citation needed|dateMay 2017}} was the spot where Justus Jonas officially introduced the Reformation into Halle with his Good Friday sermon in 1541. The service must have been at least partly conducted in the open air, because at that time construction had only been finished at the eastern end of the nave. Jonas began a successful preaching crusade and attracted so many people that the church overflowed. Albert left the town permanently after the estates in the city had announced that they would take over his enormous debt at the bank of Jakob Fugger. Halle became Protestant and in 1542 Jonas was appointed as priest to St. Mary's and, in 1544, bishop over the city.{{Citation needed|dateJanuary 2017}}
Patron of the arts
He became a friend of science and a patron of the arts. As a patron of learning, he counted Erasmus among his friends.<ref name="EB1911"/> However, Albert's ideas about founding a Catholic university in Halle were not implemented. Nonetheless, he adorned Halle Cathedral and Mainz Cathedral in sumptuous fashion, and took as his motto the words {{Lang|la|Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae}} (Latin for "I have loved, O Lord, the beauty of thy house", from Psalm 25:8). Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder created magnificent paintings for the Halle Cathedral which was decorated from 1519 to 1525 with 16 Passion altars with 140 pictures by Cranach and his workshop, the largest single commission in German art history. Grünewald contributed the famous wood painting Saint Erasmus and Saint Maurice. Albert also ordered paintings from Hans Baldung Grien and a cycle of 18 life-size statues of saints from Peter Schro in Mainz, which can still be admired in Halle Cathedral today. In 1526 he donated the market fountain in Mainz. In 1521, Martin Luther referred to the ever-growing collection of relics as the "idol of Halle".
When Albert left Halle for good in 1541 and moved to his residence in Aschaffenburg in the electoral state of Mainz, he took with him the collection of relics, his private art collection and a large part of the works of art he had donated to the cathedral and other Catholic churches that now became Protestant. He sold parts of the treasure of relics in order to be able to settle claims of the cathedral chapters of Magdeburg and Halberstadt; the sanctuaries are scattered today. He took his private paintings with him to his residence in Johannisburg Castle, where a large part was plundered and destroyed in 1552 during the Second Margrave War. He had the works of art brought from Halle Cathedral hung in the St. Peter und Alexander's church, where they survived all wars until the Elector-Archbishop Carl Theodor von Dalberg had them brought to Johannisburg Castle in 1803. There they were evacuated in good time before the damaging fire caused by bombing in 1945. Today they can be seen in the reconstructed castle in the Staatsgalerie Aschaffenburg, which was reopened in 2023 after several years of renovation.<ref>[https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/kunst-und-architektur/aschaffenburg-staatsgalerie-im-schloss-johannisburg-wiedereroeffnet-18872623.html Staatsgalerie Aschaffenburg wiedereröffnet] (State Gallery Aschaffenburg reopened), in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 May 2023</ref> Despite the losses caused by wars, looting and sales, the Aschaffenburg collection is considered the largest Cranach collection in Europe. In addition to 17 altar wings, some of which consist of several panels, and individual paintings from the Cranach workshop, 9 autographed works by the older and 2 by the younger Cranach are on display. In addition, a crucifixion group by Hans Baldung Grien and a large number of paintings by Cranach's students. Some other altars and paintings from the school are also preserved in the St. Peter und Alexander's church and its museum. Other paintings are in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich.
<gallery perrow="7">
Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Kardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg als Heiliger Hieronymus.jpg|Cardinal Albert as Saint Jerome (Lucas Cranach the Elder)
Mathis Gothart Grünewald 011.jpg|Cardinal Albert as Saint Erasmus with Saint Mauritius (Matthias Grünewald, {{circa|1520|lk=no}})
Mathis Gothart Grünewald 009.jpg|Cardinal Albert as Saint Erasmus (detail)
Albrecht-von-brandenburg-als hl-martin.jpg|Cardinal Albert as Saint Martin (Simon Franck, 1543)
Albrecht-v-Brandenburg-1520.jpg|Cardinal Albert praying before the cross (Lucas Cranach the Elder)
AB StGal Schule CranachÄ Messe Gregor02.jpg|Mass of St. Gregory with Cardinal Albert (workshop of Lucas Cranach)
Cranach il vecchio, altare pfirtscher 01, 1526–1530 ca, aschaffenburg, staatsgalerie.jpg|St. Martinus (with the facial features of Cardinal Albert) and St. Stephen (Lucas Cranach the Elder)
Simon Franck - Ursula Redinger as Saint Ursula - Stiftsmuseum Aschaffenburg.jpg|Cardinal Albert's mistress Leys Schütz as St. Ursula
</gallery>
Death
Albert died at the Martinsburg, Mainz in 1545.<ref>[http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1518.htm Biographical Dictionary] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151025123945/http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1518.htm |date2015-10-25 }} BRANDENBURG, Albrecht von (1490-1545)</ref> His tomb is in Mainz Cathedral.
{{Clear}}
Ancestry
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2020}}
{{ahnentafel
|collapsedyes |aligncenter
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. Albert of Mainz
|2= 2. John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg
|3= 3. Margaret of Thuringia
|4= 4. Albrecht III, Elector of Brandenburg
|5= 5. Margaret of Baden
|6= 6. William III, Landgrave of Thuringia
|7= 7. Anne, Duchess of Luxembourg
|8= 8. Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg
|9= 9. Elisabeth of Bavaria
|10= 10. Jacob, Margrave of Baden-Baden
|11= 11. Catherine de Lorraine
|12= 12. Frederick I, Elector of Saxony
|13= 13. Catherine of Brunswick
|14= 14. Albert II of Germany
|15= 15. Elizabeth of Luxembourg
}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* Helmut Börsch-Supan, et al. "Hohenzollern, House of." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 24 Jul. 2016.
* Roesgen, Manfred von. Kardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg : ein Renaissancefürst auf dem Mainzer Bischofsthron. Moers : Steiger, 1980.
* Schauerte, Thomas and Andreas Tacke. Der Kardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg : Renaissancefürst und Mäzen. 2 v. Regensburg : Schnell + Steiner, 2006. Contents: Bd. 1. Katalog / herausgegeben von Thomas Schauerte—Bd. 2. Essays / herausgegeben von Andreas Tacke ; mit Beiträgen von Bodo Brinkmann ... [et al.]. Note: Exhibition held September 9{{snd}}November 26, 2006, Halle an der Saale.
* "Prayer Book of Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg." [http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/1402/simon-bening-prayer-book-of-cardinal-albrecht-of-brandenburg-flemish-about-1525-1530/ The J. Paul Getty Museum], viewed 24 July 2016.
External links
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|House of Hohenzollern|28 June|1490|24 September|1545}}
{{S-rel|ca}}
{{S-bef|rows2|beforeErnest II}}
{{S-ttl|titleArchbishop of Magdeburg|years1513–1545}}
{{S-aft|rows2|afterJohn Albert|as=Administrator}}
{{S-ttl|titleBishop of Halberstadt|years1513–1545}}
{{S-bef|before=Uriel von Gemmingen}}
{{S-ttl|titleArchbishop-Elector of Mainz|years1514–1545}}
{{S-aft|after=Sebastian von Heusenstamm}}
{{S-end}}
{{Martin Luther}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|Holy Roman Empire}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1490 births
Category:1545 deaths
Category:16th-century German cardinals
Category:Archbishop-electors of Mainz
Category:Archbishops of Magdeburg
Category:Clergy from Berlin
Category:Knights' War
Category:Roman Catholic prince-bishops of Halberstadt
Category:Simony
Category:Sons of prince-electors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_of_Brandenburg | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.138842 |
1514 | Albert, Duke of Prussia | {{Short description|Duke of Prussia from 1525 to 1568}}
{{Redirect|Albert of Prussia|other people|Albert of Hohenzollern (disambiguation){{!}}Albert of Hohenzollern}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Albert
| image = Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Bildnis des Markgrafen Albrecht von Brandenburg-Ansbach (Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum).jpg
| caption = Albert of Prussia, painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder, dated 1528
| succession = Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights
| reign = 1510{{snd}}1525
| predecessor = Duke Frederick of Saxony
| successor = Walter von Cronberg
| succession1 = Duke of Prussia
| reign1 = 10 April 1525{{snd}}20 March 1568
| successor1 = Albert Frederick of Prussia
| house = House of Hohenzollern
| father = Frederick I of Brandenburg-Ansbach
| mother = Sophia of Poland
| spouse {{marriage|Dorothea of Denmark|1526|1547|enddied}} <br /> {{marriage|Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg|1550}}
| issue = Anna Sophia<br />Albert Frederick
| issue-link = #Spouse and issue
| issue-pipe = among others...
| religion = Catholicism (until 1525)<br />Lutheranism (from 1525)
| birth_date = 17 May 1490<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12674/Albert Albert (duke of Prussia)]. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>
| birth_place = Ansbach, Brandenburg-Ansbach, Holy Roman Empire<br /><small>(now Bavaria, Germany)</small>
| death_date {{death date and age|1568|3|20|1490|7|8|dfyes}}
| death_place = Tapiau Castle, Tapiau, Prussia<br /><small>(now Gvardeysk, Russia)</small>
}}
Albert of Prussia ({{langx|de|Albrecht von Preussen}}; 17 May 1490{{snd}}20 March 1568) was a German prince who was the 37th grand master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, became the first ruler of the Duchy of Prussia, the secularized state that emerged from the former Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights. Albert was the first European ruler to establish Lutheranism, and thus Protestantism, as the official state religion of his lands. He proved instrumental in the political spread of Protestantism in its early stage, ruling the Prussian lands for nearly six decades (1510–1568).
Albert was great-grandson of the converted pagan ruler Jogaila of Poland and Lithuania, vanquisher of the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald. He was also a member of the Brandenburg-Ansbach branch of the House of Hohenzollern. He became grand master of the Teutonic Knights in their attempt to diplomatically win over the Polish-Lithuanian union. His skill in political administration and leadership ultimately succeeded in reversing the decline of the Teutonic Order. But Albert was sympathetic to the demands of Martin Luther, whose teachings had become popular in his lands. So he rebelled against the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire by converting the Teutonic state into a Protestant and hereditary realm, the Duchy of Prussia, for which he paid homage to his uncle, Sigismund I, king of Poland. That arrangement was confirmed by the Treaty of Kraków in 1525. Albert pledged a personal oath to the king and in return was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs.
Albert's rule in Prussia was fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the confiscation of the lands and treasures of the Catholic Church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and provide for the expenses of the newly established Prussian court. He was active in imperial politics, joining the League of Torgau in 1526, and acted in unison with the Protestants in plotting to overthrow Emperor Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. Albert established schools in every town and founded the University of Königsberg in 1544.<ref name"EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAlbert (grand master)|displayAlbert|volume1|page497}}</ref> He promoted culture and arts, patronising the works of Erasmus Reinhold and Caspar Hennenberger. During the final years of his rule, Albert was forced to raise taxes instead of further confiscating now-depleted church lands, causing peasant rebellion. The intrigues of the court favourites Johann Funck and Paul Skalić also led to various religious and political disputes. Albert spent his final years virtually deprived of power and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568. His son, Albert Frederick, succeeded him as Duke of Prussia.Early lifeAlbert was born in Ansbach in Franconia as the third son of Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach.{{sfn|Ward|Prothero|Leathes|1934|ptable 37}} His mother was Sophia, daughter of Casimir IV Jagiellon,{{sfn|Ward|Prothero|Leathes|1934|ptable 37}} Grand Duke of Lithuania and king of Poland, and his wife Elisabeth of Austria. His great-grandfather was Władysław II Jagiełło, the last pagan ruler in Europe, who defeated the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. He was raised for a career in the Church and spent some time at the court of Hermann IV of Hesse, Elector of Cologne, who appointed him canon of the Cologne Cathedral.<ref name"EB1911"/>
Not only was he quite religious; he was also interested in mathematics and science and sometimes is claimed to have contradicted the teachings of the Church in favour of scientific theories. His career was forwarded by the Church, however, and institutions of the Catholic clerics supported his early advancement.
Turning to a more active life, Albert accompanied Emperor Maximilian I to Italy in 1508 and after his return spent some time in the Kingdom of Hungary.<ref name"EB1911"/>Grand MasterDuke Frederick of Saxony, grand master of the Teutonic Order, died in December 1510. Albert was chosen as his successor early in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle, Sigismund I the Old, Grand Duke of Lithuania and king of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over eastern Prussia, which had been held by the order under Polish suzerainty since the Second Peace of Thorn (1466).<ref name"EB1911"/>
The new grand master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland. As war over the order's existence appeared inevitable, Albert made strenuous efforts to secure allies and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a war which began in December 1519 and devastated Prussia. Albert was granted a four-year truce early in 1521.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The dispute was referred to Emperor Charles V and other princes, but as no settlement was reached Albert continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose, he visited the Diet of Nuremberg in 1522, where he made the acquaintance of the Reformer Andreas Osiander, by whose influence Albert was won over to Protestantism.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The grand master then journeyed to Wittenberg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to abandon the rules of his order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured Pope Adrian VI that he was anxious to reform the order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, Margrave George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle, Sigismund I the Old of Poland.<ref name"EB1911"/>Duke in Prussia
'': Albert and his brothers receive the Duchy of Prussia as a fief from Polish King Sigismund I the Old, 1525. Painting by Matejko, 1882.]]
After some delay Sigismund assented to the offer, with the provision that Prussia should be treated as a Polish fiefdom; and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at Kraków, Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on 10 February 1525.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The Estates of the land then met at Königsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the order elected a new grand master, Walter von Cronberg, who received Prussia as a fief at the imperial Diet of Augsburg. As the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the German Peasants' War, and the wars against the Ottoman Turks, they did not enforce the ban on the duke, and agitation against him soon died away.<ref name="EB1911"/>
In imperial politics, Albert was fairly active. Joining the League of Torgau in 1526, he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded and plotted together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period.<ref name="EB1911"/>
coin, 1534, Iustus ex fide vivit — The Just lives on Faith]]
The early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded Königsberg University, where he appointed his friend Andreas Osiander to a professorship in 1549.<ref name"EB1911"/> Albert also paid for the printing of the Astronomical "Prutenic Tables" compiled by Erasmus Reinhold and the first maps of Prussia by Caspar Hennenberger.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://dictionary.obspm.fr/index.php/index.php?showAll1&formSearchTextfieldPrutenic+Tables|titleAn Etymological Dictionary of Astronomy and Astrophysics - 1|websitedictionary.obspm.fr|access-date=1 February 2019}}</ref>
Osiander's appointment was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Philip Melanchthon, who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular.<ref name="EB1911"/>
After Osiander's death in 1552, Albert favoured a preacher named Johann Funck, who, with an adventurer named Paul Skalić, exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a regent, as his only son, Albert Frederick was still a mere youth. The duke was forced to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the Estates appealed to King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland, Albert's cousin, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Skalić saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted and declared binding on all teachers and preachers.<ref name="EB1911"/>
, an encyclopedist, Renaissance humanist and adventurer from Croatia, who strongly influenced the Duke in the closing years of his reign]]
Virtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two more years, and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568<ref name="EB1911"/> of the plague, along with his wife. Cornelis Floris de Vriendt designed his tomb within Königsberg Cathedral.<ref>Mühlpfordt, p. 73</ref>
Albert was a voluminous letter writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time.<ref name"EB1911"/>Legacy
in Königsberg Cathedral]]
]]
Albert was the first German noble to support Luther's ideas {{Citation needed|date=January 2020}} and in 1544 founded the University of Königsberg, the Albertina, as a rival to the Roman Catholic Krakow Academy. It was the second Lutheran university in the German states, after the University of Marburg.
A relief of Albert over the Renaissance-era portal of Königsberg Castle's southern wing was created by Andreas Hess in 1551 according to plans by Christoph Römer.<ref name"M90">Mühlpfordt, p. 90</ref> Another relief by an unknown artist was included in the wall of the Albertina's original campus. This depiction, which showed the duke with his sword over his shoulder, was the popular "Albertus", the symbol of the university. The original was moved to Königsberg Public Library to protect it from the elements, while the sculptor Paul Kimritz created a duplicate for the wall.<ref name"M90"/> Another version of the "Albertus" by Lothar Sauer was included at the entrance of the Königsberg State and Royal Library.<ref name="M90"/>
In 1880 Friedrich Reusch created a sandstone bust of Albert at the Regierungsgebäude, the administrative building for Regierungsbezirk Königsberg. On 19 May 1891 Reusch premiered a famous statue of Albert at Königsberg Castle with the inscription: "Albert of Brandenburg, Last Grand Master, First Duke in Prussia".<ref>Mühlpfordt, p. 82</ref> Albert Wolff also designed an equestrian statue of Albert located at the new campus of the Albertina. King's Gate contains a statue of Albert.
Albert was oft-honored in the quarter Maraunenhof in northern Königsberg. Its main street was named Herzog-Albrecht-Allee in 1906. Its town square, König-Ottokar-Platz, was renamed Herzog-Albrecht-Platz in 1934 to match its church, the Herzog-Albrecht-Gedächtniskirche.<ref>Mühlpfordt, p. 133</ref>
Spouse and issue
]]
Albert married first, to Dorothea (1 August 1504{{snd}}11 April 1547), daughter of King Frederick I of Denmark, in 1526. They had six children:
* Anna Sophia (11 June 1527{{snd}}6 February 1591),{{sfn|Ward|Prothero|Leathes|1934|p=table 37}} married John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow.
* Katharina (b. and d. 24 February 1528) died at birth.
* Frederick Albert (5 December 1529{{snd}}1 January 1530).{{sfn|Ward|Prothero|Leathes|1934|p=table 37}} died young.
* Lucia Dorothea (8 April 1531{{snd}}1 February 1532) died in infancy.
* Lucia (3 February 1537{{snd}} 1 May 1539) died young.
* Albert (b. and d. 1 March 1539) died at birth.
He married secondly to Anna Maria (1532–20 March 1568), daughter of Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, in 1550. The couple had two children:
* Elisabeth (20 May 1551{{snd}}19 February 1596) died unmarried and without issue.
* Albert Frederick (29 April 1553{{snd}}18 August 1618), Duke of Prussia.
Ancestors
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2020}}
{{ahnentafel
|align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. Albert, Duke of Prussia (1490–1568)
|2= 2. Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1460–1536)
|3= 3. Zofia Jagiellonka (1464–1512)
|4= 4. Albrecht III, Elector of Brandenburg (1414–1486)
|5= 5. Anna of Saxony (1437–1512)
|6= 6. Casimir IV Jagiellon (1427–1492)
|7= 7. Elisabeth of Austria (1435–1505)
|8= 8. Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg (1371–1440)
|9= 9. Elisabeth of Bavaria-Landshut (1383–1442)
|10= 10. Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (1412–1464)
|11= 11. Margaret of Austria (1416–1486)
|12= 12. Jogaila (1362–1434)
|13= 13. Sophia of Halshany (1405–1461)
|14= 14. Albert II of Germany (1397–1439)
|15= 15. Elizabeth of Luxembourg (1409–1442)
}}
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
* {{cite book|lastAlbinus|firstRobert|titleLexikon der Stadt Königsberg Pr. und Umgebung|year1985|publisherVerlag Gerhard Rautenberg|locationLeer|pages371|isbn3-7921-0320-6|language=de}}
* {{cite book|lastMühlpfordt|firstHerbert Meinhard|author-linkHerbert Meinhard Mühlpfordt|titleWelche Mitbürger hat Königsberg öffentlich geehrt?|year1963|publisherHolzner Verlag|locationWürzburg|languagede}}
* {{cite book |titleThe Cambridge Modern History |volumeXIII |editor1-firstA.W. |editor1-lastWard |editor2-firstG.W. |editor2-lastProthero |editor3-firstStanley |editor3-lastLeathes |publisherCambridge at the University Press |year1934 }}
External links
{{Commons}}
* {{DNB portal|118637673}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010703023705/http://department.monm.edu/history/urban/articles/State_of_the_grandmasters.htm William Urban on the situation in Prussia]
* [http://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/receive/jportal_jparticle_00054867 K. P. Faber: Briefe Luthers an Herzog Albrecht (1811)] letters of Martin Luther to Albrecht {{in lang|de}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou| House of Brandenburg-Ansbach |16 May|1490|20 March|1568| House of Hohenzollern }}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef| before=Duke Frederick of Saxony }}
{{S-ttl| titleGrand Master of the Teutonic Knights | years1510–1525 }}
{{S-aft| after=Walter von Cronberg }}
|-
{{S-new| creation|reason=Secularisation of the Monastic<br>state of the Teutonic Knights}}
{{S-ttl| titleDuke of Prussia | years1525–1568}}
{{S-aft| after=Albert Frederick }}
{{s-end}}
{{Rulers of Prussia}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Dukes of Prussia
Category:Protestant monarchs
Category:1490 births
Category:1568 deaths
Category:16th-century dukes of Prussia
Category:Converts to Lutheranism from Roman Catholicism
Category:German people of Polish descent
Category:German Lutherans
Category:Grand masters of the Teutonic Order
Category:House of Hohenzollern
Category:People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
Category:People from Ansbach
Category:People from the Principality of Ansbach
Category:People from the Duchy of Prussia
Category:People of the Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521)
Category:University of Königsberg
Category:Duchy of Prussia<!--monarch-->
Category:People of the Count's Feud
Category:16th-century Lutheran theologians
Category:German Lutheran hymnwriters
Category:German people of Lithuanian descent | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert,_Duke_of_Prussia | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.148157 |
1519 | August 25 | {{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 766 &ndash; Emperor Constantine V humiliates nineteen high-ranking officials, after discovering a plot against him. He executes the leaders, Constantine Podopagouros and his brother Strategios.
*1248 &ndash; The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III, the Archbishop of Utrecht.
*1258 &ndash; Regent George Mouzalon and his brothers are killed during a coup headed by the aristocratic faction under Michael VIII Palaiologos, paving the way for its leader to ultimately usurp the throne of the Empire of Nicaea.
*1270 &ndash; Philip III, although suffering from dysentery, becomes King of France following the death of his father Louis IX, during the Eighth Crusade. His uncle, Charles I of Naples, is forced to begin peace negotiations with Muhammad I al-Mustansir, Hafsid Sultan of Tunis.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe World of the Crusades |firstChristopher |lastTyerman |publisherYale University Press |year2019 |pages134–135}}</ref>
*1537 &ndash; The Honourable Artillery Company, the oldest surviving regiment in the British Army, and the second most senior, is formed.
*1543 &ndash; António Mota and a few companions become the first Europeans to visit Japan.
*1580 &ndash; War of the Portuguese Succession: Spanish victory at the Battle of Alcântara brings about the Iberian Union.
1601–1900
*1609 &ndash; Galileo Galilei demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers.
*1630 &ndash; Portuguese forces are defeated by the Kingdom of Kandy at the Battle of Randeniwela in Sri Lanka.
*1758 &ndash; Seven Years' War: Frederick II of Prussia defeats the Russian army at the Battle of Zorndorf.
*1814 &ndash; War of 1812: On the second day of the Burning of Washington, British troops torch the Library of Congress, United States Treasury, Department of War, and other public buildings.
*1823 &ndash; American fur trapper Hugh Glass is mauled by a grizzly bear while on an expedition in South Dakota.
*1825 &ndash; The Thirty-Three Orientals declare the independence of Uruguay from Brazil.
*1830 &ndash; The Belgian Revolution begins.
*1835 &ndash; The first Great Moon Hoax article is published in The New York Sun, announcing the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon.
*1875 &ndash; Captain Matthew Webb becomes the first person to swim across the English Channel, traveling from Dover, England, to Calais, France, in 21 hours and 45 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.channelswimmingassociation.com/swim/2461/matthew-webb |titleMatthew Webb 1875 |websiteChannel Swimming Association |languageen |access-date2018-08-22 |dfdmy-all}}</ref>
*1883 &ndash; France and Viet Nam sign the Treaty of Huế, recognizing a French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin.
*1894 &ndash; Kitasato Shibasaburō discovers the infectious agent of the bubonic plague and publishes his findings in The Lancet.
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of Liaoyang begins.<ref>{{Cite book |lastKowner |firstRotem |titleHistorical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War |publisherThe Scarecrow Press, Inc. |year2006 |isbn9780810849273 |locationLanham, Maryland |pages205–209 |language=en}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; The Kuomintang is founded for the first time in Peking.<ref>{{Cite book |lastStrand |firstDavid |titleChanging Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China |date2002 |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn9780674037762 |editor-lastGoldman |editor-firstMerle |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |pages58–59 |languageen |chapterChapter 2: Citizens in the Audience and at the Podium |access-date25 August 2022 |editor-last2Perry |editor-first2Elizabeth J. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYF-ftHbw59sC&pgPA58}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; World War I: Japan declares war on Austria-Hungary.
* 1914 &ndash; World War I: The library of the Catholic University of Leuven is deliberately destroyed by the German Army. Hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable volumes and Gothic and Renaissance manuscripts are lost.
*1916 &ndash; The United States National Park Service is created.
*1920 &ndash; Polish–Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw, which began on August 13, ends with the Red Army's defeat.
*1933 &ndash; The Diexi earthquake strikes Mao County, Sichuan, China and kills 9,000 people.
*1933 &ndash; Nazi Germany and the Zionist Federation of Germany signed the Haavara Agreement. The agreement was a major factor in breaking the anti-Nazi boycott of 1933 and facilitated Jewish emigration from Germany and into Palestine.<ref>{{Cite web |lastWeiss |firstYf’aat |titleThe Transfer Agreement and the Boycott Movement: A Jewish Dilemma on the Eve of the Holocaust |urlhttp://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203231.pdf |access-date2024-08-05 |websiteYad Vashem |publisherShoah Resource Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastNicosia |firstFrancis R. |urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781351472722 |titleThe Third Reich & the Palestine Question |date2017 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-315-13539-7 |edition1 |languageen |doi=10.4324/9781315135397}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; The Irish Republican Army carries out the 1939 Coventry bombing in which five civilians were killed.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/131921350|titleBlamed on I. R. A.: Coventry Bomb|newspaperThe News|date26 August 1939|access-date=15 June 2023}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; The United Kingdom and Poland form a military alliance in which the UK promises to defend Poland in case of invasion by a foreign power.
*1940 &ndash; World War II: The first Bombing of Berlin by the British Royal Air Force.
* 1941 &ndash; World War II: Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran: The United Kingdom and the Soviet Union jointly stage an invasion of the Imperial State of Iran.<ref>{{cite book |titleImmortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces |lastWard |firstSteven R. |year2009 |publisherGeorgetown University Press |isbn978-1-58901-258-5 |page155 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8eUTLaaVOOQC&pgPA155}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; World War II: Second day of the Battle of the Eastern Solomons; a Japanese naval transport convoy headed towards Guadalcanal is turned back by an Allied air attack.
* 1942 &ndash; World War II: Battle of Milne Bay: Japanese marines assault Allied airfields at Milne Bay, New Guinea, initiating the Battle of Milne Bay.<ref>{{cite book | title The Island Campaigns | last Walker | first Allan S. |author-link1Allan S. Walker | year 1957 | series Australia in the War of 1939–1945 Series 5&nbsp;– Medical| volume3 | chapter 4 — Milne Bay | publisher Australian War Memorial | location Canberra | url https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070220/ | oclc 1293257 }}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; World War II: Paris is liberated by the Allies.
*1945 &ndash; Ten days after World War II ends with Japan announcing its surrender, armed supporters of the Chinese Communist Party kill U.S. intelligence officer John Birch, regarded by some of the American right as the first victim of the Cold War.
* 1945 &ndash; The August Revolution ends as Emperor Bảo Đại abdicates, ending the Nguyễn dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |firstStanley |lastKarnow |author-linkStanley Karnow |titleVietnam: A History |page162 |dateOctober 4, 1983 |publisherViking |isbn978-0670746040}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; The House Un-American Activities Committee holds first-ever televised congressional hearing: "Confrontation Day" between Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss.
*1950 &ndash; To avert a threatened strike during the Korean War, President Truman orders Secretary of the Army Frank Pace to seize control of the nation's railroads.<ref>{{cite web | url https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/executive-orders/10155/executive-order-10155 | titleExecutive Order 10155 | date 25 August 1950 | websiteTruman Library | access-date =23 August 2020 }}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; The world's first publicly marketed instant noodles, Chikin Ramen, are introduced by Taiwanese-Japanese businessman Momofuku Ando.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/the_instant_noodle |titleThe Eternal Life of the Instant Noodle|publisherBBC|date 28 September 2018|access-date25 August 2022|authorCelia Hatton}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; The Games of the XVII Olympiad commence in Rome, Italy.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRome 1960 Summer Olympics - Athletes, Medals & Results |urlhttps://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/rome-1960 |access-date25 August 2022 |websiteOlympics}}</ref>
*1961 &ndash; President Jânio Quadros of Brazil resigns after just seven months in power, initiating a political crisis that culminates in a military coup in 1964.
*1967 &ndash; George Lincoln Rockwell, founder of the American Nazi Party, is assassinated by a former member of his group.
*1980 &ndash; Zimbabwe joins the United Nations.
*1981 &ndash; Voyager 2 spacecraft makes its closest approach to Saturn.
*1985 &ndash; Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808 crashes near Auburn/Lewiston Municipal Airport in Auburn, Maine, killing all eight people on board including peace activist and child actress Samantha Smith.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRanter|firstHarro|titleASN Aircraft accident Beechcraft 99 Airliner N300WP Auburn Airport, ME (LEW)|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19850825-0|url-statuslive|date1985-08-24|access-date2021-08-24|websiteaviation-safety.net|publisherAviation Safety Network|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050319070150/http://aviation-safety.net:80/database/record.php?id19850825-0 |archive-date=2005-03-19 }}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Voyager 2 spacecraft makes its closest approach to Neptune, the last planet in the Solar System at the time, due to Pluto being within Neptune's orbit from 1979 to 1999.<ref>[https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/question5.html#:~:text=Answer%3A,8th%20planet%20from%20the%20Sun Is Pluto or Neptune farthest from the Sun?] StarChild Question of the Month for January 1999. NASA.</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Pakistan International Airlines Flight 404, carrying 54 people, disappears over the Himalayas after takeoff from Gilgit Airport in Pakistan. The aircraft was never found.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident Fokker F-27 Friendship 200 AP-BBF Himalaya Mountains |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19890825-1 |date 1989-08-25|access-date2022-08-17 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisher=Aviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Belarus gains its independence from the Soviet Union.
* 1991 &ndash; The Battle of Vukovar begins. An 87-day siege of Vukovar by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), supported by various Serb paramilitary forces, between August and November 1991 (during the Croatian War of Independence).
* 1991 &ndash; Linus Torvalds announces the first version of what will become Linux.
*1997 &ndash; Egon Krenz, the former East German leader, is convicted of a shoot-to-kill policy at the Berlin Wall.
*2001 &ndash; American singer Aaliyah and several members of her entourage are killed as their overloaded aircraft crashes shortly after takeoff from Marsh Harbour Airport, Bahamas.
*2003 &ndash; NASA successfully launches the Spitzer Space Telescope into space.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.spaceflightnow.com/delta/d298/ |title300th Delta rocket launches new window on Universe |workCBS News via Spaceflight Now |firstWilliam |lastHarwood |date25 August 2003 |access-date=25 August 2022}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; Hurricane Katrina makes landfall in Florida.<ref name"tcr">{{cite report|author1Richard Knabb |author2Jamie Rhome |author3Daniel Brown |publisherNational Hurricane Center|date2005-12-20|titleHurricane Katrina Tropical Cyclone Report|access-date2012-04-07|url{{NHC TCR url|idAL122005_Katrina}}|format=PDF}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Former Prime Minister of Ukraine Pavlo Lazarenko is sentenced to nine years imprisonment for money laundering, wire fraud, and extortion.
*2010 &ndash; A Filair Let L-410 Turbolet crashes on approach to Bandundu Airport, killing 20.<ref>{{Cite web |date2010-08-26 |title20 killed in DRC plane crash |urlhttps://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2010/08/killed-in-drc-plane-crash/ |access-date2022-06-04 |websiteCapital News |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2011 &ndash; Fifty-two people are killed during an arson attack caused by members of the drug cartel Los Zetas.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/26/world/americas/26mexico.html|titleArson Fire Kills 52 in a Casino in Mexico|workThe New York Times|date25 August 2011|firstRandal C|lastArchibold|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Voyager 1 spacecraft enters interstellar space, becoming the first man-made object to do so.<ref>{{cite news |workThe New York Times |last1Barnes |first1Brooks |titleIn a Breathtaking First, NASA's Voyager 1 Exits the Solar System |date12 September 2013 |access-date9 May 2023 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/13/science/in-a-breathtaking-first-nasa-craft-exits-the-solar-system.html}}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; Hurricane Harvey makes landfall in Texas as a powerful Category&nbsp;4 hurricane, the strongest hurricane to make landfall in the United States since 2004.
* 2017 &ndash; Conflict in Rakhine State (2016–present): One hundred seventy people are killed in at least 26 separate attacks carried out by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army, leading to the governments of Myanmar and Malaysia designating the group as a terrorist organisation.<ref name"Reuters6">{{cite news|last1Lone|first1Wa|last2Naing|first2Shoon|titleAt least 71 killed in Myanmar as Rohingya insurgents stage major attack|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-idUSKCN1B507K?il0|access-date25 August 2022|workReuters|date24 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleThe Republic of the Union of Myanmar Anti-Terrorism Central Committee Statement|urlhttp://www.statecounsellor.gov.mm/nrpcen/node/124|publisherNational Reconciliation and Peace Centre|access-date12 February 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180213022345/http://www.statecounsellor.gov.mm/nrpcen/node/124|archive-date13 February 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleMyanmar: New evidence reveals Rohingya armed group massacred scores in Rakhine State|urlhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/myanmar-new-evidence-reveals-rohingya-armed-group-massacred-scores-in-rakhine-state/|websitewww.amnesty.org|date22 May 2018 |languageen|access-date25 August 2022}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
*1467 &ndash; Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 2nd Duke of Alburquerque, Spanish duke (d. 1526)
*1491 &ndash; Innocenzo Cybo, Italian cardinal (d. 1550)
*1509 &ndash; Ippolito II d'Este, Italian cardinal and statesman (d. 1572)<ref>{{cite book|author1Ernesto Milano|author2Milena Luppi|author3Biblioteca Estense (Modena)|titleArt and culture in the Renaissance|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idM8PpAAAAMAAJ|year1996|publisherIl Bulino|isbn978-88-86251-22-8|page260}}</ref>
*1530 &ndash; Ivan the Terrible, Russian ruler (d. 1584)
*1540 &ndash; Lady Catherine Grey, English noblewoman (d. 1568)
*1561 &ndash; Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (d. 1632)
1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; Philipp Moritz, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg, German noble (d. 1638)
*1624 &ndash; François de la Chaise, French priest (d. 1709)
*1662 &ndash; John Leverett the Younger, American lawyer, academic, and politician (d. 1724)
*1707 &ndash; Louis I of Spain (d. 1724)
*1724 &ndash; George Stubbs, English painter and academic (d. 1806)<ref>{{cite book|author1George Stubbs|author2Tate Gallery|author3Yale Center for British Art|titleGeorge Stubbs, 1724-1806|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMWIyAQAAIAAJ|year1984|publisherTate Gallery|page12|isbn9780881620382}}</ref>
*1741 &ndash; Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and author (d. 1792)
*1744 &ndash; Johann Gottfried Herder, German poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1803)
*1758 &ndash; Franz Teyber, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1810)
*1767 &ndash; Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, French soldier and politician (d. 1794)<ref>{{cite web |titleLouis de Saint-Just {{!}} French revolutionary {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-de-Saint-Just |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date17 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1776 &ndash; Thomas Bladen Capel, English admiral (d. 1853)
*1786 &ndash; Ludwig I of Bavaria, King of Bavaria (d. 1868)
*1793 &ndash; John Neal, American writer, critic, editor, lecturer, and activist (d. 1876)<ref>{{cite book | last Sears | first Donald A. | title John Neal | publisher Twayne Publishers | location Boston, Massachusetts | year 1978 | isbn 080-5-7723-08 | page 11}}</ref>
*1796 &ndash; James Lick, American carpenter and piano builder (d. 1876)
*1802 &ndash; Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (d. 1850)
*1803 &ndash; Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias (d. 1880)
*1812 &ndash; Nikolay Zinin, Russian organic chemist (d. 1880)
*1817 &ndash; Marie-Eugénie de Jésus, French nun and saint, founded the Religious of the Assumption (d. 1898)
*1829 &ndash; Carlo Acton, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1909)
*1836 &ndash; Bret Harte, American short story writer and poet (d. 1902)
*1840 &ndash; George C. Magoun, American businessman (d. 1893)
*1841 &ndash; Emil Theodor Kocher, Swiss physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917)
*1845 &ndash; Ludwig II of Bavaria, King of Bavaria (d. 1886)
*1850 &ndash; Charles Richet, French physiologist and occultist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1935)
*1867 &ndash; James W. Gerard, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Germany (d. 1951)
*1869 &ndash; Tom Kiely, British-Irish decathlete (d. 1951)
*1875 &ndash; Agnes Mowinckel, Norwegian actress (d. 1963)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleAgnes Mowinckel |first1Marit |last1Dalen |first2Lillian |last2Bikset |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date23 August 2023 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Agnes_Mowinckel |languageno|access-date16 March 2024}}</ref>
*1877 &ndash; Joshua Lionel Cowen, American businessman, co-founded the Lionel Corporation (d. 1965)
*1878 &ndash; Ted Birnie, English footballer and manager (d. 1935)
*1882 &ndash; Seán T. O'Kelly, Irish journalist and politician, 2nd President of Ireland (d. 1966)
*1889 &ndash; Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1969)
*1891 &ndash; David Shimoni, Belarusian-Israeli poet and translator (d. 1956)
*1893 &ndash; Henry Trendley Dean, American dentist (d. 1962)
*1898 &ndash; Helmut Hasse, German mathematician and academic (d. 1975)
* 1898 &ndash; Arthur Wood, English cricketer (d. 1973)
*1899 &ndash; Paul Herman Buck, American historian and author (d. 1978)
*1900 &ndash; Isobel Hogg Kerr Beattie, Scottish architect (d. 1970) <ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id100348|titleDictionary of Scottish Architects – DSA Architect Biography Report (October 18, 2017, 8:47 pm)|lastGoold|firstDavid|websitewww.scottisharchitects.org.uk|access-date=2017-10-18}}</ref>
* 1900 &ndash; Hans Adolf Krebs, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Stefan Wolpe, German-American composer and educator (d. 1972)
*1903 &ndash; Arpad Elo, Hungarian-American chess player, created the Elo rating system (d. 1992)
*1905 &ndash; Faustina Kowalska, Polish nun and saint (d. 1938)
*1906 &ndash; Jim Smith, English cricketer (d. 1979)
*1909 &ndash; Ruby Keeler, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1993)
* 1909 &ndash; Michael Rennie, English actor and producer (d. 1971)
*1910 &ndash; George Cisar, American baseball player (d. 2010)
* 1910 &ndash; Dorothea Tanning, American painter, sculptor, and poet (d. 2012)
*1911 &ndash; Võ Nguyên Giáp, Vietnamese general and politician, 3rd Minister of Defence for Vietnam (d. 2013)
*1912 &ndash; Erich Honecker, German politician (d. 1994)
*1913 &ndash; Don DeFore, American actor (d. 1993)
* 1913 &ndash; Walt Kelly, American illustrator and animator (d. 1973)
*1916 &ndash; Van Johnson, American actor (d. 2008)
* 1916 &ndash; Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003)
* 1916 &ndash; Saburō Sakai, Japanese lieutenant and pilot (d. 2000)
*1917 &ndash; Mel Ferrer, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008)
*1918 &ndash; Leonard Bernstein, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990)<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 25: Alexander Skarsgard, Billy Ray Cyrus |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2022/08/25/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-25-Alexander-Skarsgard-Billy-Ray-Cyrus/1991661300939/ |publisherUPI |access-date23 August 2023 |date25 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1918 &ndash; Richard Greene, English actor (d. 1985)
*1919 &ndash; William P. Foster, American bandleader and educator (d. 2010)
* 1919 &ndash; George Wallace, American lawyer, and politician, 45th Governor of Alabama (d. 1998)<ref name="UPI" />
* 1919 &ndash; Jaap Rijks, Dutch Olympic medalist (d. 2017)
*1921 &ndash; Monty Hall, Canadian television personality and game show host (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite web |last1Hevesi |first1Dennis |titleMonty Hall, Co-Creator and Host of 'Let's Make a Deal,' Dies at 96 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/30/obituaries/monty-hall-dead-lets-make-a-deal.html |websiteThe New York Times |access-date28 September 2022 |date=30 September 2017}}</ref>
* 1921 &ndash; Bryce Mackasey, Canadian businessman and politician, 20th Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 1999)
* 1921 &ndash; Brian Moore, Northern Irish-Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 1999)
*1923 &ndash; Álvaro Mutis, Colombian-Mexican author and poet (d. 2013)
* 1923 &ndash; Allyre Sirois, Canadian lawyer and judge (d. 2012)
*1924 &ndash; Zsuzsa Körmöczy, Hungarian tennis player and coach (d. 2006)
*1925 &ndash; Thea Astley, Australian journalist and author (d. 2004)
* 1925 &ndash; Hilmar Hoffmann, German film and culture academic (d. 2018)
* 1925 &ndash; Stepas Butautas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach (d. 2001)
*1927 &ndash; Althea Gibson, American tennis player and golfer (d. 2003)<ref name="UPI" />
* 1927 &ndash; Des Renford, Australian swimmer (d. 1999)
*1928 &ndash; John "Kayo" Dottley, American football player (d. 2018)
* 1928 &ndash; Darrell Johnson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2004)
* 1928 &ndash; Karl Korte, American composer and academic (d. 2022)
* 1928 &ndash; Herbert Kroemer, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2024)
*1930 &ndash; Sean Connery, Scottish actor and producer (d. 2020)<ref name"NYT-20201031">{{cite news |lastHarmetz |firstAljean |titleSean Connery, Who Embodied James Bond and More, Dies at 90 – To legions of fans who have watched a parade of actors play Agent 007, none played the part as magnetically or as indelibly as Mr. Connery. |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/31/movies/sean-connery-dead.html |date31 October 2020 |workThe New York Times |access-date31 October 2020}}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; György Enyedi, Hungarian economist and geographer (d. 2012)
* 1930 &ndash; Graham Jarvis, Canadian actor (d. 2003)
* 1930 &ndash; Crispin Tickell, English academic and diplomat, British Permanent Representative to the United Nations (d. 2022)
*1931 &ndash; Regis Philbin, American actor and television host (d. 2020)<ref name="UPI" />
*1932 &ndash; Anatoly Kartashov, Soviet aviator and cosmonaut (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite book |last1Burgess |first1Colin |last2Hall |first2Rex |titleThe First Soviet Cosmonaut Team: Their Lives, Legacy, and Historical Impact |date2009 |publisherSpringer |locationBerlin |isbn9780387848235 |page48 |lccn=2008935694}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Patrick F. McManus, American journalist and author (d. 2018)
* 1933 &ndash; Wayne Shorter, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2023)<ref name="AP" />
* 1933 &ndash; Tom Skerritt, American actor<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 25, 2022 includes celebrities Blake Lively, Billy Ray Cyrus |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-25-2022-includes-celebrities-blake-lively-billy-ray-cyrus.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date23 August 2023 |date=25 August 2022}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; Lise Bacon, Canadian judge and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec
* 1934 &ndash; Eddie Ilarde, Filipino journalist and politician (d. 2020)
*1935 &ndash; Charles Wright, American poet
*1936 &ndash; Giridharilal Kedia, Indian businessman, founded the Image Institute of Technology & Management (d. 2009)
*1937 &ndash; Jimmy Hannan, Australian television host and singer (d. 2019)
* 1937 &ndash; Virginia Euwer Wolff, American author
*1938 &ndash; David Canary, American actor (d. 2015)
* 1938 &ndash; Frederick Forsyth, English journalist and author<ref name="UPI" />
*1939 &ndash; John Badham, English-American actor, director, and producer
*1939 &ndash; Marshall Brickman, Brazilian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news |lastGates |firstAnita |dateDecember 1, 2024 |titleMarshall Brickman, Woody Allen's Co-Writer on Hit Films, Dies at 85 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/01/movies/marshall-brickman-dead.html |access-dateDecember 2, 2024 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
*1940 &ndash; Wilhelm von Homburg, German boxer and actor (d. 2004)
* 1941 &ndash; Mario Corso, Italian footballer and coach (d. 2020)
* 1941 &ndash; Ludwig Müller, German footballer (d. 2021)
*1942 &ndash; Nathan Deal, American lawyer, and politician, 82nd Governor of Georgia
*1942 &ndash; Pat Ingoldsby, Irish poet and television presenter (d. 2025)<ref>{{Cite web |lastKelleher |firstOlivia |dateMarch 1, 2025 |titlePoet and broadcaster Pat Ingoldsby dies aged 82 |urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2025/03/01/poet-and-broadcaster-pat-ingoldsby-dies-aged-82/ |access-dateMarch 6, 2025 |websiteThe Irish Times |languageen}}</ref>
* 1942 &ndash; Ivan Koloff, Canadian wrestler (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite web |titleThis Day in Wrestling History (August 25): Best. Summerslam. Ever. |urlhttps://www.cagesideseats.com/2016/8/25/12543574/this-day-in-wrestling-history-august-25-best-summerslam-ever |publisherCageSide Seats |access-date23 August 2023 |date=25 August 2016}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; Conrad Black, Canadian historian and author
* 1944 &ndash; Jacques Demers, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and politician
* 1944 &ndash; Anthony Heald, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1944 &ndash; Andrew Longmore, British lawyer and judge
*1945 &ndash; Daniel Hulet, Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011)
* 1945 &ndash; Hannah Louise Shearer, American screenwriter and producer
*1946 &ndash; Rollie Fingers, American baseball player<ref name="UPI" />
* 1946 &ndash; Charles Ghigna, American poet and author
* 1946 &ndash; Charlie Sanders, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015)
*1947 &ndash; Michael Kaluta, American author and illustrator
* 1947 &ndash; Keith Tippett, British jazz pianist and composer (d. 2020)
*1948 &ndash; Ledward Kaapana, American singer and guitarist
* 1948 &ndash; Nicholas A. Peppas, Greek chemist and biologist
*1949 &ndash; Martin Amis, British novelist (d. 2023)<ref name="UPI" />
* 1949 &ndash; Rijkman Groenink, Dutch banker and academic
* 1949 &ndash; John Savage, American actor and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1949 &ndash; Gene Simmons, Israeli-American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor<ref name="AP" />
*1950 &ndash; Willy DeVille, American singer and songwriter (d. 2009)
* 1950 &ndash; Charles Fambrough, American bassist, composer, and producer (d. 2011)
*1951 &ndash; Rob Halford, English heavy metal singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1951 &ndash; Bill Handel, Brazilian-American lawyer and radio host
*1952 &ndash; Kurban Berdyev, Turkmen footballer and manager
* 1952 &ndash; Geoff Downes, English keyboard player, songwriter, and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1952 &ndash; Duleep Mendis, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach
*1954 &ndash; Elvis Costello, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1954 &ndash; Jim Wallace, Baron Wallace of Tankerness, Scottish lawyer and politician, First Minister of Scotland
*1955 &ndash; John McGeoch, Scottish guitarist (d. 2004)
* 1955 &ndash; Gerd Müller, German businessman and politician
*1956 &ndash; Matt Aitken, English songwriter and record producer
* 1956 &ndash; Takeshi Okada, Japanese footballer, coach, and manager
* 1956 &ndash; Henri Toivonen, Finnish race car driver (d. 1986)
*1957 &ndash; Sikander Bakht, Pakistani cricketer and sportscaster
* 1957 &ndash; Simon McBurney, English actor and director
* 1957 &ndash; Frank Serratore, American ice hockey player and coach
*1958 &ndash; Tim Burton, American director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1958 &ndash; Christian LeBlanc, American actor<ref name="AP" />
*1959 &ndash; Ian Falconer, American author and illustrator (d. 2023)
* 1959 &ndash; Steve Levy, American lawyer and politician
* 1959 &ndash; Bernardo Rezende, Brazilian volleyball coach and player
* 1959 &ndash; Lane Smith, American author and illustrator
* 1959 &ndash; Ruth Ann Swenson, American soprano and actress
*1960 &ndash; Ashley Crow, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1960 &ndash; Georg Zellhofer, Austrian footballer and manager
*1961 &ndash; Billy Ray Cyrus, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1961 &ndash; Dave Tippett, Canadian ice hockey player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleDave Tippett |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/dave-tippett-8451911 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date23 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1961 &ndash; Ally Walker, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1961 &ndash; Joanne Whalley, English actress<ref name="AP" />
*1962 &ndash; Taslima Nasrin, Bangladeshi author
* 1962 &ndash; Theresa Andrews, American competition swimmer and Olympic champion
* 1962 &ndash; Vivian Campbell, Northern Irish rock guitarist and songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1962 &ndash; Michael Zorc, German footballer
*1963 &ndash; Miro Cerar, Slovenian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Slovenia
* 1963 &ndash; Shock G, American rapper and producer (d. 2021)
* 1963 &ndash; Tiina Intelmann, Estonian lawyer and diplomat
*1964 &ndash; Azmin Ali, Malaysian mathematician and politician
* 1964 &ndash; Maxim Kontsevich, Russian-American mathematician and academic
* 1964 &ndash; Blair Underwood, American actor<ref name="AP" />
*1965 &ndash; Cornelius Bennett, American football player
* 1965 &ndash; Tim Cain, American video game designer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vxgjd4i1o4UY |titleMatt Chat 66: Fallout with Tim Cain, Pt. 1 |publisherYouTube |date2010-06-27 |accessdate2011-06-05 |archive-date2016-12-20 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220040640/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vxgjd4i1o4UY |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* 1965 &ndash; Sanjeev Sharma, Indian cricketer and coach
* 1965 &ndash; Mia Zapata, American singer<ref name"gitsweb">{{cite web |urlhttp://thegits.com/?page_id410 |titleMia Zapata 1965–1993 |publisherThe Gits |websitethegits.com |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130406042509/http://thegits.com/?page_id410 |archive-date=2013-04-06}}</ref> (d. 1993)
*1966 &ndash; Albert Belle, American baseball player
* 1966 &ndash; Robert Maschio, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1966 &ndash; Derek Sherinian, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer
* 1966 &ndash; Terminator X, American hip-hop DJ<ref name="AP" />
*1967 &ndash; Tom Hollander, English actor<ref name="UPI" />
* 1967 &ndash; Jeff Tweedy, American singer-songwriter, musician, and producer<ref name="AP" />
*1968 &ndash; David Alan Basche, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1968 &ndash; Yuri Mitsui, Japanese actress, model, and race car driver
* 1968 &ndash; Stuart Murdoch, Scottish singer-songwriter
* 1968 &ndash; Spider One, American singer-songwriter and producer
* 1968 &ndash; Rachael Ray, American chef, author, and television host<ref name="AP" />
* 1968 &ndash; Takeshi Ueda, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player
*1969 &ndash; Olga Konkova, Norwegian-Russian pianist and composer
* 1969 &ndash; Cameron Mathison, Canadian actor and television personality<ref name="AP" />
* 1969 &ndash; Catriona Matthew, Scottish golfer
* 1969 &ndash; Vivek Razdan, Indian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
*1970 &ndash; Doug Glanville, American baseball player and sportscaster
* 1970 &ndash; Debbie Graham, American tennis player
* 1970 &ndash; Robert Horry, American basketball player and sportscaster
* 1970 &ndash; Adrian Lam, Papua New Guinean-Australian rugby league player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Jo Dee Messina, American singer-songwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1970 &ndash; Claudia Schiffer, German model and fashion designer<ref name="AP" />
*1971 &ndash; Jason Death, Australian rugby league player
* 1971 &ndash; Nathan Page, Australian actor<ref name="AP" />
*1972 &ndash; Marvin Harrison, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleMarvin Harrison |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/939/marvin-harrison |publisherESPN |access-date23 August 2023}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Fatih Akın, German director, producer, and screenwriter
*1974 &ndash; Eric Millegan, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1974 &ndash; Pablo Ozuna, Dominican baseball player
*1975 &ndash; Brad Drew, Australian rugby league player
* 1975 &ndash; Petria Thomas, Australian swimmer and coach
*1976 &ndash; Damon Jones, American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleDamon Jones |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/_/id/406/damon-jones |publisherESPN |access-date23 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Javed Qadeer, Pakistani cricketer and coach
* 1976 &ndash; Alexander Skarsgård, Swedish actor<ref>{{cite book|author((Editors of Chase's))|titleChase's Calendar of Events 2019: The Ultimate Go-to Guide for Special Days, Weeks and Months|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJVJtDwAAQBAJ&pgPA427|date2018|publisherRowman & Littlefield|isbn978-1-64143-264-1|page=427}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Masumi Asano, Japanese voice actress and producer
* 1977 &ndash; Andy McDonald, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1977 &ndash; Jonathan Togo, American actor<ref name="AP" />
*1978 &ndash; Kel Mitchell, American actor, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP" />
* 1978 &ndash; Robert Mohr, German rugby player
*1979 &ndash; Marlon Harewood, English footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Philipp Mißfelder, German historian and politician (d. 2015)
* 1979 &ndash; Deanna Nolan, American basketball player
*1981 &ndash; Rachel Bilson, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1981 &ndash; Jan-Berrie Burger, Namibian cricketer
* 1981 &ndash; Camille Pin, French tennis player
*1982 &ndash; Jung Jung-suk, South Korean footballer (d. 2011)
* 1982 &ndash; Nick Schultz, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleNick Schultz |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/nick-schultz-8468513 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date23 August 2023}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; James Rossiter, English race car driver
*1984 &ndash; Florian Mohr, German footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Anya Monzikova, Russian-American model and actress
*1986 &ndash; Rodney Ferguson, American footballer
*1987 &ndash; Stacey Farber, Canadian actress
* 1987 &ndash; Velimir Jovanović, Serbian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Blake Lively, American model and actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1987 &ndash; Amy Macdonald, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1987 &ndash; Justin Upton, American baseball player
* 1987 &ndash; Adam Warren, American baseball player
* 1987 &ndash; James Wesolowski, Australian footballer
*1988 &ndash; Angela Park, Brazilian-American golfer
* 1988 &ndash; Giga Chikadze, Georgian mixed martial artist and kickboxer<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://ufcstats.com/fighter-details/9560ff14eb3129f7 | titleStats &#124; UFC }}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Hiram Mier, Mexican footballer
*1990 &ndash; Max Muncy, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleMax Muncy |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/max-muncy-571970 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date23 August 2023}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Miyabi Natsuyaki, Japanese singer and actress
* 1992 &ndash; Ricardo Rodriguez, Swiss footballer
*1994 &ndash; Edmunds Augstkalns, Latvian ice hockey player
* 1994 &ndash; Caris LeVert, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleCaris LeVert |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1627747/caris-levert |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date23 August 2023}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Ong Seong-wu, South Korean singer and actor<ref>{{cite web|title옹성우 팬클럽, 독립유공자 후손 위해 성금 기부 '훈훈'|urlhttps://m.starnewskorea.com/article/2024082509100264558|work스타뉴스|date25 August 2024|access-date26 February 2025|languageko}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Dowoon, South Korean musician<ref>{{cite web|title데이식스 성진 “영케이와 달리 원필·도운은 원하는 거 얘기 안 하는 타입”|urlhttps://tvreport.co.kr/breaking/article/836821/|workTV리포트|date3 September 2024|access-date26 February 2025|languageko}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; China Anne McClain, American actress and singer<ref name="UPI" />
*2000 &ndash; Nicki Nicole, Argentine rapper and singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleNicki Nicole|urlhttps://www.hola.com/us/latinapowerhouse/20240929714975/nicki-nicole/?viewasamp |website¡Hola! |access-date26 March 2025|date29 September 2024}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Rebeka Jančová, Slovak alpine ski racer<ref>{{cite web |titleRebeka Jančová |urlhttps://www.olympic.sk/sportovec/rebeka-jancova |websiteSlovenský olympijský tím |access-date14 August 2023 |languagesk |date25 August 2003}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Evann Girault, French-Nigerien sabre fencer<ref>{{Cite web |date23 June 2023 |titleEvann Girault (Abba), le porte-flambeau de l'escrime nigérienne |trans-titleEvann Girault (Abba), the torchbearer of Nigerien fencing |urlhttp://www.anp.ne/article/evann-girault-abba-le-porte-flambeau-de-l-escrime-nigerienne |languageFrench |agency{{ill|Agence Nigérienne de Presse|fr|Agence nigérienne de presse}} |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240620160827/http://www.anp.ne/article/evann-girault-abba-le-porte-flambeau-de-l-escrime-nigerienne |archive-date2024-06-20}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*AD 79 &ndash; Pliny the Elder, Roman commander and philosopher (b. 23)
* 274 &ndash; Yang Yan, Jin Dynasty empress (b. 238)
* 306 &ndash; Saint Maginus, Christian hermit and martyr from Tarragona
*383 &ndash; Gratian, Roman emperor (b. 359)
* 471 &ndash; Gennadius I, patriarch of Constantinople
* 766 &ndash; Constantine Podopagouros, Byzantine official
* 766 &ndash; Strategios Podopagouros, Byzantine general
* 985 &ndash; Dietrich of Haldensleben, German margrave<ref>{{cite book |last1Reuter |first1Timothy |titleGermany in the Early Middle Ages 800-1056 |date1991 |publisherLongman |locationNew York}}</ref>
*1091 &ndash; Sisnando Davides, military leader
*1192 &ndash; Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1142)
*1258 &ndash; George Mouzalon, regent of the Empire of Nicaea
*1270 &ndash; Louis IX of France (b. 1214)<ref>{{cite book |last1Consoli |first1Joseph P. |titleThe Novellino or One Hundred Ancient Tales: An Edition and Translation based on the 1525 Gualteruzzi editio princeps |date2013 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-136-51105-9 |page158 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4_lk-wKzYZAC&pgPA158 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1270 &ndash; Alphonso of Brienne (b. c. 1225)
*1271 &ndash; Joan, Countess of Toulouse (b. 1220)
*1282 &ndash; Thomas de Cantilupe, English bishop and saint (b. 1218)
*1322 &ndash; Beatrice of Silesia, queen consort of Germany (b. c. 1292)
*1327 &ndash; Demasq Kaja, Chobanid
*1330 &ndash; Sir James Douglas, Scottish guerrilla leader (b. 1286)
*1339 &ndash; Henry de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (b. 1260)
*1368 &ndash; Andrea Orcagna, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect
*1482 &ndash; Margaret of Anjou wife of Henry VI and Queen of England (b. 1429) <ref>{{cite web |titleMargaret of Anjou {{!}} queen of England |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-of-Anjou-queen-of-England |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date15 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1485 &ndash; William Catesby, supporter of Richard III (b. 1450)
*1554 &ndash; Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, English soldier and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1473)
*1592 &ndash; William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (b. 1532)
*1600 &ndash; Hosokawa Gracia, Japanese aristocrat and Catholic convert (b. 1563)<ref>{{Cite book |lastWard |firstHaruko Nawata |urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315233697-24/hosokawa-tama-gracia-1563%E2%80%9325-august-1600-scholar-teacher-haruko-nawata-ward |titleWomen Religious Leaders in Japan's Christian Century, 1549-1650 |date2009 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-315-23369-7 |pages215–236 |chapterHosokawa Tama Gracia (1563–25 August 1600): Scholar-Teacher |doi10.4324/9781315233697-24}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1603 &ndash; Ahmad al-Mansur, Sultan of the Saadi dynasty (b. 1549)
*1631 &ndash; Nicholas Hyde, Lord Chief Justice of England (b.c. 1572)
*1632 &ndash; Thomas Dekker, English author and playwright (b. 1572)
*1688 &ndash; Henry Morgan, Welsh admiral and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica (b. 1635)
*1699 &ndash; Christian V of Denmark (b. 1646)
*1711 &ndash; Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1656)
*1742 &ndash; Carlos Seixas, Portuguese organist and composer (b. 1704)
*1774 &ndash; Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer and educator (b. 1714)
*1776 &ndash; David Hume, Scottish economist, historian, and philosopher (b. 1711)
*1794 &ndash; Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Belgian-Austrian diplomat (b. 1727)
*1797 &ndash; Thomas Chittenden, Governor of the Vermont Republic, and first Governor of the State of Vermont (b. 1730)
*1815 &ndash; Stephen Badlam, American artisan and military officer (b. 1815)<ref name":0">{{Cite news |lastNash |firstSusan Higginson |dateJanuary 26, 1958 |titleBadlam Famed Dorchester Cabinet Maker |pages7 |workBoston Herald |urlhttps://www.genealogybank.com/newspaper-clippings/badlam-famed-dorchester-cabinet-maker/cbnqbgittqltpchprnzhkkgoliqgdrzg_ip-10-166-46-104_1700872831162}}</ref>
*1819 &ndash; James Watt, Scottish engineer and instrument maker (b. 1736)<ref>{{cite web |titleJames Watt {{!}} Biography, Inventions, Steam Engine, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Watt |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date14 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
*1822 &ndash; William Herschel, German-English astronomer and composer (b. 1738)
*1867 &ndash; Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist (b. 1791)
*1882 &ndash; Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (b. 1803)
*1886 &ndash; Zinovios Valvis, Greek lawyer and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1791)
*1892 &ndash; William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (b. 1808)
*1900 &ndash; Friedrich Nietzsche, German philologist, philosopher, and critic (b. 1844)
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter and lithographer (b. 1836)
*1908 &ndash; Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
*1916 &ndash; Mary Tappan Wright, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1851)
*1921 &ndash; Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (b. 1886)
*1924 &ndash; Mariano Álvarez, Filipino general and politician (b. 1818)
* 1924 &ndash; Velma Caldwell Melville, American editor, and writer of prose and poetry (b. 1858)
*1925 &ndash; Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, Austrian field marshal (b. 1852)
*1930 &ndash; Frankie Campbell, American boxer (b. 1904)
*1931 &ndash; Dorothea Fairbridge, South African author and co-founder of Guild of Loyal Women (b. 1862)
*1936 &ndash; Juliette Adam, French author (b. 1836)<ref>{{cite book|first1Kathryn J.|last1Crecelius|first2Karen|last2Offen|chapterJuliette Adam|editor-firstKatharina M.|editor-lastWilson|titleAn Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers Volume 1|locationNew York|publisherGarland|year1991|page3|isbn=978-0-82408-547-6}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Aleksandr Kuprin, Russian pilot, explorer, and author (b. 1870)
*1939 &ndash; Babe Siebert, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1904)
*1940 &ndash; Prince Jean, Duke of Guise (b. 1874)
*1942 &ndash; Prince George, Duke of Kent (b. 1902)
*1945 &ndash; John Birch, American soldier and missionary (b. 1918)
*1956 &ndash; Alfred Kinsey, American biologist and academic (b. 1894)
*1965 &ndash; Moonlight Graham, American baseball player and physician (b. 1879)
*1966 &ndash; Lao She, Chinese novelist and dramatist (b. 1899)<ref>{{Cite journal|lastLyell|firstWilliam A|titleLao She (3 February 1899–25 August 1966)|journalDictionary of Literary Biography|seriesChinese Fiction Writers, 1900–1949|volume328|pages104–122|viaGale Literature}}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; Stanley Bruce, Australian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1883)
* 1967 &ndash; Oscar Cabalén, Argentine race car driver (b. 1928)
* 1967 &ndash; Paul Muni, Ukrainian-born American actor (b. 1895)
* 1967 &ndash; George Lincoln Rockwell, American commander, politician, and activist, founded the American Nazi Party (b. 1918)
*1968 &ndash; Stan McCabe, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1910)
*1969 &ndash; Robert Cosgrove, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1884)
*1970 &ndash; Tachū Naitō, Japanese architect and engineer, designed the Tokyo Tower (b. 1886)
*1971 &ndash; Ted Lewis, American singer and clarinet player (b. 1890)
*1973 &ndash; Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám, Hungarian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1875)
*1976 &ndash; Eyvind Johnson, Swedish novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)
*1977 &ndash; Károly Kós, Hungarian architect, ethnologist, and politician (b. 1883)
*1979 &ndash; Stan Kenton, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1911)
*1980 &ndash; Gower Champion, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1919)
*1981 &ndash; Nassos Kedrakas, Greek actor and cinematographer (b. 1915)
*1982 &ndash; Anna German, Polish singer (b. 1936)
*1984 &ndash; Truman Capote, American novelist, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1924)
* 1984 &ndash; Viktor Chukarin, Ukrainian gymnast and coach (b. 1921)
* 1984 &ndash; Waite Hoyt, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1899)
*1988 &ndash; Art Rooney, American businessman, founded the Pittsburgh Steelers (b. 1901)
*1990 &ndash; Morley Callaghan, Canadian author and playwright (b. 1903)
*1995 &ndash; Doug Stegmeyer, American bass player and producer (b. 1951)
*1998 &ndash; Lewis F. Powell, Jr., American lawyer and Supreme Court justice (b. 1907)
*1999 &ndash; Rob Fisher, English keyboard player and songwriter (b. 1956)
*2000 &ndash; Carl Barks, American author and illustrator (b. 1901)<ref>{{cite book |last1Lenburg |first1Jeff |titleWho's who in Animated Cartoons: An International Guide to Film & Television's Award-winning and Legendary Animators |date2006 |publisherHal Leonard Corporation |isbn978-1-55783-671-7 |page20 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFVShFCjVzvIC&pgPA20 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2000 &ndash; Frederick C. Bock, American soldier and pilot (b. 1918)
* 2000 &ndash; Jack Nitzsche, American pianist, composer, and producer (b. 1937)
* 2000 &ndash; Allen Woody, American bass player and songwriter (b. 1955)
*2001 &ndash; Aaliyah, American singer and actress (b. 1979)
* 2001 &ndash; Carl Brewer, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1938)
* 2001 &ndash; Üzeyir Garih, Turkish engineer and businessman, co-founded Alarko Holding (b. 1929)
* 2001 &ndash; Ken Tyrrell, English race car driver and businessman, founded Tyrrell Racing (b. 1924)
*2002 &ndash; Dorothy Hewett, Australian author and poet (b. 1923)
*2003 &ndash; Tom Feelings, American author and illustrator (b. 1933)
*2005 &ndash; Peter Glotz, Czech-German academic and politician (b. 1939)
*2006 &ndash; Noor Hassanali, Trinidadian-Tobagonian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1918)
*2007 &ndash; Benjamin Aaron, American lawyer and scholar (b. 1915)
* 2007 &ndash; Ray Jones, English footballer (b. 1988)
*2008 &ndash; Ahmad Faraz, Pakistani poet (b. 1931)
* 2008 &ndash; Kevin Duckworth, American basketball player (b. 1964)
*2009 &ndash; Ted Kennedy, American politician (b. 1932)
* 2009 &ndash; Mandé Sidibé, Malian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Mali (b. 1940)
*2011 &ndash; Lazar Mojsov, Macedonian politician (b. 1920)
*2012 &ndash; Florencio Amarilla, Paraguayan footballer, coach, and actor (b. 1935)
* 2012 &ndash; Neil Armstrong, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1930)
* 2012 &ndash; Roberto González Barrera, Mexican banker and businessman (b. 1930)
* 2012 &ndash; Donald Gorrie, Scottish politician (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: Donald Gorrie, politician |urlhttps://www.scotsman.com/news/obituaries/obituary-donald-gorrie-politician-1611221 |websitewww.scotsman.com |access-date28 September 2022 |languageen |date28 August 2012}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Ciril Bergles, Slovene poet and translator (b. 1934)
* 2013 &ndash; António Borges, Portuguese economist and banker (b. 1949)
* 2013 &ndash; William Froug, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1922)
* 2013 &ndash; Liu Fuzhi, Chinese academic and politician, 3rd Minister of Justice for China (b. 1917)
* 2013 &ndash; Raghunath Panigrahi, Indian singer-songwriter (b. 1932)
* 2013 &ndash; Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (b. 1930)
*2014 &ndash; William Greaves, American director and producer (b. 1926)
* 2014 &ndash; Marcel Masse, Canadian educator and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of National Defence (b. 1936)
* 2014 &ndash; Nico M. M. Nibbering, Dutch chemist and academic (b. 1938)
* 2014 &ndash; Uziah Thompson, Jamaican-American drummer and producer (b. 1936)
* 2014 &ndash; Enrique Zileri, Peruvian journalist and publisher (b. 1931)
*2015 &ndash; José María Benegas, Spanish lawyer and politician (b. 1948)
* 2015 &ndash; Francis Sejersted, Norwegian historian and academic (b. 1936)
*2016 &ndash; Marvin Kaplan, American actor (b. 1927)
*2017 &ndash; Rich Piana, American bodybuilder (b. 1971)
*2018 &ndash; John McCain, American politician (b. 1936)
*2019 &ndash; Ferdinand Piëch, Austrian business magnate and engineer (b. 1937) <ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49489424|titleObituary: Volkswagen's visionary leader Ferdinand Piëch|websiteBBC News|date2019-08-27|access-date=2019-10-06}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Mable John, American blues vocalist (b. 1930)<ref>{{cite web |titleMable John obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/sep/02/mable-john-obituary |websitethe Guardian |access-date7 September 2022 |languageen |date2 September 2022}}</ref>
*2024 – Salim Al-Huss, Lebanese statesman, 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon (b. 1929)<ref>{{Cite web |agencyAssociated Press |date2024-08-25 |titleFormer five-time Lebanese prime minister Salim Hoss dies at 94 |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/obituaries/story/2024-08-25/former-five-time-lebanese-prime-minister-salim-hoss-dies-at-94 |access-date2024-08-27 |websiteLos Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Æbbe of Coldingham
** Aredius
** Genesius of Arles
** Genesius of Rome
** Ginés de la Jara (or Genesius of Cartagena)
** Gregory of Utrecht
** Joseph Calasanz
** Louis IX of France<ref>{{cite book |last1Gaposchkin |first1Marianne Cecilia |titleThe Making of Saint Louis: Kingship, Sanctity, and Crusade in the Later Middle Ages |date2008 |publisherCornell University Press |isbn978-0-8014-4550-7 |page67 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtRDaMwvt4ysC |languageen}}</ref>
** Blessed Ludovicus Baba
** Blessed Ludovicus Sasada
** Blessed Luis Sotelo
** Menas of Constantinople
** Blessed Miguel de Carvalho
** Patricia of Naples
** Blessed Pedro Vásquez
** Thomas de Cantilupe (or of Hereford)
**August 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Day of Songun (North Korea)
* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Uruguay from Brazil in 1825.
* Soldier's Day (Brazil)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/25 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day25}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/25 |titleHistorical Events on August 25 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 25}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_25 | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.217791 |
1520 | Aachen | {{Short description|City in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany}}
{{Other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox German place
| name = Aachen
| German_name = {{lang|ksh|Oche}} <small>(Aachen dialect)</small>
| type = City
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/2/3/2
| total_width = 290
| align = center
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Blick auf das Rathaus und den Dom Aachens aufgenommen von St Jakob.jpg
| caption1 = View over Aachen with the town hall and the cathedral
| image2 = Aachen Cathedral night.jpg
| caption2 = Aachen Cathedral and St. Foillan's Church
| image3 = Hauptaltar mit Marienschrein - Innere des Aachener Dom - Aachen - Nordrhein-Westfalen - Deutschland (21776757089).jpg
| caption3 = Choir and apse with Shrine of Mary
| image4 = Aachener Dom Kuppel und Barbarossaleuchter.jpg
| caption4 = Octagon of the Palatine Chapel
| image5 = Karlsschrein front side left.jpg
| caption5 = Shrine of Charlemagne
| image6 = Bust of Charlemagne.png
| caption6 = Bust of Charlemagne
| image7 = Elisenbrunnen Aachen zur blauen Stunde.jpg
| caption7 = Elise's Fountain
| image8 = St Johann-Baptist 2.jpg
| caption8 = St. John's Church
}}
| image_coa = DEU Aachen COA.svg
| image_flag = Flag de-city of Aachen.svg
| coordinates {{coord|50|46|32|N|06|05|01|E|formatdms|display=inline,title}}
| image_plan = Aachen in AC (2009).svg
| plantext = Location of Aachen within Städteregion Aachen
| state = North Rhine-Westphalia
| region = Cologne
| district = Aachen
| elevation = 173
| area = 160.85
| postal_code = 52062–52080
| area_code = 0241 / 02405 / 02407 / 02408
| licence = AC / MON
| Gemeindeschlüssel = 05334002
| divisions | mayor Sibylle Keupen<ref>[https://www.wahlergebnisse.nrw/kommunalwahlen/2020/index_obb_lr.shtml#ob_lr Wahlergebnisse in NRW Kommunalwahlen 2020] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220517032138/https://www.wahlergebnisse.nrw/kommunalwahlen/2020/index_obb_lr.shtml#ob_lr |date17 May 2022 }}, Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, accessed 19 June 2021.</ref>
| leader_term = 2020&ndash;25
| Bürgermeistertitel = Oberbürgermeister
| party = Independent
| ruling_party1 = The Greens
| ruling_party2 SPD<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/gruene-und-rote-geben-jetzt-in-aachen-die-richtung-vor_aid-79063117|titleKoalitionsvertrag: Grüne und Rote geben jetzt in Aachen die Richtung vor|firstAlbrecht|lastPeltzer|date28 October 2022|newspaperAachener Zeitung|accessdate28 February 2023|archive-date27 March 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230327223102/https://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/gruene-und-rote-geben-jetzt-in-aachen-die-richtung-vor_aid-79063117|url-status=live}}</ref>
| ruling_party3 | website {{URL|aachen.de}} {{in lang|de}}
}}
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Aachen ({{IPAc-en|'|ɑː|k|ən|audioEn-us-Aachen.ogg}} {{respell|AH|kən}}, {{IPA|de|ˈaːxn̩|lang|De-Aachen.ogg}}; {{langx|ksh|labelAachen dialect|Oche}} {{IPA|ksh|ˈɔːxə|}}; {{langx|nl|Aken}} {{IPA|nl|ˈaːkə(n)||nl-Aken.ogg}}; French and historical English: Aix-la-Chapelle {{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ɛ|k|s|_|l|ə|_|ʃ|ə|ˈ|p|ɛ|l}} {{respell|EKS|_|lə|_|shə|PEL}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˌ|ɛ|k|s|_|l|ɑː|_|ʃ|ɑː|ˈ|p|ɛ|l|,_|ˌ|eɪ|k|s|_|-}} {{respell|EKS|_|lah|_|shah|PEL|,_|AYKS|_-}}, {{IPA|fr|ɛks la ʃapɛl|lang|LL-Q150 (fra)-Pamputt-Aix-la-Chapelle.wav}}.}} {{langx|la|Aquae Granni|linksno}} or {{lang|la|Aquisgranum}}) is the 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/politik_verwaltung/pressemitteilungen/Zensus-2022.html|titleZensus 2022: Stadt Aachen gewinnt 10.941 Einwohner*innen – 06/25/2024|websiteaachen.de}}</ref>
Aachen is located at the northern foothills of the High Fens and the Eifel Mountains. It sits on the Wurm River, a tributary of the Rur, and together with Mönchengladbach, it is the only larger German city in the drainage basin of the Meuse. It is the westernmost larger city in Germany, lying approximately {{convert|61|km|abbr=on}} west of Cologne and Bonn, directly bordering Belgium in the southwest, and the Netherlands in the northwest. The city lies in the Meuse–Rhine Euroregion and is the seat of the district of Aachen (Städteregion Aachen).
The once Celtic settlement was equipped with several {{Lang|la|thermae}} in the course of colonization by Roman pioneers settling at the warm Aachen thermal springs around the 1st century. After the withdrawal of the Roman troops, the vicus Aquae Granni was Frankized around the 5th century. This was followed by a period of sedentism under first Merovingian and then Carolingian rule. With the completion of the Carolingian Palace of Aachen at the transition to the 9th century, Aachen was constituted as the main royal residence of the Frankish Empire ruled by Charlemagne. Because of that the city is sometimes called "cradle of Europe".<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/aachen-history-meets-high-tech-at-the-cradle-of-europe/a-2324829|titleCity Portrait Aachen – DW – 04/27/2007|website=dw.com}}</ref> After the Treaty of Verdun, the city was within the borders of Middle Francia, until it became part of East Francia after the Treaty of Meerssen (870). It subsequently was part of the Holy Roman Empire and was granted city rights in 1166 by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, becoming an imperial city. It served as the coronation site where 31 Holy Roman Emperors were crowned Kings of the Germans from 936 to 1531, until Frankfurt am Main became the preferred place of coronation.
One of Germany's leading institutes of higher education in technology, the RWTH Aachen University ({{Lang|de|Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule Aachen}}), is located in the city. Its university hospital Uniklinikum Aachen is Europe's largest single-building hospital. Aachen's industries include science, engineering and information technology. In 2009, Aachen was ranked eighth among cities in Germany for innovation.
The regional dialect spoken in the city is a Central Franconian, Ripuarian variant with strong Limburgish influences from the dialects in the neighbouring Netherlands. As a Rhenish city, Aachen is one of the main centres of carnival celebrations in Germany, along with Cologne and Mainz. The culinary specialty for which the city is best known is Aachener Printen, a type of gingerbread.
Etymology
The name Aachen is a modern descendant, like southern German {{lang|de|Ach(e)}}, {{langx|de|linkno|Aach}}, meaning "river" or "stream", from Old High German {{lang|goh|ahha}}, meaning "water" or "stream", which directly translates (and etymologically corresponds) to Latin {{lang|la|Aquae}}, referring to the springs. The location has been inhabited by humans since the Neolithic era, about 5,000 years ago, attracted to its warm mineral springs. Latin {{lang|la|Aquae}} figures in Aachen's Roman name {{lang|la|Aquae granni}}, which meant "waters of Grannus", referring to the Celtic god of healing who was worshipped at the springs.<ref name"Munro 1995" /><ref name="tourism">{{harvnb|Mielke|2013}}.</ref> This word became {{lang|wa|Åxhe}} in Walloon and {{lang|fr|Aix}} in French, and subsequently {{lang|fr|Aix-la-Chapelle}} to distinguish it from Aix-en-Provence, after Charlemagne had his palatine chapel built there in the late 8th century and then made the city his empire's capital.
The city is known by a variety of different names in other languages:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Language
! Name
! class="unsortable" | Pronunciation in IPA
|-
| Aachen dialect
| {{lang|ksh|Oche|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|ksh|ˈɔːxə|}}
|-
| Catalan
| {{lang|ca|Aquisgrà|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|ca|əkizˈɣɾa|}}, {{IPA|ca-valencia|akizˈɣɾa|}}
|-
| Czech
| {{lang|cs|Cáchy|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|cs|ˈtsaːxɪ|}}
|-
| Dutch / Low German
| {{lang|nl|Aken|italicno}}<ref name"Kerner 2013">{{harvnb|Kerner|2013}}</ref>
| {{IPA|nl|ˈaːkə(n)||nl-Aken.ogg}}
|-
| French
| {{lang|fr|Aix-la-Chapelle|italicno}}<ref name"Kerner 2013"/>
| {{IPA|fr|ɛks la ʃapɛl||LL-Q150 (fra)-Pamputt-Aix-la-Chapelle.wav}}
|-
| Greek
| {{lang|el|Ακυίσγρανον}} ({{lang|el-Latn|Akyísgranon}})
| {{IPA|el|aciˈizɣranon|}}
|-
| Italian
| {{lang|it|Aquisgrana|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|it|akwizˈɡraːna|}}
|-
| Latin
| {{lang|la|Aquisgrana|italicno}},<ref name"Egger 1977 15">{{harvnb|Egger|1977|p15}}</ref> {{lang|la|Aquae Granni|italicno}},<ref name"Munro 1995"/> {{lang|la|Aquis Granum|italicno}}<ref>{{harvnb|Canby|1984|p=1}}</ref>
|
|-
| Limburgish
| {{lang|li|Aoke|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|li|ˈɔːkə|}}
|-
| Luxembourgish
| {{lang|lb|Oochen|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|lb|ˈoːχən|}}
|-
| Polish
| {{lang|pl|Akwizgran|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|pl|aˈkfizɡran|}}
|-
| Portuguese
| {{lang|pt|Aquisgrano|italicno}}, {{lang|pt|Aquisgrão|italicno}}
| {{IPA|pt-PT|ɐkiʒˈɣɾɐnu|lang|link=yes}}, {{IPA|pt|ɐkiʒˈɣɾɐ̃w|}}
|-
| Russian
| {{lang|ru|Ахен}} (Akhen)
| {{IPA|ru|ˈɐxʲɪn|}}
|-
| Spanish
| {{lang|es|Aquisgrán|italicno}}<ref name"Kerner 2013"/>
| {{IPA|es|akisˈɣɾan|}}
|-
| Walloon
| {{lang|wa|Åxhe|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|wa|ɑːç|}}
|}
History
{{Further|Timeline of Aachen}}
{{see also|Free Imperial City of Aachen}}
Early history
Flint quarries on the Lousberg, Schneeberg, and Königshügel, first used during Neolithic times (3000–2500 BC), attest to the long occupation of the site of Aachen, as do recent finds under the modern city's Elisengarten pointing to a former settlement from the same period. Bronze Age (around 1600 BC) settlement is evidenced by the remains of barrows (burial mounds) found, for example, on the Klausberg. During the Iron Age, the area was settled by Celtic peoples<ref>{{harvnb|Schumacher|2009}}.</ref> who were perhaps drawn by the marshy Aachen basin's hot sulphur springs where they worshipped Grannus, god of light and healing.
The 25-hectare Roman spa resort town of Aquae Granni was, according to legend, founded by Grenus, under Hadrian, around 124 AD. Grenus refers to the Celtic god, and it seems it was the Roman 6th Legion at the start of the 1st century AD that first channelled the hot springs into a spa at Büchel,{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}}{{efn|This audio file is Andreas Schaub explaining the archaeological record in court in Archäologie am Hof.}} adding at the end of the same century the Münstertherme spa,<ref name"Anon 2013">{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}.</ref> two water pipelines, and a probable{{clarify|dateDecember 2016}} sanctuary dedicated to Grannus. A kind of forum, surrounded by colonnades, connected the two spa complexes. There was an extensive residential area. The Romans built bathhouses near Burtscheid. A temple precinct called Vernenum was built near the modern Kornelimünster/Walheim. Today, remains have been found of three bathhouses,<ref name"McClendon 1996">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996|p1}}.</ref> including two fountains in the Elisenbrunnen and the Burtscheid bathhouse.
Roman civil administration in Aachen eventually broke down as the baths and other public buildings (along with most of the villae rusticae of the surrounding countryside) were destroyed around AD 375 at the start of the migration period. The last Roman coin finds are from the time of Emperor Gratian (AD 375–383). Rome withdrew its troops from the area, but the town remained populated. By 470, the town came to be ruled by the Ripuarian Franks<ref name"Coll">{{harvnb|Held|1997|p2}}.</ref> and subordinated to their capital, Cologne. During the Roman period, Aachen was the site of a flourishing Jewish community.<ref name"jewishencyclopedia.com">{{harvnb|Freimann|1906|p301}}.</ref>
Middle Ages
Pepin the Short had a castle residence built in the town,{{when|dateSeptember 2024}} due to the proximity of the hot springs and also for strategic reasons as it is located between the Rhineland and northern France.<ref name"McClendon 1996a">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p1}}.</ref> Einhard mentions that in 765–766 Pepin spent both Christmas and Easter at Aquis villa ({{lang|la|Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter}})<ref>{{harvnb|Eginhard|2012|p10}}.</ref> ("and [he] celebrated the birth of the Lord [Christmas] in the town Aquis, and similarly Easter"), which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as king of the Franks, 768, Charlemagne came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time.{{efn|This is in dispute, as some history books state that Charlemagne was in fact born in Aachen in 742.<ref name="Merkl 2007" />}} He remained there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting to any significant building activity at Aachen in his time, apart from the building of the Palatine Chapel (since 1930, cathedral) and the Palace.
Charlemagne spent most winters in Aachen between 792 and his death in 814. Aachen became the focus of his court and the political centre of his empire. During the Carolingian empire, a Jewish community lived near the royal palace. In Jewish texts, the city of Aachen was called Aish or Ash (אש). In 797, Isaac, a Jewish merchant, accompanied two ambassadors of Charlemagne to the court of Harun al-Rashid. He returned to Aachen in July 802, bearing an elephant called Abul-Abbas as a gift for the emperor.<ref>{{cite news |date21 July 2003 |titleBaghdad, Jerusalem, Aachen – On the Trail of the White Elephant |urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/baghdad-jerusalem-aachen-on-the-trail-of-the-white-elephant/a-923561 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200218174200/https://www.dw.com/en/baghdad-jerusalem-aachen-on-the-trail-of-the-white-elephant/a-923561 |archive-date18 February 2020 |access-date18 February 2020 |workDeutsche Welle}}</ref> After Charlemagne's death, he was buried in the church which he had built;<ref name"McClendon 1996a-4">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p4}}.</ref> his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the Karlsschrein, the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never officially acknowledged by the Roman Curia as such.
]]
, after a 17th-century painting]]
In 936, Otto I was crowned king of East Francia in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. During the reign of Otto II, the nobles revolted and the West Franks under Lothair<ref name"dupuy">{{harvnb|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p258}}.</ref> raided Aachen in 978.<ref>{{harvnb|Kitchen|1996|p35}}.</ref> Aachen was attacked again by Odo of Champagne, who attacked the imperial palace while Conrad II was absent. Odo relinquished it and was killed afterwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Kitchen|1996|p40}}.</ref> The palace and town of Aachen had fortifying walls built by order of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa between 1172 and 1176.<ref name"McClendon 1996" /> Over the next 500 years, most kings of Germany who ruled the Holy Roman Empire were crowned in Aachen. The original audience hall built by Charlemagne was torn down and replaced by the current city hall in 1330.{{efn|Sources differ on the age of the city hall, as the dates used for the construction were 1334–1349.<ref name"McClendon 1996" />}}<ref name"McClendon 1996" /> During the 13th century, many Jews converted to Christianity, as shown in the records of the Aachen Minster (today's Cathedral). In 1486, the Jews of Aachen offered gifts to Maximilian I during his coronation ceremony. The last king to be crowned here was Ferdinand I in 1531.{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}}<ref name"Ranson 1998" />
During the Middle Ages, Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to Flanders; it achieved a modest position in the trade in woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a free imperial city, subject to the emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbours. The only dominion it had was over Burtscheid, a neighbouring territory ruled by a Benedictine abbess, which was forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich".
As an imperial city, Aachen held certain political privileges that allowed it to remain independent{{clarify|dateDecember 2016}} of the troubles of Europe for many years. It remained a direct vassal of the Holy Roman Empire throughout most of the Middle Ages. It was also the site of many important church councils, including the Council of 837<ref>{{harvnb|De Jong|1996|p279}}</ref> and the Council of 1166, a council convened by the antipope Paschal III.{{sfn|Bayer|2000|p?}} Manuscript production Aachen was an important site for the production of historical manuscripts. Under Charlemagne's purview, both the Ada Gospels and the Coronation Gospels may have been produced in Aachen.<ref name"McKitterick 1996">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1996|p1}}.</ref> In addition, quantities of the other texts in the court library were also produced locally. During the reign of Louis the Pious (814–840), substantial quantities of ancient texts were produced at Aachen, including legal manuscripts such as the leges scriptorium group, patristic texts including the five manuscripts of the Bamberg Pliny Group.<ref name"McKitterick 1996" /> Finally, under Lothair I (840–855), texts of outstanding quality were still being produced. This however marked the end of the period of manuscript production at Aachen.<ref name"McKitterick 1996" /> 16th–18th centuries
by the Spanish Army of Flanders under Ambrogio Spinola in 1614]]
In 1598, following the invasion of Spanish troops from the Netherlands, Rudolf deposed all Protestant office holders in Aachen and went as far as expelling them from the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982|p295}}.</ref> From the early 16th century, Aachen started to lose its power and influence. First the coronations of emperors were moved from Aachen to Frankfurt. This was followed by the religious wars and the great fire of 1656.<ref name"eb">{{harvnb|Encyclopædia Britannica|2006}}.</ref> After the destruction of most of the city in 1656, the rebuilding was mostly in the Baroque style.<ref name"McClendon 1996" /> The decline of Aachen culminated in 1794, when the French, led by General Charles Dumouriez,<ref name"Coll" /> occupied Aachen.<ref name="Ranson 1998" />
In 1542, the Dutch humanist and physician Francis Fabricius published his study of the health benefits of the hot springs in Aachen.{{sfn|Jourdan|1821|p92}} By the middle of the 17th century, the city had developed a considerable reputation as a spa, although this was in part because Aachen was then – and remained well into the 19th and early 20th century – a place of high-level prostitution.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastRoos |firstJulia |date2009 |titleWomen's Rights, Nationalist Anxiety, and the "Moral" Agenda in the Early Weimar Republic: Revisiting the "Black Horror" Campaign against France's African Occupation Troops |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0008938909990069/type/journal_article |journalCentral European History |languageen |volume42 |issue3 |pages473–508 |doi10.1017/S0008938909990069 |issn=0008-9389}}</ref> Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history are found in the 18th-century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to the other spas.
The main indication for visiting patients, ironically, was syphilis; only by the end of the 19th century had rheumatism become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid.
Aachen was chosen as the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the first congress of Aachen (often referred to as the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English) on 2 May 1668,<ref name"dupuy1">{{harvnb|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p563}}.</ref> leading to the First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended the War of Devolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982a|p70}}.</ref> The second congress ended with the second treaty in 1748, ending the War of the Austrian Succession.{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}}<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982a|p217}}.</ref> In 1789, there was a constitutional crisis in the Aachen government,<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2004|p301}}.</ref> and in 1794 Aachen lost its status as a free imperial city.<ref name"McClendon 1996" />
In 1629, the Aachen Jewish community was expelled from the city. In 1667, six Jews were allowed to return. Most of the Aachen Jewish community settled in Burtscheid. As recently as the late 18th century the Abbess of Burtscheid was still prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the duke of Jülich; the city of Aachen deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away road-diggers.{{cn|dateSeptember 2024}} 19th century On 9 February 1801, the Peace of Lunéville removed the ownership of Aachen and the entire "left bank" of the Rhine from Germany (the Holy Roman Empire) and granted it to France.<ref name"Coll" /> In 1815, control of the town was passed to the Kingdom of Prussia through an agreement reached by the Congress of Vienna.<ref name"McClendon 1996" /><ref name"Ranson 1998" /> The third congress took place in 1818, to decide the fate of occupied Napoleonic France.
By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation had swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the remains of the city's medieval constitution were kept in place until 1801, when Aachen became the "chef-lieu du département de la Roer" in Napoleon's First French Empire. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Prussia took over within the new German Confederation. The city was one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century.{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}} Administered within the Rhine Province, by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1838, the railway from Cologne to Belgium passed through Aachen.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982b|p11}}.</ref> The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions until 1875, when the medieval fortifications were abandoned as a limit to building and new, better housing was built in the east of the city, where sanitary drainage was easiest. In December 1880, the Aachen tramway network was opened, and in 1895 it was electrified.<ref>{{harvnb|Van der Gragt|1968|p137}}.</ref> In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important in the production of railway locomotives and carriages, iron, pins, needles, buttons, tobacco, woollen goods, and silk goods.
20th century
World War II
{{further|Battle of Aachen}}
After World War I, Aachen was occupied by the Entente until 1930, along with the rest of German territory west of the Rhine.<ref name"Ranson 1998" /> Aachen was one of the locations involved in the Rhenish Republic. On 21 October 1923, an armed mob took over the city hall. Similar actions took place in Mönchengladbach, Duisburg, and Krefeld. This republic lasted about a year.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982b|p614}}.</ref>
Aachen was heavily damaged during World War II. According to Jörg Friedrich in The Fire (2008), two Allied air raids on 11 April and 24 May 1944 "radically destroyed" the city. The first killed 1,525, including 212 children, and bombed six hospitals. During the second, 442 aircraft hit two railway stations, killed 207, and left 15,000 homeless. The raids destroyed Aachen-Eilendorf and Aachen-Burtscheid.<ref>{{harvnb|Friedrich|2008|p=[https://archive.org/details/firebombingofger00frie/page/117 117]}}.</ref>
The city and its fortified surroundings were besieged from 12 September to 21 October 1944 by the US 1st Infantry Division<ref name"Stanton 2006">{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p76}}.</ref> with the 3rd Armored Division assisting from the south.<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p51}}.</ref> Around 13 October the US 2nd Armored Division, coming from the north, and got as close as Würselen,<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p50}}.</ref> while the 30th Infantry Division completed the encirclement of Aachen on 16 October 1944.<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p109}}.</ref> With reinforcements from the US 28th Infantry Division<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p105}}.</ref> the battle continued involving direct assaults through the heavily defended city, which forced the German garrison to surrender on 21 October 1944.<ref name="Stanton 2006" />
Aachen was the first German city to be captured by the Western Allies, and its residents welcomed the soldiers as liberators.<ref name"baker2004">{{harvnb|Baker|2004|p37}}.</ref> What remained of the city was destroyed—in some areas completely—during the fighting,{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}} mostly by American artillery fire and demolitions carried out by the Waffen-SS defenders. Damaged buildings included medieval churches of and the Rathaus (city hall), although Aachen Cathedral was largely unscathed. 4,000 inhabitants remained in the city; the rest had followed evacuation orders. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, Franz Oppenhoff, was assassinated by an SS commando unit.
Expulsion of Aachen Jews
, November 1938]]
On 16 May 1815, the Jewish community of the city offered an homage in its synagogue to the Prussian king, Friedrich Wilhelm III.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAIX-LA-CHAPELLE (AACHEN) - JewishEncyclopedia.com |urlhttps://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1019-aix-la-chapelle-aachen |access-date2024-02-13 |websitewww.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> In 1862, a large synagogue was built, later called the {{ill|Old Synagogue (Aachen)|ltOld Synagogue|de|Alte Synagoge (Aachen)|fr|Ancienne synagogue d'Aix-la-Chapelle (1862-1938)|id|Sinagoge Tua Aachen}}. By 1933, 1,345 Jews lived in the city. On Kristallnacht in 1938, the synagogue was destroyed. By the onset of World War II in 1939, many Jews had emigrated or were arrested, and only 782 remained in the city. At the end of the war in 1945, only 62 Jews lived in the city. As of 2003, 1,434 Jews were again living in Aachen. 21st century The city of Aachen has developed into a technology hub as a by-product of hosting one of the leading universities of technology in Germany with the RWTH Aachen (Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule), known especially for mechanical engineering, automotive and manufacturing technology as well as for its research and academic hospital Klinikum Aachen, one of the largest medical facilities in Europe. Geography
, with the university hospital visible, from the Vaalserberg, the highest elevation in Aachen and of the European part of the Netherlands.]]
Aachen is located in the middle of the Meuse–Rhine Euroregion, close to the border tripoint of Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium. The town of Vaals in the Netherlands lies nearby at about {{convert|6|km|0|abbron}} from Aachen's city centre, while the Dutch city of Heerlen and Eupen, the capital of the German-speaking Community of Belgium, are both located about {{convert|20|km|0|abbron}} from Aachen city centre. Aachen lies near the head of the open valley of the Wurm (which today flows through the city in canalised form), part of the larger basin of the Meuse, and about {{convert|30|km|0|abbr=on}} north of the High Fens, which form the northern edge of the Eifel uplands of the Rhenish Massif.
The maximum dimensions of the city's territory are {{convert|21.6|km|mi|frac8|abbron}} from north to south, and {{convert|17.2|km|frac8|abbron}} from east to west. The city limits are {{convert|87.7|km|frac8|abbron}} long, of which {{convert|23.8|km|frac8|abbron}} border Belgium and {{convert|21.8|km|frac8|abbron}} the Netherlands. The highest point in Aachen, located in the far southeast of the city, lies at an elevation of {{convert|410|m|ft|abbron}} above sea level. The lowest point, in the north, and on the border with the Netherlands, is at {{convert|125|m|ft|abbron}}.
Climate
As the westernmost city in Germany<ref name"Munro 1995">{{harvnb|Munro|1995|p1}}.</ref> (and close to the Low Countries), Aachen and the surrounding area belongs to a temperate climate zone (Cfb), with humid weather, mild winters, and warm summers. Because of its location north of the Eifel and the High Fens and its subsequent prevailing westerly weather patterns, rainfall in Aachen (on average 805&nbsp;mm/year) is comparatively higher than, for example, in Bonn (with 669&nbsp;mm/year). Another factor in the local weather forces of Aachen is the occurrence of Foehn winds on the southerly air currents, which results from the city's geographic location on the northern edge of the Eifel.
Because the city is surrounded by hills, it suffers from inversion-related smog. Some areas of the city have become urban heat islands as a result of poor heat exchange, both because of the area's natural geography and from human activity. The city's numerous cold air corridors, which are slated to remain as free as possible from new construction, therefore play an important role in the urban climate of Aachen.<ref>{{harvnb|Aachen Department of Environment|2013}}.</ref>
The January average is
{{convert|3.0|°C|0|abbron}}, while the July average is {{convert|18.5|°C|0|abbron}}. Precipitation is almost evenly spread throughout the year.
The city's oceanic climate provides comparably mild winters: While Aachen falls within the coldest extents covered by USDA plant hardiness zone 8b in the 1991–2020 period, having an average yearly minimum of -9.22&nbsp;°C (15.4&nbsp;°F), the Canadian city of Regina, Saskatchewan which is located at a similar latitude but at the heart of the North American landmass, far away from the sea's moderating effects, is classified as being in zone 3a.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGovernment of Canada |firstNatural Resources Canada |titleCanada's Plant Hardiness Site |urlhttp://planthardiness.gc.ca/?m1&langen |access-date2023-11-14 |websiteplanthardiness.gc.ca}}</ref>
In the 1991–2020 period, the last freeze (at 2 m above ground) of spring occurred on April 28th and the first fall freeze on October 13th, on average.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWetter und Klima - Deutscher Wetterdienst - Leistungen - Frühester / spätester Frost |urlhttps://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/frost_termine/frosttermine.html#buehneTop |access-date2024-09-25 |websitewww.dwd.de}}</ref>
The Aachen weather station has recorded the following extreme values:<ref name=sklima/>
* Highest Temperature {{convert|38.6|C|F}} on 25 July 2019.
* Warmest Minimum {{convert|24.5|C|F}} on 29 July 1947.
* Coldest Maximum {{convert|-12.8|C|F}} on 22 January 1940.
* Lowest Temperature {{convert|-20.4|C|F}} on 11 January 1945.<ref name=wetterzentrale/>
* Highest Daily Precipitation {{convert|98.7|mm|in|abbr=on}} on 14 July 2021.
* Wettest Month {{convert|232.2|mm|in|abbr=on}} in July 2021.
* Wettest Year {{convert|1121.1|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 1966.
* Driest Year {{convert|530.5|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 1959.
* Earliest Snowfall: 4 November 1941.
* Latest Snowfall: 30 April 1938.
* Longest annual sunshine: 2,128.4 hours in 2003.
* Shortest annual sunshine: 1,277.4 hours in 1981.
{{Weather box|width=auto
|location = Aachen (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1891–present{{efn|Temperature data for Aachen have been recorded since 1891. The weather station data used from 1 January 1891 to 31 March 2011 came from Aachen weather station, and temperature data from 1 April 2011 to the present are from {{ill|Aachen-Orsbach|de|Orsbach}}.}})
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 16.2
|Feb record high C = 20.5
|Mar record high C = 24.5
|Apr record high C = 30.0
|May record high C = 34.2
|Jun record high C = 36.6
|Jul record high C = 38.6
|Aug record high C = 37.2
|Sep record high C = 34.3
|Oct record high C = 26.9
|Nov record high C = 22.1
|Dec record high C = 17.6
|year record high C = 38.6
|Jan avg record high C = 12.5
|Feb avg record high C = 13.9
|Mar avg record high C = 18.5
|Apr avg record high C = 23.3
|May avg record high C = 26.8
|Jun avg record high C = 30.4
|Jul avg record high C = 32.4
|Aug avg record high C = 31.9
|Sep avg record high C = 27.0
|Oct avg record high C = 22.5
|Nov avg record high C = 16.5
|Dec avg record high C = 12.7
|year avg record high C = 34.1
|Jan high C = 5.7
|Feb high C = 6.8
|Mar high C = 10.6
|Apr high C = 14.7
|May high C = 18.5
|Jun high C = 21.4
|Jul high C = 23.7
|Aug high C = 23.3
|Sep high C = 19.4
|Oct high C = 14.8
|Nov high C = 9.4
|Dec high C = 5.6
|year high C = 14.5
|Jan mean C = 3.2
|Feb mean C = 3.8
|Mar mean C = 6.6
|Apr mean C = 10.0
|May mean C = 13.8
|Jun mean C = 16.6
|Jul mean C = 18.7
|Aug mean C = 18.3
|Sep mean C = 14.8
|Oct mean C = 10.8
|Nov mean C = 6.7
|Dec mean C = 3.3
|year mean C = 10.5
|Jan low C = 0.8
|Feb low C = 1.2
|Mar low C = 3.4
|Apr low C = 5.8
|May low C = 9.3
|Jun low C = 12.0
|Jul low C = 14.4
|Aug low C = 14.0
|Sep low C = 11.2
|Oct low C = 7.7
|Nov low C = 4.4
|Dec low C = 1.2
|year low C = 7.1
|Jan avg record low C = -6.9
|Feb avg record low C = -5.8
|Mar avg record low C = -2.9
|Apr avg record low C = -0.6
|May avg record low C = 3.0
|Jun avg record low C = 6.8
|Jul avg record low C = 9.4
|Aug avg record low C = 9.4
|Sep avg record low C = 6.2
|Oct avg record low C = 1.2
|Nov avg record low C = -1.9
|Dec avg record low C = -5.1
|year avg record low C = -9.2
|Jan record low C = -20.4
|Feb record low C = -20.2
|Mar record low C = -11.9
|Apr record low C = -4.8
|May record low C = -1.3
|Jun record low C = 1.8
|Jul record low C = 5.8
|Aug record low C = 3.4
|Sep record low C = 0.0
|Oct record low C = -5.7
|Nov record low C = -8.9
|Dec record low C = -16.5
|year record low C = -20.4
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 64.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 63.4
|Mar precipitation mm = 59.3
|Apr precipitation mm = 53.5
|May precipitation mm = 65.0
|Jun precipitation mm = 70.0
|Jul precipitation mm = 79.0
|Aug precipitation mm = 80.6
|Sep precipitation mm = 68.1
|Oct precipitation mm = 66.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 66.6
|Dec precipitation mm = 74.4
|year precipitation mm = 811.4
|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 17.0
|Feb precipitation days = 16.5
|Mar precipitation days = 16.4
|Apr precipitation days = 13.5
|May precipitation days = 15.9
|Jun precipitation days = 14.6
|Jul precipitation days = 15.3
|Aug precipitation days = 14.4
|Sep precipitation days = 14.1
|Oct precipitation days = 15.1
|Nov precipitation days = 18.2
|Dec precipitation days = 18.2
|year precipitation days = 189.6
|Jan snow depth cm = 4.6
|Feb snow depth cm = 5.4
|Mar snow depth cm = 1.7
|Apr snow depth cm = 0.4
|May snow depth cm = 0
|Jun snow depth cm = 0
|Jul snow depth cm = 0
|Aug snow depth cm = 0
|Sep snow depth cm = 0
|Oct snow depth cm = 0
|Nov snow depth cm = 0.7
|Dec snow depth cm = 4.3
|year snow depth cm = 9.8
|unit snow days = 1.0 cm
|Jan snow days = 5.5
|Feb snow days = 5.1
|Mar snow days = 1.2
|Apr snow days = 0.1
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = 0
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0
|Oct snow days = 0
|Nov snow days = 1.1
|Dec snow days = 3.8
|year snow days = 17.1
|humidity colour = green
|Jan humidity = 82.1
|Feb humidity = 80.1
|Mar humidity = 74.9
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 70.3
|Jun humidity = 70.5
|Jul humidity = 70.7
|Aug humidity = 72.1
|Sep humidity = 77.4
|Oct humidity = 80.7
|Nov humidity = 83.7
|Dec humidity = 84.8
|year humidity = 76.4
|Jan sun = 68.3
|Feb sun = 75.0
|Mar sun = 126.2
|Apr sun = 168.7
|May sun = 194.9
|Jun sun = 207.9
|Jul sun = 208.1
|Aug sun = 196.9
|Sep sun = 151.3
|Oct sun = 121.5
|Nov sun = 68.0
|Dec sun = 52.5
|year sun = 1634.3
|source 1 NOAA<ref nameNOAA>{{cite web
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230914163046/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Germany/CSV/Aachen_10501.csv
|archive-date = 14 September 2023
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Germany/CSV/Aachen_10501.csv
|title = Aachen Climate Normals 1991–2020
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date = 15 September 2023}}</ref>
|source 2 Data derived from Deutscher Wetterdienst<ref>{{harvnb|Federal Ministry of Transport, Building, and Urban Development|2013}}.</ref><ref namewetterzentrale>
{{cite web
|url https://www.wetterzentrale.de/extremes_mon.php?station3&maand1&country1&order1&extreemX_TX
|title = Extremwertanalyse der DWD-Stationen, Tagesmaxima, Dekadenrekorde, usw.
|publisher = DWD
|language = de
|access-date = 9 December 2023}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url https://www.wetterzentrale.de/extremes_mon.php?station15000&maand1&country1&order1&extreemX_TX
|title = Extremwertanalyse der DWD-Stationen, Tagesmaxima, Dekadenrekorde, usw.
|publisher = DWD
|language = de
|access-date 10 December 2023}}</ref><ref namesklima>{{cite web
|url http://sklima.de/datenbank_auswertung.php?tab2
|title = Monatsauswertung
|website = sklima.de
|publisher = SKlima
|language = de
|access-date = 27 October 2024}}</ref>
| date = May 2013
}}
Geology
and claystone formation from the Devonian period below St. Adalbert Church in Aachen]]
The geology of Aachen is very structurally heterogeneous. The oldest occurring rocks in the area surrounding the city originate from the Devonian period and include carboniferous sandstone, greywacke, claystone and limestone. These formations are part of the Rhenish Massif, north of the High Fens. In the Pennsylvanian subperiod of the Carboniferous geological period, these rock layers were narrowed and folded as a result of the Variscan orogeny. After this event, and over the course of the following 200 million years, this area has been continuously flattened.<ref>{{cite book |last1Anderson |first1Ernest Masson|editor1-lastHealy|editor1-first David |year2012 |titleFaulting, Fracturing and Igneous Intrusion in the Earth's Crust |issue367 |volume367 |publisherGeological Society of London |isbn978-1-86239-347-9 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref>
During the Cretaceous period, the ocean penetrated the continent from the direction of the North Sea up to the mountainous area near Aachen, bringing with it clay, sand, and chalk deposits. While the clay (which was the basis for a major pottery industry in nearby Raeren) is mostly found in the lower areas of Aachen, the hills of the Aachen Forest and the Lousberg were formed from upper Cretaceous sand and chalk deposits. More recent sedimentation is mainly located in the north and east of Aachen and was formed through tertiary and quaternary river and wind activities.
Along the major thrust fault of the Variscan orogeny, there are over 30 thermal springs in Aachen and Burtscheid. Additionally, the subsurface of Aachen is traversed by numerous active faults that belong to the Rurgraben fault system, which has been responsible for numerous earthquakes in the past, including the 1756 Düren earthquake<ref name"duerenEQ">{{harvnb|University of Cologne, Seismological Station Bensberg|2013}}.</ref> and the 1992 Roermond earthquake,<ref name"Roermond">{{harvnb|Geological Survey of North Rhine-Westphalia|2013}}.</ref> which was the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the Netherlands.
Demographics
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Largest groups of foreign residents
|-
! Nationality
! Population (30.06.2024)<ref>{{cite web |titleMelderegisterauswertung Stand 31.12.2024 |urlhttps://www.aachen.de/de/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/statistische_daten/rechts_bevoelkerung.pdf}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flag|Turkey}}
| 6,745
|-
| {{Flag|China}}
| 4,365
|-
| {{Flag|Ukraine}}
| 3,998
|-
| {{Flag|Syria}}
| 3,751
|-
| {{Flag|India}}
| 3,662
|-
| {{Flag|Romania}}
| 2,369
|-
| {{Flag|Bulgaria}}
| 1,786
|-
| {{Flag|Romania}}
| 1,836
|-
| {{Flag|Poland}}
| 1,745
|-
| {{Flag|Greece}}
| 1,542
|-
| {{Flag|Morocco}}
| 1,495
|-
|}
Aachen has 245,885 inhabitants (as of 31 December 2015), of whom 118,272 are female, and 127,613 are male.<ref name"Zensus 2011">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.it.nrw.de/statistik/a/daten/bevoelkerungszahlen_zensus/zensus_rp3_dez15.html |lastInformation und Technik Nordrhein-Westfalen |titleBevölkerung im Regierungsbezirk Köln |access-date16 November 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170408003047/https://www.it.nrw.de/statistik/a/daten/bevoelkerungszahlen_zensus/zensus_rp3_dez15.html |archive-date8 April 2017 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
At the end of 2009, the foreign-born residents of Aachen made up 13.6 percent of the total population.<ref name="StatJahrbuch2009">{{harvnb|City of Aachen|2012}}.</ref> A significant portion of foreign residents are students at the RWTH Aachen University.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Population
|-
| 1994
| 246,570<ref name"Cohen">{{harvnb|Cohen|1998|p1}}.</ref>
|-
| 2007
| 247,740<ref name="Merkl 2007" />
|-
| 2011
| 238,665<ref name="Zensus 2011" />
|-
| 2014
| 243,336<ref name="Zensus 2011" />
|-
| 2015
| 245,885<ref name="Zensus 2011" />
|}
Dialect
Aachen is at the western end of the Benrath line that divides High German to the south from the rest of the West Germanic speech area to the north.<ref name"Anon 2013"/> Aachen's local dialect is called Öcher Platt and belongs to Ripuarian. Boroughs
The city is divided into seven administrative districts, or boroughs, each with its own district council, district leader, and district authority. The councils are elected locally by those who live within the district, and these districts are further subdivided into smaller sections for statistical purposes, with each sub-district named by a two-digit number.
The districts of Aachen, including their constituent statistical districts, are:
* Aachen-Mitte: 10 Markt, 13 Theater, 14 Lindenplatz, 15 St. Jakob, 16 Westpark, 17 Hanbruch, 18 Hörn, 21 Ponttor, 22 Hansemannplatz, 23 Soers, 24 Jülicher Straße, 25 Kalkofen, 31 Kaiserplatz, 32 Adalbertsteinweg, 33 Panneschopp, 34 Rothe Erde, 35 Trierer Straße, 36 Frankenberg, 37 Forst, 41 Beverau, 42 Burtscheid Kurgarten, 43 Burtscheid Abbey, 46 Burtscheid Steinebrück, 47 Marschiertor, 48 Hangeweiher
* Brand: 51 Brand
* Eilendorf: 52 Eilendorf
* Haaren: 53 Haaren (including Verlautenheide)
* Kornelimünster/Walheim: 61 Kornelimünster, 62 Oberforstbach, 63 Walheim
* Laurensberg: 64 Vaalserquartier, 65 Laurensberg
* Richterich: 88 Richterich
Regardless of official statistical designations, there are 50 neighbourhoods and communities within Aachen, here arranged by district:
* Aachen-Mitte: Beverau, Bildchen, Burtscheid, Forst, Frankenberg, Grüne Eiche, Hörn, Lintert, Pontviertel, Preuswald, Ronheide, Rosviertel, Rothe Erde, Stadtmitte, Steinebrück, West
* Brand: Brand, Eich, Freund, Hitfeld, Niederforstbach
* Eilendorf: Eilendorf, Nirm
* Haaren: Haaren, Hüls, Verlautenheide
* Kornelimünster/Walheim: Friesenrath, Hahn, Kitzenhaus, Kornelimünster, Krauthausen, Lichtenbusch, Nütheim, Oberforstbach, Sief, Schleckheim, Schmithof, Walheim
* Laurensberg: Gut Kullen, Kronenberg, Laurensberg, Lemiers, Melaten, Orsbach, Seffent, Soers, Steppenberg, Vaalserquartier, Vetschau
* Richterich: Horbach, Huf, Richterich
Neighbouring communities
The following cities and communities border Aachen, clockwise from the northwest:
Herzogenrath, Würselen, Eschweiler, Stolberg and Roetgen (which are all in the district of Aachen); Raeren, Kelmis and Plombières (Liège Province in Belgium) as well as Vaals, Gulpen-Wittem, Simpelveld, Heerlen and Kerkrade (all in Limburg Province in the Netherlands).
Politics
Mayor
The current mayor of Aachen is Sibylle Keupen, an independent endorsed by Alliance 90/The Greens, since 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:
{{election table}}
! rowspan2 colspan2| Candidate
! rowspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| First round
! colspan=2| Second round
|-
! Votes
! %
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Independent politician}}|
| align=left| Sibylle Keupen
| align=left| Independent (Green)
| 39,662
| 38.9
| 53,685
| 67.4
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Christian Democratic Union of Germany}}|
| align=left| Harald Baal
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union
| 25,253
| 24.8
| 26,003
| 32.6
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Germany}}|
| align=left| Mathias Dopatka
| align=left| Social Democratic Party
| 23,031
| 22.6
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alternative for Germany}}|
| align=left| Markus Mohr
| align=left| Alternative for Germany
| 3,387
| 3.3
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Free Democratic Party (Germany)}}|
| align=left| Wilhelm Helg
| align=left| Free Democratic Party
| 3,122
| 3.1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|The Left (Germany)}}|
| align=left| Leo Deumens
| align=left| The Left
| 2,397
| 2.4
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Die PARTEI}}|
| align=left| Hubert vom Venn
| align=left| Die PARTEI
| 2,112
| 2.1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Independent politician}}|
| align=left| Jörg Polzin
| align=left| Independent
| 938
| 0.9
|-
|
| align=left| Ralf Haupts
| align=left| Independent Voters' Association Aachen
| 932
| 0.9
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Pirate Party Germany}}|
| align=left| Matthias Achilles
| align=left| Pirate Party Germany
| 848
| 0.8
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Independent politician}}|
| align=left| Adonis Böving
| align=left| Independent
| 317
| 0.3
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 101,999
! 99.2
! 79,688
! 99.3
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 819
! 0.8
! 532
! 0.7
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 102,818
! 100.0
! 80,220
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 192,502
! 53.4
! 192,435
! 41.7
|-
| colspan=7| Source: [https://www.wahlergebnisse.nrw/kommunalwahlen/2020/aktuell/b313000kw2000.shtml State Returning Officer]
|}
City council
The Aachen city council governs the city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:
{{election table}}
! colspan=2| Party
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| 34,712
| 34.1
| {{increase}} 17.5
| 20
| {{increase}} 7
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Christian Democratic Union of Germany}}|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| 25,268
| 24.8
| {{decrease}} 11.5
| 14
| {{decrease}} 14
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Germany}}|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| 18,676
| 18.3
| {{decrease}} 7.7
| 11
| {{decrease}} 9
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Free Democratic Party (Germany)}}|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| 5,042
| 4.9
| {{increase}} 0.5
| 3
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|The Left (Germany)}}|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| 4,694
| 4.6
| {{decrease}} 1.5
| 3
| {{decrease}} 2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alternative for Germany}}|
| align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
| 3,816
| 3.7
| {{increase}} 1.2
| 2
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Volt Europa}}|
| align=left| Volt Germany (Volt)
| 3,784
| 3.7
| New
| 2
| New
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Die PARTEI}}|
| align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
| 2,295
| 2.3
| {{increase}} 1.8
| 1
| {{increase}} 1
|-
|
| align=left| Independent Voters' Association Aachen (UWG)
| 1,632
| 1.6
| {{decrease}} 0.2
| 1
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Pirate Party Germany}}|
| align=left| Pirate Party Germany (Piraten)
| 1,226
| 1.2
| {{decrease}} 2.2
| 1
| {{decrease}} 2
|-
| colspan7 bgcolorlightgrey|
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Ecological Democratic Party}}|
| align=left| Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP)
| 673
| 0.7
| New
| 0
| New
|-
|
| align=left| Voter Group
| 45
| 0.0
| New
| 0
| New
|-
! colspan=2| Valid votes
! 101,863
! 99.1
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Invalid votes
! 918
! 0.9
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Total
! 102,781
! 100.0
!
! 58
! {{decrease}} 18
|-
! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout
! 192,502
! 53.4
! {{increase}} 0.7
!
!
|-
| colspan=7| Source: [https://www.wahlergebnisse.nrw/kommunalwahlen/2020/aktuell/a313000kw2000.shtml State Returning Officer]
|}
Main sights
Cathedral
{{Main|Aachen Cathedral}}
Aachen Cathedral was erected on the orders of Charlemagne. Construction began c. AD 796,{{sfn|Bayer|2000|p?}} and it was, on completion c. 798,<ref name"McClendon 1996a-2">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p2}}.</ref> the largest cathedral north of the Alps. It was modelled after the Basilica of San Vitale, in Ravenna, Italy,<ref name"Ranson 1998" /> and was built by Odo of Metz.{{sfn|Bayer|2000|p?}} Charlemagne also desired for the chapel to compete with the Lateran Palace, both in quality and authority.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> It was originally built in the Carolingian style, including marble covered walls, and mosaic inlay on the dome.<ref name"McClendon 1996a-3">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p3}}.</ref> On his death, Charlemagne's remains were interred in the cathedral and can be seen there to this day. The cathedral was extended several times in later ages, turning it into a curious and unique mixture of building styles. The throne and gallery portion date from the Ottonian, with portions of the original opus sectile floor still visible.<ref name"McClendon 1996a-3" /> The 13th century saw gables being added to the roof, and after the fire of 1656, the dome was rebuilt. Finally, a choir was added around the start of the 15th century.<ref name"McClendon 1996a-4" />
After Frederick Barbarossa canonised Charlemagne in 1165 the chapel became a destination for pilgrims.<ref name"McClendon 1996a-4" /> For 600 years, from 936 to 1531, Aachen Cathedral was the church of coronation for 30 German kings and 12 queens. The church built by Charlemagne is still the main attraction of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|City of Aachen|2013}}.</ref> In addition to holding the remains of its founder, it became the burial place of his successor Otto III. In the upper chamber of the gallery, Charlemagne's marble throne is housed.<ref name"Young">{{harvnb|Young|Stetler|1987|p273}}.</ref> Aachen Cathedral has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Aachen |titleAachen {{!}} Germany |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date26 July 2017 |archive-date8 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220808091015/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aachen |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Most of the marble and columns used in the construction of the cathedral were brought from Rome and Ravenna, including the sarcophagus in which Charlemagne was eventually laid to rest.<ref name"Gaehde 1996">{{harvnb|Gaehde|1996|p4}}.</ref> A bronze bear from Gaul was placed inside, along with an equestrian statue from Ravenna, believed to be Theodric, in contrast to a wolf and a statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> Bronze pieces such as the doors and railings, some of which have survived to present day, were cast in a local foundry. Finally, there is uncertainty surrounding the bronze pine cone in the chapel, and where it was created. Wherever it was made, it was also a parallel to a piece in Rome, this in Old St. Peter's Basilica.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" />
Cathedral Treasury
{{Main|Aachen Cathedral Treasury}}, Aachen Cathedral Treasury]]
Aachen Cathedral Treasury has housed, throughout its history, a collection of liturgical objects. The origin of this church treasure is in dispute as some say Charlemagne himself endowed his chapel with the original collection, while the rest were collected over time. Others say all of the objects were collected over time, from such places as Jerusalem and Constantinople.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> The location of this treasury has moved over time and was unknown until the 15th century when it was located in the Matthiaskapelle (St. Matthew's Chapel) until 1873, when it was moved to the Karlskapelle (Charles' Chapel). From there it was moved to the Hungarian Chapel in 1881 and in 1931 to its present location next to the Allerseelenkapelle (Poor Souls' Chapel).<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> Only six of the original Carolingian objects have remained, and of those only three are left in Aachen: the Aachen Gospels, a diptych of Christ, and an early Byzantine silk. The Coronation Gospels and a reliquary burse of St. Stephen were moved to Vienna in 1798 and the Talisman of Charlemagne was given as a gift in 1804 to Josephine Bonaparte and subsequently to Rheims Cathedral.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> 210 documented pieces have been added to the treasury since its inception, typically to receive in return legitimisation of linkage to the heritage of Charlemagne. The Lothar Cross, the Gospels of Otto III and multiple additional Byzantine silks were donated by Otto III. Part of the Pala d'Oro and a covering for the Aachen Gospels were made of gold donated by Henry II.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> Frederick Barbarossa donated the candelabrum that adorns the dome and also once "crowned" the Shrine of Charlemagne, which was placed underneath in 1215. Charles IV donated a pair of reliquaries. Louis XI gave, in 1475, the crown of Margaret of York, and, in 1481, another arm reliquary of Charlemagne. Maximilian I and Charles V both gave numerous works of art by Hans von Reutlingen.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" /> Continuing the tradition, objects continued to be donated until the present, each indicative of the period of its gifting, with the last documented gift being a chalice from 1960 made by Ewald Mataré.<ref name"Gaehde 1996" />
Rathaus
{{Main|Aachen Rathaus}}
The Aachen Rathaus, (English: Aachen City Hall or Aachen Town Hall) dated from 1330,<ref name"Merkl 2007">{{harvnb|Merkl|2007|p2}}</ref> lies between two central squares, the Markt (marketplace) and the Katschhof (between city hall and cathedral). The coronation hall is on the first floor of the building. Inside one can find five frescoes by the Aachen artist Alfred Rethel which show legendary scenes from the life of Charlemagne, as well as Charlemagne's signature. Also, precious replicas of the Imperial Regalia are kept here.<ref name="Young" />
Since 2009, the city hall has been a station on the Route Charlemagne, a tour programme by which historical sights of Aachen are presented to visitors. At the city hall, a museum exhibition explains the history and art of the building and gives a sense of the historical coronation banquets that took place there. A portrait of Napoleon from 1807 by Louis-André-Gabriel Bouchet and one of his wife Joséphine from 1805 by Robert Lefèvre are viewable as part of the tour.
As before, the city hall is the seat of the mayor of Aachen and of the city council, and annually the Charlemagne Prize is awarded there.
Other sights
The Grashaus, a late medieval house at the Fischmarkt, is one of the oldest non-religious buildings in central Aachen. It hosted the city archive, and before that, the Grashaus was the city hall until the present building took over this function.
The Elisenbrunnen is one of the most famous sights of Aachen. It is a neo-classical hall covering one of the city's famous fountains. It is just a minute away from the cathedral. Just a few steps in a south-easterly direction lies the 19th-century theatre.
Also of note are two remaining city gates, the Ponttor (Pont gate), {{convert|1/2|mi|m|orderflip|abbroff}} northwest of the cathedral, and the Marschiertor (marching gate), close to the central railway station. There are also a few parts of both medieval city walls left, most of them integrated into more recent buildings, but some others still visible. There are even five towers left, some of which are used for housing.
St. Michael's Church, Aachen was built as a church of the Aachen Jesuit Collegium in 1628. It is attributed to the Rhine mannerism, and a sample of a local Renaissance architecture. The rich façade remained unfinished until 1891, when the architect Peter Friedrich Peters added to it. The church is a Greek Orthodox church today, but the building is used also for concerts because of its good acoustics.
The synagogue in Aachen, which was destroyed on the Night of Broken Glass (Kristallnacht), 9 November 1938, was reinaugurated on 18 May 1995.<ref>{{harvnb|American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise|2013}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Knufinke|2013}}.</ref> One of the contributors to the reconstructions of the synagogue was Jürgen Linden, the Lord Mayor of Aachen from 1989 to 2009.
There are numerous other notable churches and monasteries, a few remarkable 17th- and 18th-century buildings in the particular Baroque style typical of the region, a synagogue, a collection of statues and monuments, park areas, cemeteries, among others. Among the museums in the town are the Suermondt-Ludwig Museum, which has a fine sculpture collection and the Aachen Museum of the International Press, which is dedicated to newspapers from the 16th century to the present.<ref name"EB">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp1–2}}.</ref> The area's industrial history is reflected in dozens of 19th- and early 20th-century manufacturing sites in the city.
<gallery>
File:Aachen Grashaus.jpg|Grashaus
File:Aachen elisenbrunnen blau.jpg|Elisenbrunnen in Aachen
File:Aachen Theatre.jpg|Aachen Theatre
File:Aachen Neues Kurhaus.jpg|Neues Kurhaus
File:CarolusThermen01.JPG|Carolus Thermen, thermal baths named after Charlemagne
File:Aachen-SomeBoulevard.JPG|A statue commemorating David Hansemann
</gallery>
Economy
Research Center, Aachen]]
Aachen is the administrative centre for the coal-mining industries in neighbouring places to the northeast.<ref name="McClendon 1996" />
Products manufactured in Aachen include electrical goods, fine woolen textiles, foodstuffs (chocolate and candy), glass, machinery, rubber products, furniture, metal products.<ref name"Cohen" /> Also in and around{{clarify|reasondon't want "around." Want stuff that is in the city. If there is a metro article, "around" can go there|dateOctober 2013}} Aachen chemicals, plastics, cosmetics, and needles and pins are produced.<ref name"Ranson 1998">{{harvnb|Ranson|1998|p45}}.</ref> Though once a major player in Aachen's economy, today glassware and textile production make up only 10% of total manufacturing jobs in the city.<ref name"Kerner 2013" /> There have been a number of spin-offs from the university's IT technology department.
Electric vehicle manufacturing
In June 2010, Achim Kampker, together with Günther Schuh, founded a small company to develop electric powered light utility vehicles; in August 2014, it was renamed StreetScooter GmbH. This started as a privately organised research initiative at the RWTH Aachen University, before becoming the independent company in Aachen. Kampker was also the founder and chairman of the European Network for Affordable and Sustainable Electromobility. In May 2014, the company announced that the city of Aachen, the city council Aachen and the savings bank Aachen had ordered electric vehicles from the company. In late 2014, approximately 70 employees were manufacturing 200 vehicles annually in the premises of the Waggonfabrik Talbot, the former Talbot/Bombardier plant in Aachen.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/releases_2014/group/dpdhl_acquires_streetscooter_gmbh.html |titleDeutsche Post DHL acquires StreetScooter GmbH |author<!--Not stated--> |date9 December 2014 |websiteDHL |access-date26 March 2017 |archive-date13 May 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180513071648/http://www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/releases_2014/group/dpdhl_acquires_streetscooter_gmbh.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In December 2014 DHL Group purchased the StreetScooter company from Günther, operating it as a wholly owned subsidiary.<ref>[http://www.dpdhl.com/de/presse/pressemitteilungen/2014/deutsche_post_dhl_uebernimmt_streetscooter_gmbh.html Deutsche Post DHL übernimmt StreetScooter GmbH] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180320123908/http://www.dpdhl.com/de/presse/pressemitteilungen/2014/deutsche_post_dhl_uebernimmt_streetscooter_gmbh.html |date20 March 2018 }} 9.</ref>
In 2015, Günther founded a new electric vehicle company, e.GO Mobile, which started producing the e.GO Life electric passenger car and other vehicles in April 2019.
By April 2016, StreetScooter announced that it would produce 2000 of its electric vans, branded the Work, in Aachen by the end of the year, and would be scaling up to manufacture approximately 10,000 Works annually, starting in 2017, also in Aachen.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/der-tausendste-elektro-streetscooter-der-deutschen-post-14401894.html |titleStreetscooter – Der tausendste Elektro-Transporter der Post |author<!--Not stated--> |date23 August 2016 |newspaperFaz.net |publisherFrankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung GmbH |access-date26 March 2017 |quoteDie Post will ihren gesamten Fuhrpark auf Elektro-Autos umstellen. Bis dahin dauert es noch. Einen wichtigen Schritt hat das Unternehmen nun aber gemacht. |archive-date20 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170320234429/http://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/der-tausendste-elektro-streetscooter-der-deutschen-post-14401894.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> At the time, this target would make it the largest electric light utility vehicle manufacturer in Europe, surpassing Renault's smaller Kangoo Z.E.<ref>{{cite news |lastWeiss |firstRichard |date24 March 2017 |titleEven Germany's post office is building an electric car |urlhttp://www.therecord.com/news-story/7207920-even-germany-s-post-office-is-building-an-electric-car/ |workWaterloo Region Record |locationKitchener, Ontario |access-date26 March 2017 |archive-date20 October 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171020035708/https://www.therecord.com/news-story/7207920-even-germany-s-post-office-is-building-an-electric-car/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Culture
(Karneval, Fasching), in which families dress in colourful costumes.]]
* In 1372, Aachen became the first coin-minting city in the world to regularly place an Anno Domini date on a general circulation coin, a groschen.
* The Scotch Club in Aachen was the first discothèque in Germany, opened from 19 October 1959 until 1992. Klaus Quirini as DJ Heinrich was the first DJ ever.{{cn|date=June 2024}}
* The thriving Aachen black metal scene is among the most notable in Germany, with such bands as Nagelfar, The Ruins of Beverast, Graupel and Verdunkeln.
* The local speciality of Aachen is an originally hard type of sweet bread, baked in large flat loaves, called Aachener Printen. Unlike Lebkuchen, a German form of gingerbread sweetened with honey, Printen use a syrup made from sugar. Today, a soft version is sold under the same name which follows an entirely different recipe.
* Asteroid 274835 Aachen, discovered by amateur astronomer Erwin Schwab in 2009, was named after the city.<ref name"MPC-object" /> The official {{MoMP|274835|naming citation}} was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 November 2019 ({{small|M.P.C. 118221}}).<ref name"MPC-Circulars-Archive" />
* Kammerchor Carmina Mundi, a professional chamber choir
Education
houses]]
RWTH Aachen University, established as Polytechnicum in 1870, is one of Germany's Universities of Excellence with strong emphasis on technological research, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences, physics, and chemistry. The university clinic attached to the RWTH, the Klinikum Aachen, is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Aachen Institute for Advanced Study in Computational Engineering Science|2009}}.</ref> Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university. It also maintains a botanical garden (the Botanischer Garten Aachen).
FH Aachen, Aachen University of Applied Sciences (AcUAS) was founded in 1971. The AcUAS offers a classic engineering education in professions such as mechatronics, construction engineering, mechanical engineering or electrical engineering. German and international students are educated in more than 20 international or foreign-oriented programmes and can acquire German as well as international degrees (Bachelor/Master) or Doppelabschlüsse (double degrees). Foreign students account for more than 21% of the student body.
The Katholische Hochschule Nordrhein-Westfalen – Abteilung Aachen (Catholic University of Applied Sciences Northrhine-Westphalia – Aachen department)<ref>{{harvnb|Catholic University of Applied Sciences|2014}}.</ref> offers its some 750 students a variety of degree programmes: social work, childhood education, nursing, and co-operative management. It also has the only programme of study in Germany especially designed for mothers.<ref>{{harvnb|Catholic University of Applied Sciences|2014a}}.</ref>
The {{Lang|de|Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln|italic=no}} (Cologne University of Music) is one of the world's foremost performing arts schools and one of the largest music institutions for higher education in Europe<ref>{{harvnb|Academy of Music and Dance Cologne|2014}}.</ref> with one of its three campuses in Aachen.<ref>{{harvnb|Academy of Music and Dance Cologne|2014a}}.</ref> The Aachen campus substantially contributes to the Opera/Musical Theatre master's programme by collaborating with the Theater Aachen and the recently established musical theatre chair through the Rheinische Opernakademie.
The German army's Technical School (Ausbildungszentrum Technik Landsysteme) is in Aachen.<ref name"MeerOpitz1998">{{harvnb|Van der Meer|Richter|Opitz|1998|p718}}.</ref>
Sports
, home ground of Alemannia Aachen]]
The annual CHIO (short for the French term Concours Hippique International Officiel) is the biggest equestrian meeting of the world and among horsemen is considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of Wimbledon for tennis. Aachen hosted the 2006 FEI World Equestrian Games.
The local football team Alemannia Aachen had a short run in Germany's first division, after its promotion in 2006. However, the team could not sustain its status and is now back in the third division. The stadium "Tivoli", opened in 1928, served as the venue for the team's home games and was well known for its incomparable atmosphere throughout the whole of the second division.<ref name"GdawietzLeroi2007">{{harvnb|Gdawietz|Leroi|2008|p28}}.</ref> Before the old stadium's demolition in 2011, it was used by amateurs, whilst the Bundesliga Club held its games in the new stadium "Neuer Tivoli" – meaning New Tivoli—a couple of metres down the road. The building work for the stadium which has a capacity of 32,960, began in May 2008 and was completed by the beginning of 2009.
The Ladies in Black women's volleyball team (part of the "PTSV Aachen" sports club since 2013) has played in the first German volleyball league (DVL) since 2008.
In June 2022, the local basketball club BG Aachen e.V. was promoted to the 1st regional league.
Transport
]]
Rail
Aachen's railway station, the Hauptbahnhof (Central Station), was constructed in 1841 for the Cologne–Aachen railway line. In 1905, it was moved closer to the city centre. It serves main lines to Cologne, Mönchengladbach and Liège as well as branch lines to Heerlen, Alsdorf, Stolberg and Eschweiler. ICE high speed trains from Brussels via Cologne to Frankfurt am Main and Eurostar trains from Paris to Cologne also stop at Aachen Central Station. Four RE lines and two RB lines connect Aachen with the Ruhrgebiet, Mönchengladbach, Spa (Belgium), Düsseldorf and the Siegerland. The Euregiobahn, a regional railway system, reaches several minor cities in the Aachen region.
There are four smaller stations in Aachen: Aachen West, Aachen Schanz, Aachen-Rothe Erde and Eilendorf. Slower trains stop at these. Aachen West has gained in importance with the expansion of RWTH Aachen University.
Intercity bus stations
There are two stations for intercity bus services in Aachen: Aachen West station, in the north-west of the city, and Aachen Wilmersdorfer Straße, in the north-east.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.travelinho.com/en/travel/aachen|lastTravelinho|titleAachen: Stations|access-date10 February 2019|archive-date1 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180301054922/http://www.travelinho.com/en/travel/aachen|url-statusdead}}</ref> Public transport
of the city's transit authority ASEAG, at the university hospital bus stop]]
The first horse tram line in Aachen opened in December 1880. After electrification in 1895, it attained a maximum length of {{convert|213.5|km|mi|frac8|abbroff}} in 1915, thus becoming the fourth-longest tram network in Germany. Many tram lines extended to the surrounding towns of Herzogenrath, Stolberg, Alsdorf as well as the Belgian and Dutch communes of Vaals, Kelmis (then Altenberg) and Eupen. The Aachen tram system was linked with the Belgian national interurban tram system. Like many tram systems in Western Europe, the Aachen tram suffered from poorly-maintained infrastructure and was so deemed unnecessary and disrupting for car drivers by local politics. On 28 September 1974, the last line 15 (Vaals–Brand) operated for one last day and was then replaced by buses. A proposal to reinstate a tram/light rail system under the name Campusbahn was dropped after a referendum.
Today, the ASEAG (Aachener Straßenbahn und Energieversorgungs-AG, literally "Aachen tram and power supply company") operates a {{convert|1240.8|km|mi|adjmid|-long|frac8}} bus network with 68 bus routes. Because of the location at the border, many bus routes extend to Belgium and the Netherlands. Lines 14 to Eupen, Belgium and 44 to Heerlen, Netherlands are jointly operated with Transport en Commun and Veolia Transport Nederland, respectively. ASEAG is one of the main participants in the Aachener Verkehrsverbund (AVV), a tariff association in the region. Along with ASEAG, city bus routes of Aachen are served by private contractors such as Sadar, Taeter, Schlömer, or DB Regio Bus. Line 350, which runs from Maastricht, also enters Aachen.
Roads
Aachen is connected to the Autobahn A4 (west-east), A44 (north-south) and A544 (a smaller motorway from the A4 to the Europaplatz near the city centre). There are plans to eliminate traffic jams at the Aachen road interchange.
Airport
Maastricht Aachen Airport {{airport codes|MST|EHBK}} is the main airport of Aachen and Maastricht. It is located around {{convert|15|nmi|km mi|abbr=off}} northwest of Aachen. There is a shuttle-service between Aachen and the airport.
Recreational aviation is served by the (formerly military) Aachen Merzbrück Airfield.
Charlemagne Prize
{{main|Charlemagne Prize}}
Angela Merkel, wearing the Charlemagne Prize awarded to her in 2008]]
Since 1950, a committee of Aachen citizens annually awards the Charlemagne Prize ({{langx|de|link=no|Karlspreis}}) to personalities of outstanding service to the unification of Europe. It is traditionally awarded on Ascension Day at the City Hall. In 2016, the Charlemagne Award was awarded to Pope Francis.
The International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen was awarded in the year 2000 to US president Bill Clinton, for his special personal contribution to co-operation with the states of Europe, for the preservation of peace, freedom, democracy and human rights in Europe, and for his support of the enlargement of the European Union. In 2004, Pope John Paul II's efforts to unite Europe were honoured with an "Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal", which was awarded for the only time ever.
Literature
Aix is the destination in Robert Browning's poem "How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix", which was published in Dramatic Romances and Lyrics, 1845.<ref>James F. Loucks, and Andrew M. Satuffer, eds. ''Robert Browning's Poetry: Authoritative Texts. Criticism''. Norton, 2nd ed. 1979.</ref> The poem is a first-person narrative told, in breathless galloping meter, by one of three riders; an urgent midnight errand to deliver "the news which alone could save Aix from her fate".
Notable people
{{main|List of people from Aachen}}
Twin towns – sister cities
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany}}
Aachen is twinned with:<ref>{{cite web|titleStädtepartnerschaften|urlhttp://www.aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/index.html|websiteaachen.de|publisherAachen|languagede|access-date2019-11-23|archive-date1 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201101050613/http://www.aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|FRA}} Montebourg, France (1960){{efn|Twinning started by then independent municipality Walheim, now continued by borough Aachen-Kornelimünster/Walheim.<ref>{{cite web |titleMontebourg – Frankreich |urlhttp://www.aachen.de/de/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/montebourg/index.html |access-date3 November 2016 |archive-date1 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220801135233/https://www.aachen.de/de/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/montebourg/index.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
*{{flagicon|FRA}} Reims, France (1967)
*{{flagicon|UK}} Halifax, England (1979)
*{{flagicon|ESP}} Toledo, Spain (1985)
*{{flagicon|CHN}} Ningbo, China (1986)
*{{flagicon|GER}} Naumburg, Germany (1988)
*{{flagicon|USA}} Arlington County, United States (1993)
*{{flagicon|TUR}} Sarıyer, Istanbul, Turkey (2013)
*{{flagicon|RSA}} Cape Town, South Africa (2017)
{{div col end}}
Former twin towns
*{{flagicon|RUS}} Kostroma, Russia (2005, suspended since March 2022)
See also
{{Portal|Germany|Europe|Geography}}
* Aachen (district)
* Aachen Prison
* Aachen tram
* Aachener
* Aachener Chronik
* Aachener Bachverein
* List of mayors of Aachen
* Council of Aachen
* Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (disambiguation)
* Maastricht Aachen Airport
* Computer museum Aachen
* {{ill|Liège–Aachen Baroque furniture|de|Aachen-Lütticher Möbelstil}}
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{reflist|30em|refs<ref name"MPC-object">{{cite web
|title = (274835) Aachen
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id274835
|access-date = 21 November 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="MPC-Circulars-Archive">{{cite web
|title = MPC/MPO/MPS Archive
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html
|access-date = 21 November 2019
|archive-date = 7 October 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007190852/https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
}} <!-- end of reflist -->
Sources
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite web |authorAachen Institute for Advanced Study in Computational Engineering Science |urlhttp://www.xfem2009.rwth-aachen.de/MainContents/AboutAachen.php |titleAbout Aachen |publisherRWTH Aachen University |access-date9 February 2013 |year2009 |archive-date17 May 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210517103903/http://www.xfem2009.rwth-aachen.de/MainContents/AboutAachen.php |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |authorAcademy of Music and Dance Cologne |urlhttp://www.hfmt-koeln.de/en/hochschule/profile.html |titleProfile |access-date3 August 2014 |year2014 |publisherCologne University of Music |languagede |archive-date25 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140725013208/http://www.hfmt-koeln.de/en/hochschule/profile.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite web |authorAcademy of Music and Dance Cologne |urlhttp://www.hfmt-koeln.de/en.html |titleHomepage |access-date3 August 2014 |year2014a |publisherCologne University of Music |archive-date25 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140725012445/http://www.hfmt-koeln.de/en.html |languagede |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite web |authorAnon |urlhttp://www.innovation-cities.com/2thinknow-innovation-cities-global-256-index/ |title2thinknow Innovation Cities Global 256 Index |access-date4 September 2016 |date28 July 2009 |websiteInnovation Cities |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140409165153/http://www.innovation-cities.com/2thinknow-innovation-cities-global-256-index/ |archive-date=9 April 2014 }}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.deutsch-lernen.com/learn-german-online/german_language.htm |lastActiLingua Academy |titleThe German Language and Its Many Forms |year2013 |locationVienna |access-date4 September 2016 |archive-date22 August 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160822153252/http://www.deutsch-lernen.com/learn-german-online/german_language.htm |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |year2013 |titleAachen – römische Bäderstadt: Badeleben in einer römischen Therme |trans-titleAachen – City Roman Baths: Life in a Roman thermal bath |urlhttp://www.archaeologie-aachen.de/DE/Geschichte/Epochen/Roemerzeit/Aachen_Roemische_Baederstadt/index.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200120141233/http://www.archaeologie-aachen.de/DE/Geschichte/Epochen/Roemerzeit/Aachen_Roemische_Baederstadt/index.html |archive-date2020-01-20 |access-date9 February 2014 |websiteArchaeology in Aachen |languagede |ref={{harvid|Anon|2013}} }}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.wetter-deutschland.com/nordrhein-westfalen/koeln/aachen/prognose/9-tage |lastWetter – Deutschland |trans-titleAachen Weather |titleWetter Aachen |date4 September 2016 |access-date4 September 2016 |languagede |archive-date20 September 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160920002601/http://www.wetter-deutschland.com/nordrhein-westfalen/koeln/aachen/prognose/9-tage |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite web |authorAnon |titleSearch: Aachen |urlhttp://antisemitism.org.il/page/62575/results?searchaachen&langen |year2014 |access-date31 July 2014 |websiteThe Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150429235029/http://antisemitism.org.il/page/62575/results?searchaachen&langen |archive-date29 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |lastAktualisierung |firstLetzte |titleAachen: Wieder mehr Arbeitslose |trans-titleAachen: Again, More Unemployed |languagede |websiteAachener Nachrichten |access-date9 February 2014 |date2 May 2012 |urlhttp://www.aachener-nachrichten.de/artikel/2349432 |archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171020035822/http://www.aachener-nachrichten.de/lokales/aachen/aachen-wieder-mehr-arbeitslose-1.420311 |url-statusdead |archive-date20 October 2017 }}
* {{cite web |authorAmerican-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |titleThe Holocaust:Photographs |urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/aachensyn.html |websiteJewish Virtual Library |publisherAmerican-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |access-date9 November 2013 |year2013 |archive-date10 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110042918/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/aachensyn.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite web |authorAmerican-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |titleThe Holocaust:Photographs |urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0001_0_00017.html |websiteJewish Virtual Library |publisherAmerican-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |access-date28 January 2014 |year2013a |archive-date17 May 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150517025511/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0001_0_00017.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite book |lastBaker |firstAnni P. |titleAmerican Soldiers Overseas: The Global Military Presence |publisherPraeger Publishers |year2004 |seriesPerspectives on the Twentieth Century |locationWestport, CT |isbn0-275-97354-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/americansoldiers0000bake }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Bayer | editor-first Patricia |encyclopediaEncyclopedia Americana |titleAachen |edition1st |year2000 |publisherGrolier Incorporated |volumeI A-Anjou |locationDanbury, CT |isbn0-7172-0133-3 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Bridgwater | editor1-first W. | editor2-last Aldrich | editor2-first Beatrice |encyclopediaThe Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopædia |publisherColumbia University Press |locationNew York, NY |year1968 |edition3rd |asinB000UUM90Y |title=Aachen }}
* {{cite web |authorCalderdale Council |urlhttp://www.calderdale.gov.uk/advice/tourism/towntwinning/towns/aachen.html |titleAachen: Twin Towns |publisherGovernment of the United Kingdom |year2012 |access-date9 February 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130928232645/http://www.calderdale.gov.uk/advice/tourism/towntwinning/towns/aachen.html |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastCanby |firstCourtlandt |editor-lastCarruth |editor-firstGorton |encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Historic Places |volumeI: A-L |publisherFact on File Publications |locationNew York, NY |year1984 |isbn0-87196-126-1 |titleAachen |urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhi0000canb }}
* {{cite web |authorCatholic University of Applied Sciences |urlhttp://www.katho-nrw.de/en/katho-nrw/ |titleHomepage |access-date3 August 2014 |year2014 |publisherCatholic University of Applied Sciences |archive-date9 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140709003937/http://www.katho-nrw.de/en/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |authorCatholic University of Applied Sciences |urlhttp://www.katho-nrw.de/en/aachen/ |titleAachen |access-date3 August 2014 |year2014a |publisherCatholic University of Applied Sciences |archive-date29 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729151728/http://www.katho-nrw.de/en/aachen/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |authorCity of Aachen |titleBevölkerungsstand |trans-titlePopulation as of |publisheraachen.de |access-date9 February 2014 |urlhttp://www.aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/statistische_daten/bevoelkerungsstand/index.html |languagede |year2012 |archive-date22 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141022142433/http://www.aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/statistische_daten/bevoelkerungsstand/index.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |authorCity of Aachen |urlhttp://www.aachen.de/EN/ts/140_museums/140_90.html |titleCathedral of Aachen |publisherCity of Aachen |year2013 |access-date9 February 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130926001238/http://aachen.de/EN/ts/140_museums/140_90.html |archive-date26 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Cohen | editor-first Saul B. |encyclopediaThe Columbia Gazetteer of the World |titleAachen |isbn0-231-11040-5 |publisherColumbia University Press |locationNew York, NY |year1998 }}
* {{cite book |lastDe Jong |firstMayke |titleIn Samuel's Image: Child Oblation in the Early Medieval West |publisherE. J. Brill |year1996 |locationLeiden, Netherlands |lccn95025956 |isbn90-04-10483-6 }}
* {{cite book |last1Dupuy |first1R. Ernest |last2Dupuy |first2Trevor N. |titleThe Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present |edition2nd Revised |year1986 |publisherHarper & Row, Publishers |locationNew York, NY |isbn0-06-181235-8 }}
* {{cite book |lastEgger |firstCarlo |titleLexicon nominum locorum |trans-titleLexicon of Place Names |year1977 |isbn978-88-209-1254-3 |publisherLibreria Editrice Vaticana |languagela }}
* {{cite book |lastEginhard |titleAnnales D'Eginhard; Vie de Charlemagne. Des Faits Et Gestes de Charlemagne |trans-titleAnnals of Eginhard Life of Charlemagne. Facts and gestures of Charlemagne |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV8lRAAAAcAAJ |year2012 |orig-year1824 |publisherHachette Livre – Bnf |languagefr |isbn978-2-01-252304-3 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |urlhttp://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003197 |titleAachen |year2006 |access-date8 November 2013 |ref{{SfnRef|Encyclopædia Britannica|2006}} |archive-date20 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081120103157/http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003197 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |author((Federal Ministry of Transport, Building, and Urban Development)) |urlhttp://www.dwd.de/bvbw/appmanager/bvbw/dwdwwwDesktop?_nfpbtrue&_pageLabel_dwdwww_klima_umwelt_klimadaten_deutschland&T82002gsbDocumentPathNavigation%2FOeffentlichkeit%2FKlima__Umwelt%2FKlimadaten%2Fkldaten__kostenfrei%2Fausgabe__monatswerte__node.html%3F__nnn%3Dtrue |titleAusgabe der Klimadaten: Monatswerte |trans-titleIssue of climate data: monthly data |languagede |access-date9 February 2014 |year2013 |archive-date12 June 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140612043121/http://www.dwd.de/bvbw/appmanager/bvbw/dwdwwwDesktop?_nfpbtrue&_pageLabel_dwdwww_klima_umwelt_klimadaten_deutschland&T82002gsbDocumentPathNavigation%2FOeffentlichkeit%2FKlima__Umwelt%2FKlimadaten%2Fkldaten__kostenfrei%2Fausgabe__monatswerte__node.html%3F__nnn%3Dtrue |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastFreimann |firstA. J. |editor-lastSinger |editor-firstIsidore |encyclopediaThe Jewish Encyclopedia |titleAix-La-Chapelle (Aachen) |year1906 |publisherKTAV Publishing House |locationNew York, NY |urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2-aachen |volume1: Aach – Apocalyptic Lit. |access-date26 October 2014 |archive-date30 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141030073344/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2-aachen |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |lastFriedrich |firstJörg |titleThe Fire: The Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV8lRAAAAcAAJ |year2008 |publisherColumbia University Press |locationNew York |isbn=978-0231133814 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastGaehde |firstJoachim E. | editor1-last Turner | editor1-first Jane | editor2-last Brigstocke | editor2-first Hugh |encyclopediaThe Dictionary of Art |volume1: A to Anckerman |publisherGrove |locationNew York, NY |isbn0-19-517068-7 |lccn96013628 |titleAachen: Buildings: Palatine Chapel: Sculpture and Treasury |year1996 |pages=4–5 }}
* {{cite book |last1Gdawietz |first1Gregor |last2Leroi |first2Roland |titleVon Aachen bis Bielefeld – Vom Tivoli zur Alm |trans-titleFrom Aachen to Bielefeld – From Tivoli to the Pasture |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsT9xfNP948AC&pgPA28 |year2008 |publisherMeyer + Meyer Fachverlag |locationAachen, Germany |languagede |isbn978-3-89899-315-9 }}
* {{cite web |authorGeological Survey of North Rhine-Westphalia |urlhttp://www.gd.nrw.de/zip/l_yroer.pdf |access-date9 February 2014 |year2013 |trans-titleEarthquake in Roermond on 13 April 1992 |languagede |titleErdbeben bei Roermond am 13. April 1992 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029194510/http://www.gd.nrw.de/zip/l_yroer.pdf |archive-date29 October 2013 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastHeld |firstColbert C. | editor-last Johnston | editor-first Bernard |encyclopediaCollier's Encyclopedia |titleAachen |edition1st |year1997 |publisherP. F. Collier |volumeI: A to Ameland |location=New York, NY }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-lastHoiberg |editor-firstDale H. |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |titleAachen |edition15th |year2010 |publisherEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |volumeI: A-Ak – Bayes |locationChicago, IL |isbn978-1-59339-837-8 |pages[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/1 1–2] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/1 }}
* {{cite book |lastHolborn |firstHajo |titleA History of Modern Germany |volume1: The Reformation |publisherPrinceton University Press |locationPrinceton, NJ |year1982 |orig-year1959 |isbn0-691-00795-0 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng00hajo }}
* {{cite book |lastHolborn |firstHajo |titleA History of Modern Germany |volume2: 1648–1840 |publisherPrinceton University Press |locationPrinceton, NJ |year1982a |orig-year1964 |isbn0-691-00796-9 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng00hajo }}
* {{cite book |lastHolborn |firstHajo |titleA History of Modern Germany |volume3: 1840–1945 |publisherPrinceton University Press |locationPrinceton, NJ |year1982b |orig-year1969 |isbn0-691-00797-7 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng00hajo }}
* {{cite book |lastJourdan |firstAntoine Jacques Louis |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4OI-AAAAcAAJ |titleDictionnaire des Sciences Médicales: Biographie Médicale |date1821 |publisherC. L. F. Panckoucke |editor-lastPanckoucke |editor-firstCharles-Louis-Fleury |volume4 |locationParis |languagefr |trans-title=Dictionary of Medical Sciences: Medical Biography }}
* {{cite web |lastKerner |firstMaximillian |urlhttp://www.aachen.de/EN/sb/aachen_and_europe/index.html |titleAachen and Europe |year2013 |access-date9 February 2014 |websiteCity of Aachen |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140218065543/http://www.aachen.de/en/sb/aachen_and_europe/index.html |archive-date18 February 2014 }}
* {{cite book |lastKitchen |firstMartin |titleThe Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge, UK |year1996 |isbn0-521-45341-0 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521453417 }}
* {{cite web |lastKnufinke |firstUlrich |titleAachen: Synagoge und Gemeindezentrum Synagogenplatz |trans-titleAachen: Synagogue and community centre Synagogenplatz |urlhttp://www.zentralratdjuden.de/de/topic/387.html?synagogueId50 |publisherZentralrat der Juden in Deutschland |access-date9 February 2014 |year2013 |archive-date10 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110043113/http://www.zentralratdjuden.de/de/topic/387.html?synagogueId50 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastMcClendon |firstCharles B. | editor1-last Turner | editor1-first Jane | editor2-last Brigstocke | editor2-first Hugh |encyclopediaThe Dictionary of Art |volume1: A to Anckerman |publisherGrove |locationNew York, NY |isbn0-19-517068-7 |lccn96013628 |titleAachen |year1996 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastMcClendon |firstCharles B. | editor1-last Turner | editor1-first Jane | editor2-last Brigstocke | editor2-first Hugh |encyclopediaThe Dictionary of Art |volume1: A to Anckerman |publisherGrove |locationNew York, NY |isbn0-19-517068-7 |lccn96013628 |titleAachen: Buildings |year1996a |pages=1–4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastMcKitterick |firstRosamond D. | editor1-last Turner | editor1-first Jane | editor2-last Brigstocke | editor2-first Hugh |encyclopediaThe Dictionary of Art |volume1: A to Anckerman |publisherGrove |locationNew York, NY |isbn0-19-517068-7 |lccn96013628 |titleAachen: Centre of Manuscript Production |year1996 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastMerkl |firstPeter H. | editor-last Kobasa | editor-first Paul A. |encyclopediaWorld Book |titleAachen |edition1st |year2007 |publisherWorld Book Inc. |volumeI: A |locationChicago, IL |isbn978-0-7166-0107-4 }}
* {{cite web |lastMielke |firstRita |urlhttp://www.aachen.de/en/ts/100_taking_a_cure/100_99/index.html |titleHistory of Bathing |year2013 |access-date9 February 2014 |websiteCity of Aachen |archive-date17 February 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140217174852/http://www.aachen.de/en/ts/100_taking_a_cure/100_99/index.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-lastMunro |editor-firstDavid |titleAachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) |encyclopediaThe Oxford Dictionary of the World |year1995 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford, UK |isbn0-19-866184-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00munr }}
* {{cite web |lastPecinovský |firstJindřich |urlhttp://www.mestokladno.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org6506&id1401504&querypartnersk%C3%A1+m%C4%9Bsta&p1955 |titlePartnerská města Kladna |trans-titlePartner of Kladno |date1 December 2009 |languagecs |access-date9 February 2013 |archive-date12 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181212193111/https://www.mestokladno.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org6506&id1401504&querypartnersk%C3%A1+m%C4%9Bsta&p1955 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Ranson | editor-first K. Anne |encyclopediaAcademic American Encyclopedia |titleAachen |editionFirst |year1998 |publisherGrolier Incorporated |volumeI: A – Ang |locationDanbury, CT |isbn0-7172-2068-0 }}
* {{cite web |authorRWTH Aachen University |urlhttp://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/~emq/Exzellenzinitiative/lidx/1/ |titleExcellence Initiative |access-date9 February 2014 |year2013 |publisherRWTH Aachen University |archive-date24 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140124120523/http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/~emq/Exzellenzinitiative/lidx/1/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |authorRWTH Aachen University |urlhttp://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/Profil/~bure/Internationalisierung/ |titleInternationalisierung |trans-titleInternationalisation |publisherAachen University |date31 May 2016 |access-date4 September 2016 |archive-date8 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160308153019/http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/Profil/~bure/Internationalisierung/ |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite web |last1Schäfer |first1Burkhard |last2Schäfer |first2Sibylle |urlhttp://www.david-garrett.com/us/about/ |year2010 |titleBiography David Garrett |websiteDavid Garrett |access-date10 April 2014 |archive-date3 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131103103856/http://www.david-garrett.com/us/about/ |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite AV media |lastSchaub |firstAndreas |year2013 |titleAndreas Schaub explains the archaeological record in court in Archäologie am Hof. City of Aachen |mediumAudio |languagede |urlhttp://www.archaeologie-aachen.de/DE/Mediathek/Audio/zeitreise_rundgang/zeitreise_hof.mp3 |access-date9 February 2014 |formatMP3 |archive-date29 September 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130929015424/http://www.archaeologie-aachen.de/DE/Mediathek/Audio/zeitreise_rundgang/zeitreise_hof.mp3 |url-statusdead }}
* {{cite web |lastSchmetz |firstOliver |titleBestürzung über Nazi-Attacke auf Synagoge |trans-titleDismay over Nazi attack on synagogue |urlhttp://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/bestuerzung-ueber-nazi-attacke-auf-synagoge-1.376814 |workAachener Zeitung |year2011 |access-date9 February 2014 |archive-date10 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110043035/http://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/bestuerzung-ueber-nazi-attacke-auf-synagoge-1.376814 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |lastSchumacher |firstWolfgang |languagede |titleKeltisches Glas und eine römische Villa im Elisengarten |trans-titleCeltic glass and a Roman villa in Elisengarten |date23 January 2009 |urlhttps://www.aachener-zeitung.de/nrw-region/keltisches-glas-und-eine-roemische-villa-im-elisengarten_aid-27264035 |access-date9 February 2014 |website=Aachener Nachrichten }}
* {{cite news |urlhttp://spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/a-898941.html |lastDer Spiegel |titleKarlspreis-Trägerin Grybauskaite: Macht eure Hausaufgaben! |newspaperDer Spiegel |trans-titleCharlemagne Prize winner Grybauskaite: Does your homework! |date9 May 2013 |locationHamburg |languagede |access-date=4 September 2016 }}
* {{cite book |lastStanton |firstShelby L. |titleWorld War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946 |publisherStackpole Books |edition2nd |year2006 |isbn978-0-8117-0157-0 |locationMechanicsburg, PA |orig-year=1984 }}
* {{cite web |authorUniversity of Cologne, Seismological Station Bensberg |urlhttp://www.seismo.uni-koeln.de/meldung/dueren/index.htm |access-date9 February 2014 |year2013 |titleZum 250. Jahrestag des Dürener Erdbebens |trans-titleThe 250th Anniversary of the Düren earthquake |languagede |archive-date31 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190331090828/http://www.seismo.uni-koeln.de/meldung/dueren/index.htm |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite book |lastVan der Gragt |firstF. |titleEurope's Greatest Tramways Network |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNh8VAAAAIAAJ&pgPA137 |year1968 |publisherE. J. Brill |asinB000MOT6T0 |locationLeiden, Netherlands }}
* {{cite book | editor1-last Van der Meer | editor1-first Willemina | editor2-last Richter | editor2-first Elisabeth | editor3-last Opitz | editor3-first Helmut | title World guide to special libraries | volume 2 | url https://books.google.com/books?idamvhAAAAMAAJ | year 1998 | publisher K G Saur Verlag Gmbh & Co | edition 4th | isbn 978-3-598-22249-8 }}
* {{cite book |lastWilson |firstPeter H. | editor-last Black| editor-first Jeremy |titleFrom Reich to Revolution: German History, 1558–1806 |seriesEuropean History in Perspective |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |locationHampshire, UK |year2004 |isbn0-333-65244-4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Young | editor1-first Margaret Walsh | editor2-last Stetler | editor2-first Susan L. |encyclopediaCities of the World |edition3rd |volume3: Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East |publisherGale Research Company |locationDetroit, MI |year1987 |isbn0-8103-2541-1 |titleAachen |chapter=Germany, Federal Republic of }}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
{{See also|Timeline of Aachen#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Aachen}}
* {{cite book |lastHunt |firstFrederick Knight |author-linkFrederick Knight Hunt |publisherJeremiah How |locationLondon, UK |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/stream/rhineitssceneryh00huntrich#page/76/mode/2up |titleThe Rhine: Its Scenery, and Historical and Legendary Associations |chapterInterchapter – Aix-la-Chapelle |year1845 |pages77–83 |lccn=04028368}}
* {{cite book |lastMurray |firstJohn |publisherJohn Murray and Son |locationLondon, UK |titleA Hand-book for Travellers on the Continent: Being a Guide Through Holland, Belgium, Prussia, and Northern Germany, and Along the Rhine, from Holland to Switzerland |urlhttps://play.google.com/store/books/details?idTPkRAAAAYAAJ&rdidbook-TPkRAAAAYAAJ&rdot1 |edition5th |orig-year1837 |pages216–222 |year1845 |lccn14015908}}
* {{cite book |lastBaedeker |firstKarl |publisherKarl Baedeker, Publishers |locationLeipzig, Germany |titleThe Rhine, including the Black Forest & the Vosges |seriesBaedeker's Guide Books |year1911 |edition17th |pages12–15 |lccn11015867 |orig-year1868|ol6532082M }}
* {{cite book |lastBischoff |firstBernhard |titleMittelalterliche Studien |languagede | trans-title Medieval Studies |pages149–186 |chapterDie Hofbibliothek Karls des Grossen [The Court Library of Charlemagne] and Die Hofbibliothek unter Ludwig dem Frommen [The Court Library under Louis the Pious] |volumeIII |year1981 |locationStuttgart, Germany |publisher=A. Hiersemann}}
* {{cite book | editor1-last Braunfels | editor1-first Wolfgang | editor2-last Schnitzler | editor2-first H. |titleKarl der Grosse: Lebenswerk und Nachleben |languagede | trans-title Charlemagne: Lifetime and Legacy |lccn66055599 |year1966 |publisherL. Schwann |location=Düsseldorf, Germany}}
* {{cite book |lastCüppers |firstvon Heinz |titleAquae Granni: Beiträge zur Archäologie von Aachen: Rheinische Ausgrabungen |locationCologne, Germany |publisherRheinland-verlag |year1982 |isbn3-7927-0313-0 |lccn82178009 | trans-title Aquae Granni: Contributions to Archaeology of Aachen: Excavations of the Rhineland |languagede}}
* {{cite book |lastFaymonville |firstD. |titleDie Kunstdenkmäler der Stadt Aachen |languagede | trans-title The Monuments of the City of Aachen |locationDüsseldorf, Germany |year1916 |publisherL. Schwann}}
* {{cite book |lastGrimme |firstErnst Günther |titleDer Aachener Domschatz |languagede | trans-title The Aachen Cathedral Treasury |year1972 |locationDüsseldorf, Germany |publisherL. Schwann |lccn72353488 |seriesAachener Kunstblätter [Written Works on Aachen]}}
* {{cite book |lastKaemmerer |firstWalter |titleGeschichtliches Aachen: Von Werden und Wesen einer Reichsstadt |languagede |locationAachen, Germany |year1955 | trans-title History of Aachen: From Will and Essence of an Imperial City |lccn56004784 |publisher=M. Brimberg}}
* {{cite book |lastKoehler |firstWilhelm Reinhold Walter |titleDie karolingischen Miniaturen |languagede | trans-title The Carolingian Miniatures |locationBerlin, Germany |publisherB. Cassirer |lccn57050855 |volumeII-IV |year1958}}
* {{cite journal |lastMcKitterick |firstRosamond |titleCarolingian Uncial: A Context for the Lothar Psalter |journalThe British Library Journal |volume16 |issue1 |year1990 |pages1–15 |publisherBritish Library |urlhttp://www.bl.uk/eblj/1990articles/pdf/article1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bl.uk/eblj/1990articles/pdf/article1.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}
* Rice, Eric, ''Music and Ritual at Charlemagne's Marienkirche in Aachen.'' Kassel: Merseburger, 2009.
External links
{{Wikivoyage|Aachen}}
{{Commons}}
* {{Official website}} {{in lang|de}}
{{Districts of Aachen |state=collapsed}}
{{Cities and towns in Aachen (district) |state=collapsed}}
{{Cities in Germany}}
{{Germany districts North Rhine-Westphalia}}
{{Free Imperial Cities}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Aachen (district)
Category:Belgium–Germany border crossings
Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites
Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
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Category:765
Category:Spa towns in Germany | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.283504 |
1523 | Agate | {{short description|Banded variety of chalcedony}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox mineral
| name = Agate
| category = Tectosilicate minerals, quartz group, chalcedony variety
| boxwidth | boxbgcolor#bb361c
| boxtextcolor = #fff
| image = Mexican Crazy Lace Agate - World's Best.jpg
| imagesize = 260px
| caption = {{cvt|19.6|kg|lb|0}} specimen of crazy lace agate from Chihuahua, Mexico next to a tennis ball; {{cvt|38.2|cm|in}} wide
| formula = SiO<sub>2</sub> (silicon dioxide)
| molweight | color Often multicolored; commonly colorless, pale blue to black, red to orange, yellow, white, brown, pink, purple; rarely green
| habit = Cryptocrystalline silica
| system = Trigonal (quartz) or monoclinic (moganite)
| twinning | cleavage None
| fracture = Conchoidal
| mohs = 6.5–7
| luster = Waxy, vitreous when polished
| refractive = 1.530-1.543
| opticalprop = Uniaxial (+)
| birefringence = Up to 0.004
| dispersion= None
| pleochroism = Absent
| streak = White
| gravity = 2.60–2.64
| density = 2.6 g/cm³
| melt | tenacity Brittle
| fusibility | diagnostic
| solubility | diaphaneity Transparent to opaque (usually translucent)
| other | references <ref name"mindat" /><ref>{{cite web |titleAgate |urlhttps://www.gemdat.org/gem-51.html |websitegemdat.org |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAgate Value, Price, and Jewelry Information |urlhttps://www.gemsociety.org/article/agate-gem-information/ |websitegemsociety,org |publisherInternational Gem Society |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref>
}}
Agate ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|ɡ|ɪ|t}} {{respell|AG|it}}) is a banded variety of chalcedony. Agate stones are characterized by alternating bands of different colored chalcedony and sometimes include macroscopic quartz. They are common in nature and can be found globally in a large number of different varieties. There are some varieties of chalcedony without bands that are commonly called agate (moss agate, fire agate, etc.); however, these are more properly classified solely as varieties of chalcedony. Agates are primarily formed as nodules within volcanic rock, but they can also form in veins or in sedimentary rock. Agate has been popular as a gemstone in jewelry for thousands of years, and today it is also popular as a collector's stone. Some duller agates sold commercially are artificially dyed to enhance their color.
Etymology
Agate was given its name by Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and naturalist. He discovered the stone c. 350 BCE along the shoreline of the River Achates ({{langx|grc|Ἀχάτης}}), now the Dirillo River, on the Italian island of Sicily, which at the time was a Greek territory.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp52,162}}
Formation and properties
Agates are most commonly found as nodules within the cavities of volcanic rocks<ref name"Moxon" /> such as basalt, andesite, and rhyolite. These cavities, called vesicles (amygdaloids when filled),<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p12}} are gas bubbles that were trapped inside the lava when it cooled.<ref name"Moxon">{{Cite journal |lastMoxon |firstT |last2Reed |first2S. J. B. |year2006 |titleAgate and chalcedony from igneous and sedimentary hosts aged from 13 to 3480 Ma: a cathodoluminescence study |urlhttps://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/minmag/article/70/5/485/140307 |url-statuslive |journalMineralogical Magazine |volume70 |issue5 |pages485–498 |bibcode2006MinM...70..485M |doi10.1180/0026461067050347 |s2cid54607138 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220313041353/https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/minmag/article/70/5/485/140307 |archive-dateMarch 13, 2022 |access-dateOctober 1, 2006}}</ref><ref name"lynch" /><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p12}} The vesicles are later filled with hot, silica-rich water from the surrounding environment, forming a silica gel. This gel crystallizes through a complex process to form agates. Since agates usually form in lavas poor in free silica, there are multiple theories of where the silica originates from, including micro-shards of silica glass from volcanic ash or tuff deposits and decomposing plant or animal matter.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p=11}} Agates are much harder than the rocks they form in, so they are frequently found detached from their host rock.
Geologists generally understand the early stages of agate formation, but the specific processes that result in band development are still widely debated. Since they form in cavities within host rock, agate formation cannot be directly observed,<ref name"lynch" /> and unlike most other crystals, agates have never been successfully lab-grown.<ref>{{cite web |last1Brown |first1Nancy Marie |titleHow Do Agates Form? |urlhttps://www.psu.edu/news/research/story/how-do-agates-form |websitepsu.edu |publisherThe Pennsylvania State University |date31 August 2001|access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>
Agate is composed of multiple bands, or layers, of chalcedony fibers,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Wang|first1Yifeng |last2Merino|first2Enrique |date1990-06-01 |titleSelf-organizational origin of agates: Banding, fiber twisting, composition, and dynamic crystallization model |journalGeochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |languageen |volume54 |issue6 |pages1627–1638 |doi10.1016/0016-7037(90)90396-3 |bibcode1990GeCoA..54.1627W |issn0016-7037}}</ref> specifically length-fast chalcedony fibers and sometimes quartzine (length-slow chalcedony fibers).<ref name"mindat" /> Agate can also contain opal, an amorphous, hydrated form of silica.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p11}} In wall-banded agates, the fibers grow radially from the vesicle walls inward, perpendicular to the direction of the bands.<ref name"mindat">{{Cite web |titleAgate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-51.html |access-date10 February 2025 |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/schweiz/njma/2009/00000186/00000002/art00001|titleThe formation of agate structures: models for silica transport, agate layer accretion, and for flow patterns and flow regimes in infiltration channels|last1Walger|first1Eckart|last2Mattheß|first2Georg|dateAugust 2009|websitewww.ingentaconnect.com|languageen|access-dateMarch 3, 2020|last3von Seckendorff|first3Volker|last4Liebau|first4Friedrich|archive-dateJune 4, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180604062121/https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/schweiz/njma/2009/00000186/00000002/art00001|url-statuslive}}</ref> The vesicle walls are often coated with thin layers of celadonite or chlorite,<ref name"lynch" /><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p18}} soft, green phyllosilicate minerals that form from the reaction of hot, silica-rich water with the rock.<ref name"lynch" /> This coating provides a rough surface for the chalcedony fibers to form on, initially as radial spherulites. The rough surface also causes agate husks to have a pitted appearance once the coating has been weathered away or removed.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp18–19}} Sometimes, the spherulites grow around mineral inclusions, resulting in eyes, tubes, and sagenitic agates. The first layer of spherulitic chalcedony is typically clear, followed by successive growth bands of chalcedony alternated with chemically precipitated color bands, primarily iron oxides.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p13}} The center is often macrocrystalline quartz (quartz with visible crystals),<ref name"lynch" /> which can also occur in bands and forms when there is not enough water in the silica gel to promote chalcedony polymerization.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p18}} When the silica concentration of the gel is too low, a hollow center forms, called an agate geode.<ref name":02">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.minerals.net/MineralDefinition.aspx?nameagate|titleAgate chalcedony: The mineral Agate information and pictures|websitewww.minerals.net|languageen-US|access-date2020-02-27|archive-date2020-03-16|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200316005135/https://www.minerals.net/MineralDefinition.aspx?nameagate|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p17}}
Quartz forms crystals around the cavity, with the apex of each crystal pointing towards the center. Occasionally, the quartz may be colored, such as amethyst or smoky quartz. Level-banded agates form when chalcedony precipitates out of solution in the direction of gravity, resulting in horizontal layers of microscopic chalcedony spherulites.<ref name"mindat" /> Enhydro agates, or enhydros, form when water becomes trapped within an agate (or chalcedony) nodule or geode, often long after its formation.<ref>{{cite book |last1Bates |first1R. L. |last2Jackson |first2J. A. |titleGlossary of Geological Terms |date1987 |publisherAmerican Geological Institute |locationAlexandria, Virginia |page788 |edition3rd |urlhttps://www.gamineral.org/writings/enhydros-gray.html |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleEnhydro Agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-7596.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref>
Agates can also form within rock fissures, called veins.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp11–12}} Vein agates form in a manner similar to nodular agates, and they include most lace agates, such as blue lace agate and crazy lace agate.
Less commonly, agates can form as nodules within sedimentary rock, such as limestone, dolomite or tuff. These agates form when silica replaces another mineral, or silica-rich water fills cavities left by decomposed plant or animal matter.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p11–12}} Sedimentary agates also include fossil agates, which form when silica replaces the original composition of an organic material.<ref>{{cite web |titleFossil Agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-7603.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref> This process is called silicification, a form of petrification. Examples include petrified wood,<ref>{{cite web |titlePetrified Wood |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-8018.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref> agatized coral,<ref>{{cite web |titleAgatized coral |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-43510.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date9 March 2025}}</ref> and Turritella agate (Elimia tenera).<ref name"turritella" /> Although these fossils are often referred to as being "agatized," they are only true agates when they are banded.<ref name"mindat" />Varieties (by structure)Agates are broadly separated into two categories based the type of banding they exhibit.<ref name"lynch" /><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp24,36}} Wall banding, also called concentric banding or adhesional banding, occurs when agate bands follow the shape of the cavity they formed in. Level banding, also called water-level banding, gravitational banding, horizontal banding, parallel banding, or Uruguay-type banding, occurs when agate bands form in straight, parallel lines. Level banding is less common and usually occurs together with wall banding.<ref name"mindat" /> Wall-banded agates Fortification agates have very tight, well-defined bands. They get their name from their appearance resembling the walls of a fort. Fortification agates are one the most common varieties, and they are what most people think of when they hear the word "agate."<ref name"lynch" />
Lace agates exhibit a lace-like pattern of bands with many swirls, eyes, bends, and zigzags. Unlike most agates, they usually form in veins instead of nodules.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p31}}
Faulted agates occur when agate bands are broken and slightly shifted by rock movement and then re-cemented together by chalcedony. They have the appearance of rock layers with fault lines running through them. Brecciated agates have also had their bands broken apart and re-cemented with chalcedony, but they consist of disjointed band fragments at random angles.<ref name"lynch" /><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp24,28}} They are a form of breccia, which is a textural term for any rock composed of angular fragments.<ref name"lynch" /><ref>{{Cite web |titleBrecciated agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-7593.html |access-dateFebruary 11, 2025 |websiteMindat.org |publisher=Hudson Institute of Mineralogy}}</ref>
Eye agates have one or more circular, concentric rings on their surface.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEye Agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-7598.html |access-dateFebruary 11, 2025 |websiteMindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Minerology}}</ref> These "eyes" are actually hemispheres that form on the husk of the agate and extend inward like a bowl. Tube agates contain tunnel-like structures that extend all the way through the agate. These "tubes" may sometimes be banded or hollow, or both. Both tube and eye agates form when chalcedony grows around a needle-shaped crystal of another mineral embedded within the agate, forming stalactitic structures. Visible "eyes" can also appear on the surface of tube agates if a cut is made (or the agate is weathered) perpendicular to the stalactitic structure.<ref name"lynch" /><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp27,35}}
Dendritic agates have dark-colored, fern-like patterns (dendrites) on the surface or the spaces between bands.<ref name"lynch" /><ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p25}} They are composed of manganese or iron oxides. Moss agates exhibit a moss-like pattern and are usually green or brown in color. They form when dendritic structures on the surface of an agate are pushed inward with the silica gel during their formation. Moss agate was once believed to be petrified moss, until it was discovered the moss-like formations are actually composed of celadonite, hornblende, or a chlorite mineral. Plume agates are a type of moss agate, but the dendritic "plumes" form tree-like structures within the agate. They are often bright red (from inclusions of hematite) or bright yellow (from inclusions of goethite).<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp32–33}} While dendrites frequently occur in banded agates, moss and plume agates usually lack bands altogether. Therefore, they are not true agates according to the mineralogical definition.<ref name"mindat" /><ref>{{Cite web |lastTeam |firstGeology In |titleMoss Agate: Formation, Occurrence, Uses |urlhttps://www.geologyin.com/2020/02/what-is-moss-agate.html#google_vignette |access-date2025-02-11 |websiteGeology In |language=en}}</ref>
Iris agates have bands that are so microscopically fine that when thinly sliced, they cause white light to be diffracted into its spectral colors. This "iris effect" usually occurs in colorless agates, but it can also occur in brightly colored ones.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p30}}
Sagenitic agates, or sagenites, have acicular (needle-shaped) inclusions of another mineral, usually anhydrite, aragonite, goethite, rutile, or a zeolite. Chalcedony often forms tubes around these crystals and may eventually replace the original mineral, resulting in a pseudomorph.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p34}} The term "sagenite" was originally a name for a type of rutile, and later rutilated quartz. It has since been used to describe any quartz variety with acicular inclusions of any mineral.<ref>{{cite web |titleSagenite |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-8578.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date16 February 2025}}</ref> Level-banded agates Agates with level banding are traditionally called onyx, although the formal definition of the term onyx refers to color pattern, not the shape of the bands.<ref>{{cite web |titleOnyx |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-2999.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-dateFebruary 9, 2025}}</ref> Accordingly, the name "onyx" is also used for wall-banded agates. Onyx is also frequently misused as a name for banded calcite. The name originates from the Greek word for the human nail, which has parallel ridges.<ref name"pabian">{{Cite book |lastPabian |firstRoger |titleAgates: Treasures of the Earth |last2Jackson |first2Brian |last3Tandy |first3Peter |last4Cromartie |first4John |date2016 |publisherFirefly Books |isbn978-1-77085-644-8}}</ref>{{rp|p37}} Typically, onyx bands alternate between black and white or other light and dark colors. Sardonyx is a variety with red-to-brown bands alternated with either white or black bands.<ref>{{cite web |titleSardonyx |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-7604.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date= February 10, 2025}}</ref>
Thunder eggs are frequently level-banded, however they may also have wall banding. Level banding is also common in Lake Superior agates.<ref name"lynch">{{Cite book |lastLynch |firstDan R. |titleLake Superior Agates Field Guide |last2Lynch |first2Bob |date2012 |publisherAdventure Publications |isbn=978-1-59193-282-6}}</ref>
<gallery mode"packed" heights"130px">
Agate 6 (32375570980).jpg|Agate with both wall banding (top) and level banding (bottom)
Agate Braziilia.jpg|Brazilian agate with classic fortification banding
Crazy Lace Agate 06.jpg|Crazy lace agate
Eyeballed by all the eye agates (27395607964).jpg|Tumbled Lake Superior eye agates
Detail, Dendritic agate (cropped).jpg|Dendritic agate from India
Four moss agate cabochons.jpg|Moss agate cabochons
Iris Agate from (Agatized Petrified Wood), Stinking Water, Oregon detail, from- Oregon004 (cropped).jpg|Iris agate from petrified wood
Agate D Bruyere.jpg|Level-banded agate
Onyx Mainzer Becken.jpg|Onyx agate
Thunder Egg Agate (Priday Blue Bed, John Day Formation, Miocene; near Madras, Oregon, USA) 5.jpg|Level-banded thunder egg from Oregon, USA
</gallery>
Varieties (by locality)
Agates are very common, and they have been found on every continent, including Antarctica. In addition to names used to describe their structure, numerous geological, local, and trade names are applied to agates from different localities.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp7–9}} Below is a list of known agate localities and the names of the agates that are found there. This list is not exhaustive.
Africa
* Blue lace agate is a pale blue and white lace agate found primarily in Namibia. These agates formed in dolomite associated with igneous rock.
* Botswana agates are found in basaltic rocks of the Permian age in Botswana. They feature contrasting bands of purple, pink, black, grey, and white. Like Lake Superior agates, they are typically small, averaging <!--CheckU-->{{convert|2.5|–|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.
* Malawi agates are typically bright red or orange with contrasting white bands, but some are pink and blue. They can be found in Malawi, and they likely formed in volcanic rock of Permian age.
* Agates have also been found in Egypt, Madagascar, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp131–137}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"130px">
Blue Lace Agate from Namibia (polished).jpg|Blue lace agate
Agat - Bobonong, Botswana.jpg|Botswana agate
Malawi Agate (Malawi, southeastern Africa) (32734668126).jpg|Malawi agate
</gallery>
Antarctica
* White and clear banded agates have been found by scientists at Bellingshausen Station, a Russian outpost on King George Island.<ref>{{cite web |titleCollins Harbour, King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctic Peninsula, Western Antarctica, Antarctica |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/loc-420174.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date16 February 2025}}</ref> Asia
* India has produced agates since as early as the 11th century. These include carnelian agates, moss agates, and dendritic agates.
* Yemen is home to a variety of agate called mocha stone, named after the port city of Mocha (also spelled Mokha or Mukha) on the Red Sea. These agates likely formed in tuff deposits of Late Oligocene and Early Miocene age.
* Agates have also been found in Iran, Mongolia, China,<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp138–143}} and Russia.<ref name="mindat" />
in Mongolia]]
Australia
* Queensland agates, found in the State of Queensland, often occur in colors that are rarely found in agates from other regions, such as green and yellow-green. They formed in basaltic lava flows of the Late Permian period. Level banding is common in Queensland agates, while inclusions are uncommon. Queensland is also home to several kinds of thunder egg, which are thought to date from the Early Cretaceous period.
* Agates have also been found in Tasmania and other regions of Australia.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp144–149}}
Europe
* Agate was discovered in Sicily by the Greek scholar Theophrastus in 350 BC. At the time, Sicily was a colony of ancient Greece. The name "agate" comes from the Achates River, the Greek name for what is now known as the Dirillo River. Agates in Sicily formed in balsaltic lavas and pyroclastic rocks of the Pilocene epoch.
* Germany is a well-known historic source of agate. Agates mined from volcanic rock of the Permian period have been processed in Idar-Oberstein since at least 1375, but possibly as early as the Roman Empire. Agates from the Idar-Oberstein area are often red and pink, but other colors have also been observed. Many museum specimens include features such as eyes, tubes, moss, plumes, and sagenite.
* Scotland is an abundant source of a wide variety of agates. There are at least 50 main agate localities in Scotland. Scottish agates have been popular in jewelry for several hundred years, particularly during the Victorian era. They formed in two types of rock: andesite from the Early Devonian period and basalt from the Tertiary period. The andesite deposits are more significant and extend from Stonehaven in the northeast to just south of Ayr in the southwest. The basaltic agates are confined to the islands off the west coast of Scotland and are collectively called the Small Isles agates. The colors of Scottish agates vary, and bands may be different shades of blue, grey, purple, pink, brown, orange, or red.
* Pot stones or potato stones are irregular agate nodules or geodes found in Bristol and Somerset, England. They typically consist of a reddish, banded agate surrounding a hollow cavity lined with macroscopic quartz, although some are completely filled with agate. Other varieties of agate have also been found elsewhere in England.
* Agates can also be found in Wales, the Czech Republic, Poland, France,<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp52–75}} and many other European countries.<ref name="mindat" />
<gallery mode"packed" heights"130px">
Agate-MCG 91225-P4150832-white.jpg|German agate from Idar-Oberstein
Agate detail, Scotland 007 (cropped).jpg|Close-up of a Scottish agate from Ayrshire
Quartz-agate (12250382174).jpg|Potato stone from England
Agate from Czech Republic (7).jpg|Agate from Czech Republic
</gallery>
North America
* Coldwater agates, such as the Lake Michigan cloud agate, are sedimentary agates that formed within limestone and dolomite strata of marine origin. Like volcanic agates, Coldwater agates formed from silica gels that lined pockets and seams within the bedrock. These agates are typically less colorful, with banded lines of grey and white chalcedony.<ref>{{Cite book|lastGarvin|firstPaul|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3a1XkpBGdAcC&qColdwater+agates&pgPA65|titleIowa's Minerals: Their Occurrence, Origins, Industries, and Lore|date2010-09-13|publisherUniversity of Iowa Press|isbn978-1-60938-014-4|languageen|access-date2020-10-29|archive-date2023-08-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230826164756/https://books.google.com/books?id3a1XkpBGdAcC&qColdwater+agates&pgPA65|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* Crazy lace agate is a brightly colored lace agate from Mexico with a complex pattern, demonstrating randomized distribution of contour lines and circular droplets, scattered throughout the rock. The stone is typically colored red and white but is also seen to exhibit yellow and grey combinations as well.<ref>{{Cite book|last1Atkinson|first1Bill|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZSP94tREw7AC&qCrazy+lace+agate&pgPA165|titleWithin the Stone: Photography|last2Ackerman|first2Diane|date2004|publisherBrownTrout Publishers|isbn978-0-7631-8189-5|languageen|access-date2020-10-29|archive-date2023-08-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230826164751/https://books.google.com/books?idZSP94tREw7AC&qCrazy+lace+agate&pgPA165|url-statuslive}}</ref> Crazy lace agate is a vein agate that formed in sedimentary rock of the late Cretaceous period.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p121}}
* Dugway geodes are a type of thunder egg found in Utah. They are typically light grey to blue and often contain hollow cavities lined with drusy quartz.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p92}}
* Fairburn agates are rare fortification agates named for Fairburn, South Dakota. They are sedimentary agates that originated during the Pennsylvanian period, and then weathered from their host rock and redeposited during the Oligocene epoch in parts of South Dakota and Nebraska.<ref>{{cite web |titleFairburn Agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-1441.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date=16 February 2025}}</ref>
* Laguna agate is a brightly colored agate variety that was first discovered in Ojo Laguna, Chihuahua, Mexico.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLaguna Agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-7611.html |access-date2025-02-16 |websitewww.mindat.org}}</ref> It features vibrant bands in shades of red, orange, pink, or purple. Laguna agates formed in andesite and are geologically young. They frequently contain inclusions and many exhibit parallax or shadow banding.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp114–115}}
* Lake Superior agates are believed to be the world's oldest agates;<ref>{{cite web |titleLake Superior Agate |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-9253.html |websitemindat.org |publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy |access-date16 February 2025}}</ref> they formed as nodules in basalt up to 1.2 billion years ago during the Late Precambrian. These agates are primarily found near the shores of Lake Superior in the U.S. states of Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and in the Canadian province of Ontario. They are not named after the lake, but rather the Lake Superior Till, the Pleistocene glacial deposit in which they are found.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp83–84}} This deposit also extends into portions of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri, and Lake Superior agates have been carried south by the Mississippi River into Arkansas and Louisiana. Lake Superior agates have bands in shades of red, orange, yellow, brown, white, and grey. They can contain a variety of structural features, including eyes, tubes, sagenite, dendrites, faults, and geodes.<ref name"lynch" />
* Lysite agate is a vein agate named after Lysite Mountain, Wyoming. It is frequently colorful and may contain moss and plumes in addition to bands.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p79}}
* Nebraska blue agate is a sedimentary agate with dendritic patterns that formed during the Oligocene epoch. It can be found throughout northwestern Nebraska and southwestern South Dakota.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p80}}
* Oregon is known for several different varieties of agate. It is probably best known for its thunder eggs, which form in rhyolitic ash and have a brown rhyolite shell that is usually filled with blue and white agate.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p99}} Holley blue agate (also spelled "Holly blue agate") is a rare lavender to blue agate found only near Holley, Oregon.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p103}}
* Patuxent River stone is a red and yellow form of agate only found in Maryland, where it is the state gem.<ref>{{cite web |titleMaryland State Gem - Patuxent River Stone |urlhttps://msa.maryland.gov/msa/mdmanual/01glance/symbols/html/gem.html |websitemaryland.gov |publisherMaryland State Archives |access-date=16 February 2025}}</ref>
* Sweetwater agates are small moss agates found in Miocene age sandstone near Sweetwater River, Wyoming. They also contain brown or black dendrites and fluoresce under UV light.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p79}}
* Turritella agate is a brown fossil agate formed from the remains of an extinct species of freshwater snail (Elimia tenera) with an elongated spiral shell. The name is a misnomer; it was originally thought to be the fossil of a different genus of gastropods, Turritella. It is found in the Green River Formation of Wyoming.<ref name"turritella">{{Cite web |lastKing |firstHobart M. |titleTurritella Agate |urlhttps://geology.com/gemstones/turritella/ |access-date16 February 2025 |website=geology.com}}</ref>
* Other varieties of agate have also been found in nearly every U.S. state, northern Mexico, and in the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, Manitoba, and British Columbia.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp76–121}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"130px">
Crazy Lace Agate - Macro Panorama.jpg|Crazy lace agate
Dugway Geode (Juab County, Utah, USA) 2 (34581522545).jpg|Dugway geode from Utah
Fairburn Agate (ultimately derived from the Minnelusa Formation, Pennsylvanian-Permian; collected east of the Black Hills, western South Dakota, USA) 26 (32406082220).jpg|Fairburn agate from western South Dakota
LagunaAgateFromMexico.jpg|Laguna agate
Agate nodule ("Lake Superior Agate") (floor of Lake Superior, offshore Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan USA) 2 (33741645898).jpg|Rough Lake Superior agate from Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan
Thunder Egg Agate (Priday Blue Bed, John Day Formation, Miocene; near Madras, Oregon, USA) 3 (33992544563).jpg|Thunder egg from Oregon
Holley Blue Agate (Linn County, Oregon, USA) 9.jpg|Holley blue agate from Oregon
Elimia fossils Wyoming.jpg|alt=An irregular dark stone with a flat polished front; many white fragments of elongated, spiral, "corkscrew" shells seem to float in the dark stone|Turritella agate (Elimia tenera)
Chalcedony (Variety Agate)-262773.jpg|Agate from British Columbia
</gallery>
South America
* Brazilian agate is probably one of the largest agates. They can reach {{convert|0.9|m|ft|abbron}} in diameter and weigh over {{convert|120|kg|lb|abbron}}. Brazilian agate is found primarily as nodules and geodes in decomposed volcanic ash and basalt of Late Permian age. The largest deposits are in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, but significant amounts can also be found throughout southeastern Brazil. Some specimens can be very colorful and include features such as eyes, tubes, dendrites, and sagentite. However, most Brazilian agate that is mined is naturally pale yellow, gray, or colorless and artificially dyed before being brought to market.
* Condor agates are found in the Mendoza province of Argentina. They typically have bright red and yellow fortification banding and may contain mossy or sagenitic inclusions. Other varieties of agate can also be found in the Patagonia area of Argentina, including crater agate (typically hollow nodules with black and red bands) and puma agate (agatized coral).
* Uruguay was the first major source of agates in South America. Agates were discovered there in 1830, but sources in neighboring Brazil became more popular in the late 19th and 20th centuries.
* Agates have also been found in Chile and Peru.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp122–131}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"130px">
Brazilian agate section (detail).JPG|Natural Brazilian agate
5agat, Brazylia.jpg|Dyed Brazilian agate
Argentina001.jpg|Condor agate
Achat 1.jpg|Agate from Uruguay
</gallery>
Uses
Agate has long been popular as a gemstone in jewelery such as pins, brooches, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. Agates have also historically been used in the art of hardstone carving to make knives, inkstands, seals, marbles, and other objects. Today, they are still used to make beads, decorative displays, carvings, and cabochons, as well as face-polished and tumble-polished specimens of varying size and origin. Agate collecting is a popular hobby, and agate specimens can be found in numerous gift shops, museums, galleries, and private collections.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp159–168}}
Industrial uses of agate exploit its hardness, ability to retain a highly polished surface finish and resistance to chemical attack. Historically, it was used to make bearings for highly accurate laboratory balances and mortars and pestles to crush and mix chemicals. During the Second World War, black agate beads mined from Queensland, Australia were used in the turn and bank indicators of military aircraft.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp168–169}}
Agates, particularly moss agates, were first used during the Stone Age to make tools such as arrow and spear points, needles, and hide scrapers. Artefacts from as early as 7000 BCE have been found in Mongolia, and the Natufian people of the Levant are known to have made knives and arrowheads from moss agate as early as 10000 BCE. Agate jewelry from Sumeria has been dated to c. 2500 BCE, and the Ancient Egyptians, Mycenaeans, and Romans all used agate in their jewelry.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|pp159–163}} Archaeological recovery at the Knossos site on Crete illustrates the role of agates in Bronze Age Minoan culture.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2007. [http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180711201424/http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes |date2018-07-11 }}</ref> The ornamental use of agate was common in ancient Greece, in assorted jewelry and in the seal stones of Greek warriors.<ref>{{cite magazine |date7 November 2017 |titleMasterpiece of Greek Art Found in the Griffin Warrior Tomb |urlhttps://smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/masterpiece-greek-art-found-griffin-warrior-tomb-180967141 |magazineSmithsonian |publisher=Smithsonian Institution}}</ref>
Idar-Oberstein was a historically important location in Germany that made use of agate on an industrial scale, dating back to c. 1375 CE.<ref name"pabian" />{{rp|p52}} Originally, locally found agates were used to make all types of objects for the European market, but it became a globalized business around the turn of the 20th century. Idar-Oberstein began to import large quantities of agate from Brazil, as ship's ballast. Making use of a variety of proprietary chemical processes, they produced colored beads that were sold around the globe.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.farlang.com/art/2007-04-15.7721093142 |titleBackground Article on Idar Oberstein |access-date2008-11-27 |archive-date2008-12-23 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081223064824/http://www.farlang.com/art/2007-04-15.7721093142 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
<gallery mode"packed" heights"130px">
File:Tumbled agate and jasper.jpg|A {{convert|15|lb|kg|abbron|orderflip}} barrel full of tumble-polished agate and jasper
File:Zegelring in goud met intaglio met portret van Commodus in nicolo, 180 tot 200 NC, vindplaats- Tongeren, de Schaetzengaarde 22, 1998, losse vondst (mogelijk goudschat), collectie Gallo-Romeins Museum Tongeren, GRM 1892.jpg|Gold Roman signet ring with portrait of emperor Commodus in niccolo agate, 180-200 CE, found in Tongeren, Gallo-Roman Museum (Tongeren)
File:Byzantine - The "Rubens Vase" - Walters 42562.jpg|The "Rubens Vase" (Byzantine Empire). Carved in high relief from a single piece of agate, most likely created in an imperial workshop for a Byzantine emperor.
File:Victorian banded agate ear rings.jpg|Victorian banded agate earrings
File:Maryland Agate.jpg|Patuxent River stone from Maryland — cut and illuminated from behind as a nightlight
File:唐-玛瑙兽首杯.jpg|Agate drinking horn, Tang dynasty
</gallery>
Health impact
Respiratory diseases such as silicosis, and a higher incidence of tuberculosis among workers involved in the agate industry, have been studied in India and China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Chaudhury |first1Nayanjeet |last2Phatak |first2Ajay |last3Paliwal |first3Rajiv |titleCo-morbidities among silicotics at Shakarpur: A follow up study |journalLung India |volume29 |issue1 |pages6–10 |doi10.4103/0970-2113.92348 |pmc3276038 |pmid22345906 |dateJanuary 2012 |doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Jiang |first1CQ |last2Xiao |first2LW |last3Lam |first3TH |last4Xie |first4NW |last5Zhu |first5CQ |titleAccelerated silicosis in workers exposed to agate dust in Guangzhou, China. |journalAmerican Journal of Industrial Medicine |dateJuly 2001 |volume40 |issue1 |pages87–91 |pmid11439400 |doi10.1002/ajim.1074}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Tiwari |first1RR |last2Narain |first2R |last3Sharma |first3YK |last4Kumar |first4S |titleComparison of respiratory morbidity between present and ex-workers of quartz crushing units: Healthy workers' effect |journalIndian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine |dateSeptember 2010 |volume14 |issue3 |pages87–90 |pmid21461160 |doi10.4103/0019-5278.75695 |pmc3062020 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
See also
{{Portal|Geology|Earth sciences|Minerals}}
* {{annotated link|List of minerals}}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141227143847/http://snr.unl.edu/data/geologysoils/agates/index-agates.aspx "Agates"], School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (retrieved 27 December 2014).
{{Silica minerals}}
{{Gemstones}}
{{Jewellery}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Gemstones
Category:Hardstone carving
Category:Silicate minerals
Category:Symbols of Florida | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agate | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.305164 |
1525 | Aspirin | {{Short description|Medication}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-stylevanc|display-authors6}}
{{for|the Persian-language TV series|Aspirin (TV series){{!}}Aspirin (TV series)}}
{{distinguish|Robert Asprin}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox drug
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 464364671
| drug_name = Acetylsalicylic acid
| INN = none<!-- aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) has no INN name assigned, see e.g. https://www.who.int/features/2013/international-nonproprietary-name/en/ or WHO Mednet INN database -->
| image = Aspirin-skeletal.svg
| image_class = skin-invert-image
| width = 100
| alt | image2 Aspirin-B-3D-balls.png
| width2 = 125
| alt2 | caption
<!-- Clinical data -->
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|s|iː|t|əl|ˌ|s|æ|l|ᵻ|ˈ|s|ɪ|l|ᵻ|k}}
| tradename = Bayer Aspirin, others
| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|aspirin}}
| MedlinePlus = a682878
| DailyMedID = Acetylsalicylic acid
| pregnancy_AU = C
| pregnancy_AU_comment <ref name"Drugs.com Pregnancy">{{cite web | titleAspirin Use During Pregnancy | websiteDrugs.com | date2 April 2018 | urlhttps://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/aspirin.html | access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>
| pregnancy_category | routes_of_administration Oral, rectal
| class = Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)
| ATC_prefix = A01
| ATC_suffix = AD05
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|B01|AC06}}, {{ATC|N02|BA01}}
<!-- Legal status -->
| legal_AU = OTC
| legal_AU_comment /&nbsp;Schedule 2, 4, 5, 6<ref>{{cite web | titleOTC medicine monograph: Aspirin tablets for oral use | websiteTherapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) | date21 June 2022 | urlhttps://www.tga.gov.au/resources/publication/publications/otc-medicine-monograph-aspirin-tablets-oral-use | access-date4 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | titlePoisons Standard October 2022 | websiteAustralian Government Federal Register of Legislation | date26 September 2022 | urlhttps://www.legislation.gov.au/Series/F2022L01257 | access-date=9 January 2023}}</ref>
| legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F-->
| legal_BR_comment | legal_CA OTC
| legal_CA_comment <ref>{{cite web | titleAspirin Product information | websiteHealth Canada | date22 October 2009 | urlhttps://health-products.canada.ca/dpd-bdpp/info?langeng&code19474 | access-date20 August 2023}}</ref>
| legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled-->
| legal_DE_comment | legal_NZ <!-- Class A, B, C -->
| legal_NZ_comment | legal_UK GSL
| legal_UK_comment | legal_US OTC
| legal_US_comment = /&nbsp;Rx-only
| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV-->
| legal_UN_comment | legal_status <!--For countries not listed above-->
<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->
| bioavailability 80–100%<ref nameMSR>{{cite web|titleZorprin, Bayer Buffered Aspirin (aspirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more|workMedscape Reference|publisherWebMD|access-date3 April 2014|urlhttp://reference.medscape.com/drug/zorprin-bayer-buffered-aspirin-343279#showall|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140407080151/http://reference.medscape.com/drug/zorprin-bayer-buffered-aspirin-343279#showall|archive-date7 April 2014}}</ref>
| protein_bound 80–90%<ref name MD>{{cite web|titleAspirin|workMartindale: The Complete Drug Reference|publisherPharmaceutical Press|date14 January 2014|access-date3 April 2014|urlhttp://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/2601-s.htm| veditors = Brayfield A }}</ref>
| metabolism Liver (CYP2C19 and possibly CYP3A), some is also hydrolysed to salicylate in the gut wall.<ref name MD/>
| metabolites | onset
| elimination_half-life Dose-dependent; 2–3{{nbsp}}h for low doses (100{{nbsp}}mg or less), 15–30{{nbsp}}h for larger doses.<ref name MD/>
| duration_of_action | excretion Urine (80–100%), sweat, saliva, feces<ref name = MSR/>
<!-- Identifiers -->
| CAS_number = 50-78-2
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}
| CAS_supplemental | PubChem 2244
| IUPHAR_ligand = 4139
| DrugBank = DB00945
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| ChemSpiderID = 2157
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| UNII = R16CO5Y76E
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| KEGG = D00109
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG2 = C01405
| KEGG2_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| ChEBI = 15365
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 25
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| NIAID_ChemDB | PDB_ligand AIN
| synonyms {{ubl|2-acetoxybenzoic acid|2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid|o-acetylsalicylic acid|acetylsalicylic acid|acetyl salicylate|salicylic acid acetate|o-carboxyphenyl acetate|monoacetic acid ester of salicylic acid<ref>{{cite journal|journalBulletin of the History of Medicine|titleWhat's in a Name? Aspirin and the American Medical Association| vauthors McTavish J |volume61|number3|dateFall 1987|pages343–366 |jstor44442097 |pmid3311247 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44442097}}</ref>}}
<!-- Chemical and physical data -->
| IUPAC_name = 2-acetyloxybenzoic acid<ref>{{PubChem|2244}}</ref>
| C = 9
| H = 8
| O = 4
| SMILES OC(C)Oc1ccccc1C(=O)O
| StdInChI = 1S/C9H8O4/c1-6(10)13-8-5-3-2-4-7(8)9(11)12/h2-5H,1H3,(H,11,12)
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI_comment | StdInChIKey BSYNRYMUTXBXSQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| density = 1.40
| density_notes | melting_point 135
| melting_high | melting_notes <ref name=b92/>
| boiling_point = 140
| boiling_notes = (decomposes)
| solubility = 3
| sol_units = {{nbsp}}g/L
| specific_rotation =
}}
Aspirin ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|s|p|(|ə|)|r|ɪ|n}}<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/aspirin "aspirin"]. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.</ref>) is the genericized trademark for acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.<ref nameAHFS>{{cite web|titleAspirin|urlhttps://www.drugs.com/monograph/aspirin.html|viaDrugs.com|publisherAmerican Society of Health-System Pharmacists|date29 November 2021|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170425142242/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/aspirin.html|archive-date25 April 2017}}</ref> Specific inflammatory conditions that aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.<ref nameAHFS/>
Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk.<ref nameAHFS/> For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes.<ref nameAHFS/> Aspirin works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.<ref name=AHFS/>
One common adverse effect is an upset stomach.<ref nameAHFS/> More significant side effects include stomach ulcers, stomach bleeding, and worsening asthma.<ref nameAHFS/> Bleeding risk is greater among those who are older, drink alcohol, take other NSAIDs, or are on other blood thinners.<ref nameAHFS/> Aspirin is not recommended in the last part of pregnancy.<ref nameAHFS/> It is not generally recommended in children with infections because of the risk of Reye syndrome.<ref nameAHFS/> High doses may result in ringing in the ears.<ref nameAHFS/>
A precursor to aspirin found in the bark of the willow tree (genus Salix'') has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years.<ref nameJon2015>{{cite book |vauthors Jones A |titleChemistry: An Introduction for Medical and Health Sciences|date2015|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn978-0-470-09290-3|pages5–6|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idubE0ILq_aDQC&pgPA6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors Ravina E |titleThe Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs |date2011 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-3-527-32669-3 |page24 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiDNy0XxGqT8C&pgPA24}}</ref> In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated the medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time.<ref name"Jeffreys2008">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida9gkBwAAQBAJ |titleAspirin the remarkable story of a wonder drug. |vauthorsJeffreys D |date2008 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn978-1-59691-816-0 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908213430/https://books.google.com/books?ida9gkBwAAQBAJ |archive-date8 September 2017 |url-status}}{{rp|46–48}}</ref> Over the next 50 years, other chemists, mostly of the German company Bayer, established the chemical structure and devised more efficient production methods.<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|69–75}} Felix Hoffmann (or Arthur Eichengrün) of Bayer was the first to produce acetylsalicylic acid in a pure, stable form in 1897.<ref nameHoffmannSHI>{{Cite web |titleFelix Hoffmann |urlhttps://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/felix-hoffmann/ |access-date3 October 2024 |publisherScience History Institute}}</ref> By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it globally.<ref nameMannPlummer1991/>{{rp|27}}
Aspirin is available without medical prescription as a proprietary or generic medication<ref nameAHFS/> in most jurisdictions. It is one of the most widely used medications globally, with an estimated {{convert|40000|tonne}} (50 to 120 billion pills) consumed each year,<ref name"Jon2015" /><ref name"COX2002">{{cite journal|vauthorsWarner TD, Mitchell JA|dateOctober 2002|titleCyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum?|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume99|issue21|pages13371–3|bibcode2002PNAS...9913371W|doi10.1073/pnas.222543099 |pmc129677|pmid12374850|doi-accessfree | title-link doi }}</ref> and is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.<ref name"WHO23rd">{{cite book | vauthors ((World Health Organization)) | title The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023) | year 2023 | hdl 10665/371090 | author-link World Health Organization | publisher World Health Organization | location Geneva | id WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02 | hdl-accessfree }}</ref> In 2022, it was the 36th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 16{{nbsp}}million prescriptions.<ref>{{cite web | titleThe Top 300 of 2022 | urlhttps://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx | websiteClinCalc | access-date30 August 2024 | archive-date30 August 2024 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240830202410/https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx | url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title Aspirin Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2013 - 2022 | website ClinCalc | url https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Aspirin | access-date 30 August 2024 }}</ref>Brand vs. generic nameIn 1897, scientists at the Bayer company began studying acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement medication for common salicylate medicines.<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|69–75}}<ref name"Distillations">{{cite magazine | vauthors Dick B |titleHard Work and Happenstance |urlhttps://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/hard-work-and-happenstance |magazineDistillations |publisherScience History Institute |date2018 |volume4 |issue1 |pages44–45 }}</ref> By 1899, Bayer had named it "Aspirin" and was selling it around the world.<ref nameMannPlummer1991>{{cite book | vauthors Mann CC, Plummer ML |titleThe aspirin wars: money, medicine, and 100 years of rampant competition |date1991 |publisherKnopf |locationNew York |isbn978-0-394-57894-1 |page[https://archive.org/details/aspirinwarsmoney1991mann/page/27 27] |edition1st |urlhttps://archive.org/details/aspirinwarsmoney1991mann/page/27}}</ref>
Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the 20th century, leading to competition between many brands and formulations.<ref name"ACS">{{cite magazine |titleAspirin |magazineChemical & Engineering News |date20 June 2005 |volume83 |issue25 |urlhttps://pubsapp.acs.org/cen/coverstory/83/8325/8325aspirin.html }}</ref> The word Aspirin was Bayer's brand name; however, its rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries.<ref nameACS/> The name is ultimately a blend of the prefix a(cetyl) + spir Spiraea, the meadowsweet plant genus from which the acetylsalicylic acid was originally derived at Bayer + -in, the common chemical suffix.{{Citation needed|dateApril 2024}}Chemical propertiesAspirin decomposes rapidly in solutions of ammonium acetate or the acetates, carbonates, citrates, or hydroxides of the alkali metals. It is stable in dry air, but gradually hydrolyses in contact with moisture to acetic and salicylic acids. In solution with alkalis, the hydrolysis proceeds rapidly and the clear solutions formed may consist entirely of acetate and salicylate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |veditors Reynolds EF |encyclopediaMartindale: the extra pharmacopoeia|edition28th|year1982|pages[https://archive.org/details/extrapharmacopoe28mart/page/234 234–82]|titleAspirin and similar analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents|publisherRittenhouse Book Distributors|isbn978-0-85369-160-0 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/extrapharmacopoe28mart/page/234}}</ref>
Like flour mills, factories producing aspirin tablets must control the amount of the powder that becomes airborne inside the building, because the powder-air mixture can be explosive. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit in the United States of 5{{nbsp}}mg/m<sup>3</sup> (time-weighted average).<ref>{{cite web |url https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0010.html |title Acetylsalicylic acid |date 11 April 2016 |website NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards |publisher U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) |url-status live |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170511071608/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0010.html |archive-date 11 May 2017}}</ref> In 1989, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) set a legal permissible exposure limit for aspirin of 5{{nbsp}}mg/m<sup>3</sup>, but this was vacated by the AFL-CIO v. OSHA decision in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/nengapdxg.html |title Appendix G: 1989 Air contaminants update project – Exposure limits NOT in effect |date 13 February 2015 |website NIOSH pocket guide to chemical hazards |publisher National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |url-status live |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170618193045/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/nengapdxg.html |archive-date 18 June 2017}}</ref>
Synthesis
The synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride, an acid derivative, causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic acid's hydroxyl group into an ester group (R-OH → R-OCOCH<sub>3</sub>). This process yields aspirin and acetic acid, which is considered a byproduct of this reaction. Small amounts of sulfuric acid (and occasionally phosphoric acid) are almost always used as a catalyst. This method is commonly demonstrated in undergraduate teaching labs.<ref>{{cite book|titleExperimental organic chemistry | vauthors Palleros DR |year2000 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |locationNew York | isbn978-0-471-28250-1 |page=494}}</ref>
Reaction between acetic acid and salicylic acid can also form aspirin but this esterification reaction is reversible and the presence of water can lead to hydrolysis of the aspirin. So, an anhydrous reagent is preferred.<ref>{{cite web |titleChemical of the Week -- Acetic Acid and Acetic Anhydride |urlhttp://www.eng.uwaterloo.ca/~jcslee/chem/acetic.html |access-date|websitewww.eng.uwaterloo.ca |archive-date3 November 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221103145305/http://www.eng.uwaterloo.ca/~jcslee/chem/acetic.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
;Reaction mechanism
Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00314.htm |titleAspirin aging |date18 May 2008<!--from page source-->| vauthors Barrans R |publisherNewton BBS | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080518213137/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00314.htm | archive-date18 May 2008 | url-status dead}}</ref> because aspirin can decompose through hydrolysis in moist conditions, yielding salicylic and acetic acids.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Carstensen JT, Attarchi F | title Decomposition of aspirin in the solid state in the presence of limited amounts of moisture III: Effect of temperature and a possible mechanism | journal Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences | volume 77 | issue 4 | pages 318–21 | date April 1988 | pmid 3379589 | doi 10.1002/jps.2600770407 }}</ref>Physical propertiesAspirin, an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, is a white, crystalline, weakly acidic substance that melts at {{convert|136|C|F}},<ref nameb92>{{RubberBible92nd|page3.8}}</ref> and decomposes around {{convert|140|C|F}}.<ref name"Myers2007">{{cite book |vauthorsMyers RL |titleThe 100 most important chemical compounds: a reference guide |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMwpQWcIKMzAC&pgPA10 |year2007 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-0-313-33758-1 |page10 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130610170345/http://books.google.com/books?idMwpQWcIKMzAC&pgPA10 |archive-date10 June 2013}}</ref> Its acid dissociation constant (pK<sub>a</sub>) is 3.5 at {{convert|25|C|F}}.<ref name"asaaciddissconst">{{cite web |titleAcetylsalicylic acid |publisherJinno Laboratory, School of Materials Science, Toyohashi University of Technology |date4 March 1996 |urlhttp://chrom.tutms.tut.ac.jp/JINNO/DRUGDATA/07acetylsalicylic_acid.html |access-date12 April 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120120224558/http://chrom.tutms.tut.ac.jp/JINNO/DRUGDATA/07acetylsalicylic_acid.html |archive-date20 January 2012}}</ref>Polymorphism
Polymorphism, or the ability of a substance to form more than one crystal structure, is important in the development of pharmaceutical ingredients. Many drugs receive regulatory approval for only a single crystal form or polymorph.
Until 2005, there was only one proven polymorph of aspirin (Form I), though the existence of another polymorph was debated since the 1960s, and one report from 1981 reported that when crystallized in the presence of aspirin anhydride, the diffractogram of aspirin has weak additional peaks. Though at the time it was dismissed as mere impurity, it was, in retrospect, Form II aspirin.<ref name"Bučar-2015">{{cite journal | vauthors Bučar DK, Lancaster RW, Bernstein J | title Disappearing polymorphs revisited | journal Angewandte Chemie | volume 54 | issue 24 | pages 6972–6993 | date June 2015 | pmid 26031248 | pmc 4479028 | doi = 10.1002/anie.201410356 }}</ref>
Form II was reported in 2005,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Vishweshwar P, McMahon JA, Oliveira M, Peterson ML, Zaworotko MJ | title The predictably elusive form II of aspirin | journal Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume 127 | issue 48 | pages 16802–16803 | date December 2005 | pmid 16316223 | doi 10.1021/ja056455b | bibcode 2005JAChS.12716802V }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bond AD, Boese R, Desiraju GR | title On the polymorphism of aspirin: crystalline aspirin as intergrowths of two "polymorphic" domains | journal Angewandte Chemie | volume 46 | issue 4 | pages 618–622 | year 2007 | pmid 17139692 | doi = 10.1002/anie.200603373 }}</ref> found after attempted co-crystallization of aspirin and levetiracetam from hot acetonitrile.
In form I, pairs of aspirin molecules form centrosymmetric dimers through the acetyl groups with the (acidic) methyl proton to carbonyl hydrogen bonds. In form II, each aspirin molecule forms the same hydrogen bonds, but with two neighbouring molecules instead of one. With respect to the hydrogen bonds formed by the carboxylic acid groups, both polymorphs form identical dimer structures. The aspirin polymorphs contain identical 2-dimensional sections and are therefore more precisely described as polytypes.<ref>{{cite web |titlePolytypism - Online Dictionary of Crystallography |urlhttp://reference.iucr.org/dictionary/Polytypism |website=reference.iucr.org}}</ref>
Pure Form II aspirin could be prepared by seeding the batch with aspirin anhydrate in 15% weight.<ref name="Bučar-2015" />
Form III was reported in 2015 by compressing form I above 2 GPa, but it reverts back to Form I when pressure is removed.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors Crowell EL, Dreger ZA, Gupta YM |date2015-02-15 |titleHigh-pressure polymorphism of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin): Raman spectroscopy |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022286014011065 |journalJournal of Molecular Structure |volume1082 |pages29–37 |doi10.1016/j.molstruc.2014.10.079 |bibcode2015JMoSt1082...29C |issn0022-2860}}</ref> Form IV was reported in 2017. It is stable at ambient conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors Shtukenberg AG, Hu CT, Zhu Q, Schmidt MU, Xu W, Tan M, Kahr B |date2017-06-07 |titleThe Third Ambient Aspirin Polymorph |urlhttps://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.cgd.7b00673 |journalCrystal Growth & Design |languageen |volume17 |issue6 |pages3562–3566 |doi10.1021/acs.cgd.7b00673 |bibcode2017CrGrD..17.3562S |osti1373897 |issn1528-7483}}</ref>Mechanism of action
{{Main|Mechanism of action of aspirin}}
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Discovery of the mechanism
In 1971, British pharmacologist John Robert Vane, then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed aspirin suppressed the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Vane JR | title Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs | journal Nature | volume 231 | issue 25 | pages 232–5 | date June 1971 | pmid 5284360 | doi 10.1038/newbio231232a0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Vane JR, Botting RM | title The mechanism of action of aspirin | journal Thrombosis Research | volume 110 | issue 5–6 | pages 255–8 | date June 2003 | pmid 14592543 | doi 10.1016/s0049-3848(03)00379-7 }}</ref> For this discovery he was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, jointly with Sune Bergström and Bengt Ingemar Samuelsson.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1982/ |titleThe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1982 |websiteNobelprize.org |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170627030945/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1982/ |archive-date27 June 2017}}</ref>
Prostaglandins and thromboxanes
Aspirin's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its irreversible inactivation of the cyclooxygenase (COX; officially known as prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase, PTGS) enzyme required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the COX enzyme (Suicide inhibition). This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen), which are reversible inhibitors.
Low-dose aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A<sub>2</sub> in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation during the lifetime of the affected platelet (8–9 days). This antithrombotic property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks in people who have had a heart attack, unstable angina, ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier4456 |titleAspirin in heart attack and stroke prevention |access-date8 May 2008 |publisherAmerican Heart Association |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080331031146/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier4456 |archive-date31 March 2008 }}</ref> 40{{nbsp}}mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A<sub>2</sub> release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I<sub>2</sub> synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Tohgi H, Konno S, Tamura K, Kimura B, Kawano K | title Effects of low-to-high doses of aspirin on platelet aggregability and metabolites of thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin | journal Stroke | volume 23 | issue 10 | pages 1400–3 | date October 1992 | pmid 1412574 | doi 10.1161/01.STR.23.10.1400 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
Prostaglandins, local hormones produced in the body, have diverse effects, including the transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat, and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots. Heart attacks are caused primarily by blood clots, and low doses of aspirin are seen as an effective medical intervention to prevent a second acute myocardial infarction.<ref name"pmid19482214">{{cite journal |vauthorsBaigent C, Blackwell L, Collins R, Emberson J, Godwin J, Peto R, Buring J, Hennekens C, Kearney P, Meade T, Patrono C, Roncaglioni MC, Zanchetti A |dateMay 2009 |titleAspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease: collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials |journalLancet |volume373 |issue9678 |pages1849–60 |doi10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60503-1 |pmc2715005 |pmid19482214}}</ref>COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitionAt least two different types of cyclooxygenases, COX-1 and COX-2, are acted on by aspirin. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and modifies the enzymatic activity of COX-2. COX-2 normally produces prostanoids, most of which are proinflammatory. Aspirin-modified COX-2 (aka prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 or PTGS2) produces epi-lipoxins, most of which are anti-inflammatory.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsGoel A, Aggarwal S, Partap S, Saurabh A, Choudhary |date2012 |titlePharmacokinetic solubility and dissolution profile of antiarrythmic drugs |journalInt J Pharma Prof Res |volume3 |issue1 |pages592–601}}</ref>{{Verify source|dateAugust 2016}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Clària J, Serhan CN | title Aspirin triggers previously undescribed bioactive eicosanoids by human endothelial cell-leukocyte interactions | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 92 | issue 21 | pages 9475–9479 | date October 1995 | pmid 7568157 | doi 10.1073/pnas.92.21.9475 | doi-access free | pmc 40824 | bibcode 1995PNAS...92.9475C }}</ref> Newer NSAID drugs, COX-2 inhibitors (coxibs), have been developed to inhibit only COX-2, with the intent to reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal side effects.<ref nameCOX2002/>
Several COX-2 inhibitors, such as rofecoxib (Vioxx), have been withdrawn from the market, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack and stroke.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Martínez-González J, Badimon L | title Mechanisms underlying the cardiovascular effects of COX-inhibition: benefits and risks | journal Current Pharmaceutical Design | volume 13 | issue 22 | pages 2215–27 | year 2007 | pmid 17691994 | doi 10.2174/138161207781368774 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Funk CD, FitzGerald GA | title COX-2 inhibitors and cardiovascular risk | journal Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology | volume 50 | issue 5 | pages 470–9 | date November 2007 | pmid 18030055 | doi 10.1097/FJC.0b013e318157f72d | s2cid 39103383 | doi-access free }}</ref> Endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in the body are proposed to express COX-2, and, by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandin production (specifically, PGI<sub>2</sub>; prostacyclin) is downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anticoagulative effect of PGI<sub>2</sub> is removed, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX-1 once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, an important difference as compared with reversible inhibitors.
Furthermore, aspirin, while inhibiting the ability of COX-2 to form pro-inflammatory products such as the prostaglandins, converts this enzyme's activity from a prostaglandin-forming cyclooxygenase to a lipoxygenase-like enzyme: aspirin-treated COX-2 metabolizes a variety of polyunsaturated fatty acids to hydroperoxy products which are then further metabolized to specialized proresolving mediators such as the aspirin-triggered lipoxins(15-epilipoxin-A4/B4), aspirin-triggered resolvins, and aspirin-triggered maresins. These mediators possess potent anti-inflammatory activity. It is proposed that this aspirin-triggered transition of COX-2 from cyclooxygenase to lipoxygenase activity and the consequential formation of specialized proresolving mediators contributes to the anti-inflammatory effects of aspirin.<ref name"pmid25895638">{{cite journal | vauthors Romano M, Cianci E, Simiele F, Recchiuti A | title Lipoxins and aspirin-triggered lipoxins in resolution of inflammation | journal European Journal of Pharmacology | volume 760 | pages 49–63 | date August 2015 | pmid 25895638 | doi 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.083 }}</ref><ref name"pmid23747022">{{cite journal | vauthors Serhan CN, Chiang N | title Resolution phase lipid mediators of inflammation: agonists of resolution | journal Current Opinion in Pharmacology | volume 13 | issue 4 | pages 632–40 | date August 2013 | pmid 23747022 | pmc 3732499 | doi 10.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012 }}</ref><ref name"pmid26546723">{{cite journal | vauthors Weylandt KH | title Docosapentaenoic acid derived metabolites and mediators - The new world of lipid mediator medicine in a nutshell | journal European Journal of Pharmacology | volume 785 | pages 108–115 | date August 2016 | pmid 26546723 | doi 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.11.002 }}</ref>Additional mechanismsAspirin has been shown to have at least three additional modes of action. It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria, by diffusing from the inner membrane space as a proton carrier back into the mitochondrial matrix, where it ionizes once again to release protons.<ref name"SomasundaramS">{{cite journal | vauthors Somasundaram S, Sigthorsson G, Simpson RJ, Watts J, Jacob M, Tavares IA, Rafi S, Roseth A, Foster R, Price AB, Wrigglesworth JM, Bjarnason I | title Uncoupling of intestinal mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and inhibition of cyclooxygenase are required for the development of NSAID-enteropathy in the rat | journal Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume 14 | issue 5 | pages 639–50 | date May 2000 | pmid 10792129 | doi 10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.00723.x | s2cid 44832283 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Aspirin buffers and transports the protons. When high doses are given, it may actually cause fever, owing to the heat released from the electron transport chain, as opposed to the antipyretic action of aspirin seen with lower doses. In addition, aspirin induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body, which have been shown in mice to have an independent mechanism of reducing inflammation. This reduced leukocyte adhesion is an important step in the immune response to infection; however, evidence is insufficient to show aspirin helps to fight infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Paul-Clark MJ, Van Cao T, Moradi-Bidhendi N, Cooper D, Gilroy DW | title 15-epi-lipoxin A4-mediated induction of nitric oxide explains how aspirin inhibits acute inflammation | journal The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume 200 | issue 1 | pages 69–78 | date July 2004 | pmid 15238606 | pmc 2213311 | doi 10.1084/jem.20040566 }}</ref> More recent data also suggest salicylic acid and its derivatives modulate signalling through NF-κB.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors McCarty MF, Block KI | title Preadministration of high-dose salicylates, suppressors of NF-kappaB activation, may increase the chemosensitivity of many cancers: an example of proapoptotic signal modulation therapy | journal Integrative Cancer Therapies | volume 5 | issue 3 | pages 252–68 | date September 2006 | pmid 16880431 | doi 10.1177/1534735406291499 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> NF-κB, a transcription factor complex, plays a central role in many biological processes, including inflammation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Silva Caldas AP, Chaves LO, Linhares Da Silva L, De Castro Morais D, Gonçalves Alfenas RD |date29 December 2017|titleMechanisms involved in the cardioprotective effect of avocado consumption: A systematic review|journalInternational Journal of Food Properties|volume20|issuesup2|pages1675–1685 |doi10.1080/10942912.2017.1352601 |issn1094-2912|quote...there was postprandial reduction on the plasma concentration of IL-6 and IkBα preservation, followed by the lower activation of NFκB, considered the main transcription factor capable of inducing inflammatory response by stimulating the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules.|doi-accessfree | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, Li Y, Wang X, Zhao L | title Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs | journal Oncotarget | volume 9 | issue 6 | pages 7204–7218 | date January 2018 | pmid 29467962 | pmc 5805548 | doi 10.18632/oncotarget.23208 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Lawrence T | title The nuclear factor NF-kappaB pathway in inflammation | journal Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology | volume 1 | issue 6 | pages a001651 | date December 2009 | pmid 20457564 | pmc 2882124 | doi = 10.1101/cshperspect.a001651 }}</ref>
Aspirin is readily broken down in the body to salicylic acid, which itself has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic effects. In 2012, salicylic acid was found to activate AMP-activated protein kinase, which has been suggested as a possible explanation for some of the effects of both salicylic acid and aspirin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hawley SA, Fullerton MD, Ross FA, Schertzer JD, Chevtzoff C, Walker KJ, Peggie MW, Zibrova D, Green KA, Mustard KJ, Kemp BE, Sakamoto K, Steinberg GR, Hardie DG | title The ancient drug salicylate directly activates AMP-activated protein kinase | journal Science | volume 336 | issue 6083 | pages 918–22 | date May 2012 | pmid 22517326 | pmc 3399766 | doi 10.1126/science.1215327 | bibcode 2012Sci...336..918H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |titleClues to aspirin's anti-cancer effects revealed |journalNew Scientist |date28 April 2012 |volume214 |issue2862 |pages16 |doi10.1016/S0262-4079(12)61073-2 }}</ref> The acetyl portion of the aspirin molecule has its own targets. Acetylation of cellular proteins is a well-established phenomenon in the regulation of protein function at the post-translational level. Aspirin is able to acetylate several other targets in addition to COX isoenzymes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Alfonso LF, Srivenugopal KS, Arumugam TV, Abbruscato TJ, Weidanz JA, Bhat GJ | title Aspirin inhibits camptothecin-induced p21CIP1 levels and potentiates apoptosis in human breast cancer cells | journal International Journal of Oncology | volume 34 | issue 3 | pages 597–608 | date March 2009 | pmid 19212664 | doi 10.3892/ijo_00000185 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Alfonso LF, Srivenugopal KS, Bhat GJ | title Does aspirin acetylate multiple cellular proteins? (Review) | journal Molecular Medicine Reports | volume 2 | issue 4 | pages 533–7 | year 2009 | pmid 21475861 | doi 10.3892/mmr_00000132 | type review | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> These acetylation reactions may explain many hitherto unexplained effects of aspirin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Alfonso LF, Srivenugopal KS, Bhat GJ | title Does aspirin acetylate multiple cellular proteins? (Review) | journal Molecular Medicine Reports | volume 2 | issue 4 | pages 533–537 | date 4 June 2009 | pmid 21475861 | doi 10.3892/mmr_00000132 | doi-access free }}</ref>Formulations{{Expand section|dateJanuary 2023}}
Aspirin is produced in many formulations, with some differences in effect. In particular, aspirin can cause gastrointestinal bleeding, and formulations are sought which deliver the benefits of aspirin while mitigating harmful bleeding. Formulations may be combined (e.g., buffered + vitamin C).
*Tablets, typically of about 75–100&nbsp;mg and 300–320&nbsp;mg of immediate-release aspirin (IR-ASA).
*Dispersible tablets.
*Enteric-coated tablets.
*Buffered formulations containing aspirin with one of many buffering agents.
*Formulations of aspirin with vitamin C (ASA-VitC)
*A phospholipid-aspirin complex liquid formulation, PL-ASA. {{As of|2023}} the phospholipid coating was being trialled to determine if it caused less gastrointestinal damage.<ref namefranchi>{{cite journal | vauthors Franchi F, Schneider D, Prats J, Fan W, Rollini F, Been L, Taatjes-Sommer H, Deliargyris E, Angiolillo D | titleTCT-320 Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Profile of PL-ASA, a Novel Phospholipid-Aspirin Complex Liquid Formulation, Compared to Enteric-Coated Aspirin at an 81-mg Dose – Results From a Prospective, Randomized, Crossover Study | journalJournal of the American College of Cardiology | publisherElsevier BV | volume78 | issue19 | year2021 | issn0735-1097 | doi10.1016/j.jacc.2021.09.1173|doi-accessfree| pageB131}}</ref>
Pharmacokinetics
Acetylsalicylic acid is a weak acid, and very little of it is ionized in the stomach after oral administration. Acetylsalicylic acid is quickly absorbed through the cell membrane in the acidic conditions of the stomach. The increased pH and larger surface area of the small intestine causes aspirin to be absorbed more slowly there, as more of it is ionized. Owing to the formation of concretions, aspirin is absorbed much more slowly during overdose, and plasma concentrations can continue to rise for up to 24 hours after ingestion.<ref name"RK Ferguson">{{cite journal | vauthors Ferguson RK, Boutros AR | title Death following self-poisoning with aspirin | journal JAMA | volume 213 | issue 7 | pages 1186–8 | date August 1970 | pmid 5468267 | doi 10.1001/jama.213.7.1186 }}</ref><ref name"FL Kaufman">{{cite journal | vauthors Kaufman FL, Dubansky AS | title Darvon poisoning with delayed salicylism: a case report | journal Pediatrics | volume 49 | issue 4 | pages 610–1 | date April 1972 | doi 10.1542/peds.49.4.610 | pmid 5013423 | s2cid 29427204 }}</ref><ref name"G Levy">{{cite journal | vauthors Levy G, Tsuchiya T | title Salicylate accumulation kinetics in man | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 287 | issue 9 | pages 430–2 | date August 1972 | pmid 5044917 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM197208312870903 }}</ref>
About 50–80% of salicylate in the blood is bound to human serum albumin, while the rest remains in the active, ionized state; protein binding is concentration-dependent. Saturation of binding sites leads to more free salicylate and increased toxicity. The volume of distribution is 0.1–0.2 L/kg. Acidosis increases the volume of distribution because of enhancement of tissue penetration of salicylates.<ref name="G Levy"/>
As much as 80% of therapeutic doses of salicylic acid is metabolized in the liver. Conjugation with glycine forms salicyluric acid, and with glucuronic acid to form two different glucuronide esters. The conjugate with the acetyl group intact is referred to as the acyl glucuronide; the deacetylated conjugate is the phenolic glucuronide. These metabolic pathways have only a limited capacity. Small amounts of salicylic acid are also hydroxylated to gentisic acid. With large salicylate doses, the kinetics switch from first-order to zero-order, as metabolic pathways become saturated and renal excretion becomes increasingly important.<ref name="G Levy"/>
Salicylates are excreted mainly by the kidneys as salicyluric acid (75%), free salicylic acid (10%), salicylic phenol (10%), and acyl glucuronides (5%), gentisic acid (< 1%), and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid.<ref name"pmid3342084">{{cite journal | vauthors Grootveld M, Halliwell B | title 2,3-Dihydroxybenzoic acid is a product of human aspirin metabolism | journal Biochemical Pharmacology | volume 37 | issue 2 | pages 271–80 | date January 1988 | pmid 3342084 | doi 10.1016/0006-2952(88)90729-0 }}</ref> When small doses (less than 250{{nbsp}}mg in an adult) are ingested, all pathways proceed by first-order kinetics, with an elimination half-life of about 2.0 h to 4.5 h.<ref name"O Hartwig">{{cite journal | vauthors Hartwig-Otto H | title Pharmacokinetic considerations of common analgesics and antipyretics | journal The American Journal of Medicine | volume 75 | issue 5A | pages 30–7 | date November 1983 | pmid 6606362 | doi 10.1016/0002-9343(83)90230-9 }}</ref><ref name"AK Done">{{cite journal | vauthors Done AK | title Salicylate intoxication. Significance of measurements of salicylate in blood in cases of acute ingestion | journal Pediatrics | volume 26 | pages 800–7 | date November 1960 | doi 10.1542/peds.26.5.800 | pmid 13723722 | s2cid 245036862 }}</ref> When higher doses of salicylate are ingested (more than 4 g), the half-life becomes much longer (15 h to 30 h),<ref name"Chyka2007">{{cite journal | vauthors Chyka PA, Erdman AR, Christianson G, Wax PM, Booze LL, Manoguerra AS, Caravati EM, Nelson LS, Olson KR, Cobaugh DJ, Scharman EJ, Woolf AD, Troutman WG | title Salicylate poisoning: an evidence-based consensus guideline for out-of-hospital management | journal Clinical Toxicology | volume 45 | issue 2 | pages 95–131 | year 2007 | pmid 17364628 | doi 10.1080/15563650600907140 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> because the biotransformation pathways concerned with the formation of salicyluric acid and salicyl phenolic glucuronide become saturated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Prescott LF, Balali-Mood M, Critchley JA, Johnstone AF, Proudfoot AT | title Diuresis or urinary alkalinisation for salicylate poisoning? | journal British Medical Journal | volume 285 | issue 6352 | pages 1383–6 | date November 1982 | pmid 6291695 | pmc 1500395 | doi 10.1136/bmj.285.6352.1383 }}</ref> Renal excretion of salicylic acid becomes increasingly important as the metabolic pathways become saturated, because it is extremely sensitive to changes in urinary pH. A 10- to 20-fold increase in renal clearance occurs when urine pH is increased from 5 to 8. The use of urinary alkalinization exploits this particular aspect of salicylate elimination.<ref name"EmergMed2002-Dargan">{{cite journal | vauthors Dargan PI, Wallace CI, Jones AL | title An evidence based flowchart to guide the management of acute salicylate (aspirin) overdose | journal Emergency Medicine Journal | volume 19 | issue 3 | pages 206–9 | date May 2002 | pmid 11971828 | pmc 1725844 | doi 10.1136/emj.19.3.206 }}</ref> It was found that short-term aspirin use in therapeutic doses might precipitate reversible acute kidney injury when the patient was ill with glomerulonephritis or cirrhosis.<ref nameamjkid/> Aspirin for some patients with chronic kidney disease and some children with congestive heart failure was contraindicated.<ref nameamjkid>{{cite journal | vauthors D'Agati V | title Does aspirin cause acute or chronic renal failure in experimental animals and in humans? | journal American Journal of Kidney Diseases | volume 28 | issue 1 Suppl 1 | pages S24-9 | date July 1996 | pmid 8669425 | doi 10.1016/s0272-6386(96)90565-x }}</ref>
History
{{Main|History of aspirin}}
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Medicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient Sumer as well as the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt.<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|8–13}}<ref nameACS/> Hippocrates referred to the use of salicylic tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC, and willow bark preparations were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in classical antiquity and the Middle Ages.<ref nameACS/> Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain, and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century<ref name"Goldberg">{{cite magazine |vauthors Goldberg DR |titleAspirin: Turn of the Century Miracle Drug|urlhttps://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/aspirin-turn-of-the-century-miracle-drug|magazineChemical Heritage |dateSummer 2009|volume27|issue2|pages26–30}}</ref> after the Rev Edward Stone of Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, noticed that the bitter taste of willow bark resembled the taste of the bark of the cinchona tree, known as "Peruvian bark", which was used successfully in Peru to treat a variety of ailments. Stone experimented with preparations of powdered willow bark on people in Chipping Norton for five years and found it to be as effective as Peruvian bark and a cheaper domestic version. In 1763 he sent a report of his findings to the Royal Society in London.<ref>{{cite book|titleAspirin: the Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug | vauthors Jeffreys D |publisherBloomsbury |date2004 |page18-34 }}</ref> By the nineteenth century, pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related to salicylic acid, the active component of willow extract.<ref name"Jeffreys2008" />{{rp|46–55}}
In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time;<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|46–48}} in the second half of the 19th century, other academic chemists established the compound's chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines, and identified a new way to synthesize it.<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|69–75}} That year, Felix Hoffmann (or Arthur Eichengrün) of Bayer was the first to produce acetylsalicylic acid in a pure, stable form.<ref name=HoffmannSHI />
Salicylic acid had been extracted in 1838 from the herb meadowsweet, whose German name, Spirsäure, was the basis for naming the newly synthesized drug, which, by 1899, Bayer was selling globally.<ref name"Jeffreys2008" />{{rp|46–55}}<ref nameMannPlummer1991/>{{rp|27}} The word Aspirin was Bayer's brand name, rather than the generic name of the drug; however, Bayer's rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the 20th century, leading to fierce competition with the proliferation of aspirin brands and products.<ref name=ACS/>
Aspirin's popularity declined after the development of acetaminophen/paracetamol in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s, John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin's effects,<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|226–231}} while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases.<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|247–257}} The initial large studies on the use of low-dose aspirin to prevent heart attacks that were published in the 1970s and 1980s helped spur reform in clinical research ethics and guidelines for human subject research and US federal law, and are often cited as examples of clinical trials that included only men, but from which people drew general conclusions that did not hold true for women.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Schiebinger L | title Women's health and clinical trials | journal The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume 112 | issue 7 | pages 973–7 | date October 2003 | pmid 14523031 | pmc 198535 | doi 10.1172/JCI19993 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors | title Regular aspirin intake and acute myocardial infarction | journal British Medical Journal | volume 1 | issue 5905 | pages 440–3 | date March 1974 | pmid 4816857 | pmc 1633212 | doi 10.1136/bmj.1.5905.440 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Elwood PC, Cochrane AL, Burr ML, Sweetnam PM, Williams G, Welsby E, Hughes SJ, Renton R | title A randomized controlled trial of acetyl salicylic acid in the secondary prevention of mortality from myocardial infarction | journal British Medical Journal | volume 1 | issue 5905 | pages 436–40 | date March 1974 | pmid 4593555 | pmc 1633246 | doi 10.1136/bmj.1.5905.436 }}</ref>
Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the 20th century, and remain strong in the 21st century with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes.<ref nameJeffreys2008/>{{rp|267–269}} Trademark
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 300
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| header | image1 Bayer Aspirin and store-brand generic on Canadian drugstore shelf.jpg
| alt1 = Four boxes of medication on a store shelf above price tags. The two on the left are yellow with "Aspirin" in bold black type and explanatory text in English on the top box and French on the bottom. The two on the right are slightly smaller and white with the word "Life" in the corner inside a red circle. The text, in French on top and English below, describes the medication as "acetylsalicylic acid tablets"
| caption1 = In Canada and many other countries, "Aspirin" remains a trademark, so generic aspirin is sold as "ASA" (acetylsalicylic acid).
| image2 = Bayer and store-brand aspirin containers on US drugstore shelf.jpg
| alt2 = Four plastic bottles of medication on another drugstore shelf above their price tags. The two on the left are yellow with the word "Bayer" prominent in black type; above small type describes the product as "genuine aspirin". On the left are two clear plastic bottles with the Rite Aid drugstore chain logo on their yellow labels, which describe the product as "pain relief aspirin".
| caption2 = In the US., "aspirin" is a generic name.
}}
Bayer lost its trademark for Aspirin in the United States and some other countries in actions taken between 1918 and 1921 because it had failed to use the name for its own product correctly and had for years allowed the use of "Aspirin" by other manufacturers without defending the intellectual property rights.<ref>{{cite court |litigantsBayer Co. v. United Drug Co. |vol272 |reporterF. |opinion505 |pinpointp.512 |courtS.D.N.Y |date1921 |urlhttps://cyber.law.harvard.edu/metaschool/fisher/domain/tmcases/bayer.htm }}</ref> Today, aspirin is a generic trademark in many countries.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.genericides.org/trademark/aspirin |title Has aspirin become a generic trademark? |access-date17 February 2021 |website genericides.org |date25 March 2020 |archive-date 5 March 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210305221908/https://genericides.org/trademark/aspirin |url-status dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title Scientific style and format: the CBE manual for authors, editors, and publishers | collaboration CBE Style Manual Committee | vauthors Huth EJ |publisher Cambridge University Press |year 1994 |page 164 |url https://books.google.com/books?idPoFJ-OhE63UC&pgPA164 |isbn 978-0-521-47154-1 |url-status live |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20151015200126/https://books.google.com/books?idPoFJ-OhE63UC&pgPA164 |archive-date 15 October 2015|bibcode 1994ssfc.book.....S }}</ref> Aspirin, with a capital "A", remains a registered trademark of Bayer in Germany, Canada, Mexico, and in over 80 other countries, for acetylsalicylic acid in all markets, but using different packaging and physical aspects for each.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/aspirin-the-versatile-drug-1.822289 | workCBC News | titleAspirin: the versatile drug | date28 May 2009 | url-statuslive | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161106123159/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/aspirin-the-versatile-drug-1.822289 | archive-date6 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cheng TO | title The history of aspirin | journal Texas Heart Institute Journal | volume 34 | issue 3 | pages 392–3 | year 2007 | pmid 17948100 | pmc 1995051 }}</ref>
Compendial status
* United States Pharmacopeia<ref nameasa>{{cite web|publisherSigma Aldrich |titleAspirin |urlhttps://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/sigma/a2093 |access-date=24 January 2022 }}</ref>
* British Pharmacopoeia<ref nameibp>{{cite web |publisherBritish Pharmacopoeia |titleIndex BP 2009 |urlhttp://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/pdf/2009_index.pdf |access-date13 July 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090411071437/http://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/pdf/2009_index.pdf |archive-date11 April 2009}}</ref>
Medical use
Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease.<ref nameAHFS/> Lower doses of aspirin have also been shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in people who are at high risk or who have cardiovascular disease, but not in elderly people who are otherwise healthy.<ref name"USFDA-patient-guideline">{{citation-attribution|1{{cite web |titleAspirin for reducing your risk of heart attack and stroke: know the facts |urlhttps://www.fda.gov/drugs/safe-daily-use-aspirin/aspirin-reducing-your-risk-heart-attack-and-stroke-know-facts |publisherU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) |access-date26 July 2012 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120814182151/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/BuyingUsingMedicineSafely/UnderstandingOver-the-CounterMedicines/SafeDailyUseofAspirin/ucm291433.htm |archive-date14 August 2012}} }}</ref><ref name"USPSTF-CV">{{citation-attribution|1{{cite web |titleAspirin for the prevention of cardiovascular disease |urlhttp://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspsasmi.htm |publisherU.S. Preventive Services Task Force |access-date26 July 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120711031337/http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspsasmi.htm |archive-date11 July 2012}} }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Seshasai SR, Wijesuriya S, Sivakumaran R, Nethercott S, Erqou S, Sattar N, Ray KK | title Effect of aspirin on vascular and nonvascular outcomes: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal Archives of Internal Medicine | volume 172 | issue 3 | pages 209–16 | date February 2012 | pmid 22231610 | doi 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.628 | hdl-access free | doi-access free | hdl 10044/1/34287 | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"NEJM-20180916">{{cite journal | vauthors McNeil JJ, Woods RL, Nelson MR, Reid CM, Kirpach B, Wolfe R, Storey E, Shah RC, Lockery JE, Tonkin AM, Newman AB, Williamson JD, Margolis KL, Ernst ME, Abhayaratna WP, Stocks N, Fitzgerald SM, Orchard SG, Trevaks RE, Beilin LJ, Donnan GA, Gibbs P, Johnston CI, Ryan J, Radziszewska B, Grimm R, Murray AM | title Effect of Aspirin on Disability-free Survival in the Healthy Elderly | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 379 | issue 16 | pages 1499–1508 | date October 2018 | pmid 30221596 | pmc 6426126 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1800722 | hdl-access free | doi-access free | hdl 1885/154654 | title-link doi }}</ref><ref nameNEJM2018CVE>{{cite journal | vauthors McNeil JJ, Wolfe R, Woods RL, Tonkin AM, Donnan GA, Nelson MR, Reid CM, Lockery JE, Kirpach B, Storey E, Shah RC, Williamson JD, Margolis KL, Ernst ME, Abhayaratna WP, Stocks N, Fitzgerald SM, Orchard SG, Trevaks RE, Beilin LJ, Johnston CI, Ryan J, Radziszewska B, Jelinek M, Malik M, Eaton CB, Brauer D, Cloud G, Wood EM, Mahady SE, Satterfield S, Grimm R, Murray AM | title Effect of Aspirin on Cardiovascular Events and Bleeding in the Healthy Elderly | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 379 | issue 16 | pages 1509–1518 | date October 2018 | pmid 30221597 | pmc 6289056 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1805819 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> There is evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear.<ref name"Algra 518–27">{{cite journal | vauthors Algra AM, Rothwell PM | title Effects of regular aspirin on long-term cancer incidence and metastasis: a systematic comparison of evidence from observational studies versus randomised trials | journal The Lancet. Oncology | volume 13 | issue 5 | pages 518–27 | date May 2012 | pmid 22440112 | doi 10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70112-2 }}</ref>
Pain
Aspirin is an effective analgesic for acute pain, although it is generally considered inferior to ibuprofen because aspirin is more likely to cause gastrointestinal bleeding.<ref namepmid15768621>{{cite journal | vauthors Sachs CJ | title Oral analgesics for acute nonspecific pain | journal American Family Physician | volume 71 | issue 5 | pages 913–8 | date March 2005 | pmid 15768621 }}</ref> Aspirin is generally ineffective for those pains caused by muscle cramps, bloating, gastric distension, or acute skin irritation.<ref namepmid14592563>{{cite journal | vauthors Gaciong Z | title The real dimension of analgesic activity of aspirin | journal Thrombosis Research | volume 110 | issue 5–6 | pages 361–4 | date June 2003 | pmid 14592563 | doi 10.1016/j.thromres.2003.08.009 }}</ref> As with other NSAIDs, combinations of aspirin and caffeine provide slightly greater pain relief than aspirin alone.<ref namepmid22419343>{{cite journal | vauthors Derry CJ, Derry S, Moore RA | title Caffeine as an analgesic adjuvant for acute pain in adults | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2014 | issue 12 | pages CD009281 | date December 2014 | pmid 25502052 | pmc 6485702 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD009281.pub3 }}</ref> Effervescent formulations of aspirin relieve pain faster than aspirin in tablets,<ref namepmid10868553>{{cite journal | vauthors Hersh EV, Moore PA, Ross GL | title Over-the-counter analgesics and antipyretics: a critical assessment | journal Clinical Therapeutics | volume 22 | issue 5 | pages 500–48 | date May 2000 | pmid 10868553 | doi 10.1016/S0149-2918(00)80043-0 }}</ref> which makes them useful for the treatment of migraines.<ref namepmid18451718>{{cite journal | vauthors Mett A, Tfelt-Hansen P | title Acute migraine therapy: recent evidence from randomized comparative trials | journal Current Opinion in Neurology | volume 21 | issue 3 | pages 331–7 | date June 2008 | pmid 18451718 | doi 10.1097/WCO.0b013e3282fee843 | s2cid 44459366 }}</ref> Topical aspirin may be effective for treating some types of neuropathic pain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Kingery WS | title A critical review of controlled clinical trials for peripheral neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndromes | journal Pain | volume 73 | issue 2 | pages 123–139 | date November 1997 | pmid 9415498 | doi 10.1016/S0304-3959(97)00049-3 | s2cid = 10418793 }}</ref>
Aspirin, either by itself or in a combined formulation, effectively treats certain types of a headache, but its efficacy may be questionable for others. Secondary headaches, meaning those caused by another disorder or trauma, should be promptly treated by a medical provider. Among primary headaches, the International Classification of Headache Disorders distinguishes between tension headache (the most common), migraine, and cluster headache. Aspirin or other over-the-counter analgesics are widely recognized as effective for the treatment of tension headaches.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Loder E, Rizzoli P | title Tension-type headache | journal BMJ | volume 336 | issue 7635 | pages 88–92 | date January 2008 | pmid 18187725 | pmc 2190284 | doi 10.1136/bmj.39412.705868.AD }}</ref> Aspirin, especially as a component of an aspirin/paracetamol/caffeine combination, is considered a first-line therapy in the treatment of migraine, and comparable to lower doses of sumatriptan. It is most effective at stopping migraines when they are first beginning.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Gilmore B, Michael M | title Treatment of acute migraine headache | journal American Family Physician | volume 83 | issue 3 | pages 271–80 | date February 2011 | pmid 21302868 }}</ref>
Fever
Like its ability to control pain, aspirin's ability to control fever is due to its action on the prostaglandin system through its irreversible inhibition of COX.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bartfai T, Conti B | title Fever | journal TheScientificWorldJournal | volume 10 | pages 490–503 | date March 2010 | pmid 20305990 | pmc 2850202 | doi 10.1100/tsw.2010.50 | doi-access free }}</ref> Although aspirin's use as an antipyretic in adults is well established, many medical societies and regulatory agencies, including the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the Food and Drug Administration, strongly advise against using aspirin for the treatment of fever in children because of the risk of Reye's syndrome, a rare but often fatal illness associated with the use of aspirin or other salicylates in children during episodes of viral or bacterial infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Pugliese A, Beltramo T, Torre D | title Reye's and Reye's-like syndromes | journal Cell Biochemistry and Function | volume 26 | issue 7 | pages 741–6 | date October 2008 | pmid 18711704 | doi 10.1002/cbf.1465 | s2cid 22361194 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Beutler AI, Chesnut GT, Mattingly JC, Jamieson B | title FPIN's Clinical Inquiries. Aspirin use in children for fever or viral syndromes | journal American Family Physician | volume 80 | issue 12 | pages 1472 | date December 2009 | pmid 20000310 }}</ref><ref nameAAPweb>{{cite web|titleMedications Used to Treat Fever|date29 June 2012 |urlhttp://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/fever/Pages/Medications-Used-to-Treat-Fever.aspx|publisherAmerican Academy of Pediatrics|access-date25 November 2012|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130218084054/http://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/fever/Pages/Medications-Used-to-Treat-Fever.aspx|archive-date18 February 2013}}</ref> Because of the risk of Reye's syndrome in children, in 1986, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required labeling on all aspirin-containing medications advising against its use in children and teenagers.<ref name"FDA 1986 FR">{{cite journal|title51 FR 8180|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/DevelopmentResources/Over-the-CounterOTCDrugs/StatusofOTCRulemakings/UCM078593.pdf|journalUnited States Federal Register|volume51|issue45|date7 March 1986|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110819130409/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/DevelopmentResources/Over-the-CounterOTCDrugs/StatusofOTCRulemakings/UCM078593.pdf|archive-date19 August 2011}}</ref>InflammationAspirin is used as an anti-inflammatory agent for both acute and long-term inflammation,<ref name"pmid19597002">{{cite journal | vauthors Morris T, Stables M, Hobbs A, de Souza P, Colville-Nash P, Warner T, Newson J, Bellingan G, Gilroy DW | title Effects of low-dose aspirin on acute inflammatory responses in humans | journal Journal of Immunology | volume 183 | issue 3 | pages 2089–96 | date August 2009 | pmid 19597002 | doi 10.4049/jimmunol.0900477 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> as well as for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis.<ref nameAHFS />
Heart attacks and strokes
Aspirin is an important part of the treatment of those who have had a heart attack.<ref>{{cite book | title Myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation: the acute management of myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation [Internet] | series NICE Clinical Guidelines | issue 167 | date July 2013 | pmid 25340241 | chapter-url https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0071000/ | url-status live | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20151231192814/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0071000/ | archive-date 31 December 2015 | at 17.2 Aspirin | author1 National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK) | chapter Adjunctive pharmacotherapy and associated NICE guidance | publisher Royal College of Physicians (UK) }}</ref> It is generally not recommended for routine use by people with no other health problems, including those over the age of 70.<ref name"Arnett-2019">{{cite journal | vauthors Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, Buroker AB, Goldberger ZD, Hahn EJ, Himmelfarb CD, Khera A, Lloyd-Jones D, McEvoy JW, Michos ED, Miedema MD, Muñoz D, Smith SC, Virani SS, Williams KA, Yeboah J, Ziaeian B | title 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines | journal Journal of the American College of Cardiology | volume 74 | issue 10 | pages e177–e232 | date September 2019 | pmid 30894318 | pmc 7685565 | doi 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.03.010 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
The 2009 Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration published in Lancet evaluated the efficacy and safety of low dose aspirin in secondary prevention. In those with prior ischaemic stroke or acute myocardial infarction, daily low dose aspirin was associated with a 19% relative risk reduction of serious cardiovascular events (non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, or vascular death). This did come at the expense of a 0.19% absolute risk increase in gastrointestinal bleeding; however, the benefits outweigh the hazard risk in this case.{{citation needed|dateApril 2023}} Data from previous trials have suggested that weight-based dosing of aspirin has greater benefits in primary prevention of cardiovascular outcomes.<ref name"Lancet2018Dose"/> However, more recent trials were not able to replicate similar outcomes using low dose aspirin in low body weight (<70&nbsp;kg) in specific subset of population studied i.e. elderly and diabetic population, and more evidence is required to study the effect of high dose aspirin in high body weight (≥70&nbsp;kg).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bowman L, Mafham M, Wallendszus K, Stevens W, Buck G, Barton J, Murphy K, Aung T, Haynes R, Cox J, Murawska A, Young A, Lay M, Chen F, Sammons E, Waters E, Adler A, Bodansky J, Farmer A, McPherson R, Neil A, Simpson D, Peto R, Baigent C, Collins R, Parish S, Armitage J | title Effects of Aspirin for Primary Prevention in Persons with Diabetes Mellitus | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 379 | issue 16 | pages 1529–1539 | date October 2018 | pmid 30146931 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1804988 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors McNeil JJ, Wolfe R, Woods RL, Tonkin AM, Donnan GA, Nelson MR, Reid CM, Lockery JE, Kirpach B, Storey E, Shah RC, Williamson JD, Margolis KL, Ernst ME, Abhayaratna WP, Stocks N, Fitzgerald SM, Orchard SG, Trevaks RE, Beilin LJ, Johnston CI, Ryan J, Radziszewska B, Jelinek M, Malik M, Eaton CB, Brauer D, Cloud G, Wood EM, Mahady SE, Satterfield S, Grimm R, Murray AM | title Effect of Aspirin on Cardiovascular Events and Bleeding in the Healthy Elderly | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 379 | issue 16 | pages 1509–1518 | date October 2018 | pmid 30221597 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1805819 | pmc 6289056 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Woods RL, Polekhina G, Wolfe R, Nelson MR, Ernst ME, Reid CM, Shah RC, Lockery JE, Orchard SG, Murray AM, McNeil JJ | title No Modulation of the Effect of Aspirin by Body Weight in Healthy Older Men and Women | journal Circulation | volume 141 | issue 13 | pages 1110–1112 | date March 2020 | pmid 32223674 | doi 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.044142 | pmc 7286412 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
After percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs), such as the placement of a coronary artery stent, a U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality guideline recommends that aspirin be taken indefinitely.<ref>{{cite web | author National Guideline Clearinghouse (NGC) |title2011 ACCF/AHA/SCAI guideline for percutaneous coronary artery intervention. A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions |urlhttp://www.guideline.gov/content.aspx?id34980 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120813064712/http://www.guideline.gov/content.aspx?id34980 |archive-date13 August 2012 |access-date28 August 2012 |publisherUnited States Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)}}</ref> Frequently, aspirin is combined with an ADP receptor inhibitor, such as clopidogrel, prasugrel, or ticagrelor to prevent blood clots. This is called dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT). Duration of DAPT was advised in the United States and European Union guidelines after the CURE<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsYusuf S, Zhao F, Mehta SR, Chrolavicius S, Tognoni G, Fox KK |dateAugust 2001 |titleEffects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation |urlhttp://real.mtak.hu/12922/1/1277670.pdf |journalThe New England Journal of Medicine |volume345 |issue7 |pages494–502 |doi10.1056/nejmoa010746 |pmid11519503|s2cid15459216 }}</ref> and PRODIGY<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsCosta F, Vranckx P, Leonardi S, Moscarella E, Ando G, Calabro P, Oreto G, Zijlstra F, Valgimigli M |dateMay 2015 |titleImpact of clinical presentation on ischaemic and bleeding outcomes in patients receiving 6- or 24-month duration of dual-antiplatelet therapy after stent implantation: a pre-specified analysis from the PRODIGY (Prolonging Dual-Antiplatelet Treatment After Grading Stent-Induced Intimal Hyperplasia) trial |journalEuropean Heart Journal |volume36 |issue20 |pages1242–51 |doi10.1016/s0735-1097(15)61590-x |pmid25718355 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref> studies. In 2020, the systematic review and network meta-analysis from Khan et al.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsKhan SU, Singh M, Valavoor S, Khan MU, Lone AN, Khan MZ, Khan MS, Mani P, Kapadia SR, Michos ED, Stone GW, Kalra A, Bhatt DL |dateOctober 2020 |titleDual Antiplatelet Therapy After Percutaneous Coronary Intervention and Drug-Eluting Stents: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis |journalCirculation |volume142 |issue15 |pages1425–1436 |doi10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.046308 |pmc7547897 |pmid32795096}}</ref> showed promising benefits of short-term (< 6 months) DAPT followed by P2Y12 inhibitors in selected patients, as well as the benefits of extended-term (> 12 months) DAPT in high risk patients. In conclusion, the optimal duration of DAPT after PCIs should be personalized after outweighing each patient's risks of ischemic events and risks of bleeding events with consideration of multiple patient-related and procedure-related factors. Moreover, aspirin should be continued indefinitely after DAPT is complete.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsCapodanno D, Alfonso F, Levine GN, Valgimigli M, Angiolillo DJ |dateDecember 2018 |titleACC/AHA Versus ESC Guidelines on Dual Antiplatelet Therapy: JACC Guideline Comparison |journalJournal of the American College of Cardiology |volume72 |issue23 Pt A |pages2915–2931 |doi10.1016/j.jacc.2018.09.057 |pmid30522654 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsLevine GN, Bates ER, Bittl JA, Brindis RG, Fihn SD, Fleisher LA, Granger CB, Lange RA, Mack MJ, Mauri L, Mehran R, Mukherjee D, Newby LK, O'Gara PT, Sabatine MS, Smith PK, Smith SC |dateSeptember 2016 |title2016 ACC/AHA Guideline Focused Update on Duration of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines |journalJournal of the American College of Cardiology |volume68 |issue10 |pages1082–115 |doi10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.513 |pmid27036918 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsValgimigli M, Bueno H, Byrne RA, Collet JP, Costa F, Jeppsson A, Jüni P, Kastrati A, Kolh P, Mauri L, Montalescot G, Neumann FJ, Petricevic M, Roffi M, Steg PG, Windecker S, Zamorano JL, Levine GN |dateJanuary 2018 |title2017 ESC focused update on dual antiplatelet therapy in coronary artery disease developed in collaboration with EACTS: The Task Force for dual antiplatelet therapy in coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and of the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS) |journalEuropean Heart Journal |volume39 |issue3 |pages213–260 |doi10.1093/eurheartj/ehx419 |pmid28886622 |doi-accessfree |title-link=doi}}</ref>
The status of the use of aspirin for the primary prevention in cardiovascular disease is conflicting and inconsistent, with recent changes from previously recommending it widely decades ago, and that some referenced newer trials in clinical guidelines show less of benefit of adding aspirin alongside other anti-hypertensive and cholesterol lowering therapies.<ref name"Arnett-2019" /><ref name"Visseren-2021">{{cite journal | vauthors Visseren FL, Mach F, Smulders YM, Carballo D, Koskinas KC, Bäck M, Benetos A, Biffi A, Boavida JM, Capodanno D, Cosyns B, Crawford C, Davos CH, Desormais I, Di Angelantonio E, Franco OH, Halvorsen S, Hobbs FD, Hollander M, Jankowska EA, Michal M, Sacco S, Sattar N, Tokgozoglu L, Tonstad S, Tsioufis KP, van Dis I, van Gelder IC, Wanner C, Williams B | title 2021 ESC Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice | journal European Heart Journal | volume 42 | issue 34 | pages 3227–3337 | date September 2021 | pmid 34458905 | doi 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab484 | doi-access free }}</ref> The ASCEND study demonstrated that in high-bleeding risk diabetics with no prior cardiovascular disease, there is no overall clinical benefit (12% decrease in risk of ischaemic events v/s 29% increase in GI bleeding) of low dose aspirin in preventing the serious vascular events over a period of 7.4 years. Similarly, the results of the ARRIVE study also showed no benefit of same dose of aspirin in reducing the time to first cardiovascular outcome in patients with moderate risk of cardiovascular disease over a period of five years. Aspirin has also been suggested as a component of a polypill for prevention of cardiovascular disease.<ref name"pmid16100022">{{cite journal |vauthorsNorris JW |dateSeptember 2005 |titleAntiplatelet agents in secondary prevention of stroke: a perspective |journalStroke |volume36 |issue9 |pages2034–6 |doi10.1161/01.STR.0000177887.14339.46 |pmid16100022 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref><ref name"pmid16603580">{{cite journal |vauthorsSleight P, Pouleur H, Zannad F |dateJuly 2006 |titleBenefits, challenges, and registerability of the polypill |journalEuropean Heart Journal |volume27 |issue14 |pages1651–6 |doi10.1093/eurheartj/ehi841 |pmid16603580 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref> Complicating the use of aspirin for prevention is the phenomenon of aspirin resistance.<ref name"pmid16364973">{{cite journal |vauthorsWang TH, Bhatt DL, Topol EJ |dateMarch 2006 |titleAspirin and clopidogrel resistance: an emerging clinical entity |journalEuropean Heart Journal |volume27 |issue6 |pages647–54 |doi10.1093/eurheartj/ehi684 |pmid16364973 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref><ref name"pmid20944898">{{cite journal |vauthorsOliveira DC, Silva RF, Silva DJ, Lima VC |dateSeptember 2010 |titleAspirin resistance: fact or fiction? |journalArquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia |volume95 |issue3 |pagese91-4 |doi10.1590/S0066-782X2010001300024 |pmid20944898 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}</ref> For people who are resistant, aspirin's efficacy is reduced.<ref name"pmid21306212">{{cite journal |vauthorsTopçuoglu MA, Arsava EM, Ay H |dateFebruary 2011 |titleAntiplatelet resistance in stroke |journalExpert Review of Neurotherapeutics |volume11 |issue2 |pages251–63 |doi10.1586/ern.10.203 |pmc3086673 |pmid21306212}}</ref> Some authors have suggested testing regimens to identify people who are resistant to aspirin.<ref name"pmid19576352">{{cite journal |vauthorsBen-Dor I, Kleiman NS, Lev E |dateJuly 2009 |titleAssessment, mechanisms, and clinical implication of variability in platelet response to aspirin and clopidogrel therapy |journalThe American Journal of Cardiology |volume104 |issue2 |pages227–33 |doi10.1016/j.amjcard.2009.03.022 |pmid=19576352}}</ref>
As of {{as of|2022|April|lcn|alt|bareyes}}, the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) determined that there was a "small net benefit" for patients aged 40–59 with a 10% or greater 10-year cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, and "no net benefit" for patients aged over 60.<ref>{{citation-attribution|{{cite web | titleRecommendation: Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: Preventive Medication | websiteUnited States Preventive Services Taskforce | date23 November 2020 | urlhttps://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/aspirin-to-prevent-cardiovascular-disease-preventive-medication | access-date5 May 2022}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Davidson KW, Barry MJ, Mangione CM, Cabana M, Chelmow D, Coker TR, Davis EM, Donahue KE, Jaén CR, Krist AH, Kubik M, Li L, Ogedegbe G, Pbert L, Ruiz JM, Stevermer J, Tseng CW, Wong JB | title Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement | journal JAMA | volume 327 | issue 16 | pages 1577–1584 | date April 2022 | pmid 35471505 | doi 10.1001/jama.2022.4983 | title-link doi | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors Aubrey A, Stone W |date26 April 2022 |titleOlder adults shouldn't start a routine of daily aspirin, task force says |websiteNPR |urlhttps://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2022/04/26/1094881056/older-adults-shouldnt-start-a-routine-of-daily-aspirin-task-force-says}}</ref> Determining the net benefit was based on balancing the risk reduction of taking aspirin for heart attacks and ischaemic strokes, with the increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding, intracranial bleeding, and hemorrhagic strokes. Their recommendations state that age changes the risk of the medicine, with the magnitude of the benefit of aspirin coming from starting at a younger age, while the risk of bleeding, while small, increases with age, particular for adults over 60, and can be compounded by other risk factors such as diabetes and a history of gastrointestinal bleeding. As a result, the USPSTF suggests that "people ages 40 to 59 who are at higher risk for CVD should decide with their clinician whether to start taking aspirin; people 60 or older should not start taking aspirin to prevent a first heart attack or stroke." Primary prevention guidelines from {{as of|2019|September|lcn|alt|bareyes}} made by the American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association state they might consider aspirin for patients aged 40–69 with a higher risk of atherosclerotic CVD, without an increased bleeding risk, while stating they would not recommend aspirin for patients aged over 70 or adults of any age with an increased bleeding risk.<ref name"Arnett-2019" /> They state a CVD risk estimation and a risk discussion should be done before starting on aspirin, while stating aspirin should be used "infrequently in the routine primary prevention of (atherosclerotic CVD) because of lack of net benefit". As of {{as of|2021|August|lcn|alt|bareyes}}, the European Society of Cardiology made similar recommendations; considering aspirin specifically to patients aged less than 70 at high or very high CVD risk, without any clear contraindications, on a case-by-case basis considering both ischemic risk and bleeding risk.<ref name"Visseren-2021" />
Cancer prevention
Aspirin may reduce the overall risk of both getting cancer and dying from cancer.<ref nameCuz2014>{{cite journal | vauthors Cuzick J, Thorat MA, Bosetti C, Brown PH, Burn J, Cook NR, Ford LG, Jacobs EJ, Jankowski JA, La Vecchia C, Law M, Meyskens F, Rothwell PM, Senn HJ, Umar A | title Estimates of benefits and harms of prophylactic use of aspirin in the general population | journal Annals of Oncology | volume 26 | issue 1 | pages 47–57 | date January 2015 | pmid 25096604 | pmc 4269341 | doi 10.1093/annonc/mdu225 }}</ref> There is substantial evidence for lowering the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC),<ref name"Algra 518–27"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Manzano A, Pérez-Segura P | title Colorectal cancer chemoprevention: is this the future of colorectal cancer prevention? | journal TheScientificWorldJournal | volume 2012 | pages 327341 | date 29 April 2012 | pmid 22649288 | pmc 3353298 | doi 10.1100/2012/327341 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Chan AT, Arber N, Burn J, Chia WK, Elwood P, Hull MA, Logan RF, Rothwell PM, Schrör K, Baron JA | title Aspirin in the chemoprevention of colorectal neoplasia: an overview | journal Cancer Prevention Research | volume 5 | issue 2 | pages 164–78 | date February 2012 | pmid 22084361 | pmc 3273592 | doi 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-11-0391 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Thun MJ, Jacobs EJ, Patrono C | title The role of aspirin in cancer prevention | journal Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology | volume 9 | issue 5 | pages 259–67 | date April 2012 | pmid 22473097 | doi 10.1038/nrclinonc.2011.199 | s2cid 3332999 }}</ref> but aspirin must be taken for at least 10–20 years to see this benefit.<ref name"Richman2017">{{cite journal | vauthors Richman IB, Owens DK | title Aspirin for Primary Prevention | journal The Medical Clinics of North America | volume 101 | issue 4 | pages 713–724 | date July 2017 | pmid 28577622 | doi 10.1016/j.mcna.2017.03.004 | type Review }}</ref> It may also slightly reduce the risk of endometrial cancer<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Verdoodt F, Friis S, Dehlendorff C, Albieri V, Kjaer SK | title Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use and risk of endometrial cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies | journal Gynecologic Oncology | volume 140 | issue 2 | pages 352–8 | date February 2016 | pmid 26701413 | doi 10.1016/j.ygyno.2015.12.009 }}</ref> and prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bosetti C, Rosato V, Gallus S, Cuzick J, La Vecchia C | title Aspirin and cancer risk: a quantitative review to 2011 | journal Annals of Oncology | volume 23 | issue 6 | pages 1403–15 | date June 2012 | pmid 22517822 | doi 10.1093/annonc/mds113 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
Some conclude the benefits are greater than the risks due to bleeding in those at average risk.<ref nameCuz2014/> Others are unclear if the benefits are greater than the risk.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsSutcliffe P, Connock M, Gurung T, Freeman K, Johnson S, Kandala NB, Grove A, Gurung B, Morrow S, Clarke A |dateSeptember 2013|titleAspirin for prophylactic use in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: a systematic review and overview of reviews|journalHealth Technology Assessment|volume17|issue43|pages1–253|doi10.3310/hta17430|pmc4781046|pmid24074752}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Kim SE | title The benefit-risk consideration in long-term use of alternate-day, low dose aspirin: focus on colorectal cancer prevention | journal Annals of Gastroenterology | volume 27 | issue 1 | pages 87–88 | date 2014 | pmid 24714632 | pmc 3959543 }}</ref> Given this uncertainty, the 2007 United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) guidelines on this topic recommended against the use of aspirin for prevention of CRC in people with average risk.<ref name"USPSTF 2007">{{cite journal | title Routine aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the primary prevention of colorectal cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement | journal Annals of Internal Medicine | volume 146 | issue 5 | pages 361–4 | date March 2007 | pmid 17339621 | doi 10.7326/0003-4819-146-5-200703060-00008 | doi-access free | author1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force | title-link doi }}</ref> Nine years later however, the USPSTF issued a grade B recommendation for the use of low-dose aspirin (75 to 100{{nbsp}}mg/day) "for the primary prevention of CVD [cardiovascular disease] and CRC in adults 50 to 59 years of age who have a 10% or greater 10-year CVD risk, are not at increased risk for bleeding, have a life expectancy of at least 10 years, and are willing to take low-dose aspirin daily for at least 10 years".<ref name"USPSTF 2016">{{cite journal |vauthorsBibbins-Domingo K |dateJune 2016 |titleAspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Colorectal Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement |journalAnnals of Internal Medicine |volume164 |issue12 |pages836–45 |doi10.7326/m16-0577 |pmid27064677 |doi-accessfree |title-linkdoi}}
* {{lay source|templatecite web|urlhttps://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/2513180/aspirin-use-primary-prevention-cardiovascular-disease-colorectal-cancer-recommendations-from|titleWho developed these recommendations?|date21 June 2016|website=Annals of Internal Medicine}}</ref>
A meta-analysis through 2019 said that there was an association between taking aspirin and lower risk of cancer of the colorectum, esophagus, and stomach.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bosetti C, Santucci C, Gallus S, Martinetti M, La Vecchia C | title Aspirin and the risk of colorectal and other digestive tract cancers: an updated meta-analysis through 2019 | journal Annals of Oncology | volume 31 | issue 5 | pages 558–568 | date May 2020 | pmid 32272209 | doi 10.1016/j.annonc.2020.02.012 | quote The present comprehensive meta-analysis supports and further quantifies the inverse association between regular aspirin use and the risk of colorectal and other digestive tract cancers, including some rare ones. The favorable effect of aspirin increases with longer duration of use, and, for colorectal cancer, with increasing dose. | doi-access free | title-link doi | hdl 2434/730600 | hdl-access free }}</ref>
In 2021, the U.S. Preventive services Task Force raised questions about the use of aspirin in cancer prevention. It notes the results of the 2018 ASPREE (Aspirin in Reducing Events in the Elderly) Trial, in which the risk of cancer-related death was higher in the aspirin-treated group than in the placebo group.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors McNeil JJ, Nelson MR, Woods RL, Lockery JE, Wolfe R, Reid CM, Kirpach B, Shah RC, Ives DG, Storey E, Ryan J, Tonkin AM, Newman AB, Williamson JD, Margolis KL, Ernst ME, Abhayaratna WP, Stocks N, Fitzgerald SM, Orchard SG, Trevaks RE, Beilin LJ, Donnan GA, Gibbs P, Johnston CI, Radziszewska B, Grimm R, Murray AM | title Effect of Aspirin on All-Cause Mortality in the Healthy Elderly | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 379 | issue 16 | pages 1519–1528 | date October 2018 | pmid 30221595 | pmc 6433466 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1803955 }}</ref>
In 2025, a group of scientists at the University of Cambridge found that aspirin stimulates the immune system to reduce cancer metastasis. They found that a protein called ARHGEF1 suppresses T cells, that are required for attacking metastatic cancer cells. Aspirin appeared to counteract this suppression by targeting a clotting factor called thromboxane A2 (TXA2), which activates ARHGEF1, thus preventing it from suppressing the T cells.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Yang J, Yamashita-Kanemaru Y, Morris BI, Contursi A, Trajkovski D, Xu J, Patrascan I, Benson J, Evans AC, Conti AG, Al-Deka A, Dahmani L, Avdic-Belltheus A, Zhang B, Okkenhaug H, Whiteside SK, Imianowski CJ, Wesolowski AJ, Webb LV, Puccio S, Tacconelli S, Bruno A, Di Berardino S, De Michele A, Welch HC, Yu IS, Lin SW, Mitra S, Lugli E, van der Weyden L, Okkenhaug K, Saeb-Parsy K, Patrignani P, Adams DJ, Roychoudhuri R | title Aspirin prevents metastasis by limiting platelet TXA<sub>2</sub> suppression of T cell immunity | journal Nature | pages 1–10 | date March 2025 | pmid 40044852 | doi 10.1038/s41586-025-08626-7 | doi-access free }}</ref> The researchers called the discovery a "Eureka moment".<ref>{{Cite web |date2025-03-05 |titleScientists describe 'Eureka moment' over how aspirin prevents cancer spread |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/scientists-university-of-cambridge-t-cells-medical-research-council-langley-b2709572.html |access-date2025-03-05 |websiteThe Independent |languageen}}</ref> It was reported that the findings could lead to a more targeted use for aspirin in cancer research.<ref>{{Cite web |titleScientists discover how aspirin could prevent some cancers from spreading |urlhttps://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-03-scientists-aspirin-cancers.html |access-date2025-03-05 |websiteMedical Xpress}}</ref> It was also said that taking self-medicating with aspirin should not be done yet due to its potential side effects until clinical trials were held.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors Cara E |date2025-03-05 |titleA Surprising New Tool in the Fight Against Cancer: Aspirin |urlhttps://gizmodo.com/a-surprising-new-tool-in-the-fight-against-cancer-aspirin-2000571932 |access-date2025-03-05 |websiteGizmodo |languageen-US}}</ref>PsychiatryBipolar disorderAspirin, along with several other agents with anti-inflammatory properties, has been repurposed as an add-on treatment for depressive episodes in subjects with bipolar disorder in light of the possible role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of severe mental disorders.<ref name"repurposed2021">{{cite journal | vauthors Bartoli F, Cavaleri D, Bachi B, Moretti F, Riboldi I, Crocamo C, Carrà G | title Repurposed drugs as adjunctive treatments for mania and bipolar depression: A meta-review and critical appraisal of meta-analyses of randomized placebo-controlled trials | journal Journal of Psychiatric Research | volume 143 | pages 230–238 | date November 2021 | pmid 34509090 | doi 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.09.018 | s2cid 237485915 }}</ref> A 2022 systematic review concluded that aspirin exposure reduced the risk of depression in a pooled cohort of three studies (HR 0.624, 95% CI: 0.0503, 1.198, P0.033). However, further high-quality, longer-duration, double-blind randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are needed to determine whether aspirin is an effective add-on treatment for bipolar depression.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Dominiak M, Gędek A, Sikorska M, Mierzejewski P, Wojnar M, Antosik-Wójcińska AZ | title Acetylsalicylic Acid and Mood Disorders: A Systematic Review | journal Pharmaceuticals | volume 16 | issue 1 | pages 67 | date December 2022 | pmid 36678565 | pmc 9861965 | doi 10.3390/ph16010067 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Savitz JB, Teague TK, Misaki M, Macaluso M, Wurfel BE, Meyer M, Drevets D, Yates W, Gleason O, Drevets WC, Preskorn SH | title Treatment of bipolar depression with minocycline and/or aspirin: an adaptive, 2×2 double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, phase IIA clinical trial | journal Translational Psychiatry | volume 8 | issue 1 | pages 27 | date January 2018 | pmid 29362444 | pmc 5802452 | doi 10.1038/s41398-017-0073-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bauer IE, Green C, Colpo GD, Teixeira AL, Selvaraj S, Durkin K, Zunta-Soares GB, Soares JC | title A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of Aspirin and N-Acetylcysteine as Adjunctive Treatments for Bipolar Depression | journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume 80 | issue 1 | date December 2018 | pmid 30549489 | doi 10.4088/JCP.18m12200 | s2cid 56483705 }}</ref> Thus, notwithstanding the biological rationale, the clinical perspectives of aspirin and anti-inflammatory agents in the treatment of bipolar depression remain uncertain.<ref name"repurposed2021"/>DementiaAlthough cohort and longitudinal studies have shown low-dose aspirin has a greater likelihood of reducing the incidence of dementia, numerous randomized controlled trials have not validated this.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Li H, Li W, Zhang X, Ma XC, Zhang RW | title Aspirin Use on Incident Dementia and Mild Cognitive Decline: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience | volume 12 | pages 578071 | date 4 February 2021 | pmid 33613260 | pmc 7890199 | doi 10.3389/fnagi.2020.578071 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Veronese N, Stubbs B, Maggi S, Thompson T, Schofield P, Muller C, Tseng PT, Lin PY, Carvalho AF, Solmi M | title Low-Dose Aspirin Use and Cognitive Function in Older Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal Journal of the American Geriatrics Society | volume 65 | issue 8 | pages 1763–1768 | date August 2017 | pmid 28425093 | pmc 6810633 | doi 10.1111/jgs.14883 }}</ref> Schizophrenia Some researchers have speculated the anti-inflammatory effects of aspirin may be beneficial for schizophrenia. Small trials have been conducted but evidence remains lacking.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Schmidt L, Phelps E, Friedel J, Shokraneh F | title Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) for schizophrenia | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2019 | issue 8 | pages CD012116 | date August 2019 | pmid 31425623 | pmc 6699651 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD012116.pub2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fond G, Lançon C, Korchia T, Auquier P, Boyer L | title The Role of Inflammation in the Treatment of Schizophrenia | journal Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume 11 | pages 160 | date 2020 | pmid 32256401 | doi 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00160 | pmc 7093323 | doi-access free }}</ref>Other usesAspirin is a first-line treatment for the fever and joint-pain symptoms of acute rheumatic fever. The therapy often lasts for one to two weeks, and is rarely indicated for longer periods. After fever and pain have subsided, the aspirin is no longer necessary, since it does not decrease the incidence of heart complications and residual rheumatic heart disease.<ref nameNHFA>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.racgp.org.au/Content/NavigationMenu/ClinicalResources/RACGPGuidelines/DiagnosisandmanagementofacuterheumaticfeverandrheumaticheartdiseaseinAustralia/NHFA-CSANZ_ARF_RHD_2006.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080726052030/http://www.racgp.org.au/Content/NavigationMenu/ClinicalResources/RACGPGuidelines/DiagnosisandmanagementofacuterheumaticfeverandrheumaticheartdiseaseinAustralia/NHFA-CSANZ_ARF_RHD_2006.pdf |archive-date26 July 2008 |titleDiagnosis and management of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in Australia. An evidence-based review |authorNational Heart Foundation of Australia (RF/RHD guideline development working group) and the Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand |year2006 |publisherNational Heart Foundation of Australia |pages33–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Saxena A, Kumar RK, Gera RP, Radhakrishnan S, Mishra S, Ahmed Z | title Consensus guidelines on pediatric acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease | journal Indian Pediatrics | volume 45 | issue 7 | pages 565–73 | date July 2008 | pmid 18695275 }}</ref> Naproxen has been shown to be as effective as aspirin and less toxic, but due to the limited clinical experience, naproxen is recommended only as a second-line treatment.<ref nameNHFA/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hashkes PJ, Tauber T, Somekh E, Brik R, Barash J, Mukamel M, Harel L, Lorber A, Berkovitch M, Uziel Y | title Naproxen as an alternative to aspirin for the treatment of arthritis of rheumatic fever: a randomized trial | journal The Journal of Pediatrics | volume 143 | issue 3 | pages 399–401 | date September 2003 | pmid 14517527 | doi 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00388-3 }}</ref>
Along with rheumatic fever, Kawasaki disease remains one of the few indications for aspirin use in children<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Rowley AH, Shulman ST | title Pathogenesis and management of Kawasaki disease | journal Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy | volume 8 | issue 2 | pages 197–203 | date February 2010 | pmid 20109049 | pmc 2845298 | doi 10.1586/eri.09.109 }}</ref> in spite of a lack of high quality evidence for its effectiveness.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Baumer JH, Love SJ, Gupta A, Haines LC, Maconochie I, Dua JS | title Salicylate for the treatment of Kawasaki disease in children | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue 4 | pages CD004175 | date October 2006 | volume 2010 | pmid 17054199 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD004175.pub2 | pmc 8765111 }}</ref>
Low-dose aspirin supplementation has moderate benefits when used for prevention of pre-eclampsia.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Duley L, Meher S, Hunter KE, Seidler AL, Askie LM | title Antiplatelet agents for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2019 | issue 10 | date October 2019 | pmid 31684684 | pmc 6820858 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD004659.pub3 }}</ref><ref nameRoberge_2012>{{cite journal | vauthors Roberge S, Villa P, Nicolaides K, Giguère Y, Vainio M, Bakthi A, Ebrashy A, Bujold E | title Early administration of low-dose aspirin for the prevention of preterm and term preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy | volume 31 | issue 3 | pages 141–6 | year 2012 | pmid 22441437 | doi 10.1159/000336662 | s2cid 26372982 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> This benefit is greater when started in early pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Roberge S, Nicolaides K, Demers S, Hyett J, Chaillet N, Bujold E | title The role of aspirin dose on the prevention of preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction: systematic review and meta-analysis | journal American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume 216 | issue 2 | pages 110–120.e6 | date February 2017 | pmid 27640943 | doi 10.1016/j.ajog.2016.09.076 | s2cid 3079979 }}</ref>
Aspirin has also demonstrated anti-tumoral effects, via inhibition of the PTTG1 gene, which is often overexpressed in tumors.<ref>{{cite journal|titleAspirin Mediates Its Antitumoral Effect Through Inhibiting PTTG1 in Pituitary Adenoma|doi10.1210/clinem/dgac496|doi-accessfree|journalThe Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|vauthorsSzabó B, Németh K, Mészáros K, Krokker L, Likó I, Saskői E, Németh K, Szabó PT, Szücs N, Czirják S, Szalóki G, Patócs A, Butz H|date5 September 2022|volume107|issue11|pages3066–3079|pmid36059148 |pmc9681612 }}</ref>Resistance
{{see also|Drug tolerance}}
For some people, aspirin does not have as strong an effect on platelets as for others, an effect known as aspirin-resistance or insensitivity. One study has suggested women are more likely to be resistant than men,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Dorsch MP, Lee JS, Lynch DR, Dunn SP, Rodgers JE, Schwartz T, Colby E, Montague D, Smyth SS | title Aspirin resistance in patients with stable coronary artery disease with and without a history of myocardial infarction | journal The Annals of Pharmacotherapy | volume 41 | issue 5 | pages 737–41 | date May 2007 | pmid 17456544 | doi 10.1345/aph.1H621 | s2cid 22245507 }}</ref> and a different, aggregate study of 2,930 people found 28% were resistant.<ref name"pmid18202034">{{cite journal | vauthors Krasopoulos G, Brister SJ, Beattie WS, Buchanan MR | title Aspirin "resistance" and risk of cardiovascular morbidity: systematic review and meta-analysis | journal BMJ | volume 336 | issue 7637 | pages 195–8 | date January 2008 | pmid 18202034 | pmc 2213873 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.39430.529549.BE }}</ref>
A study in 100 Italian people found, of the apparent 31% aspirin-resistant subjects, only 5% were truly resistant, and the others were noncompliant.<ref name"pmid18680540">{{cite journal | vauthors Pignatelli P, Di Santo S, Barillà F, Gaudio C, Violi F | title Multiple anti-atherosclerotic treatments impair aspirin compliance: effects on aspirin resistance | journal Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume 6 | issue 10 | pages 1832–4 | date October 2008 | pmid 18680540 | doi 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2008.03122.x | s2cid 1776526 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
Another study of 400 healthy volunteers found no subjects who were truly resistant, but some had "pseudoresistance, reflecting delayed and reduced drug absorption".
<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Grosser T, Fries S, Lawson JA, Kapoor SC, Grant GR, FitzGerald GA | title Drug resistance and pseudoresistance: an unintended consequence of enteric coating aspirin | journal Circulation | volume 127 | issue 3 | pages 377–85 | date January 2013 | pmid 23212718 | pmc 3552520 | doi 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.117283 }}
*{{lay source |template cite news|vauthors Thomas K|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/05/business/coating-on-buffered-aspirin-may-hide-its-heart-protective-effects.html|title Study Raises Questions on Coating of Aspirin|date 4 December 2012|website The New York Times }}</ref>
Meta-analysis and systematic reviews have concluded that laboratory confirmed aspirin resistance confers increased rates of poorer outcomes in cardiovascular and neurovascular diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Li J, Song M, Jian Z, Guo W, Chen G, Jiang G, Wang J, Wu X, Huang L | title Laboratory aspirin resistance and the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease on confirmed aspirin adherence | journal Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis | volume 21 | issue 3 | pages 239–47 | date 2014 | pmid 24201035 | doi 10.5551/jat.19521 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"pmid18202034"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Sofi F, Marcucci R, Gori AM, Abbate R, Gensini GF | title Residual platelet reactivity on aspirin therapy and recurrent cardiovascular events--a meta-analysis | journal International Journal of Cardiology | volume 128 | issue 2 | pages 166–71 | date August 2008 | pmid 18242733 | doi 10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.12.010 | hdl-access free | hdl 2158/323452 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Shim EJ, Ryu CW, Park S, Lee HN, Shin HS, Kim SB | title Relationship between adverse events and antiplatelet drug resistance in neurovascular intervention: a meta-analysis | journal Journal of NeuroInterventional Surgery | volume 10 | issue 10 | pages 942–948 | date October 2018 | pmid 29352056 | doi 10.1136/neurintsurg-2017-013632 | s2cid 38147668 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fiolaki A, Katsanos AH, Kyritsis AP, Papadaki S, Kosmidou M, Moschonas IC, Tselepis AD, Giannopoulos S | title High on treatment platelet reactivity to aspirin and clopidogrel in ischemic stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal Journal of the Neurological Sciences | volume 376 | pages 112–116 | date May 2017 | pmid 28431593 | doi 10.1016/j.jns.2017.03.010 | s2cid 3485236 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Snoep JD, Hovens MM, Eikenboom JC, van der Bom JG, Huisman MV | title Association of laboratory-defined aspirin resistance with a higher risk of recurrent cardiovascular events: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal Archives of Internal Medicine | volume 167 | issue 15 | pages 1593–9 | date 13 August 2007 | pmid 17698681 | doi 10.1001/archinte.167.15.1593 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Although the majority of research conducted has surrounded cardiovascular and neurovascular, there is emerging research into the risk of aspirin resistance after orthopaedic surgery where aspirin is used for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis.<ref name"A Narrative Review of Aspirin Resis">{{cite journal | vauthors van Oosterom N, Barras M, Bird R, Nusem I, Cottrell N | title A Narrative Review of Aspirin Resistance in VTE Prophylaxis for Orthopaedic Surgery | journal Drugs | volume 80 | issue 18 | pages 1889–1899 | date December 2020 | pmid 33037568 | doi 10.1007/s40265-020-01413-w | s2cid 222234431 }}</ref> Aspirin resistance in orthopaedic surgery, specifically after total hip and knee arthroplasties, is of interest as risk factors for aspirin resistance are also risk factors for venous thromboembolisms and osteoarthritis; the sequelae of requiring a total hip or knee arthroplasty. Some of these risk factors include obesity, advancing age, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia and inflammatory diseases.<ref name"A Narrative Review of Aspirin Resis"/> Dosages Adult aspirin tablets are produced in standardised sizes, which vary slightly from country to country, for example 300{{nbsp}}mg in Britain and 325{{nbsp}}mg in the United States. Smaller doses are based on these standards, e.g., 75{{nbsp}}mg and 81{{nbsp}}mg tablets. The 81 mg tablets are commonly called "baby aspirin" or "baby-strength", because they were originally{{snd}}but no longer{{snd}}intended to be administered to infants and children.<ref>{{cite web |title Invention of the safety cap |url http://digitaldukemed.mc.duke.edu/pcc/safety_cap.html |website digitaldukemed.mc.duke.edu |access-date 4 September 2015 |url-status live |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071131/http://digitaldukemed.mc.duke.edu/pcc/safety_cap.html |archive-date 4 March 2016}}</ref> No medical significance occurs due to the slight difference in dosage between the 75{{nbsp}}mg and the 81{{nbsp}}mg tablets. The dose required for benefit appears to depend on a person's weight.<ref name"Lancet2018Dose">{{cite journal | vauthors Rothwell PM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, Price JF, Belch JF, Roncaglioni MC, Morimoto T, Mehta Z | title Effects of aspirin on risks of vascular events and cancer according to bodyweight and dose: analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials | journal Lancet | volume 392 | issue 10145 | pages 387–399 | date August 2018 | pmid 30017552 | pmc 6083400 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31133-4 }}</ref> For those weighing less than {{convert|70|kg|lb|0}}, low dose is effective for preventing cardiovascular disease; for patients above this weight, higher doses are required.<ref nameLancet2018Dose/>
In general, for adults, doses are taken four times a day for fever or arthritis,<ref nameBNF>{{cite book|titleBritish National Formulary|edition45|year2003|publisherBritish Medical Journal and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain|title-linkBritish National Formulary}}</ref> with doses near the maximal daily dose used historically for the treatment of rheumatic fever.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.medscape.com/druginfo/monograph?cidmed&drugid3881&drugnameAspirin+EC+Oral&monotypemonograph |titleAspirin monograph: dosages, etc |publisherMedscape.com |access-date11 May 2011}}</ref> For the prevention of myocardial infarction (MI) in someone with documented or suspected coronary artery disease, much lower doses are taken once daily.<ref name=BNF />
March 2009 recommendations from the USPSTF on the use of aspirin for the primary prevention of coronary heart disease encourage men aged 45–79 and women aged 55–79 to use aspirin when the potential benefit of a reduction in MI for men or stroke for women outweighs the potential harm of an increase in gastrointestinal hemorrhage.<ref name"USPSTF 2009">{{cite journal | vauthors ((US Preventive Services Task Force)) | title Aspirin for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement | journal Annals of Internal Medicine | volume 150 | issue 6 | pages 396–404 | date March 2009 | pmid 19293072 | doi 10.7326/0003-4819-150-6-200903170-00008 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref namemedscape>{{cite news|urlhttp://cme.medscape.com/viewarticle/589895 |titleAspirin: more evidence that low dose is all that is needed |newspaperMedscape |publisherMedscape CME |access-date11 May 2011}}</ref>{{update inline|dateOctober 2019}} The WHI study of postmenopausal women found that aspirin resulted in a 25% lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease and a 14% lower risk of death from any cause, though there was no significant difference between 81{{nbsp}}mg and 325{{nbsp}}mg aspirin doses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Berger JS, Brown DL, Burke GL, Oberman A, Kostis JB, Langer RD, Wong ND, Wassertheil-Smoller S |dateMarch 2009 |titleAspirin Use, Dose, and Clinical Outcomes in Postmenopausal Women With Stable Cardiovascular Disease |journalCirculation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes |volume2 |issue2 |pages78–87 |doi10.1161/circoutcomes.108.791269 |pmid20031819 |pmc2801891 |issn1941-7713 }}</ref> The 2021 ADAPTABLE study also showed no significant difference in cardiovascular events or major bleeding between 81{{nbsp}}mg and 325{{nbsp}}mg doses of aspirin in patients (both men and women) with established cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Sacristán JA |dateAugust 2021 |titleAspirin Dosing in Cardiovascular Disease |journalNew England Journal of Medicine |volume385 |issue8 |pages764–765 |doi10.1056/nejmc2110476 |pmid34407352 |s2cid237214969 |issn=0028-4793 }}</ref>
Low-dose aspirin use was also associated with a trend toward lower risk of cardiovascular events, and lower aspirin doses (75 or 81{{nbsp}}mg/day) may optimize efficacy and safety for people requiring aspirin for long-term prevention.<ref name="medscape" />
In children with Kawasaki disease, aspirin is taken at dosages based on body weight, initially four times a day for up to two weeks and then at a lower dose once daily for a further six to eight weeks.<ref>{{cite book|titleBritish National Formulary for Children|year2006|publisherBritish Medical Journal and Royal Pharmaceutical Society|title-linkBritish National Formulary for Children}}</ref>
Adverse effects
In October 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the drug label to be updated for all nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid.<ref name"FDA PR 20201015" /><ref name"FDA safety 20201015" /> They recommend avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy.<ref name"FDA PR 20201015">{{citation-attribution|1{{cite press release |titleFDA Warns that Using a Type of Pain and Fever Medication in Second Half of Pregnancy Could Lead to Complications |websiteU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) |date15 October 2020 |urlhttps://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-using-type-pain-and-fever-medication-second-half-pregnancy-could-lead-complications |access-date15 October 2020}} }}</ref><ref name"FDA safety 20201015">{{citation-attribution|1{{cite web |titleNSAIDs may cause rare kidney problems in unborn babies |websiteU.S. Food and Drug Administration |date21 July 2017 |urlhttps://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-recommends-avoiding-use-nsaids-pregnancy-20-weeks-or-later-because-they-can-result-low-amniotic |access-date15 October 2020}} }}</ref> One exception to the recommendation is the use of low-dose 81{{nbsp}}mg aspirin at any point in pregnancy under the direction of a health care professional.<ref name"FDA safety 20201015" />Contraindications
<!-- Note that Contraindications is spelled correctly! It does not need to be changed. -->
Aspirin should not be taken by people who are allergic to ibuprofen or naproxen,<ref name"drugs.com" /><ref name"personalmd">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.personalmd.com/drgdb/3.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20000918231717/http://personalmd.com/drgdb/3.htm |url-statusdead |archive-date18 September 2000 |titleOral Aspirin information |access-date8 May 2008 |publisherFirst DataBank }}</ref> or who have salicylate intolerance<ref name"pmid16247191">{{cite journal | vauthors Raithel M, Baenkler HW, Naegel A, Buchwald F, Schultis HW, Backhaus B, Kimpel S, Koch H, Mach K, Hahn EG, Konturek PC | title Significance of salicylate intolerance in diseases of the lower gastrointestinal tract | journal Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology | volume 56 | issue Suppl 5 | pages 89–102 | date September 2005 | pmid 16247191 | url http://www.jpp.krakow.pl/journal/archive/09_05_s5/pdf/89_09_05_s5_article.pdf | url-status live | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110409093851/http://www.jpp.krakow.pl/journal/archive/09_05_s5/pdf/89_09_05_s5_article.pdf | archive-date 9 April 2011 }}</ref><ref name"pmid8566739">{{cite journal | vauthors Senna GE, Andri G, Dama AR, Mezzelani P, Andri L | title Tolerability of imidazole salycilate in aspirin-sensitive patients | journal Allergy Proceedings | volume 16 | issue 5 | pages 251–254 | year 1995 | pmid 8566739 | doi 10.2500/108854195778702675 }}</ref> or a more generalized drug intolerance to NSAIDs, and caution should be exercised in those with asthma or NSAID-precipitated bronchospasm. Owing to its effect on the stomach lining, manufacturers recommend people with peptic ulcers, mild diabetes, or gastritis seek medical advice before using aspirin.<ref name"drugs.com" /><ref name"mercksource">{{cite web |title PDR guide to over the counter (OTC) drugs |urlhttp://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_pdr.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzpdrotczSzotc_fullzSzdrugszSzfgotc036zPzhtm |access-date 28 April 2008 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080410223441/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_pdr.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzpdrotczSzotc_fullzSzdrugszSzfgotc036zPzhtm |archive-date10 April 2008 |url-status live}}</ref> Even if none of these conditions is present, the risk of stomach bleeding is still increased when aspirin is taken with alcohol or warfarin.<ref name"drugs.com" /><ref name"personalmd" /> People with hemophilia or other bleeding tendencies should not take aspirin or other salicylates.<ref name"drugs.com" /><ref name"mercksource" /> Aspirin is known to cause hemolytic anemia in people who have the genetic disease glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, particularly in large doses and depending on the severity of the disease.<ref>{{cite book |title Frequencies of hemoglobin variants: thalassemia, the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, G6PD variants, and ovalocytosis in human populations |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOjqNeJERhWwC&q0195036344|publisherOxford University Press |isbn 978-0-19-503634-3 |vauthors Livingstone FB |year 1985}}</ref> Use of aspirin during dengue fever is not recommended owing to increased bleeding tendency.<ref>{{cite web |titleDengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever: information for health care practitioners |url https://www.cdc.gov/NCIDOD/dvbid/dengue/dengue-hcp.htm |access-date 28 April 2008 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080317070305/http://www.cdc.gov/Ncidod/dvbid/dengue/dengue-hcp.htm |archive-date 17 March 2008 }}</ref> Aspirin taken at doses of ≤325&nbsp;mg and ≤100&nbsp;mg per day for ≥2 days can increase the odds of suffering a gout attack by 81% and 91% respectively. This effect may potentially be worsened by high purine diets, diuretics, and kidney disease, but is eliminated by the urate lowering drug allopurinol.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Zhang Y, Neogi T, Chen C, Chaisson C, Hunter DJ, Choi H | title Low-dose aspirin use and recurrent gout attacks | journal Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases | volume 73 | issue 2 | pages 385–390 | date February 2014 | pmid 23345599 | pmc 3902644 | doi 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-202589 }}</ref> Daily low dose aspirin does not appear to worsen kidney function.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Polkinghorne KR, Wetmore JB, Thao LT, Wolfe R, Woods RL, Ernst ME, Nelson MR, Reid CM, Shah RC, McNeil JJ, Murray AM | title Effect of Aspirin on CKD Progression in Older Adults: Secondary Analysis From the ASPREE Randomized Clinical Trial | journal American Journal of Kidney Diseases | volume 80 | issue 6 | pages 810–813 | date December 2022 | pmid 35430328 | pmc 9562592 | doi 10.1053/j.ajkd.2022.02.019 }}</ref> Aspirin may reduce cardiovascular risk in those without established cardiovascular disease in people with moderate CKD, without significantly increasing the risk of bleeding.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Mann JF, Joseph P, Gao P, Pais P, Tyrwhitt J, Xavier D, Dans T, Jaramillo PL, Gamra H, Yusuf S | title Effects of aspirin on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease | journal Kidney International | volume 103 | issue 2 | pages 403–410 | date February 2023 | pmid 36341885 | doi 10.1016/j.kint.2022.09.023 | s2cid 253194139 | doi-access free }}</ref> Aspirin should not be given to children or adolescents under the age of 16 to control cold or influenza symptoms, as this has been linked with Reye's syndrome.<ref name"BMJ2002-Macdonald">{{cite journal | vauthors Macdonald S | title Aspirin use to be banned in under 16 year olds | journal BMJ | volume 325 | issue 7371 | pages 988c–988 | date November 2002 | pmid 12411346 | pmc 1169585 | doi 10.1136/bmj.325.7371.988/c }}</ref>GastrointestinalAspirin increases the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding.<ref name"Sorensen 2000">{{cite journal | vauthors Sørensen HT, Mellemkjaer L, Blot WJ, Nielsen GL, Steffensen FH, McLaughlin JK, Olsen JH | title Risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding associated with use of low-dose aspirin | journal The American Journal of Gastroenterology | volume 95 | issue 9 | pages 2218–2224 | date September 2000 | pmid 11007221 | doi 10.1016/s0002-9270(00)01040-6 }}</ref> Enteric coating on aspirin may be used in manufacturing to prevent release of aspirin into the stomach to reduce gastric harm, but enteric coating does not reduce gastrointestinal bleeding risk.<ref name"Sorensen 2000" /><ref name"Kedir 2021">{{cite journal | vauthors Kedir HM, Sisay EA, Abiye AA | title Enteric-Coated Aspirin and the Risk of Gastrointestinal Side Effects: A Systematic Review | journal International Journal of General Medicine | volume 14 | pages 4757–4763 | year 2021 | pmid 34466020 | doi 10.2147/ijgm.s326929 | pmc 8403009 | doi-access free }}</ref> Enteric-coated aspirin may not be as effective at reducing blood clot risk.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors Torborg L | titleMayo Clinic Q and A: Coated aspirin may not be as effective at reducing blood clot risk | websiteMayo Clinic News Network | date4 December 2018 | urlhttps://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/mayo-clinic-q-and-a-coated-aspirin-may-not-be-as-effective-at-reducing-blood-clot-risk/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cox D, Maree AO, Dooley M, Conroy R, Byrne MF, Fitzgerald DJ | title Effect of enteric coating on antiplatelet activity of low-dose aspirin in healthy volunteers | journal Stroke | volume 37 | issue 8 | pages 2153–2158 | date August 2006 | pmid 16794200 | doi 10.1161/01.STR.0000231683.43347.ec | s2cid 8034371 | doi-access free }}</ref> Combining aspirin with other NSAIDs has been shown to further increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding.<ref name"Sorensen 2000" /> Using aspirin in combination with clopidogrel or warfarin also increases the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Delaney JA, Opatrny L, Brophy JM, Suissa S | title Drug drug interactions between antithrombotic medications and the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding | journal CMAJ | volume 177 | issue 4 | pages 347–351 | date August 2007 | pmid 17698822 | pmc 1942107 | doi 10.1503/cmaj.070186 }}</ref>
Blockade of COX-1 by aspirin apparently results in the upregulation of COX-2 as part of a gastric defense.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors Wallace JL |title Prostaglandins, NSAIDs, and gastric mucosal protection: why doesn't the stomach digest itself? |journal Physiological Reviews |volume 88 |issue 4 |pages 1547–65 |date October 2008 |pmid 18923189 |doi 10.1152/physrev.00004.2008 |s2cid 448875 }}</ref> There is no clear evidence that simultaneous use of a COX-2 inhibitor with aspirin may increase the risk of gastrointestinal injury.<ref name"Rostom-2007">{{cite journal |vauthors Rostom A, Muir K, Dubé C, Jolicoeur E, Boucher M, Joyce J, Tugwell P, Wells GW |title Gastrointestinal safety of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors: a Cochrane Collaboration systematic review |journal Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology |volume 5 |issue 7 |pages 818–28, 828.e1-5; quiz 768 |date July 2007 |pmid 17556027 |doi 10.1016/j.cgh.2007.03.011 |doi-access = free }}</ref>
"Buffering" is an additional method used with the intent to mitigate gastrointestinal bleeding, such as by preventing aspirin from concentrating in the walls of the stomach, although the benefits of buffered aspirin are disputed.<ref name"Clerici_2023">{{cite journal | vauthors Clerici B, Cattaneo M | title Pharmacological Efficacy and Gastrointestinal Safety of Different Aspirin Formulations for Cardiovascular Prevention: A Narrative Review | journal Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease | volume 10 | issue 4 | date March 2023 | page 137 | pmid 37103016 | pmc 10145431 | doi 10.3390/jcdd10040137 | doi-access free }}</ref> Almost any buffering agent used in antacids can be used; Bufferin, for example, uses magnesium oxide. Other preparations use calcium carbonate.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/acidbase/faq/buffered-aspirin.shtml |titleGeneral chemistry online: FAQ: Acids and bases: What is the buffer system in buffered aspirin? |publisherAntoine.frostburg.edu |access-date11 May 2011 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110414145143/http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/acidbase/faq/buffered-aspirin.shtml |archive-date14 April 2011}}</ref> Gas-forming agents in effervescent tablet and powder formulations can also double as a buffering agent, one example being sodium bicarbonate, used in Alka-Seltzer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Davison C, Smith BW, Smith PK | title Effects of buffered and unbuffered acetylsalicylic acid upon the gastric acidity of normal human subjects | journal Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences | volume 51 | issue 8 | pages 759–763 | date August 1962 | pmid 13883982 | doi 10.1002/jps.2600510813 }}</ref>
Taking vitamin C with aspirin has been investigated as a method of protecting the stomach lining. In trials vitamin C-releasing aspirin (ASA-VitC) or a buffered aspirin formulation containing vitamin C was found to cause less stomach damage than aspirin alone.<ref name"Dammann">{{cite journal |vauthors Dammann HG, Saleki M, Torz M, Schulz HU, Krupp S, Schürer M, Timm J, Gessner U |title Effects of buffered and plain acetylsalicylic acid formulations with and without ascorbic acid on gastric mucosa in healthy subjects |journal Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics |volume 19 |issue 3 |pages 367–74 |date February 2004 |pmid 14984384 |doi 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2004.01742.x |s2cid 22688422 |doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Konturek">{{cite journal |vauthors Konturek PC, Kania J, Hahn EG, Konturek JW |title Ascorbic acid attenuates aspirin-induced gastric damage: role of inducible nitric oxide synthase |journal Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |volume 57 |issue Suppl 5 |pages 125–36 |date November 2006 |pmid 17218764 }}</ref>
Retinal vein occlusion
It is a widespread habit among eye specialists (ophthalmologists) to prescribe aspirin as an add-on medication for patients with retinal vein occlusion (RVO), such as central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) and branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO). The reason of this widespread use is the evidence of its proven effectiveness in major systemic venous thrombotic disorders, and it has been assumed that may be similarly beneficial in various types of retinal vein occlusion.
However, a large-scale investigation based on data of nearly 700 patients showed "that aspirin or other antiplatelet aggregating agents or anticoagulants adversely influence the visual outcome in patients with CRVO and hemi-CRVO, without any evidence of protective or beneficial effect".<ref name"pmid24769221">{{cite journal |vauthors Hayreh SS |title Ocular vascular occlusive disorders: natural history of visual outcome |journal Progress in Retinal and Eye Research |volume 41 |pages 1–25 |date July 2014 |pmid 24769221 |pmc 4073304 |doi 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.04.001 }}</ref> Several expert groups, including the Royal College of Ophthalmologists, recommended against the use of antithrombotic drugs (incl. aspirin) for patients with RVO.<ref name"pmid26780742">{{cite journal |vauthors Ageno W, Beyer-Westendorf J, Garcia DA, Lazo-Langner A, McBane RD, Paciaroni M |title Guidance for the management of venous thrombosis in unusual sites |journal Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis |volume 41 |issue 1 |pages 129–43 |date January 2016 |pmid 26780742 |pmc 4715841 |doi 10.1007/s11239-015-1308-1 }}</ref>Central effectsLarge doses of salicylate, a metabolite of aspirin, cause temporary tinnitus (ringing in the ears) based on experiments in rats, via the action on arachidonic acid and NMDA receptors cascade.<ref name"Gutton">{{cite journal |vauthors Guitton MJ, Caston J, Ruel J, Johnson RM, Pujol R, Puel JL |title Salicylate induces tinnitus through activation of cochlear NMDA receptors |journal The Journal of Neuroscience |volume 23 |issue 9 |pages 3944–52 |date May 2003 |pmid 12736364 |pmc 6742173 |doi 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-09-03944.2003 }}</ref>
Reye's syndrome
{{Main|Reye's syndrome}}
Reye's syndrome, a rare but severe illness characterized by acute encephalopathy and fatty liver, can occur when children or adolescents are given aspirin for a fever or other illness or infection. From 1981 to 1997, 1207 cases of Reye's syndrome in people younger than 18 were reported to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Of these, 93% reported being ill in the three weeks preceding the onset of Reye's syndrome, most commonly with a respiratory infection, chickenpox, or diarrhea. Salicylates were detectable in 81.9% of children for whom test results were reported.<ref nameBelay>{{cite journal |vauthors Belay ED, Bresee JS, Holman RC, Khan AS, Shahriari A, Schonberger LB |title Reye's syndrome in the United States from 1981 through 1997 |journal The New England Journal of Medicine |volume 340 |issue 18 |pages 1377–82 |date May 1999 |pmid 10228187 |doi 10.1056/NEJM199905063401801 |doi-access free }}</ref> After the association between Reye's syndrome and aspirin was reported, and safety measures to prevent it (including a Surgeon General's warning, and changes to the labeling of aspirin-containing drugs) were implemented, aspirin taken by children declined considerably in the United States, as did the number of reported cases of Reye's syndrome; a similar decline was found in the United Kingdom after warnings against pediatric aspirin use were issued.<ref nameBelay/> The US Food and Drug Administration recommends aspirin (or aspirin-containing products) should not be given to anyone under the age of 12 who has a fever,<ref name"BMJ2002-Macdonald"/> and the UK National Health Service recommends children who are under 16 years of age should not take aspirin, unless it is on the advice of a doctor.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/reyes-syndrome/|titleReye's syndrome |publisherNational Health Service |workHealth A to Z|date 14 September 2023|access-date24 August 2024}}</ref>SkinFor a small number of people, taking aspirin can result in symptoms including hives, swelling, and headache.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://health.clevelandclinic.org/are-you-sensitive-to-aspirin-here-are-some-reasons-why/ |titleAre You Sensitive to Aspirin? Here are Some Reasons Why |date5 February 2015 |websiteHealth Essentials from Cleveland Clinic |access-date5 March 2020 |archive-date25 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201025171549/https://health.clevelandclinic.org/are-you-sensitive-to-aspirin-here-are-some-reasons-why/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> Aspirin can exacerbate symptoms among those with chronic hives, or create acute symptoms of hives.<ref name"Doña-2018">{{cite journal |vauthors Doña I, Barrionuevo E, Salas M, Laguna JJ, Agúndez J, García-Martín E, Bogas G, Perkins JR, Cornejo-García JA, Torres MJ |title NSAIDs-hypersensitivity often induces a blended reaction pattern involving multiple organs |journal Scientific Reports |volume 8 |issue 1 |pages 16710 |date November 2018 |pmid 30420763 |pmc 6232098 |doi 10.1038/s41598-018-34668-1 |bibcode 2018NatSR...816710D }}</ref> These responses can be due to allergic reactions to aspirin, or more often due to its effect of inhibiting the COX-1 enzyme.<ref name"Doña-2018" /><ref name"Kowalski-2019">{{cite journal |vauthors Kowalski ML, Agache I, Bavbek S, Bakirtas A, Blanca M, Bochenek G, Bonini M, Heffler E, Klimek L, Laidlaw TM, Mullol J, Niżankowska-Mogilnicka E, Park HS, Sanak M, Sanchez-Borges M, Sanchez-Garcia S, Scadding G, Taniguchi M, Torres MJ, White AA, Wardzyńska A |title Diagnosis and management of NSAID-Exacerbated Respiratory Disease (N-ERD)-a EAACI position paper |journal Allergy |volume 74 |issue 1 |pages 28–39 |date January 2019 |pmid 30216468 |doi 10.1111/all.13599 |s2cid 52276808 |doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Skin reactions may also tie to systemic contraindications, seen with NSAID-precipitated bronchospasm,<ref name"Doña-2018" /><ref name"Kowalski-2019" /> or those with atopy.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors Sánchez-Borges M, Capriles-Hulett A |title Atopy is a risk factor for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug sensitivity |journal Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology |volume 84 |issue 1 |pages 101–6 |date January 2000 |pmid 10674573 |doi 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)62748-2 }}</ref>
Aspirin and other NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, may delay the healing of skin wounds.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsStadelmann WK, Digenis AG, Tobin GR |titleImpediments to wound healing |journalAmerican Journal of Surgery |volume176 |issue2A Suppl |pages39S–47S |dateAugust 1998 |pmid9777971 |doi10.1016/S0002-9610(98)00184-6}}</ref> Earlier findings from two small, low-quality trials suggested a benefit with aspirin (alongside compression therapy) on venous leg ulcer healing time and leg ulcer size,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsLayton AM, Ibbotson SH, Davies JA, Goodfield MJ |titleRandomised trial of oral aspirin for chronic venous leg ulcers |journalLancet |volume344 |issue8916 |pages164–5 |dateJuly 1994 |pmid7912767 |doi10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92759-6 |s2cid912169}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsdel Río Solá ML, Antonio J, Fajardo G, Vaquero Puerta C |titleInfluence of aspirin therapy in the ulcer associated with chronic venous insufficiency |journalAnnals of Vascular Surgery |volume26 |issue5 |pages620–9 |dateJuly 2012 |pmid22437068 |doi10.1016/j.avsg.2011.02.051 | hdl10324/2904 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsde Oliveira Carvalho PE, Magolbo NG, De Aquino RF, Weller CD |titleOral aspirin for treating venous leg ulcers |journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume2016 |pagesCD009432 |dateFebruary 2016 |issue2 |pmid26889740 |doi10.1002/14651858.CD009432.pub2 |pmc8627253 |collaborationCochrane Wounds Group}}</ref> however larger, more recent studies of higher quality have been unable to corroborate these outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsJull A, Wadham A, Bullen C, Parag V, Kerse N, Waters J |titleLow dose aspirin as adjuvant treatment for venous leg ulceration: pragmatic, randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial (Aspirin4VLU) |journalBMJ |volume359 |pagesj5157 |dateNovember 2017 |pmid29175902 |pmc5701114 |doi10.1136/bmj.j5157}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsTilbrook H, Clark L, Cook L, Bland M, Buckley H, Chetter I, Dumville J, Fenner C, Forsythe R, Gabe R, Harding K, Layton A, Lindsay E, McDaid C, Moffatt C, Rolfe D, Sbizzera I, Stansby G, Torgerson D, Vowden P, Williams L, Hinchliffe R|dateOctober 2018|titleAVURT: aspirin versus placebo for the treatment of venous leg ulcers - a Phase II pilot randomised controlled trial|journalHealth Technology Assessment|volume22|issue55|pages1–138|doi10.3310/hta22550|pmc6204573|pmid30325305}}</ref> As such, further research is required to clarify the role of aspirin in this context.
Other adverse effects
Aspirin can induce swelling of skin tissues in some people. In one study, angioedema appeared one to six hours after ingesting aspirin in some of the people. However, when the aspirin was taken alone, it did not cause angioedema in these people; the aspirin had been taken in combination with another NSAID-induced drug when angioedema appeared.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors Berges-Gimeno MP, Stevenson DD |title Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced reactions and desensitization |journal The Journal of Asthma |volume 41 |issue 4 |pages 375–84 |date June 2004 |pmid 15281324 |doi 10.1081/JAS-120037650 |s2cid 29909460 }}</ref>
Aspirin causes an increased risk of cerebral microbleeds, having the appearance on MRI scans of 5 to 10{{nbsp}}mm or smaller, hypointense (dark holes) patches.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors Vernooij MW, Haag MD, van der Lugt A, Hofman A, Krestin GP, Stricker BH, Breteler MM |title Use of antithrombotic drugs and the presence of cerebral microbleeds: the Rotterdam Scan Study |journal Archives of Neurology |volume 66 |issue 6 |pages 714–20 | date June 2009 |pmid 19364926 |doi 10.1001/archneurol.2009.42 |doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors Gorelick PB |title Cerebral microbleeds: evidence of heightened risk associated with aspirin use |journal Archives of Neurology |volume 66 |issue 6 |pages 691–3 |date June 2009 |pmid 19506128 |doi 10.1001/archneurol.2009.85 }}</ref>
A study of a group with a mean dosage of aspirin of 270{{nbsp}}mg per day estimated an average absolute risk increase in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) of 12 events per 10,000 persons.<ref nameHe1998/> In comparison, the estimated absolute risk reduction in myocardial infarction was 137 events per 10,000 persons, and a reduction of 39 events per 10,000 persons in ischemic stroke.<ref nameHe1998>{{cite journal |vauthors He J, Whelton PK, Vu B, Klag MJ |title Aspirin and risk of hemorrhagic stroke: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal JAMA |volume 280 |issue 22 |pages 1930–5 |date December 1998 |pmid 9851479 |doi 10.1001/jama.280.22.1930 |s2cid 22997730 }}</ref> In cases where ICH already has occurred, aspirin use results in higher mortality, with a dose of about 250{{nbsp}}mg per day resulting in a relative risk of death within three months after the ICH around 2.5 (95% confidence interval 1.3 to 4.6).<ref nameSaloheimo2006>{{cite journal |vauthors Saloheimo P, Ahonen M, Juvela S, Pyhtinen J, Savolainen ER, Hillbom M |title Regular aspirin-use preceding the onset of primary intracerebral hemorrhage is an independent predictor for death |journal Stroke |volume 37 |issue 1 |pages 129–33 |date January 2006 |pmid 16322483 |doi 10.1161/01.STR.0000196991.03618.31 |doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
Aspirin and other NSAIDs can cause abnormally high blood levels of potassium by inducing a hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism state via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis; however, these agents do not typically cause hyperkalemia by themselves in the setting of normal renal function and euvolemic state.<ref>Medical knowledge self-assessment program for students 4, By American College of Physicians, Clerkship Directors in Internal Medicine, Nephrology 227, Item 29</ref>
Use of low-dose aspirin before a surgical procedure has been associated with an increased risk of bleeding events in some patients, however, ceasing aspirin prior to surgery has also been associated with an increase in major adverse cardiac events. An analysis of multiple studies found a three-fold increase in adverse events such as myocardial infarction in patients who ceased aspirin prior to surgery. The analysis found that the risk is dependent on the type of surgery being performed and the patient indication for aspirin use.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Biondi-Zoccai GG, Lotrionte M, Agostoni P, Abbate A, Fusaro M, Burzotta F, Testa L, Sheiban I, Sangiorgi G | title A systematic review and meta-analysis on the hazards of discontinuing or not adhering to aspirin among 50,279 patients at risk for coronary artery disease | journal European Heart Journal | volume 27 | issue 22 | pages 2667–2674 | date November 2006 | pmid 17053008 | doi = 10.1093/eurheartj/ehl334 }}</ref>
On 9 July 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID).<ref name"FDA-20150709" /> Aspirin is an NSAID but is not affected by the new warnings.<ref name"FDA-20150709">{{cite web |titleFDA strengthens warning of heart attack and stroke risk for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs |urlhttps://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/fda-strengthens-warning-heart-attack-and-stroke-risk-non-steroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs |date9 July 2015 |workU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) |access-date9 July 2015 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150711004922/https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm453610.htm |archive-date11 July 2015}}</ref>
Overdose
{{Main|Aspirin poisoning}}
Aspirin overdose can be acute or chronic. In acute poisoning, a single large dose is taken; in chronic poisoning, higher than normal doses are taken over a period of time. Acute overdose has a mortality rate of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal, with a mortality rate of 25%;<ref>{{cite web |vauthors Kreplick LW |year2001 |titleSalicylate toxicity in emergency medicine |publisherMedscape |urlhttp://misc.medscape.com/pi/android/medscapeapp/html/A818242-business.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120831184805/http://misc.medscape.com/pi/android/medscapeapp/html/A818242-business.html |archive-date31 August 2012}}</ref> chronic overdose may be especially severe in children.<ref name"Pediatrics1982-gaudreault">{{cite journal |vauthors Gaudreault P, Temple AR, Lovejoy FH |title The relative severity of acute versus chronic salicylate poisoning in children: a clinical comparison |journal Pediatrics |volume 70 |issue 4 |pages 566–9 |date October 1982 |doi 10.1542/peds.70.4.566 |pmid 7122154 |s2cid 12738659 }} (primary source)</ref> Toxicity is managed with a number of potential treatments, including activated charcoal, intravenous dextrose and normal saline, sodium bicarbonate, and dialysis.<ref>{{cite book |titleRosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice |vauthors Marx J |year2006 |publisherMosby/Elsevier |isbn978-0-323-02845-5 |page[https://archive.org/details/rosensemergencym0002unse/page/2242 2242] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/rosensemergencym0002unse/page/2242 }}</ref> The diagnosis of poisoning usually involves measurement of plasma salicylate, the active metabolite of aspirin, by automated spectrophotometric methods. Plasma salicylate levels in general range from 30 to 100{{nbsp}}mg/L after usual therapeutic doses, 50–300{{nbsp}}mg/L in people taking high doses and 700–1400{{nbsp}}mg/L following acute overdose. Salicylate is also produced as a result of exposure to bismuth subsalicylate, methyl salicylate, and sodium salicylate.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors Morra P, Bartle WR, Walker SE, Lee SN, Bowles SK, Reeves RA |title Serum concentrations of salicylic acid following topically applied salicylate derivatives |journal The Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume 30 |issue 9 |pages 935–40 |date September 1996 |pmid 8876850 |doi 10.1177/106002809603000903 |s2cid 9843820 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors Baselt R |titleDisposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man |edition9th |publisherBiomedical Publications |locationSeal Beach, California |year2011 |pages20–23|isbn978-0-9626523-8-7 }}</ref>
Interactions
Aspirin is known to interact with other drugs. For example, acetazolamide and ammonium chloride are known to enhance the intoxicating effect of salicylates, and alcohol also increases the gastrointestinal bleeding associated with these types of drugs.<ref name"drugs.com">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.drugs.com/aspirin.html |titleAspirin information from Drugs.com |publisherDrugs.com |access-date8 May 2008 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080509163105/http://www.drugs.com/aspirin.html |archive-date9 May 2008}}</ref><ref name"personalmd"/> Aspirin is known to displace a number of drugs from protein-binding sites in the blood, including the antidiabetic drugs tolbutamide and chlorpropamide, warfarin, methotrexate, phenytoin, probenecid, valproic acid (as well as interfering with beta oxidation, an important part of valproate metabolism), and other NSAIDs. Corticosteroids may also reduce the concentration of aspirin. Other NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen and naproxen, may reduce the antiplatelet effect of aspirin.<ref name"Alqahtani_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors Alqahtani Z, Jamali F | title Clinical Outcomes of Aspirin Interaction with Other Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: A Systematic Review | journal Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences | volume 21 | issue 1s | pages 48s–73s | date 2018 | pmid 29891025 | doi 10.18433/jpps29854 | s2cid 48361086 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Gladding_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors Gladding PA, Webster MW, Farrell HB, Zeng IS, Park R, Ruijne N | title The antiplatelet effect of six non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and their pharmacodynamic interaction with aspirin in healthy volunteers | journal The American Journal of Cardiology | volume 101 | issue 7 | pages 1060–1063 | date April 2008 | pmid 18359332 | doi 10.1016/j.amjcard.2007.11.054 }}</ref> Although limited evidence suggests this may not result in a reduced cardioprotective effect of aspirin.<ref name"Alqahtani_2018" /> Analgesic doses of aspirin decrease sodium loss induced by spironolactone in the urine, however this does not reduce the antihypertensive effects of spironolactone.<ref>{{cite web | veditors Baxter K, Preston CL | work MedicinesComplete: Stockley's Drug Interactions. | location | publisher Royal Pharmaceutical Society |titleAspirin and Spironolactone |urlhttps://www.medicinescomplete.com}}</ref> Furthermore, antiplatelet doses of aspirin are deemed too small to produce an interaction with spironolactone.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hollifield JW |titleFailure of aspirin to antagonize the antihypertensive effect of spironolactone in low-renin hypertension. |journalSouthern Medical Journal |dateAugust 1976 |volume69 |issue8 |pages1034–6 |doi10.1097/00007611-197608000-00022 |pmid785608 }}</ref> Aspirin is known to compete with penicillin G for renal tubular secretion.<ref name"interactions">{{cite book |vauthorsKatzung BG |year1998 |titleBasic and clinical pharmacology |urlhttps://archive.org/details/basicclinicalph100katz/page/584 |publisherMcGraw-Hill |page[https://archive.org/details/basicclinicalph100katz/page/584 584] |isbn978-0-8385-0565-6}}</ref> Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Loh HS, Watters K, Wilson CW | title The effects of aspirin on the metabolic availability of ascorbic acid in human beings | journal Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume 13 | issue 11 | pages 480–486 | date 1 November 1973 | pmid 4490672 | doi 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1973.tb00203.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Basu TK | title Vitamin C-aspirin interactions | journal International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research. Supplement | volume 23 | pages 83–90 | year 1982 | pmid 6811490 }}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source|dateAugust 2016}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ioannides C, Stone AN, Breacker PJ, Basu TK | title Impairment of absorption of ascorbic acid following ingestion of aspirin in guinea pigs | journal Biochemical Pharmacology | volume 31 | issue 24 | pages 4035–4038 | date December 1982 | pmid 6818974 | doi 10.1016/0006-2952(82)90652-9 }}</ref>ResearchThe ISIS-2 trial demonstrated that aspirin at doses of 160{{nbsp}}mg daily for one month, decreased the mortality by 21% of participants with a suspected myocardial infarction in the first five weeks.<ref name"The Lancet-1988">{{cite journal |dateAugust 1988 |journalThe Lancet |volume332 |issue8607 |pages349–360 |doi10.1016/s0140-6736(88)92833-4 |issn0140-6736|titleRandomised Trial of Intravenous Streptokinase, Oral Aspirin, Both, or Neither Among 17,187 Cases of Suspected Acute Myocardial Infarction: Isis-2 |s2cid21071664 | pmid 2899772 }}</ref> A single daily dose of 324{{nbsp}}mg of aspirin for 12 weeks has a highly protective effect against acute myocardial infarction and death in men with unstable angina.<ref name"Lewis-1983">{{cite journal | vauthors Lewis HD, Davis JW, Archibald DG, Steinke WE, Smitherman TC, Doherty JE, Schnaper HW, LeWinter MM, Linares E, Pouget JM, Sabharwal SC, Chesler E, DeMots H |dateAugust 1983 |titleProtective effects of aspirin against acute myocardial infarction and death in men with unstable angina. Results of a Veterans Administration Cooperative Study |journalNew England Journal of Medicine |volume309 |issue7 |pages396–403 |doi10.1056/NEJM198308183090703 |issn0028-4793 |pmid6135989 }}</ref> Bipolar disorder Aspirin has been repurposed as an add-on treatment for depressive episodes in subjects with bipolar disorder.<ref name"repurposed2021"/> However, meta-analytic evidence is based on very few studies and does not suggest any efficacy of aspirin in the treatment of bipolar depression.<ref name"repurposed2021"/> Thus, notwithstanding the biological rationale, the clinical perspectives of aspirin and anti-inflammatory agents in the treatment of bipolar depression remain uncertain.<ref name"repurposed2021"/>
Infectious diseases
Several studies investigated the anti-infective properties of aspirin for bacterial, viral and parasitic infections. Aspirin was demonstrated to limit platelet activation induced by Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis and to reduce streptococcal adhesion to heart valves. In patients with tuberculous meningitis, the addition of aspirin reduced the risk of new cerebral infarction [RR 0.52 (0.29-0.92)]. A role of aspirin on bacterial and fungal biofilm is also being supported by growing evidence.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Di Bella S, Luzzati R, Principe L, Zerbato V, Meroni E, Giuffrè M, Crocè LS, Merlo M, Perotto M, Dolso E, Maurel C |date25 January 2022 |titleAspirin and Infection: A Narrative Review |journalBiomedicines |volume10 |issue2 |pages263 |doi10.3390/biomedicines10020263 | pmid 35203473 | pmc 8868581 |issn2227-9059 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>Cancer preventionEvidence from observational studies was conflicting on the effect of aspirin in breast cancer prevention;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cao Y, Tan A | title Aspirin might reduce the incidence of breast cancer: An updated meta-analysis of 38 observational studies | journal Medicine | volume 99 | issue 38 | pages e21917 | date September 2020 | pmid 32957311 | doi 10.1097/md.0000000000021917 | pmc 7505405 }}</ref> a randomized controlled trial showed that aspirin had no significant effect in reducing breast cancer,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cook NR, Lee IM, Gaziano JM, Gordon D, Ridker PM, Manson JE, Hennekens CH, Buring JE | title Low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trial | journal JAMA | volume 294 | issue 1 | pages 47–55 | date July 2005 | pmid 15998890 | doi 10.1001/jama.294.1.47 }}</ref> thus further studies are needed to clarify the effect of aspirin in cancer prevention.
In gardening
There are anecdotal reports that aspirin can improve the growth and resistance of plants,<ref>{{cite web |titleAspirin Water Helps Plants |urlhttps://cybercemetery.unt.edu/archive/allcollections/20090117082434/http://www.plantea.com/plant-aspirin.htm |access-date|websitecybercemetery.unt.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleGardens: drug therapy for plants {{!}} Gardening advice |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/jan/31/drug-therapy-for-plants |access-date|websiteThe Guardian|date31 January 2016 }}</ref> though most research has involved salicylic acid instead of aspirin.<ref>{{cite web |titlePriming Plant Defenses with Aspirin-like Compound : USDA ARS |urlhttps://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2014/priming-plant-defenses-with-aspirin-like-compound/ |access-date |websitewww.ars.usda.gov}}</ref> Veterinary medicine Aspirin is sometimes used in veterinary medicine as an anticoagulant or to relieve pain associated with musculoskeletal inflammation or osteoarthritis. Aspirin should be given to animals only under the direct supervision of a veterinarian, as adverse effects—including gastrointestinal issues—are common. An aspirin overdose in any species may result in salicylate poisoning, characterized by hemorrhaging, seizures, coma, and even death.<ref name"Edwards-2016">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.merckvetmanual.com/pharmacology/anti-inflammatory-agents/nonsteroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs#v3337669|titleNonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs: Aspirin |vauthors Edwards SH |workMerck Veterinary Manual|access-date20 January 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161218082147/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/pharmacology/anti-inflammatory-agents/nonsteroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs#v3337669|archive-date18 December 2016|url-statusdead }}</ref>
Dogs are better able to tolerate aspirin than cats are.<ref name"Merck" /> Cats metabolize aspirin slowly because they lack the glucuronide conjugates that aid in the excretion of aspirin, making it potentially toxic if dosing is not spaced out properly.<ref name"Edwards-2016" /><ref>{{cite book|titleFeline internal medicine secrets|publisherHanley & Belfus|year2001|isbn978-1-56053-461-7 |veditors Lappin MR |locationPhiladelphia|page160}}</ref> No clinical signs of toxicosis occurred when cats were given 25{{nbsp}}mg/kg of aspirin every 48 hours for 4 weeks,<ref name"Merck">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/toxicology/toxicities_from_human_drugs/analgesics_toxicity.html|titleAnalgesics (toxicity) |publisherMerck|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150411095033/http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/toxicology/toxicities_from_human_drugs/analgesics_toxicity.html |archive-date11 April 2015 |url-statuslive|access-date19 January 2018}}</ref> but the recommended dose for relief of pain and fever and for treating blood clotting diseases in cats is 10{{nbsp}}mg/kg every 48 hours to allow for metabolization.<ref name"Edwards-2016" /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/toxcat/toxcat.html|titlePlants poisonous to livestock|publisherCornell University Department of Animal Science|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150816192109/http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/toxcat/toxcat.html|archive-date16 August 2015|url-statuslive|access-date3 March 2016}}</ref> References {{Reflist}}Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors Desborough MJ, Keeling DM | title The aspirin story - from willow to wonder drug | journal British Journal of Haematology | volume 177 | issue 5 | pages 674–683 | date June 2017 | pmid 28106908 | doi 10.1111/bjh.14520 | s2cid 46794541 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors McTavish JR | title What's in a name? Aspirin and the American Medical Association | journal Bulletin of the History of Medicine | volume 61 | issue 3 | pages 343–66 | date 1987 | pmid 3311247 | doi | jstor 44442097 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |vauthorsLing G |titleAspirin |urlhttp://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aspirin.html |encyclopediaHow Products Are Made |volume1 |publisherThomson Gale |year=2005}}
*{{cite book|titleAspirin: the Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug | vauthors Jeffreys D |publisherBloomsbury |date2004 }}
{{refend}}
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1526 | Abner | {{Short description|Biblical character}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
away from Paltiel (Morgan Bible, 1240s).]]
In the Hebrew Bible, Abner ({{langx|he|אַבְנֵר}} {{transliteration|he|ʾAḇnēr}}) was the cousin of King Saul and the commander-in-chief of his army.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Samuel|14:50|KJV}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1 Samuel|20:25|KJV}}</ref> His name also appears as {{Script/Hebrew|אבינר בן נר}} "Abiner son of Ner", where the longer form Abiner means "my father is Ner".<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://biblehub.com/interlinear/1_samuel/14-50.htm|title1 Samuel 14:50 Interlinear: and the name of the wife of Saul is Ahinoam, daughter of Ahimaaz; and the name of the head of his host is Abner son of Ner, uncle of Saul;|websitebiblehub.com|access-date2018-04-04}}</ref>
Biblical narrative
Abner is initially mentioned incidentally in Saul's history,<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Samuel|14:50|KJV}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1 Samuel|17:55|KJV}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1 Samuel|26:5|KJV}})</ref> first appearing as the son of Ner, Saul's uncle, and the commander of Saul's army. He then comes to the story again as the commander who introduced David to Saul following David's killing of Goliath. He is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power was crushed. Seizing the youngest but only surviving of Saul's sons, Ish-bosheth, also called Eshbaal, Abner set him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was meanwhile reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried on between the two parties.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbner|volume1|page=66}}</ref>
The only engagement between the rival factions told at length was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between 12 chosen men from each side, in which all 24 seem to have perished.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|2:12|KJV}}</ref>{{efn|According to Chisholm (1911), [t]he object of the story of the encounter is to explain the name Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency. Bib. col. 2006; Batten in Zeit. f. alt-test. Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 sqq.).}} In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have been "light of foot as a wild roe".<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|2:18|KJV}}</ref> As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in self-defense, planting his spear in the ground and allowing Asahel to impale himself. This originated a deadly feud between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood.<ref name="EB1911" /> However, according to Josephus, in Antiquities, book 7, chapter 1, Joab had forgiven Abner for the death of his brother, Asahel, the reason being that Abner had slain Asahel honorably in combat after he had first warned Asahel and tried to knock the wind out of him with the butt of his spear.
thumb|250px|Abner with Rizpah
For some time afterward, the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length, Ish-bosheth lost the main prop of his tottering cause by accusing Abner of sleeping with Rizpah,<ref>cf. {{bibleverse|2 Samuel|3:7|KJV}}</ref> one of Saul's concubines, an alliance which, according to contemporary notions, would imply pretensions to the throne.<ref>cf. {{bibleverse|2 Samuel|16:21|KJV}}ff.</ref>
Abner was indignant at the rebuke, and immediately opened negotiations with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally, returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time (although Abner should have been safe from such a revenge killing in Hebron, which was a City of Refuge). The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|3:31–39|KJV}}; cf. {{bibleverse|1 Kings|2:31|KJV}}ff.</ref><ref name="EB1911"/>
David had Abner buried in Hebron, as stated in 2 Samuel 3:31–32,<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|3:31–32|KJV}}</ref> "And David said to all the people who were with him, 'Rend your clothes and gird yourselves with sackcloth, and wail before Abner.' And King David went after the bier. And they buried Abner in Hebron, and the king raised his voice and wept on Abner's grave, and all the people wept."<ref>{{Cite web|titleShmuel II – Chapter 3|urlhttp://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/15863|publisherChabad|access-date2016-01-06}}</ref>
Shortly after Abner's death, Ish-bosheth was assassinated as he slept,<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|4:5–12|KJV}}</ref> and David became king of the reunited kingdoms.<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel|5:1–5|KJV}}</ref>
Rabbinical literature
Midrashic writings establish Abner as the son of the Witch of En-dor (Pirḳe R. El. xxxiii.), and the hero par excellence in the Haggadah (Yalḳ., Jer. 285; Eccl. R. on ix. 11; Ḳid. 49b). Conscious of his extraordinary strength, he exclaimed: "If I could only catch hold of the earth, I could shake it" (Yalḳ. l.c.)—a saying which parallels the famous utterance of Archimedes, "Had I a fulcrum, I could move the world." According to the Midrash (Eccl. R. l.c.) it would have been easier to move a wall six yards thick than one of the feet of Abner, who could hold the Israelitish army between his knees. Yet when his time came, Joab smote him. But even in his dying hour, Abner seized his foe like a ball of thread, threatening to crush him. Then the Israelites came and pleaded for Joab's life, saying: "If thou killest him we shall be orphaned, and our women and all our belongings will become a prey to the Philistines." Abner answered: "What can I do? He has extinguished my light" (has wounded me fatally). The Israelites replied: "Entrust thy cause to the true judge [God]." Then Abner released his hold upon Joab and fell dead to the ground (Yalḳ. l.c.).
The rabbis agree that Abner deserved this violent death, though opinions differ concerning the exact nature of the sin that entailed so dire a punishment on one who was, on the whole, considered a "righteous man" (Gen. R. lxxxii. 4). Some reproach him that he did not use his influence with Saul to prevent him from murdering the priests of Nob (Yer. Peah, i. 16a; Lev. R. xxvi. 2; Sanh. 20a)—convinced as he was of the innocence of the priests and of the propriety of their conduct toward David, Abner holding that as leader of the army David was privileged to avail himself of the Urim and Thummim (I Sam. xxii. 9–19). Instead of contenting himself with passive resistance to Saul's command to murder the priests (Yalḳ., Sam. 131), Abner ought to have tried to restrain the king. Others maintain that Abner did make such an attempt, but in vain, and that his one sin consisted in that he delayed the beginning of David's reign over Israel by fighting him after Saul's death for two years and a half (Sanh. l.c.). Others, again, while excusing him for this—in view of a tradition founded on Gen. xlix. 27, according to which there were to be two kings of the house of Benjamin—blame Abner for having prevented a reconciliation between Saul and David on the occasion when the latter, in holding up the skirt of Saul's robe (I Sam. xxiv. 11), showed how unfounded was the king's mistrust of him. Saul was inclined to be pacified; but Abner, representing to him that David might have found the piece of the garment anywhere—possibly caught on a thorn—prevented the reconciliation (Yer. Peah, l.c., Lev. R. l.c., and elsewhere). Moreover, it was wrong in Abner to permit Israelitish youths to kill one another for sport (II Sam. ii. 14–16). No reproach, however, attaches to him for the death of Asahel, since Abner killed him in self-defense (Sanh. 49a).
It is characteristic of the rabbinical view of the Bible narratives that Abner, the warrior pure and simple, is styled "Lion of the Law" (Yer. Peah, l.c.), and that even a specimen is given of a halakic discussion between him and Doeg as to whether the law in Deut. xxiii. 3 excluded Ammonite and Moabite women from the Jewish community as well as men. Doeg was of the opinion that David, being descended from the Moabitess Ruth, was not fit to wear the crown, nor even to be considered a true Israelite; while Abner maintained that the law affected only the male line of descent. When Doeg's dialectics proved more than a match for those of Abner, the latter went to the prophet Samuel, who not only supported Abner in his view, but utterly refuted Doeg's assertions (Midr. Sam. xxii.; Yeb. 76b et seq.).
One of the most prominent families (Ẓiẓit ha-Kesat) in Jerusalem in the middle of the first century of the common era claimed descent from Abner (Gen. R. xcviii.).{{sfn|Price|Ginzberg|1901|pp71–72|ignore-erryes}}
Tomb of Abner
The site known as the Tomb of Abner is located not far from the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron and receives visitors throughout the year. Many travelers have recorded visiting the tomb over the centuries.
Benjamin of Tudela, who began his journeys in 1165, wrote in the journal, "The valley of Eshkhol is north of the mountain upon which Hebron stood, and the cave of Makhpela is east thereof. A bow-shot west of the cave is the sepulchre of Abner the son of Ner."<ref>{{Cite book|title The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela: Travels in the Middle Ages|publisher NightinGale Resources|date 1 March 2004|location New York|isbn = 9780911389098}}</ref>
A rabbi in the 12th century records visiting the tomb as reprinted in Elkan Nathan Adler's book Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages: 19 Firsthand Accounts.<ref>{{Cite book|title Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages: 19 Firsthand Accounts|url https://archive.org/details/jewishtravellers00elka|publisher Dover Publications|date 30 November 2011|location New York|isbn 9780486253978|editor-first Elkan Nathan|editor-last Adler|url-access = registration}}</ref> The account states, "I, Jacob, the son of R. Nathaniel ha Cohen, journeyed with much difficulty, but God helped me to enter the Holy Land, and I saw the graves of our righteous Patriarchs in Hebron and the grave of Abner the son of Ner." Adler postulates that the visit must have occurred prior to Saladin's capture of Jerusalem in 1187.
Rabbi Moses Basola records visiting the tomb in 1522. He states, "Abner's grave is in the middle of Hebron; the Muslims built a mosque over it."<ref>{{Cite book|title In Zion and Jerusalem: The Itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola 1512–1523|publisher C G Gundation|date 31 December 1999|location Jerusalem|isbn 9789652229267|first David|last Avraham}}</ref> Another visitor in the 1500s states that "at the entrance to the market in Hebron, at the top of the hill against the wall, Abner ben Ner is buried, in a church, in a cave." This visit was recorded in Sefer Yihus ha-Tzaddiqim (Book of Genealogy of the Righteous), a collection of travelogues from 1561. Abraham Moshe Lunz reprinted the book in 1896.<ref>{{Cite web|url http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14604-uri-ori-ben-simeon|title URI (ORI) BEN SIMEON|access-date 5 January 2015|website History and Anthropology in Jewish Studies|publisher Penn Libraries|last Ochser|first Schulim}}</ref>
Menahem Mendel of Kamenitz, considered the first hotelier in the Land of Israel,<ref>{{Cite web|title The first Holy Land hotelier|url http://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/In-Jerusalem/The-first-Holy-Land-hotelier|website The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com| date29 March 2010 |access-date 10 January 2016}}</ref> wrote about the Tomb of Abner is his 1839 book Korot Ha-Itim, which was translated into English as The Book of the Occurrences of the Times to Jeshurun in the Land of Israel. He states, "Here I write of the graves of the righteous to which I paid my respects. Hebron – Described above is the character and order of behavior of those coming to pray at the Cave of ha-Machpelah. I went there, between the stores, over the grave of Avner ben Ner and was required to pay a Yishmaeli – the grave was in his courtyard – to allow me to enter."<ref>{{Cite journal|title "Book of the Occurrences of the Times to Jeshurun in the Land of Israel" by David G. Cook and Sol P. Cohen|url http://repository.upenn.edu/miscellaneous_papers/10/|journal Miscellaneous Papers| dateAugust 2011 |access-date 10 January 2016| last1Cook | first1David | last2Cohen | first2Sol | issue=10 }}</ref>
The author and traveler J. J. Benjamin mentioned visiting the tomb in his book Eight Years in Asia and Africa (1859, Hanover). He states, "On leaving the Sepulchre of the Patriarchs, and proceeding on the road leading to the Jewish quarter, to the left of the courtyard, is seen a Turkish dwelling house, by the side of which is a small grotto, to which there is a descent of several steps. This is the tomb of Abner, captain of King Saul. It is held in much esteem by the Arabs, and the proprietor of it takes care that it is always kept in the best order. He requires from those who visit it a small gratuity."<ref>{{Cite web|title Eight years in Asia and Africa from 1846–1855 : Israel Joseph Benjamin : Free Download & Streaming|url https://archive.org/details/eightyearsinasi00benjgoog|website Internet Archive|access-date 10 January 2016}}</ref>
The British scholar Israel Abrahams wrote in his 1912 book The Book of Delight and Other Papers, "Hebron was the seat of David's rule over Judea. Abner was slain here by Joab, and was buried here – they still show Abner's tomb in the garden of a large house within the city. By the pool at Hebron were slain the murderers of Ishbosheth..."<ref>{{Cite book|title The Book of Delight and Other Papers|publisher CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform|date 5 January 2016|isbn 9781523233328|first Israel|last Abrahams}}</ref>
Over the years the tomb fell into disrepair and neglect. It was closed to the public in 1994. In 1996, a group of 12 Israeli women filed a petition with the Supreme Court requesting the government to reopen the Tomb of Abner.<ref>{{Cite web|title Google Groups|url https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/shamash.eretz-yisrael/rhK1h_a_RSo|website groups.google.com|access-date 6 January 2016}}</ref> More requests were made over the years<ref>{{Cite web|title Articles by David Wilder: The Mystery of the Tomb of Avner ben Ner or Understanding Uzi's Whims|url http://davidwilder.blogspot.co.il/1997/05/mystery-of-tomb-of-avner-ben-ner-or.html|website davidwilder.blogspot.co.il| date20 May 1997 |access-date 6 January 2016}}</ref> and eventually arrangements were made to have the site open to the general public{{dubious|a) The source is a biased blog; b) It says that JEWS are allowed in on 10 days o.t.y., not "the gen. public". Prove or amend.|dateAugust 2016}} on ten days throughout the year corresponding to the ten days that the Isaac Hall of the Cave of the Patriarchs is open.<ref>{{Cite web|url http://www.machpela.com/english/content.asp?pageid26|title Machpela website|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013035/http://www.machpela.com/english/content.asp?pageid26|archive-date 14 July 2011|url-status dead}}</ref> In early 2007 new mezuzot were affixed to the entrance of the site.<ref>{{Cite web|url http://shturem.org/index.php?sectionnews&id11883|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160827040632/http://shturem.org/index.php?sectionnews&id11883|url-status dead|archive-date 27 August 2016|title Shturem}}</ref>
In popular culture
*1960, David and Goliath (film) – Abner is portrayed by Massimo Serato. In this version, Abner tries to murder David (Ivica Pajer) when he returns in triumph after killing Goliath. However, here Abner is slain by King Saul (Orson Welles).
*1961, A Story of David (film) – Abner is portrayed by Welsh actor David Davies.
*1976, The Story of David (television series) – Younger version of Abner is portrayed by Israeli actor Yehuda Efroni. Older version of Abner is portrayed by British actor Brian Blessed.
*1985, King David (film) – Abner is portrayed by English actor John Castle. King David portrayed by Richard Gere.
*1997, King David (musical) – written by Tim Rice and Alan Menken. Abner is portrayed by American actor Timothy Shew.
*1997, David (television drama) – Abner is portrayed by Richard Ashcroft.
*2009, Kings (television series) – Abner portrayed by Wes Studi as General Linus Abner. The series is set in a multi-ethnic Western culture similar to that in the present-day United States, but with characters drawn from the Bible.
*2012, Rei Davi (Brazilian television series) – Abner is portrayed by Iran Malfitano.
*2025, House of David – Abner is portrayed by Oded Fehr
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Citations
{{reflist}}
Cited sources
* {{Jewish Encyclopedia |entry-urlhttps://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/340-abner |titleAbner or Abiner ("My Father is Ner")|first1Ira Maurice |last1Price |first2Louis |last2Ginzberg |volume1|author-link2Louis Ginzberg|pages71–72}} External links
*{{commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090903163552/http://hebron.web.aplus.net/english/article.php?id=240 Pictures of Avner ben Ner's Tomb in Hebron]
* [http://en.hebron.org.il/history/235 Tomb of Abner page on Hebron.com website].
* David, Abraham (ed.) (1999). In Zion and Jerusalem: The Itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola (1521–1523) C. G. Foundation Jerusalem Project Publications of the Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies of Bar-Ilan University {{ISBN|9652229261}}. Reference is made to visiting the tomb of Abner. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132346/http://courses.umass.edu/juda373/outlines/Basola,%20through%20p.148.pdf p.&nbsp;77]).
* [http://www.imagekind.com/Prayer-at-Cave-of-Avner-ben-Ner_art?IMID=f2c778c4-bcb1-4446-9ef4-c8489643a845 Photo of prayer at the Tomb of Abner from Imagekind].
* [http://www.picjew.com/en/photos/holy-places/avner-ben-ner-tomb/3803 Photo of prayer at the Tomb of Abner from PicJew].
* Photos of Tomb of Abner Ben Ner from the book Sites in Hebron by David Wilder. ASIN: B00ALHB89Y. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00ALHB89Y/ref=rdr_kindle_ext_tmb]
{{Authority control}}
Category:Biblical murder victims
Category:Warriors of Asia
Category:House of Saul
ca:Llista de personatges bíblics#Abner | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abner | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.410669 |
1527 | Ahmed I | {{Redirect|Ahmad I|others named Ahmed I and Ahmad I|Ahmad I (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 to 1617}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ahmed I
| title = Ottoman Caliph<br />Amir al-Mu'minin<br/>Kayser-i Rûm<br/>Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
| titletext | more
| type | image صورة للشاهزاده أحمد 2013-12-19 09-18.jpg
| image_size | alt
| caption = Anonymous portrait of Ahmed I
| moretext | reign 22 December 1603 &ndash; {{nowrap|22 November 1617}}
| coronation = 23 December 1603
| cor-type = {{nowrap|Sword girding}}
| predecessor = Mehmed III
| successor = Mustafa I
| succession = Sultan of the Ottoman Empire<br/>(Padishah)
| spouse Kösem Sultan<ref>{{cite book |last1Kumrular |first1Özlem |titleSułtanka Kösem. Władza i intrygi w haremie.[Kösem Sultan. İktidar, Hırs, Entrika] |date2015 |publisherLaurum |isbn978-83-8087-451-0 |pages137–140 |language=Polish}}</ref><br/>Mahfiruz Hatun
| spouse-type = Consorts
| issue = Osman II<br />Şehzade Mehmed<br/>Ayşe Sultan<br/>Gevherhan Sultan<br/>Fatma Sultan<br/>Hanzade Sultan<br/>Murad IV<br/>Şehzade Bayezid<br />Şehzade Süleyman<br/>Şehzade Kasım<br/>Atike Sultan<br/>Ibrahim I
| issue-link = #Sons
| issue-pipe = Among others
| full name = Şah Ahmed bin Mehmed Han<ref>Garo Kürkman, (1996), Ottoman Silver Marks, p. 31</ref>
| house = Ottoman
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Mehmed III
| mother = Handan Sultan
| birth_date {{birth date|1590|04|18|dfyes}}
| birth_place = Manisa Palace, Manisa, Ottoman Empire
| death_date {{death date and age|1617|11|22|1590|04|18|dfyes}}
| death_place = Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| burial_date | burial_place Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey
| signature_type = Tughra
| religion = Sunni Islam
| signature = Tughra of Ahmed I.JPG
}}
Ahmed I ({{langx|ota|احمد اول}} {{transl|ota|Aḥmed-i evvel}}; {{langx|tr|I. Ahmed}}; 18 April 1590 – 22 November 1617) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 to 1617. Ahmed's reign is noteworthy for marking the first breach in the Ottoman tradition of royal fratricide; henceforth, Ottoman rulers would no longer systematically execute their brothers upon accession to the throne.<ref name"Peirce 1993 99">{{cite book |lastPeirce |firstLeslie |urlhttps://archive.org/details/imperialharemwom00peir/page/99 |titleThe Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire |date1993 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn0-19-508677-5 |pages[https://archive.org/details/imperialharemwom00peir/page/99 99] |url-accessregistration}}</ref> He is also well known for his construction of the Blue Mosque, one of the most famous mosques in Turkey.
Early life
Ahmed was born at the Manisa Palace, Manisa, probably on 18 April 1590,<ref>{{cite book|firstGünhan|lastBörekçi|titleİnkırâzın Eşiğinde Bir Hanedan: III. Mehmed, I. Ahmed, I. Mustafa ve 17. Yüzyıl Osmanlı Siyasî Krizi - A Dynasty at the Threshold of Extinction: Mehmed III, Ahmed I, Mustafa I and the 17th-Century Ottoman Political Crisis|pages81 n. 75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstGünhan|lastBörekçi|titleFactions and Favorites at the Courts of Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603-17) and His Immediate Predecessors|year2010|pages85 n. 17}}</ref> when his father {{Lang|tr|Şehzade}} Mehmed was still a prince and the governor of the Sanjak of Manisa. His mother was Handan Sultan. After his grandfather Murad III's death in 1595, his father came to Constantinople and ascended the throne as Sultan Mehmed III. Mehmed ordered the execution of his nineteen half brothers. Ahmed's elder brother Şehzade Mahmud was also executed by his father Mehmed on 7 June 1603, just before Mehmed's own death on 22 December 1603. Mahmud was buried along with his mother (Halime Sultan, dead after 1623) in a separate mausoleum built by Ahmed in Şehzade Mosque, Constantinople.ReignAhmed ascended the throne after his father's death in 1603, at the age of thirteen, when his powerful grandmother Safiye Sultan was still alive. With his accession to the throne, the power struggle in the harem flared up; between his mother Handan Sultan and his grandmother Safiye Sultan, who in the previous reign had absolute power within the walls (behind the throne), in the end, with the support of Ahmed, the fight ended in favor of his mother. Ahmed broke with the traditional fratricide following previous enthronements and did not order the execution of his three years old half-brother Mustafa, the second son of Halime Sultan. Instead, Mustafa was sent to live at the old palace at Bayezit along with his mother and their grandmother, Safiye Sultan. This was most likely due to Ahmed's young age - he had not yet demonstrated his ability to sire children, and Mustafa was then the only other candidate for the Ottoman throne. His brother's execution would have endangered the dynasty, and thus he was spared.<ref name"Peirce 1993 99"/>
His mother tried to interfere in his affairs and influence his decision, especially she wanted to control his communication and movements. In the earlier part of his reign, Ahmed I showed decision and vigor, which were belied by his subsequent conduct.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2016}} The wars in Hungary and Persia, which attended his accession, terminated unfavourably for the empire. Its prestige was further tarnished in the Treaty of Zsitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid by Austria was abolished. Following the crushing defeat in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1612) against the neighbouring rivals Safavid Empire, led by Shah Abbas the Great, Georgia, Azerbaijan and other vast territories in the Caucasus were ceded back to Persia per the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha in 1612, territories that had been temporarily conquered in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–90). The new borders were drawn per the same line as confirmed in the Peace of Amasya of 1555.<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston,Bruce Alan Masters [https://books.google.com/books?idQjzYdCxumFcC&dqtreaty+of+nasuh+pasha+same+border+peace+of+amasya&pgPA23 Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire] pp 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 {{ISBN|1438110251}}</ref>
Relations with Morocco
During his reign the ruler of Morocco was Mulay Zidan whose father and predecessor Ahmad al-Mansur had paid a tribute of vassalage as a vassal of the Ottomans until his death.<ref nameLeroux /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id41migR-hZTwC&qmansour+mourad+vassalite Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer, Volume 17].</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idrmUcAAAAMAAJ&q1585 Histoire du Maroc]. Coissac de Chavrebière. Payot.</ref> The Saadi civil wars had interrupted this tribute of vassalage, but Mulay Zidan proposed to submit to it in order to protect himself from Algiers, and so he resumed paying the tribute to the Ottomans.<ref nameLeroux>[https://books.google.com/books?idxIO1xvfb63gC&qzidan+vassalité Les Sources inédites de l'histoire du Maroc de 1530 à 1845]. E. Leroux.</ref>
Ottoman-Safavid War: 1604–06
The Ottoman–Safavid War had begun shortly before the death of Ahmed's father Mehmed III. Upon ascending the throne, Ahmed I appointed Cigalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha as the commander of the eastern army. The army marched from Constantinople on 15 June 1604, which was too late, and by the time it had arrived on the eastern front on 8 November 1604, the Safavid army had captured Yerevan and entered the Kars Eyalet, and could only be stopped in Akhaltsikhe. Despite the conditions being favourable, Sinan Pasha decided to stay for the winter in Van, but then marched to Erzurum to stop an incoming Safavid attack. This caused unrest within the army and the year was practically wasted for the Ottomans.<ref nameislamans>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://cdn2.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/2/C02000576.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cdn2.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/2/C02000576.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive| titleAhmed I |encyclopediaİslam Ansiklopedisi |publisherTürk Diyanet Vakfı |pages30–33 |year1989 | volume=1}}</ref>
In 1605, Sinan Pasha marched to take Tabriz, but the army was undermined by Köse Sefer Pasha, the Beylerbey of Erzurum, marching independently from Sinan Pasha and consequently being taken prisoner by the Safavids. The Ottoman army was routed at Urmia and had to flee firstly to Van and then to Diyarbekir. Here, Sinan Pasha sparked a rebellion by executing the Beylerbey of Aleppo, Canbulatoğlu Hüseyin Pasha, who had come to provide help, upon the pretext that he had arrived too late. He soon died himself and the Safavid army was able to capture Ganja, Shirvan and Shamakhi in Azerbaijan.<ref nameislamans/> War with the Habsburgs: 1604–06 The Long Turkish War between the Ottomans and the Habsburg monarchy had been going on for over a decade by the time Ahmed ascended the throne. Grand Vizier Malkoç Ali Pasha marched to the western front from Constantinople on 3 June 1604 and arrived in Belgrade, but died there, so Sokolluzade Lala Mehmed Pasha was appointed as the Grand Vizier and the commander of the western army. Under Mehmed Pasha, the western army recaptured Pest and Vác, but failed to capture Esztergom as the siege was lifted due to unfavourable weather and the objections of the soldiers. Meanwhile, the Prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bocskay, who struggled for the region's independence and had formerly supported the Habsburgs, sent a messenger to the Porte asking for help. Upon the promise of help, his forces also joined the Ottoman forces in Belgrade. With this help, the Ottoman army besieged Esztergom and captured it on 4 November 1605. Bocskai, with Ottoman help, captured Nové Zámky (Uyvar) and forces under Tiryaki Hasan Pasha took Veszprém and Palota. Sarhoş İbrahim Pasha, the Beylerbey of Nagykanizsa (Kanije), attacked the Austrian region of Istria.<ref nameislamans/>
of Ahmed I. |310x310px]]
However, with Jelali revolts in Anatolia more dangerous than ever and a defeat in the eastern front, Mehmed Pasha was called to Constantinople. Mehmed Pasha suddenly died there, whilst preparing to leave for the east. Kuyucu Murad Pasha then negotiated the Peace of Zsitvatorok, which abolished the tribute of 30,000 ducats paid by Austria and addressed the Habsburg emperor as the equal of the Ottoman sultan. The Jelali revolts were a strong factor in the Ottomans' acceptance of the terms. This signaled the end of Ottoman growth in Europe.<ref nameislamans/> Jelali revolts Resentment over the war with the Habsburgs and heavy taxation, along with the weakness of the Ottoman military response, combined to make the reign of Ahmed I the zenith of the Jelali revolts. Tavil Ahmed launched a revolt soon after the coronation of Ahmed I and defeated Nasuh Pasha and the Beylerbey of Anatolia, Kecdehan Ali Pasha. In 1605, Tavil Ahmed was offered the position of the Beylerbey of Shahrizor to stop his rebellion, but soon afterwards he went on to capture Harput. His son, Mehmed, obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a fake firman and defeated the forces of Nasuh Pasha sent to defeat him.<ref nameislamans/>
Meanwhile, Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha united his forces with the Druze Sheikh Ma'noğlu Fahreddin to defeat the Amir of Tripoli Seyfoğlu Yusuf. He went on to take control of the Adana area, forming an army and issuing coins. His forces routed the army of the newly appointed Beylerbey of Aleppo, Hüseyin Pasha. Grand Vizier Boşnak Dervish Mehmed Pasha was executed for the weakness he showed against the Jelalis. He was replaced by Kuyucu Murad Pasha, who marched to Syria with his forces to defeat the 30,000-strong rebel army with great difficulty, albeit with a decisive result, on 24 October 1607. Meanwhile, he pretended to forgive the rebels in Anatolia and appointed the rebel Kalenderoğlu, who was active in Manisa and Bursa, as the sanjakbey of Ankara. Baghdad was recaptured in 1607 as well. Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha fled to Constantinople and asked for forgiveness from Ahmed I, who appointed him to Timișoara and later Belgrade, but then executed him due to his misrule there. Meanwhile, Kalenderoğlu was not allowed in the city by the people of Ankara and rebelled again, only to be crushed by Murad Pasha's forces. Kalenderoğlu ended up fleeing to Persia. Murad Pasha then suppressed some smaller revolts in Central Anatolia and suppressed other Jelali chiefs by inviting them to join the army.<ref name=islamans/>
Due to the widespread violence of the Jelali revolts, a great number of people had fled their villages and a lot of villages were destroyed. Some military chiefs had claimed these abandoned villages as their property. This deprived the Porte of tax income and on 30 September 1609, Ahmed I issued a letter guaranteeing the rights of the villagers. He then worked on the resettlement of abandoned villages.<ref nameislamans/> Ottoman-Safavid War: Peace and continuation between Ahmed I and Henry IV of France, published by François Savary de Brèves in 1615<ref name"Bosworth">{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPvwUAAAAIAAJ&pgPA799 |titleThe Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111-112 : Masrah Mawlid by Clifford Edmund Bosworth p.799 |dateJanuary 1989|isbn9004092390 |access-date2012-01-26|last1Bosworth |first1Clifford Edmund |publisherBRILL }}</ref>]]
The new Grand Vizier, Nasuh Pasha, did not want to fight with the Safavids. The Safavid Shah also sent a letter saying that he was willing to sign a peace treaty, with which he would have to send 200 loads of silk every year to Constantinople. On 20 November 1612, the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha was signed, which ceded all the lands the Ottoman Empire had gained in the war of 1578–90 back to Persia and reinstated the 1555 boundaries.<ref name=islamans/>
However, the peace ended in 1615 when the Shah did not send the 200 loads of silk. On 22 May 1615, Grand Vizier Öküz Mehmed Pasha was assigned to organize an attack on Persia. Mehmed Pasha delayed the attack till the next year, until when the Safavids made their preparations and attacked Ganja. In April 1616, Mehmed Pasha left Aleppo with a large army and marched to Yerevan, where he failed to take the city and withdrew to Erzurum. He was removed from his post and replaced by Damat Halil Pasha. Halil Pasha went for the winter to Diyarbekir, while the Khan of Crimea, Canibek Giray, attacked the areas of Ganja, Nakhichevan and Julfa.<ref nameislamans/> Capitulations and trade treaties Ahmed I renewed trade treaties with England, France and Venice. In July 1612, the first ever trade treaty with the Dutch Republic was signed. He expanded the capitulations given to France, specifying that merchants from Spain, Ragusa, Genoa, Ancona and Florence could trade under the French flag.<ref nameislamans/>
Architect and service to Islam
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2016}}
Sultan Ahmed constructed the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the magnum opus of the Ottoman architecture,{{According to whom|date=December 2017}} across from the Hagia Sophia. The sultan attended the breaking of the ground with a golden pickaxe to begin the construction of the mosque complex. An incident nearly broke out after the sultan discovered that the Blue Mosque contained the same number of minarets as the grand mosque of Mecca. Ahmed became furious at this fault and became remorseful until the Shaykh-ul-Islam recommended that he should erect another minaret at the grand mosque of Mecca and the matter was solved.
|left]]
Ahmed became delightedly involved in the eleventh comprehensive renovations of the Kaaba, which had just been damaged by flooding. He sent craftsmen from Constantinople, and the golden rain gutter that kept rain from collecting on the roof of the Ka’ba was successfully renewed. It was again during the era of Sultan Ahmed that an iron web was placed inside the Zamzam Well in Mecca. The placement of this web about three feet below the water level was a response to lunatics who jumped into the well, imagining a promise of a heroic death.
In Medina, the city of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a new pulpit made of white marble and shipped from Istanbul arrived in the mosque of Muhammad and substituted the old, worn-out pulpit. It is also known that Sultan Ahmed erected two more mosques in Uskudar on the Asian side of Istanbul; however, neither of them has survived.
The sultan had a crest carved with the footprint of Muhammad that he would wear on Fridays and festive days and illustrated one of the most significant examples of affection to Muhammad in Ottoman history. Engraved inside the crest was a poem he composed:
{{Blockquote|“If only could I bear over my head like my turban forever thee, If only I could carry it all the time with me, on my head like a crown, the Footprint of the Prophet Muhammad, which has a beautiful complexion, Ahmed, go on, rub your face on the feet of that rose.“}}
Character
Sultan Ahmed was known for his skills in fencing, poetry, horseback riding, and fluency in several languages.
Ahmed was a poet who wrote a number of political and lyrical works under the name Bahti. Ahmed patronized scholars, calligraphers, and pious men. Hence, he commissioned a book entitled The Quintessence of Histories to be worked upon by calligraphers. He also attempted to enforce conformance to Islamic laws and traditions, restoring the old regulations that prohibited alcohol, and he attempted to enforce attendance at Friday prayers and paying alms to the poor in the proper way.
Death
]]
Ahmed I died of typhus and gastric bleeding on 22 November 1617 at the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul. He was buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque. He was succeeded by his younger half-brother {{Lang|tr|Şehzade}} Mustafa as Sultan Mustafa I. Later three of Ahmed's sons ascended to the throne: Osman II (r. 1618–22), Murad IV (r. 1623–40) and Ibrahim (r. 1640–48).
Family
Consorts
Ahmed had two known consorts, plus several unknown concubines, mothers of the other Şehzades and Sultanas.<ref name"Mâhirûze">{{cite book|authorSakaoğlu, Necdet|author-link:tr:Necdet Sakaoğlu|titleBu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6WUMAQAAMAAJ&qII.+Osman+|publisherOğlak Publications|year2008|pages238|isbn978-9-753-29623-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastPeirce |firstLeslie |titleThe Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire |publisherOxford University Press |pages[https://archive.org/details/imperialharemwom00peir/page/250 250-260 and others] |date1993 |isbn0-19-508677-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/imperialharemwom00peir/page/250 }}</ref>
The known consorts are:
* Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan ({{Circa|1590}} - 2 September 1651). She was his favourite consort, Haseki Sultan, and legal wife,<ref>{{Cite book |lastKumrular |firstÖzlem |titleSułtanka Kösem. Władza i intrygi w haremie [Kösem Sultan. İktidar, Hırs, Entrika] |publisherLaurum |year2015 |isbn978-83-8087-451-0 |pages137-140 |languagepl}}</ref> and the mother of many of his children, among them Murad IV and Ibrahim I.
* Hatice Mahfiruz Hatun ({{Circa|1590}} - {{Circa|1610}}). Also called Mahfiruze Hatun, she was his first concubine and the mother of his firstborn son Osman II.
Sons
Ahmed I had at least thirteen sons:
*Osman II (3 November 1604, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace – murdered by janissaries, 20 May 1622, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Mahfiruz Hatun.<ref name"Şefika">{{cite book|authorŞefika Şule Erçetin|titleWomen Leaders in Chaotic Environments:Examinations of Leadership Using Complexity Theory|pages77|publisherSpringer|dateNovember 28, 2016|isbn978-3-319-44758-2}}</ref><ref name"Uluçay">{{cite book|firstMustafa Çağatay |lastUluçay|titlePadışahların Kadınları ve Kızları|publisherÖtüken, Ankara|year2011|pages78|isbn=978-9-754-37840-5}}</ref> 16th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire;
* Şehzade Mehmed (11 March 1605, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace – murdered by Osman II, 12 January 1621, Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan;<ref>{{cite journal|lastTezcan|firstBaki|titleThe Debut of Kösem Sultan's Political Career|journalTurcica|volume39–40|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGBs_AQAAIAAJ|year2007|publisherÉditions Klincksieck|pages350–351}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|firstGünhan|lastBörekçi|titleFactions And Favorites At The Courts Of Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603-17) And His Immediate Predecessors|publisherOhio State University|year2010|pages117, 142|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTuFgAQAACAAJ}}</ref>
* Şehzade Orhan (1609, Constantinople – 1612, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) – maybe with Kösem Sultan.<ref name="auto">Yılmaz Öztuna - Sultan Genç Osman ve Sultan IV. Murad</ref>
* Şehzade Cihangir (1609, Constantinople – 1609, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque).<ref name="auto"/>
* Şehzade Selim (27 June 1611, Constantinople – 27 July 1611, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - maybe with Kösem Sultan.<ref name="auto"/>
* Murad IV (27 July 1612, Constantinople – 8 February 1640, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan.<ref name"Şefika" /><ref name"Naima">{{cite book|authorMustafa Naima|titleAnnals of the Turkish Empire: From 1591 to 1659 ..., Volume 1|publisherOriental Translation Fund, & sold by J. Murray|year1832|pages452–3}}</ref><ref name"issue">{{cite book|authorSingh, Nagendra Kr|titleInternational encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties (reproduction of the article by M. Cavid Baysun "Kösem Walide or Kösem Sultan" in The Encyclopaedia of Islam vol V)|publisherAnmol Publications PVT |year2000|pages423–424|isbn81-261-0403-1}}</ref><ref name"Kosem-children1">{{citation|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL6-VRgVzRcUC&qhanzade+sultan&pgPA365|titleThe Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire|publisherOxford University Press|firstLeslie P.|lastPeirce|author-linkLeslie P. Peirce |year1993|isbn0195086775|page=232}}</ref> 17th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire;
* Şehzade Hasan (25 November 1612, Constantinople – 1615, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque).<ref name="auto"/>
* Şehzade Bayezid (December 1612, Constantinople – murdered by Murad IV, 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque);<ref name"Şefika" /><ref name"Uluçay" />
* Şehzade Selim (1613?, Constantinople – murdered by Murad IV, 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan;<ref>Gülru Neci̇poğlu, Julia Bailey (2008). ''Frontiers of Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Celebration of Oleg Grabar's Eightieth Birthday ; the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture Thirtieth Anniversary Special Volume. BRILL. p. 324. {{ISBN|978-9-004-17327-9}}.</ref>
* Şehzade Süleyman (1613?/1615?, Constantinople – murdered by Murad IV, 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan;<ref name"Şefika" /><ref name"Uluçay" /><ref name="issue" />
* Şehzade Hüseyin (14 November 1614, Constantinople – 1617, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Mehmed III Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque);<ref name"Şefika" /><ref name"Uluçay" />
* Şehzade Kasım (1614, Constantinople – murdered by Murad IV, 17 February 1638, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Murad III Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan;<ref name"Şefika"/><ref name"Naima"/><ref nameissue/><ref name"Kosem-children1"/>
* Ibrahim I (5 November 1615, Constantinople – 18 August 1648, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, murdered by janissaries and buried in Ibrahim I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan.<ref name"Şefika"/><ref name"Naima"/><ref nameissue/><ref name"Kosem-children1"/> 18th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Daughters
Ahmed I had at least eleven daughters:
*Ayşe Sultan (1605/1606 or 1608,<ref>Ayşe and her sister Gevherhan Sultan were born one in 1605/1606 and one in 1608, but historians are uncertain about assigning dates</ref> Constantinople – 1657, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan,<ref name="issue" />
*Fatma Sultan (1606/1607, Constantinople – 1667, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan;<ref name"issue" /><ref name"Kosem-children2">{{citation|lastPeirce|firstLeslie P.|titleThe Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL6-VRgVzRcUC&qhanzade+sultan&pgPA365|year1993|author-linkLeslie P. Peirce|page365|publisherOxford University Press|isbn0195086775}}</ref>
*Gevherhan Sultan (1605/1606 or 1608,<ref>Ayşe and her sister Gevherhan Sultan were born one in 1605/1606 and one in 1608, but historians are uncertain about assigning dates</ref> Constantinople – {{circa}} 1660, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan,<ref name"issue2">{{cite book|authorSingh, Nagendra Kr|titleInternational encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties (reproduction of the article by M. Cavid Baysun "Kösem Walide or Kösem Sultan" in ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam vol V)|publisherAnmol Publications PVT |year2000|pages423–424|isbn81-261-0403-1|quoteThrough her beauty and intelligence, Kösem Walide was especially attractive to Ahmed I, and drew ahead of more senior wives in the palace. She bore the sultan four sons – Murad, Süleyman, Ibrahim and Kasim – and three daughters – 'Ayşe, Fatma and Djawharkhan. These daughters she subsequently used to consolidate her political influence by strategic marriages to different viziers.}}</ref><ref>Peirce, Leslie P. (1993), [https://books.google.com/books?idL6-VRgVzRcUC&dqhanzade+sultan&pg=PA365 The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire], Oxford University Press, p. 365, {{ISBN|0195086775}}</ref>
*Hatice Sultan (Constantinople, 1608 – Constantinople, 1610, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)<ref name="auto"/>
*Hanzade Sultan (1609, Constantinople – 21 September 1650, Constantinople, buried in Ibrahim I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque) - with Kösem Sultan;<ref name="Kosem-children2"/>
*Esma Sultan (Constantinople, 1612 – Constantinople, 1612, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)<ref name="auto"/>
*Zahide Sultan (Constantinople, 1613 – Constantinople, 1620, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)<ref name="auto"/>
*Burnaz Atike Sultan ({{circa}} 1614/1616?, Constantinople – 1674, Constantinople, buried in Ibrahim I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque) - maybe with Kösem Sultan;<ref name"Kosem-children2"/>{{sfn|Uluçay|2011|p52}}<ref name"Sakaoğlu">{{cite book|firstNecdet|lastSakaoğlu|titleBu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler|publisherOğlak Yayıncılık|year2008|page=235}}</ref>
*Zeynep Sultan (Constantinople, 1617 – Constantinople, 1619, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)<ref name="auto"/>
*Ümmühan Sultan (1616- after 1688) - with Kösem Sultan.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGhobrial |firstJohn-Paul A. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideH8fAgAAQBAJ |titleThe Whispers of Cities: Information Flows in Istanbul, London, and Paris in the Age of William Trumbull |date2013 |publisherOUP Oxford |isbn978-0-19-967241-7 |pages111 |languageen}}</ref> She married Shehit Ali Pasha.
*Abide Sultan (Constantinople, 1618 – Constantinople, 1648, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque). Called also Übeyde Sultan, married in 1642 to Koca Musa Pasha (died in 1647).<ref name"auto"/>LegacyToday, Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also known as the Blue Mosque), one of the masterpieces of Islamic architecture. The area in Fatih around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He died at Topkapı Palace in Constantinople and is buried in a mausoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque.In popular cultureIn the 2015 TV series Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem, Ahmed I is portrayed by Turkish actor Ekin Koç.See also
*Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
* Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns
References
{{reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Commonscat-inline|Ahmed I}}
{{wikisource author-inline}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Osman||April 18, 1590||November 22, 1617}}[aged 27]
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=Mehmed III}}
{{s-ttl|titleSultan of the Ottoman Empire|yearsDecember 22, 1603 – November 22, 1617}}
{{s-aft|after=Mustafa I}}
{{s-rel|su}}
{{s-bef|before=Mehmed III}}
{{s-ttl|titleCaliph of the Ottoman Caliphate|yearsDecember 22, 1603 – November 22, 1617}}
{{s-aft|after=Mustafa I}}
{{s-end}}
{{Sultans of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Sons of the Ottoman Sultans}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1590 births
Category:1617 deaths
Category:Deaths from typhus
Category:Child monarchs
Category:Ottoman people of the Ottoman–Persian Wars
Category:Infectious disease deaths in the Ottoman Empire
Category:17th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Category:Turks from the Ottoman Empire
Category:People from the Ottoman Empire of Bosnian descent
Category:Sons of sultans | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_I | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.424125 |
1528 | Ahmed II | {{Short description|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1691 to 1695}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ahmed II
| title = Ottoman Caliph<br/>Amir al-Mu'minin<br/>Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
| titletext | more
| type | image Ahmet II.jpg
| alt | caption
| moretext | reign {{nowrap|22 June 1691 – 6 February 1695}}
| coronation | cor-type
| predecessor = Suleiman II
| regent | reg-type
| successor = Mustafa II
| succession = Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Padishah)
| spouse = Rabia Sultan<br>Şayeste Hatun
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue = Şehzade Ibrahim <br> Şehzade Selim <br>Asiye Sultan<br>Atike Sultan<br>Hatice Sultan
| full name = Ahmed bin Ibrahim
| house = Ottoman
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Ibrahim
| mother = Muazzez Sultan
| birth_date = 25 February 1643 or 1 August 1642
| birth_place = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| death_date {{death date and age|1695|2|6|1643|2|25|dfyes}}
| death_place = Edirne, Ottoman Empire
| burial_date | burial_place Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey
| signature_type = Tughra
| religion = Sunni Islam
| signature = Tughra of Ahmed II.svg
}}
Ahmed II ({{langx|ota|احمد ثانی|Aḥmed-i <u>s</u>ānī}}; {{langx|tr|II. Ahmed}};<span dir"ltr"> 25 February 1643 or 1 August 1642{{sfn|Mantran|2012|locfirst date according to Naima, second date to Raşid}} – 6 February 1695)</span> was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1691 to 1695.
Early life
Ahmed II was born on 25 February 1643 or 1 August 1642, the son of Sultan Ibrahim and Muazzez Sultan. On 21 October 1649, Ahmed, along with his brothers Mehmed and Suleiman was circumcised.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p=271}}
During the reigns of his older brothers, Ahmed was imprisoned in Kafes, and he stayed there almost 43 years.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}
of Ahmed II is located inside the türbe of Suleiman the Magnificent. <small>(In the above picture, his tomb is seen side by side with Suleiman II and Suleiman the Magnificent).</small>]]
Reign
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2016}}
During his reign, Ahmed II devoted most of his attention to the wars against the Habsburgs and related foreign policy, governmental and economic issues. Of these, the most important were the tax reforms and the introduction of the lifelong tax farm system (malikâne''). Following the recovery of Belgrade under his predecessor, Suleiman II, the military frontier reached a rough stalemate on the Danube, with the Habsburgs no longer able to advance south of it, and the Ottomans attempting, ultimately unsuccessfully, to regain the initiative north of it.
Among the most important features of Ahmed's reign was his reliance on Köprülüzade Fazıl Mustafa Pasha. Following his accession to the throne, Ahmed II confirmed Fazıl Mustafa Pasha in his office as grand vizier. In office from 1689, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha was from the Köprülü family of grand viziers, and like most of his Köprülü predecessors in the same office, was an able administrator and military commander. Like his father Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (grand vizier, 1656–61) before him, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha ordered the removal and execution of dozens of corrupt state officials of the previous regime and replaced them with men loyal to himself. He overhauled the tax system by adjusting it to the capabilities of the taxpayers affected by the latest wars. He also reformed troop mobilization and increased the pool of conscripts available for the army by drafting tribesmen in the Balkans and Anatolia. In October 1690, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha recaptured Belgrade, a key fortress that commanded the confluence of the rivers Danube and Sava; in Ottoman hands since 1521, the fortress had been conquered by the Habsburgs in 1688.
Fazıl Mustafa Pasha's victory at Belgrade was a major military achievement that gave the Ottomans hope that the military debacles of the 1680s—which had led to the loss of Hungary and Transylvania, an Ottoman vassal principality ruled by pro-Istanbul Hungarian princes—could be reversed. However, the Ottoman success proved ephemeral. On 19 August 1691, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Slankamen at the hands of Louis William, the Habsburg commander in chief in Hungary, nicknamed “Türkenlouis” (Louis the Turk) for his victories against the Ottomans. In the confrontation, recognized by contemporaries as “the bloodiest battle of the century,” the Ottomans suffered heavy losses: 20,000 men, including the grand vizier. With him, the sultan lost his most capable military commander and the last member of the Köprülü family, who for the previous half century had been instrumental in strengthening the Ottoman military.
Under Fazıl Mustafa Pasha's successors, the Ottomans suffered further defeats. In June 1692 the Habsburgs conquered Oradea, the seat of an Ottoman governor ({{lang|tr|beylerbeyi}}) since 1660. In 1694, they attempted to recapture Oradea, but to no avail. On 12 January 1695, they surrendered the fortress of Gyula, the center of an Ottoman sanjak (subprovince) since 1566. With the fall of Gyula, the only territory still in Ottoman hands in Hungary was to the east of the River Tisza and to the south of the river Maros, with its center at Timișoara. Three weeks later, on 6 February 1695, Ahmed II died in Edirne Palace.
Family
Consorts
Ahmed II had two known consorts:
*Rabia Sultan (died Eski Palace, Istanbul, 14 January 1712, buried in Suleiman I Mausoleum, Süleymaniye Mosque). Ahmed II's most beloved consort and the last haseki sultan of the Ottoman Empire;{{sfn|Uluçay|1980|p=114}}
*Şayeste Hatun (died in 1710).{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p390}} Second concubine of Ahmed II, perhaps mother of his other daughters. Sons
Ahmed II had two sons:
*Şehzade Ibrahim (Edirne Palace, Edirne, 6 October 1692{{sfn|Mehmed Agha|2012|pp=1466-67, 1483-84, 1580}} – Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, 4 May 1714, buried in Mustafa I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia), with Rabia Sultan, Selim's twin, became crown prince on 22 August 1703 until his death;
*Şehzade Selim (Edirne Palace, Edirne, 6 October 1692 – Edirne Palace, Edirne, 15 May 1693, buried in Sultan Mustafa Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia), with Rabia Sultan, he was Ibrahim's twin.{{sfn|Mehmed Agha|2012|pp1466-67, 1483-84, 1580}} Daughters
Ahmed II had three daughters:
*Asiye Sultan{{sfn|Uluçay|1980|p115}} (Edirne Palace, Edirne, 24 August 1694{{sfn|Mehmed Agha|2012|pp1466-67, 1483-84, 1580}} – Eski Palace, Bayezid, Istanbul, 9 December 1695, buried in Suleiman I Mausoleum, Süleymaniye Mosque), with Rabia Sultan;
*Atike Sultan (born 21 October 1694),{{sfn|Uluçay|1980|pp=114-115}} probably with Şayeste Hatun. Died in infancy.
*Hatice Sultan,{{sfn|Uluçay|1980|pp=114-115}} probably with Şayeste Hatun. Died in infancy.
In addition to his daughters, Ahmed II was deeply attached to his niece Ümmügülsüm Sultan, daughter of his half-brother Mehmed IV, so much so that he treated her as if she were his own daughter.{{sfn|Uluçay|2011|p111}}{{sfn|Uluçay|1992|p111}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist|2}}
Sources
*{{cite journal |last1Mantran |first1R. |editor1-lastBearman |editor1-firstP. |editor2-lastBianquis |editor2-firstTh. |editor3-lastBosworth |editor3-firstC.E. |editor4-lastvan Donzel |editor4-firstE. |editor5-lastHeinrichs |editor5-firstW.P. |titleAḥmad II |journalEncyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |date24 April 2012 |doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_sim_0389 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0389}}
*{{cite book|first1Silahdar Findiklili |last1Mehmed Agha|titleZEYL-İ FEZLEKE (1065-22 Ca.1106 / 1654-7 Şubat 1695)|year2012|pages=1466-67, 1483-84, 1580}}
*{{cite book |last1Sakaoğlu |first1Necdet |titleBu mülkün kadın sultanları : valide sultanlar, hatunlar, hasekiler, kadinefendiler, sultanefendiler |trans-titleThe Female Sultans of This Property : Valide Sultans, Hatuns, Hasekis, Ladies and Gentlemen |date2015 |publisherAlfa publications |locationİstanbul |isbn9786051710792}}
*{{cite book |last1Uluçay |first1M. Çağatay |titlePadişahların kadınları ve kızları |date1980 |publisherTürk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id47agAAAAMAAJ |access-date7 October 2020 |language=tr}}
*{{cite book |firstM. Çağatay |lastUluçay |titlePadişahların Kadınları ve Kızları |year1992 |locationAnkara |publisher Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevı |isbn=978-9-751-60461-3}}
*{{cite book |firstMustafa Çağatay |lastUluçay |titlePadişahların kadınları ve kızları |locationAnkara |publisherÖtüken |year2011}}
Further reading
*{{Cite book|lastFinkel |firstCaroline |titleOsman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923 |placeNew York |publisherBasic Books |date2005 |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7}}
*Michael Hochendlinger, Austria's Wars of Emergence: War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683–1797 (London: Longman, 2003), 157–64.
External links
{{Commonscat-inline}}
{{Wikisource author-inline}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Osman||25 February 1643||6 February 1695}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=Suleiman II}}
{{s-ttl|titleSultan of the Ottoman Empire|years22 June 1691 – 6 February 1695}}
{{s-aft|after=Mustafa II}}
{{s-rel|su}}
{{s-bef|before=Suleiman II}}
{{s-ttl|titleCaliph of the Ottoman Caliphate|years22 June 1691 – 6 February 1695}}
{{s-aft|after=Mustafa II}}
{{s-end}}
{{Sultans of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Sons of the Ottoman Sultans}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1640s births
Category:1695 deaths
Category:Ottoman people of the Great Turkish War
Category:17th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Category:Turks from the Ottoman Empire
Category:Sons of sultans | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_II | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.430435 |
1529 | Ahmed III | {{Short description|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1703 to 1730}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ahmed III
| title = Ottoman Caliph<br />Amir al-Mu'minin<br/>Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
| titletext | more
| type | image Levni 002 detail.jpg
| alt | caption Miniature by Abdulcelil Levni
| moretext | succession Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Padishah)
| reign = 22 August 1703{{snd}}20 September 1730
| coronation | cor-type
| predecessor = Mustafa II
| regent | reg-type
| successor = Mahmud I
| spouse = Emetullah Kadın<br/>Mihrişah Kadın<br>Rabia Şermi Kadın<br>Musli Kadın<br/>others
| spouse-type = Consorts
| issue = {{Plainlist|
* Fatma Sultan
* Ümmügülsüm Sultan
* Hatice Sultan
* Atike Sultan
* Zeynep Sultan
* Saliha Sultan
* Ayşe Sultan
* Şehzade Mehmed
* Mustafa III
* Abdul Hamid I
* Esma Sultan
* Zübeyde Sultan}}
| issue-link = #Family
| issue-pipe = Among others
| full name = Ahmed bin Mehmed
| house = Ottoman
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Mehmed IV
| mother = Gülnuş Sultan
| birth_date = 30 December 1673
| birth_place = Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, Ottoman Empire
| death_date {{death date and age|1736|7|1|1673|12|30|dfyes}}
| death_place = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| burial_date | burial_place Tomb of Turhan Sultan, Istanbul, Turkey
| signature_type = Tughra
| religion = Sunni Islam
| signature = Tughra of Ahmed III.JPG
}}
Ahmed III ({{langx|ota| احمد ثالث}}, Aḥmed-i <u>s</u>āli<u>s</u>; <span dir"ltr">30 December 1673{{snd}}1 July 1736)</span> was sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648–1687). His mother was Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek.<ref>{{cite book |author Freely, John |titleThe lost Messiah |publisherViking |year2001 |page132 |isbn0-670-88675-0 |quote He set up his harem there, his favourite being Rabia Giilniis Ummetiillah, a Greek girl from Rethymnon on Crete }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author Bromley, J. S. |title The New Cambridge Modern History |publisherUniversity Press |location University of California |year1957 |page554 |isbn0-521-22128-5 |quote the mother of Mustafa II and Ahmed III was a Greek }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author Sardo, Eugenio Lo |titleTra greci e turchi: fonti diplomatiche italiane sul Settecento ottomano |publisherConsiglio nazionale delle ricerche |year1999 |page82 |isbn 88-8080-014-0 |quoteTheir mother, a Greek, lady named Rabia Gülnûş, continued to wield influence as the Valide sultan - mother of the reigning sultan }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1 Library Information and Research Service |titleThe Middle East |publisher Library Information and Research Service |year2005 |page 91 |quoteShe was the daughter of a Greek family and she was the mother of Mustafa II (1664–1703), and Ahmed III (1673–1736). }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1 Baker, Anthony E |author2Freely, John |titleThe Bosphorus |publisherRedhouse Press |year1993 |page146 |isbn975-413-062-0 |quoteThe Valide Sultan was born Evmania Voria, daughter of a Greek priest in a village near Rethymnon on Crete. She was captured by the Turks when they took Rethymnon in 1645. }}</ref> He was born at Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, in Dobruja. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother Mustafa II (1695–1703).<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAhmed III.|volume1|page431}}</ref> Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and the Sultan's daughter, Fatma Sultan (wife of the former) directed the government from 1718 to 1730, a period referred to as the Tulip Era.
During the initial days of Ahmed III's reign, significant efforts were made to appease the janissaries. However, Ahmed's effectiveness in dealing with the janissaries who had elevated him to the sultanate was limited. Grand Vizier Çorlulu Ali Pasha, whom Ahmed appointed, provided valuable assistance in administrative affairs and implemented new measures for the treasury. He supported Ahmed in his struggles against rival factions and provided stability to the government. Ahmed was an avid reader, skilled in calligraphy and knowledgeable on history and poetry.
Early life and education
Sultan Ahmed was born on 30 December 1673. His father was Sultan Mehmed IV, and his mother was Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmenia.<ref>{{cite book |authorBaker, Anthony E |titleThe Bosphorus |publisherRedhouse Press |year1993 |page146 |isbn975-413-062-0 |quoteThe Valide Sultan was born Evmania Voria, daughter of a Greek priest in a village near Rethymnon on Crete. She was captured by the Turks when they took Rethymnon in 1645. }}</ref> His birth occurred in Hacıoğlupazarı, where Mehmed stayed to hunt on his return from Poland in 1673, while Gülnuş was pregnant at that time.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p295}} In 1675, He and his brother, Prince Mustafa (future Mustafa II) were circumcised. During the same ceremony their sisters Hatice Sultan and Fatma Sultan were married to Musahip Mustafa Pasha and Kara Mustafa Pasha respectively.{{sfn|Uluçay|2011|p110}} The celebrations lasted 20 days.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p286}}
He grew up in the Edirne Palace. His schooling began during one of the sporadic visits of the court to Istanbul, following a courtly ceremony called bad-i basmala, which took place on 9 August 1679 in the Istavroz Palace. He was brought up in the imperial harem in Edirne with a traditional princely education, studying the Qur’an, the hadiths (traditions of Muhammad), and the fundamentals of Islamic sciences, history, poetry and music under the supervision of private tutors.{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p47}} One of his tutors was chief mufti Feyzullah Efendi.<ref>{{cite book|firstJane|lastHathaway|titleThe Chief Eunuch of the Ottoman Harem: From African Slave to Power-Broker|publisherCambridge University Press|dateAugust 30, 2018|pages133|isbn978-1-107-10829-5}}</ref>
Ahmed was apparently curious and intellectual in nature, spending most of his time reading and practising calligraphy. The poems that he wrote manifest his profound knowledge of poetry, history, Islamic theology and philosophy. He was also interested in calligraphy, which he had studied with the leading court calligraphers, primarily with Hafız Osman Efendi (died 1698), who influenced his art immensely, and, therefore, practiced it because of the influence of his elder brother, the future Sultan Mustafa II, who also became a notable calligrapher.{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p=47}}
During his princehood in Edirne, Ahmed made friends with a bright officer-scribe, Ibrahim, from the city of Nevşehir, who was to become one of the outstanding Grand Viziers of his future reign. From 1687, following the deposition of his father, he lived in isolation for sixteen years in the palaces of Edirne and Istanbul. During this period he dedicated himself to calligraphy and intellectual activities.{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p47-8}}{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p296}}
Reign
Accession
{{Main|Edirne event}}
]]
The Edirne succession occurred between 19 August to 23 August. Under Mustafa, Istanbul had been out of control for a long time. As arrests and executions mounted, theft and robbery incidents became common. The people were dissatisfied with the poor governing of the Empire.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p=297}} Mustafa was deposed by the Janissaries and Ahmed, who succeeded him to the throne on 22 August 1703. The first Friday salute was held in Bayezid Mosque.<ref>Sakaoğlu, Necdet (2015) Bu mülkün sultanları</ref>
Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa welcomed the new sultan at the Harem gate on the Hasoda side, entered the arm, brought him to the Cardigan-i Saadet Department and placed them on the throne, and were among the first to pay tribute to him.{{sfn|Türkal|2013|p=31}}
As part of the fief system, Ahmed reorganized the land law in 1705. Bringing order to land ownership reduced the crime wave and brought peace to the troubled Empire. Due to his ardent support of the new laws, Ahmed was given the title 'law-giver', a title given to only three sultans earlier, Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512), Selim I (r. 1512–1520) and Suleiman I (r. 1520–1566). In the first three years of his reign, Ahmed appointed four separate Grand Viziers. However, the government only gained some stability after the appointment of Çorlulu Ali Pasha in May 1706.{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p56}}Russo-Turkish War of 1710–1711
{{Main|Pruth River Campaign}}
Ahmed III cultivated good relations with France, doubtless in view of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded refuge in Ottoman territory to Charles XII of Sweden (1682–1718) after the Swedish defeat at the hands of Peter I of Russia (1672–1725) in the Battle of Poltava of 1709.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} In 1710 Charles XII convinced Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia, and the Ottoman forces under Baltacı Mehmet Pasha won a major victory at the Battle of Prut. In the aftermath, Russia returned Azov back to the Ottomans, agreed to demolish the fortress of Taganrog and others in the area, and to stop interfering in the affairs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Forced against his will into war with Russia, Ahmed III came nearer than any Ottoman sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whose armies his grand vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding at the Pruth River Campaign in 1711.<ref name"EB1911"/> The subsequent Ottoman victories against Russia enabled the Ottoman Empire to advance to Moscow, had the Sultan wished. However, this was halted as a report reached Istanbul that the Safavids were invading the Ottoman Empire, causing a period of panic, turning the Sultan's attention away from Russia.Wars with Venice and Austria
{{Main|Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718)}}
On 9 December 1714, war was declared on Venice, an army under Silahdar Damat Ali Pasha's command{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p56}} managed to recover the whole Morea (Peloponnese) from Venice through coordinated operations of the army and navy.{{sfn|Ágoston|Masters|2009|p25}}
This success alarmed Austria and in April 1716, Emperor Charles VI provoked the Porte into a declaration of war. The unsuccessful battle, also commanded by Silahdar Ali Pasha, ended with the Treaty of Passarowitz, signed on 21 July 1718, according to which Belgrade, Banat, and Wallachia were ceded to Austria. This failure was a disappointment for Ahmed as the treaty led to Istanbul's economy suffering from increased inflation.{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p=57}}
Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha who was the second leading figure of the empire after Ahmed had joined the Morea campaign in 1715, and was appointed as the city of Nish's minister of finance the following year. This post helped him realize the downturn of the state's finances, which led him to avoid war as much as possible during his vizierate. Ibrahim Pasha's policy of peace suited Ahmed well since he had no wish to lead any military campaigns, in addition to the fact that his interest in art and culture made him reluctant to leave his Istanbul.{{sfn|Keskiner|2012|p57}}Character of Ahmed's rule
While shooting competitions were held in Okmeydanı, Istanbul with the idea of increasing the morale of the soldiers and the people, a new warship was launched in Tersane-i Amire.
He tried three grand viziers at short intervals. Instead of Hasan Pasha, he appointed Kalaylikoz Ahmed Pasha on 24 September 1704, and Baltacı Mehmed Pasha on 25 December 1704.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p=297}}
In 1707, a conspiracy led by Eyüplü Ali Ağa was unearthed to bring the sultan off the throne. What resulted were that necks were ordered to be cut in front of the Bab-I-Hümayun.
Ahmed III left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had remarkably been obtained without excessive taxation or extortionate procedures. He was a cultivated patron of literature and art, and it was in his time that the first printing press was authorized to use either the Arabic or Turkish languages; it was set up in Istanbul, and operated by Ibrahim Muteferrika (while the printing press had been introduced to Constantinople in 1480, all published works before 1729 were in Greek, Armenian, or Hebrew).
It was in his reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principalities was introduced: previously, the Porte had appointed Hospodars, usually native Moldavian and Wallachian boyars, to administer those provinces; after the Russian campaign of 1711, during which Peter the Great found an ally in Moldavia Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, the Porte began overtly deputizing Phanariote Greeks in that region, and extended the system to Wallachia after Prince Stefan Cantacuzino established links with Prince Eugene of Savoy. The Phanariotes constituted a kind of Dhimmi nobility, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state.
Foreign relations
.]]
being received by Sultan Ahmed III.]]
The ambassadors of Safavid Iran and the Archduchy of Austria were well received when they came from 1706 to 1707.
In the year 1712, the Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah, a grandson of Aurangzeb, sent gifts to the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III and referred to himself as the Ottoman Sultan's devoted admirer.<ref name"google">{{cite book|titleMughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556-1748|author Farooqi, N.R.|date1989|publisherIdarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=uB1uAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
The Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar, another grandson of Aurangzeb, is also known to have sent a letter to the Ottomans but this time it was received by the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha. The letter provided a graphic description of the efforts of the Mughal commander Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha fighting against the Rajput and Maratha rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduB1uAAAAMAAJ&qFarrukhsiyar |titleMughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations ... - Naimur Rahman Farooqi |access-date2012-04-29|year1989 |last1Farooqi |first1Naimur Rahman }}</ref>
Deposition
{{Main|Patrona Halil}}
Sultan Ahmed III had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; on 20 September 1730, a mutinous riot of seventeen Janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Halil, was aided by the citizens as well as the military until it swelled into an insurrection, this consequently led the Sultan to give up his throne.
Ahmed voluntarily led his nephew Mahmud I (1730–1754) to the seat of sovereignty and paid allegiance to him as Sultan of the Empire. He then retired to the Kafes previously occupied by Mahmud and died at Topkapı Palace after six years of confinement.
Architecture
Ahmed III commissioned the building of water claps, fountains, park waterfalls and three libraries, one inside the Topkapı Palace, with the famous lines "Ahmed was a master in the writings on plates" which have survived. The “Basmala” at the Topkapi Palace apartment door with its plates in the Üsküdar Yeni Mosque are among them.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p=307}}
A library was built by Ahmed in 1724–1725 situated next to the tomb entrance of Turhan Sultan, the structure has stone-brick alternate meshed walls, is square-shaped and covered with a flattened dome with an octagonal rim, which is provided with pendentives. There are original pen works left in the pendentives and dome of the library.<ref name"Cami">{{cite web|titleYENİCAMİ KÜLLİYESİ İstanbul'da XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında inşasına başlanan ve XVII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında tamamlanan külliye.|urlhttps://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/yenicami-kulliyesi|websiteİslam Ansiklopedisi|access-date11 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleYENİCAMİ KÜTÜPHANESİ |urlhttps://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/yenicami-kutuphanesi |access-date2023-06-30 |websiteTDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |languagetr}}</ref>
Disasters
In 1714, an Egyptian galleon near the Gümrük (Eminönü) Pier caught fire and burned, which resulted in the deaths of 200 people.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p=299}}
While Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha continued his preparations for his return to Istanbul, a fire broke out in the city. The districts of Unkapanı, Azapkapı, Zeyrek, Fatih, Saraçhane, Horhor, Etmeydanı, Molla Gürani, Altımermer, Ayazma Gate, Kantarcılar, Vefa, Vez Neciler, Old Rooms, Acemioğlanlar Barracks, Çukur Çeşme, Langa, Davudpaşa were burned from the fire.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p=300}}
A large three-minute earthquake occurred on 14 May 1719. While the city walls of Istanbul were destroyed in the earthquake, 4,000 people died in Izmit and Yalova was destroyed. Reconstruction work followed after the quake ended in Istanbul. The most meaningful element to reflect the cultural aspect or weight of these works today is the Topkapı Palace Enderun Library, which was built in that year. A rich foundation was established for this institution, which is also known as the Sultan Ahmed-i Salis Library, which has a face-to-face with its architectural and valuable manuscripts.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p301}} Family
{{See also|Ottoman Imperial Harem}}
Ahmed III is known to be the Sultan with the largest family (and harem) of the Ottoman dynasty. The hostess of his harem was Dilhayat Kalfa, known to be one of the greatest Turkish composeress of the early modern period.
Consorts
Ahmed III had at least twenty-one consorts:{{sfn|Topal|2001|p600 and beyond}}<ref name"Onur, Oral 1994">{{Cite book | author Onur, Oral | title Edirne türbeleri ve evlad-ı Fatihan mezarları | year 1994 | publisher O. Onur | page 27}}</ref><ref name ": 1">{{Cite book | author Aktaş, Ali | title ÇELEBİZÂDE ÂSIM TARİHİ: Transkripsiyonlu metin | year 2008}}</ref><ref name": 3">{{Cite book |lastSakaoğlu, Necdet. |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/316234394 |titleBu mülkün kadın sultanları: vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler |date2008 |publisherOğlak Yayıncılık |isbn978-975-329-623-6 |edition1. baskı |oclc316234394 |access-date=2021-01-22}}</ref>
* Emetullah Banu Kadın. Baş Kadin (first consort) and his first concubine, she was the mother of Fatma Sultan, Ahmed's firstborn and favorite daughter. She was Ahmed's most beloved consort, who dedicated a mosque, a school and a fountain to her. Very devoted and active in charity, she died in 1740 in the Old Palace.
* Emine Mihrişah Kadın. She was the mother of four sons including Mustafa III, 26th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, but she died before her son's rise and therefore was never Valide Sultan. She died in April 1732. Her son built the Ayazma Mosque in her honor in Üsküdar.
* Rabia Şermi Kadın. She was the mother of Abdülhamid I, 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, but she premorted at the rise of her son and therefore was never Valide Sultan. In 1728, a fountain was dedicated to her in Üsküdar. She died in 1732. Her son built the Beylerbeyi Mosque in her honor.
* Ayşe Mihri Behri Kadın. Before she became a consort, she was treasurer of the harem.
* Hatem Kadın. Mother of twins, she died in 1772 and was buried in Eyüp cemetery.
* Emine Musli Kadın. Also called Muslıhe Kadın, Muslu Kadin or Musalli Kadın. She was the mother of two daughters, she died in 1750 and was buried with them in the Yeni Cami.
* Rukiye Kadın. Mother of a daughter and a son, she built a fountain near the Yeni Cami. She died after 1738 and was buried with her daughter in the Yeni Cami.
* Fatma Hümaşah Kadın. She died in 1732 and was buried by the Yeni Cami.
* Gülneş Kadın. Also called Gülnuş Kadın. She is listed in a document naming her consorts exiled to Old Palace after the deposition of Ahmed III whose jewels were confiscated. She died after 1730.
* Hürrem Kadın. Listed in a document that names the consorts exiled to Old Palace after the deposition of Ahmed III whose jewels were confiscated. She died after 1730.
* Meyli Kadın. Listed in a document that names the consorts exiled to Old Palace after the deposition of Ahmed III whose jewels were confiscated. She died after 1730.
* Hatice Kadın. She died in 1722 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Nazife Kadın. Listed in a document that names the consorts exiled to Old Palace after the deposition of Ahmed III whose jewels were confiscated. She died after 1730, perphaps the 29 December 1764.<ref>According to other historians, this would instead be the date of death of Nazife Sultan, a daughter of Ahmed III, survival is controversial due to the fact that it turns out she never married.</ref>
* Nejat Kadın. Listed in a document that names the consorts exiled to Old Palace after the deposition of Ahmed III whose jewels were confiscated. She died after 1730.
* Sadık Kadın. Also called Sadıka Kadin. Listed in a document that names the consorts exiled to Old Palace after the deposition of Ahmed III whose jewels were confiscated. She died after 1730.
* Hüsnüşah Kadın. She died in 1733 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Şahin Kadın. She died in 1732 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Ümmügülsüm Kadın. She died in 1768 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Zeyneb Kadın. Mother of a daughter, she died in 1757 and was buried by the Yeni Cami.
* Hanife Kadın. Mother of a daughter, she died in 1750 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Şayeste Hanim. BaşIkbal. She died in 1722 and was buried by the Yeni Cami.
Sons
Ahmed III had at least twenty-one sons, all buried, apart from the two who became Sultans, in the Yeni Cami:{{sfn|Topal|2001|p680 and beyond}}<ref name"Onur, Oral 1994"/><ref name": 1"/><ref name": 3"/>
* Şehzade Mehmed (24 November 1705 - 30 July 1706).
* Şehzade Isa (23 February 1706 - 14 May 1706).
* Şehzade Ali (18 June 1706 - 12 September 1706).
* Şehzade Selim (29 August 1706 - 15 April 1708).
* Şehzade Murad (17 November 1707 - 1707).
* Şehzade Murad (25 January 1708 - 1 April 1708).
* Şehzade Abdülmecid (12 December 1709 - 18 March 1710). Twin of Şehzade Abdülmelek.
* Şehzade Abdülmelek (12 December 1709 - 7 March 1711). Twin of Şehzade Abdülmecid.
* Şehzade Süleyman (25 August 1710 - 11 October 1732) - with Mihrişah Kadin. He died in the Kafes after two years of imprisonment.
* Şehzade Mehmed (8 October 1712 - 15 July 1713).
* Şehzade Selim (21 March 1715 - February 1718) - with Hatem Kadın. Twin of Saliha Sultan.
* Şehzade Mehmed (2 January 1717 - 2 January 1756) - with Rukiye Kadın. He died in the Kafes after twenty-six years of imprisonment.
* Mustafa III (28 January 1717 - 21 January 1774) - with Mihrişah Kadin. 26th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire after twenty-seven years of imprisonment in the Kafes.
* Şehzade Bayezid (4 October 1718 - 24 January 1771) - with Mihrişah Kadin. He died in the Kafes after forty-one years of imprisonment.
* Şehzade Abdullah (18 December 1719 - 19 December 1719).
* Şehzade Ibrahim (12 September 1720 - 16 March 1721).
* Şehzade Numan (22 February 1723 - 29 December 1764). He died in the Kafes after thirty-four years of imprisonment.
* Abdul Hamid I (20 March 1725 - 7 April 1789) - with Rabia Şermi Kadın. 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire after forty-four years of imprisonment in the Kafes.
* Şehzade Seyfeddin (3 February 1728 - 1732) - with Mihrişah Kadin. He died in the Kafes after two years of imprisonment.
* Şehzade Mahmud (1730 - 22 December 1756). He died in the Kafes after twenty-six years of imprisonment.
* Şehzade Hassan (? - ?). He probably died in the Kafes.
Daughters
Ahmed III had at least thirty-six daughters:{{sfn|Topal|2001|p680 and beyond}}<ref name"Onur, Oral 1994"/><ref name": 1"/><ref name": 3"/>
* Fatma Sultan (22 September 1704 - May 1733) - with Emetullah Kadın.<ref>According to Alderson, she was instead the daughter of Ayşe Behri Mihri Kadın, but this has been discredited .</ref> She was her father's favorite daughter. She married twice and had two sons and two daughters. She and her second husband were the real power during the Tulip Era. She fell from grace after the Patrona Halil revolt and was confined to Çırağan Palace, where she died three years later.
* Ayşe Sultan (? - 1706). Buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Mihrimah Sultan (17 June 1706 - ?). She died as a child and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Hatice Sultan (21 January 1707 - 22 January 1708). Buried in the mausoleum Turhan Sultan in the Yeni Cami.
* Rukiye Sultan (3 March 1707 - 29 August 1707). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Ümmügülsüm Sultan (11 February 1708 - 28 November 1732). Twin of Zeynep Sultan. She married once and had four sons and a daughter.
* Zeynep Sultan (11 February 1708 - 5 November 1708). Twin sister of Ümmügülsüm Sultan. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Zeynep Sultan (5 January 1710 - July 1710). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Hatice Sultan (8 February 1710 - 1710, before September). She was buried in the Turhan Sultan mausoleum in Yeni Cami.
* Hatice Sultan (27 September 1710 - 1738) - with Rukiye Kadın. She married twice and had a son.
* Emine Sultan (1711 - 1720). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Atike Sultan (29 February 1712 - 2 April 1737). She got married once and she had a son.
* Rukiye Sultan (7 March 1713 - October 1715). Buried in the Turhan Sultan mausoleum in Yeni Cami.
* Zeynep Asima Sultan (8 April 1714 - March 25, 1774). She married twice and she had a son.
* Saliha Sultan (21 March 1715 - 11 October 1778) - with Hatem Kadın. Twin of Şehzade Selim. She was married five times and had a son and four daughters.
* Ayşe Sultan (10 October 1715 - 9 July 1775) - with Musli Kadın. Nicknamed Küçük Ayşe (meaning Ayşe the youngest) to distinguish her from her cousin Ayşe the eldest, daughter of Mustafa II. She married three times and had a daughter.
* Ferdane Sultan (? - 1718). She died as a child and she was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Reyhane Sultan (1718 - 1729). Also called Reyhan Sultan or Rihane Sultan. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Ümmüseleme Sultan (? - 1719). Also called Ümmüselma Sultan. She died as a child and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Rabia Sultan (19 November 1719 - before 1727). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Emetullah Sultan (1719 - 1723) Also called Ümmetullah Sultan. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Rukiye Sultan (? - 1720). She died as a child and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Beyhan Sultan (? - 1720). She died as a child and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Emetullah Sultan (17 September 1723 - 28 January 1724). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Emine Sultan (late 1723/early 1724 - 1732). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Nazife Sultan (May 1723/1725 - before 1730 or 29 December 1764). Exceptionally, she never married, most likely because she was chronically ill or had physical and/or mental problems. She lived in seclusion in the Old Palace all her life. However, according to other historians, she actually died a child and the Nazife who died in the Old Palace in 1764 was instead one of Ahmed III's consorts with the same name, Nazife Kadin.
* Ümmüselene Sultan (12 October 1724 - 5 December 1732). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Naile Sultan (15 December 1725 - October 1727). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Esma Sultan (14 March 1726 - 13 August 1778) - with Hanife Kadın or Zeyneb Kadın. Nicknamed Büyük Esma (meaning Esma the eldest) to distinguish her from her niece Esma the younger, daughter of Abdülhamid I. She married three times and had a daughter.
* Sabiha Sultan (19 December 1726 - 17 December 1726). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Rabia Sultan (28 October 1727 - 4 April 1728). Also called Rebia Sultan. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Zübeyde Sultan (28 March 1728 - 4 June 1756) - with Musli Kadın. She married twice.
* Ümmi Sultan (? - 1729). Called also Ümmügülsüm Sultan. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Ümmühabibe Sultan (? - 1730). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Akile Sultan (? - 1737). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Ümmi Sultan (1730 - 1742). Called also Ümmügülsüm Sultan. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
Death
Ahmed lived in Kafes of the Topkapi Palace for six years following his deposition, where he fell ill and died on 1 July 1736. He was buried in his grandmother's tomb in Turhan Sultan Mausoleum in New Mosque, at Eminönü in Istanbul.{{sfn|Sakaoğlu|2015|p306}}In fiction
In Voltaire's Candide, the eponymous main character meets the deposed Ahmed III on a ship from Venice to Constantinople. The Sultan is in the company of five other deposed European monarchs, and he tells Candide, who initially doubts his credentials:
<blockquote>I am not jesting, my name is Achmet III. For several years I was Sultan; I dethroned my brother; my nephew dethroned me; they cut off the heads of my viziers; I am ending my days in the old seraglio; my nephew, Sultan Mahmoud, sometimes allows me to travel for my health, and I have come to spend the Carnival at Venice."<ref>{{Cite web |last1Woolf |first1H. I. |last2Jackson |first2Wilfrid |date2008 |titleFull text of "Candide, and other romances. Translated by Richard Aldington, with an introd. and notes. Illustrated by Norman Tealby" |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/candideotherroma00voltuoft/candideotherroma00voltuoft_djvu.txt |websiteInternet Archive}}</ref></blockquote>
This episode was taken up by the modern Turkish writer Nedim Gürsel as the setting of his 2001 novel Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul.
In fact, there is no evidence of the deposed Sultan being allowed to make such foreign travels, nor did Voltaire (or Gürsel) assert that it had any actual historical foundation.
See also
* Fountain of Ahmed III
* Fountain of Ahmed III (Üsküdar)
* Ibrahim Muteferrika
References
{{Reflist|3}}
Sources
* This article incorporates text from the History of Ottoman Turks (1878)
* {{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam | last Aktep | first Münir | title Ahmed III | volume 2 | pages 34–38 | url https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ahmed-iii}}
* {{cite book|title Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|publisher Facts On File|year 2009|isbn 978-0816062591|location New York|editor-first Gábor|editor-last Ágoston|url http://www.infobasepublishing.com/Bookdetail.aspx?ISBN0816062595&Ebooks0 |editor2-last Masters|editor2-first Bruce}}
* {{cite book|firstAli|lastAktaş|titleÇELEBİZÂDE ÂSIM TARİHİ: Transkripsiyonlu metin|year2008}}
*{{cite book|firstMehmet Nermi|lastHaskan|titleYüzyıllar boyunca Üsküdar - Volume 3|publisherÜsküdar Belediyesi|year2001|page1332|isbn=978-9-759-76063-2}}
*{{cite book|lastKeskiner|firstPhilippe Bora|titleSultan Ahmed III (r. 1703–1730) as a Calligrapher and Patron of Calligraphy|year2012 }}
*{{cite book|lastSakaoğlu|firstNecdet|titleBu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler|publisherOğlak Yayıncılık|year2008|isbn978-9-753-29623-6}}
*{{cite book|firstNecdet|lastSakaoğlu|titleBu Mülkün Sultanları|publisherAlfa Yayıncılık|year2015|isbn978-6-051-71080-8}}
* {{cite book|firstMehmet|lastTopal|titleSilahdar Findiklili Mehmed Agha Nusretnâme: Tahlil ve Metin (1106–1133/1695–1721)|year2001}}
*{{cite book|firstMerve|lastTürkal|titleSilahdar Findiklili Mehmed Ağa'nin Hayati ve eserleri (1658 / 1726–27) |year2013}}
*{{cite book|firstMustafa Çağatay |lastUluçay|titlePadişahların kadınları ve kızları|locationAnkara |publisherÖtüken|year2011 |isbn=978-9-754-37840-5}}
*{{cite book|firstZekiye|lastUysal|titleTopkapı Sarayındaki III. Ahmet Kütüphanesi'nin Alçı Bezemeleri |year2019}}
External links
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{{wikisource author-inline}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Osman||30 December 1673||1 July 1736}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=Mustafa II}}
{{s-ttl|titleSultan of the Ottoman Empire|years22 August 1703{{snd}}1 October 1730}}
{{s-aft|after=Mahmud I}}
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{{s-bef|before=Mustafa II}}
{{s-ttl|titleCaliph of the Ottoman Caliphate|years22 August 1703{{snd}}1 October 1730}}
{{s-aft|after=Mahmud I}}
{{s-end}}
{{Sultans of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Sons of the Ottoman Sultans}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Turkish male poets
Category:1673 births
Category:1736 deaths
Category:18th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Category:Dethroned monarchs
Category:Sons of sultans | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_III | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.445586 |
1530 | Ainu people | {{Short description|Ethnic group in Japan and Russia}}
{{Distinguish|text=the Äynu people of Xinjiang, China}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Ainu
| native_name = {{lang|ain|アィヌ}}
| population | popplace
| image = Historical expanse of Ainu.png
| image_caption = Historical homeland and distribution of Ainu people{{sfnp|Vovin|2008}}
| region1 = {{flag|Japan}} (Hokkaido)
| pop1 = 11,450 surveyed in 2023
| ref1 <ref name"2023 Hokkaido Survey">{{cite web |script-titleja:令和 5 年 「北海道アイヌ生活実態調査」の実施結果について（概要）|titleReiwa 5-nen "Hokkaidō Ainu seikatsu jittai chōsa" no jisshi kekka ni tsuite (gaiyō) |trans-titleResults of the 2023 Hokkaido Ainu Living Situation Survey (Summary) |urlhttps://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/fs/1/0/6/5/3/1/6/7/_/R5%E5%AE%9F%E6%85%8B%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81(%E5%AE%8C%E6%88%90%E7%89%88).pdf |date2023 |publisherHokkaido Prefectural Government |language=ja}}</ref>
| region2 = {{flag|Russia}} (Kamchatka, Khabarovsk, Sakhalin)
| pop2 = 300 (2021 census)
| ref2 <ref name"2021 Russian Census">{{Cite web |urlhttps://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab2_VPN2020.xlsx |script-titleru:2. Состав группы населения "указавшие другие ответы о национальной Принадлежности" |languageru |title2. Sostav gruppy naseleniya "ukazavshiye drugiye otvety o natsional'noy Prinadlezhnosti" |trans-title2. Composition of the population group "who indicated other answers about nationality" |access-dateSeptember 15, 2023 |archive-dateSeptember 15, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230915093447/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab2_VPN2020.xlsx |url-status=live}}</ref>
| langs {{csv|Ainu languages |Japanese |Russian<ref>{{cite book |editor-lastGordon |editor-firstRaymond G. Jr. |year2005 |titleEthnologue: Languages of the World |edition15th |locationDallas |publisherSIL International |isbn978-1-55671-159-6 |oclc224749653}}</ref>}}
| rels = {{csv| Ainu folk religion|Animism |Japanese Buddhism| Shinto |Russian Orthodoxy}}
| related = {{csv| Jomon people | Satsumon | Okhotsk | Matagi | Emishi | Nivkh }}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Manchu}}
The Ainu are an indigenous ethnic group who reside in northern Japan and southeastern Russia, including Hokkaido and the Tōhoku region of Honshu, as well as the land surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk, such as Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and the Khabarovsk Krai. They have occupied these areas, known to them as "Ainu Mosir" ({{langx|ain|アイヌモシㇼ|litthe land of the Ainu}}), since before the arrival of the modern Yamato and Russians.<ref>{{cite web |lastIsabella |firstJude |dateOctober 25, 2017 |titleThe Untold Story of Japan's First People |urlhttps://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/ainu-prejudice-pride/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230123112035/https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/ainu-prejudice-pride/ |archive-dateJanuary 23, 2023 |websiteSAPIENS}}</ref><ref name"Cobb BBC">{{cite web |lastCobb |firstEllie |dateMay 20, 2020 |titleJapan's forgotten indigenous people |urlhttp://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200519-japans-forgotten-indigenous-people |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230123160053/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20200519-japans-forgotten-indigenous-people |archive-dateJanuary 23, 2023 |websiteBBC}}</ref>{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|p=3}} These regions are often referred to as {{nihongo|Ezochi|蝦夷地}} and its inhabitants as {{nihongo|Emishi|蝦夷}} in historical Japanese texts. Along with the Yamato and Ryukyu ethnic groups, the Ainu people are one of the primary historic ethnic groups of Japan.
Official surveys of the known Ainu population in Hokkaido received 11,450 responses in 2023, and the Ainu population in Russia was estimated at 300 in 2021.<ref name"2023 Hokkaido Survey"/><ref name"2021 Russian Census"/> Unofficial estimates in 2002 placed the total population in Japan at 200,000 or higher, as the near-total assimilation of the Ainu into Japanese society has resulted in many individuals of Ainu descent having no knowledge of their ancestry.{{sfnp|Poisson|2002|p=5}}
The Ainu are one of the few ethnic minorities native to the Japanese islands. They were subject to forced assimilation and colonization by the Japanese since at least the 18th century. Japanese assimilation policies in the 19th century around the Meiji Restoration included forcing Ainu peoples off their land. This, in turn, forced them to give up traditional ways of life such as subsistence hunting and fishing. Ainu people were not allowed to practice their religion and were placed into Japanese-language schools, where speaking the Ainu language was forbidden. In 1966, there were about 300 native Ainu speakers; in 2008, there were about 100.<ref>{{cite book |last1Honna |first1Nobuyuki |urlhttps://archive.org/details/languagepolicies0000unse |titleLanguage Policies and Language Education: The Impact in East Asian Countries in the Next Decade |last2Tajima |first2Hiroko Tina |last3Minamoto |first3Kunihiko |publisherTimes Academic Press |year2000 |isbn978-9-81210-149-5 |editor1-lastKam |editor1-firstHo Wah |locationSingapore |chapterJapan |editor2-lastWong |editor2-firstRuth Y. L. |url-accessregistration}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hohmann|2008|p19}} In recent years, there have been increasing efforts to revitalize the Ainu language.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLinguistic Revival: How Japan Restored the Native Ainu Language with "AI Pirika" |urlhttps://stanfordrewired.com/post/japan-restored-ainu-ai-pirika/ |access-dateDecember 8, 2023 |websitestanfordrewired.com}}</ref>NamesThis people's most widely known ethnonym, {{lang|ain-Latn|Ainu}} ({{langx|ain|{{lang|ain-Kana|アィヌ}}}}; {{langx|ja|アイヌ}}; {{langx|ru|linkno|Айны}}), means 'human' in the Ainu language, particularly as opposed to {{lang|ain-Latn|kamui}}, 'divine beings'. Ainu also identify themselves as {{lang|ain-Latn|Utari}} ('comrades' or 'people'). Official documents use both names.
The name first appeared as {{lang|ain-Latn|Aino}} in a 1591 Latin manuscript titled {{lang|la|De yezorum insula}}. This document gives the native name of Hokkaido as {{lang|ain-Latn|Aino moxori}}, or {{lang|ain-Latn|Ainu mosir}}, 'land of the Ainu'. The terms {{lang|ain-Latn|Aino}} and {{lang|ain-Latn|Ainu}} did not come into common use as ethnonyms until the early 19th century. The ethnonym first appeared in an 1819 German encyclopedia article. Neither European nor Japanese sources conceived of the Ainu as a distinct ethnic group until the late 1700s.{{sfnp|Hudson|1999b|p=208}}
The Ainu were also called the Kuye by their neighbors. The Qing dynasty called Sakhalin {{lang|zh-Latn|Kuyedao}} ("island of the Ainu").{{sfnp|Nakayama|2015|p20}} The island was also called {{lang|zh-Latn|Kuye Fiyaka}}.{{sfnp|Schlesinger|2017|p135}} The word {{lang|zh-Latn|Kuye}} used by the Qing is "most probably related to kuyi, the name given to the Sakhalin Ainu by their Nivkh and Nanai neighbors."{{sfnp|Hudson|1999b|p226}} When the Ainu migrated onto the mainland, the Chinese described a "strong Kui (or Kuwei, Kuwu, Kuye, Kugi, i.e. Ainu) presence in the area otherwise dominated by the Gilemi or Jilimi (Nivkh and other Amur peoples)."{{sfnp|Zgusta|2015|p64}} Related names were in widespread use in the region, for example the Kuril Ainu called themselves {{lang|ain-Latn|koushi}}.{{sfnp|Hudson|1999b|p=226}}
The Old Japanese exonym {{lang|ojp|蝦夷}} ({{transl|ojp|Emi<sub>1</sub>si}}) was coined according to the Kojiki-den from {{lang|ojp|蝦}} ("shrimp") + {{lang|ojp|夷}} ("barbarian") as a reference to their hairiness and savagery.<ref>{{cite book |languageja |script-entryja:えみし 【蝦夷】|entryEmishi [Ezo] |trans-entryEmishi [Ezo] |titleNihon Kokugo Daijiten |script-titleja:日本国語大辞典 |trans-titleThe Japanese Language Dictionary |edition2nd |locationTōkyō |publisherShogakukan |date2000 |isbn4-09-521001-X}}</ref>{{Clarify|dateOctober 2024|reasonHow do shrimp relate to hairiness?}} The term is considered an insult by contemporary Ainu.
History
The Ainu are considered the native people of Hokkaido, southern Sakhalin, and the Kurils. Ainu toponyms support the historical view that the Ainu people lived in several places throughout northern Honshu. There is also a possibility that Ainu speakers lived throughout the Amur region as suggested by various Ainu loanwords found in the Uilta and Ulch languages.<ref>{{cite book |last1de Graaf |first1Tjeerd |last2Shiraishi |first2Hidetoshi |year2013 |urlhttps://dh-north.org/siberian_studies/publications/sikdegraafshiraishi.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://dh-north.org/siberian_studies/publications/sikdegraafshiraishi.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |titleDocumentation and Revitalisation of two Endangered Languages in Eastern Asia: Nivkh and Ainu |isbn978-3-942883-12-2 |pages49–64 |publisherVerlag Kulturstiftung Sibirien}}</ref>{{Failed verification|reasonSource does not mention Ainu in Amur, does not mention Ulch, nor does it mention any loan words.|dateFebruary 2024}} Ainu shares a number of cognates with Old Korean, that appear unlikely to be the result of a Japonic intermediary.<ref>{{Cite book |lastMartin |firstSamuel E. |titleConsonant lenition in Korean and the Macro-Altaic question |date1996 |publisherCenter for Korean Studies, University of Hawaiʻi : Distributed by University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn978-0-8248-1809-8 |seriesMonograph |locationHonolulu, Hawaiʻi |languageen, ko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastFrellesvig |firstBjarke |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/title/468978601 |titleA history of the Japanese language |date2010 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-65320-6 |locationCambridge; New York |oclc=468978601}}</ref>
The ancestors of the Ainu, who were referred to as Emishi, came under Japanese subjugation starting in the 9th century and were pushed to the northern islands.<ref>{{cite book |last1Leeming |first1David |titleThe Dictionary of Asian Mythology |date2001 |publisherOxford University Press |page10}}</ref>
Ainu Culture period (Nibutani period)
Following the Zoku-Jōmon period, which began in the 5th century BC, and the subsequent Satsumon period, from around the 13th century the Ainu established their own culture by absorbing the surrounding culture while engaging in transit trade between Honshu and north-east Asia. This is called the Ainu Culture period or Nibutani period.
Active contact between the Wajin (ethnonym for Japanese, also known as Yamato people) and the Ainu of Ezogashima (now known as Hokkaido) began in this period.<ref>{{cite book |lastSiddle |firstRichard M. |chapterThe Ainu: Indigenous people of Japan |editor-lastWeiner |editor-firstM. |year1997 |titleJapan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity |publisherRoutledge |locationLondon |isbn978-0-41515-218-1 |pages22–23}}</ref> The Ainu formed a society of hunter-gatherers, surviving mainly by hunting and fishing. They followed a religion that was based on natural phenomena.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html |websiteNOVA Online |publisherPBS |titleIsland of the Spirits – Origins of the Ainu |access-dateMay 8, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080429080550/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html |archive-dateApril 29, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
After the Mongols conquered the Jin dynasty (1234), Karafuto (Sakhalin)-Ainu suffered raids by the Nivkh and Udege peoples. In response, the Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan (present-day Tyr, Russia) at the junction of the Amur and Amgun rivers in 1263, and forced the submission of the two peoples.{{sfnm|Nakamura|2010|1p415|Stephan|1971|2p21}} In 1264, the Karafuto-Ainu invaded the land of the Nivkh people. They also started an expedition into the Amur region, which was then controlled by the Yuan dynasty, resulting in reprisals by the Mongols who invaded Sakhalin.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.city.asahikawa.hokkaido.jp/files/hakubutsukagaku/museum/syuzo/59-tatakai/59-tatakai.html |script-titleja:第59回 交易の民アイヌ VII 元との戦い |titleDai 59-kai kōeki no min Ainu VII-moto to notatakai |trans-titleNo. 59 The Ainu, a trading people VII The battle with the Yuan |languageja |publisherAsahikawa City |dateJune 2, 2010 |access-dateMarch 2, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721151652/http://www.city.asahikawa.hokkaido.jp/files/hakubutsukagaku/museum/syuzo/59-tatakai/59-tatakai.html |archive-dateJuly 21, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ |script-titleja:公益社団法人 北海道アイヌ協会 |titleKōeki shadanhōjin Hokkaidō Ainu kyōkai |trans-titleHokkaido Ainu Association |website公益社団法人北海道アイヌ協会 |languageja |access-dateAugust 7, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190808071913/https://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ |archive-dateAugust 8, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
From the Nivkh perspective, their surrender to the Mongols essentially established a military alliance against the Ainu who had invaded their lands.{{sfnp|Zgusta|2015|p96}} According to the History of Yuan, a group of people known as the Guwei ({{zhi|c骨嵬|pGǔwéi}}, the phonetic approximation of the Nivkh name for Ainu) from Sakhalin invaded and fought with the Jilimi (Nivkh people) every year. On November 30, 1264, the Mongols attacked the Ainu.{{sfnp|Nakamura|2010|p 415}} The Karafuto-Ainu resisted the Mongol invasions but by 1308 had been subdued. They paid tribute to the Mongol Yuan dynasty at posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|p=133}}
The Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) placed Sakhalin under its "system for subjugated peoples" ({{lang|zh-latn|ximin tizhi}}). From 1409 to 1411 the Ming established an outpost called the Nurgan Regional Military Commission near the ruins of Tyr on the Siberian mainland, which continued operating until the mid-1430s. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch Admiral Yishiha reached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain.<ref nametsai>{{cite book |titlePerpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle |lastTsai |firstShih-Shan Henry |year2002 |orig-year2001 |publisherUniversity of Washington Press |locationSeattle, Wash |isbn0-295-98124-5 |pages158–161 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaU5hBMxNgWQC&pgPA159 |access-dateJune 16, 2010}} Link is to partial text.</ref>
The Ming recruited headmen from Sakhalin for administrative posts such as commander ({{zhi|pzhǐhuīshǐ|c指揮使}}), assistant commander ({{zhi|pzhǐhuī qiānshì|c指揮僉事}}), and "official charged with subjugation" ({{zhi|pwèizhènfǔ|c衛鎮撫}}). In 1431, one such assistant commander, Alige, brought marten pelts as tribute to the Wuliehe post. In 1437, four other assistant commanders (Zhaluha, Sanchiha, Tuolingha, and Alingge) also presented tribute. According to the Ming Veritable Records, these posts, like the position of headman, were hereditary and passed down the patrilineal line. During these tributary missions, the headmen would bring their sons, who later inherited their titles. In return for tribute, the Ming awarded them with silk uniforms.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|p=133}}
Nivkh women in Sakhalin married Han Chinese Ming officials when the Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur River region.<ref>{{cite book |firstWada |lastSei |year1938 |script-titleja:支那の記載に現はれたる黒龍江下流域の土人 |titleShina no kisai ni arawaretaru Kokuryuko karyuiki no dojin |trans-titleThe Natives of the Lower Reaches of the Amur River as Represented in Chinese Records |seriesMemoirs of the Research Department of Toyo Bunko |publisherTōyō Bunko |url{{google books URL|mWipQwAACAAJ}}}}</ref><ref name"apjjf.org">{{cite journal |last1Morris-Suzuki |first1Tessa |dateNovember 15, 2020 |titleIndigenous Diplomacy: Sakhalin Ainu (Enchiw) in the Shaping of Modern East Asia (Part 1: Traders and Travellers) |urlhttps://apjjf.org/2020/22/Morris-Suzuki.html |journalThe Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |volume18 |issue22 |pages|doi |access-date}}</ref> Due to Ming rule in Manchuria, Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the "Chinese god", and motifs such as dragons, spirals, and scrolls spread among the Ainu, Nivkh, and Amur natives such as the Udeghes, Ulchis, and Nanais. These groups also adopted material goods and practices such as agriculture, husbandry, heating, iron cooking pots, silk, and cotton.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnzhq85nPrdsC&dqchinese+god+motifs+cotton+iron+silk&pgPA214 |lastForsyth |firstJames |editionillustrated, reprint, revised |isbn0521477719 |date1994 |titleA History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 |page214 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
are a part of Japan.]]
The Manchu Qing dynasty, which came to power in China in 1644, called Sakhalin "Kuyedao" ({{Lang-zh|c庫頁島|pKùyè dǎo|lisland of the Ainu}}){{sfnp|Smith|2017|p83}}{{sfnp|Kim|2019|p81}}{{sfnp|Nakayama|2015|p 20}} or "Kuye Fiyaka" ({{MongolUnicode|ᡴᡠᠶᡝ<br />ᡶᡳᠶᠠᡴᠠ}}).{{sfnp|Schlesinger|2017|p135}} The Manchus called it "Sagaliyan ula angga hada" (Island at the Mouth of the Black River).{{sfnp|Narangoa|2014|p295}} The Qing first asserted influence over Sakhalin after the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk, which defined the Stanovoy Mountains as the border between the Qing and the Russian Empires. In the following year the Qing sent forces to the Amur estuary and demanded that the residents, including the Sakhalin Ainu, pay tribute. This was followed by several further visits to the island as part of the Qing effort to map the area. To enforce its influence, the Qing sent soldiers and mandarins across Sakhalin, reaching most parts of the island except the southern tip. The Qing imposed a fur-tribute system on the region's inhabitants.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|pp134–135}}{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|pp 87–89}}<ref name="apjjf.org"/>
{{Blockquote|The Qing dynasty ruled these regions by imposing upon them a fur tribute system, just as had the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Residents who were required to pay tributes had to register according to their hala ({{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠯᠠ}}, the clan of the father's side) and gashan ({{MongolUnicode|ᡤᠠᡧᠠᠨ}}, village), and a designated chief of each unit was put in charge of district security as well as the annual collection and delivery of fur. By 1750, fifty-six hala and 2,398 households were registered as fur tribute payers, – those who paid with fur were rewarded mainly with Nishiki silk brocade, and every year the dynasty supplied the chief of each clan and village with official silk clothes (mangpao, duanpao), which were the gowns of the mandarin. Those who offered especially large fur tributes were granted the right to create a familial relationship with officials of the Manchu Eight Banners (at the time equivalent to Chinese aristocrats) by marrying an official's adopted daughter. Further, the tribute payers were allowed to engage in trade with officials and merchants at the tribute location. By these policies, the Qing dynasty brought political stability to the region and established the basis for commerce and economic development.{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|pp=87–89}}|Shiro Sasaki}}
The Qing dynasty established an office in Ningguta, situated midway along the Mudan River, to handle fur from the lower Amur and Sakhalin. Tribute was supposed to be brought to regional offices, but the lower Amur and Sakhalin were considered too remote, so the Qing sent officials directly to these regions every year to collect tribute and to present awards. By the 1730s, the Qing had appointed senior figures among the indigenous communities as "clan chief" (hala-i-da) or "village chief" (gasan-da or mokun-da). In 1732, 6 hala, 18 gasban, and 148 households were registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Manchu officials gave tribute missions rice, salt, other necessities, and gifts during the duration of their mission. Tribute missions occurred during the summer months. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–95), a trade post existed at Delen, upstream of Kiji (Kizi) Lake, according to Rinzo Mamiya. There were 500–600 people at the market during Mamiya's stay there.{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|p87}}<ref name"apjjf.org"/>
Local native Sakhalin chiefs had their daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials as sanctioned by the Qing dynasty when the Qing exercised jurisdiction in Sakhalin and took tribute from them.<ref>(Shiro Sasaki, ‘A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples’ Transborder Activities Between the Russian and Chinese Empires’, Senri Ethnological Studies, vol. 92, 2016, pp. 161‒193.) Sasaki, ‘A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples’ Transborder Activities’, p. 173.</ref><ref name"apjjf.org"/>Japanese colonization
'' ceremony involving the Hidaka Ainu, by Hirasawa Byōzan]]
and the Ainu, {{circa|1775}}]]
In 1635, Matsumae Kinhiro, the second daimyō of Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō, sent Satō Kamoemon and Kakizaki Kuroudo on an expedition to Sakhalin. One of the Matsumae explorers, Kodō Shōzaemon, stayed in the island in the winter of 1636 and sailed along the east coast to Taraika (now Poronaysk) in the spring of 1637.<ref>{{Cite book |firstAkizuki |lastToshiyuki |date1994 |script-titleja:日露関係とサハリン島：幕末明治初年の領土問題 |titleNich-Ro kankei to Saharintō : Bakumatsu Meiji shonen no ryōdo mondai |trans-titleJapanese–Russian Relations and Sakhalin Island: Territorial Dispute in the Bakumatsu and First Meiji Years |locationTokyo |publisherChikuma Shobo Publishers Ltd |isbn4480856684 |page34}}</ref> The Tokugawa bakufu (feudal government) granted the Matsumae clan exclusive rights to trade with the Ainu in the northern part of the island. Later, the Matsumae began to lease out trading rights to Japanese merchants, and contact between Japanese and Ainu became more extensive. Throughout this period, Ainu groups competed with each other to import goods from the Japanese, and epidemic diseases such as smallpox reduced the population.{{sfnp|Walker|2001|p49–56, 61–71, 172–176}} In an early colonization attempt, a Japanese settlement was established at Ōtomari on Sakhalin's southern end in 1679.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.karafuto.com/timetab.html |titleTime Table of Sakhalin Island |access-dateAugust 16, 2015 |archive-dateOctober 3, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151003010214/http://www.karafuto.com/timetab.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In the 1780s, the influence of the Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate on the Ainu of southern Sakhalin increased significantly. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese economic zone extended midway up the east coast, to Taraika. With the exception of the Nayoro Ainu located on the west coast in close proximity to China, most Ainu stopped paying tribute to the Qing dynasty. The Matsumae clan was nominally in charge of Sakhalin, but they neither protected nor governed the Ainu there. Instead they extorted the Ainu for Chinese silk, which they sold in Honshu as Matsumae's special product. To obtain Chinese silk, the Ainu fell into debt, owing much fur to the Santan (Ulch people), who lived near the Qing office. The Ainu also sold the silk uniforms (mangpao, bufu, and chaofu) given to them by the Qing, which made up the majority of what the Japanese knew as nishiki and jittoku. As dynastic uniforms, the silk was of considerably higher quality than that traded at Nagasaki, and enhanced Matsumae prestige as exotic items.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|pp134–135}} Eventually the Tokugawa government, realizing that they could not depend on the Matsumae, took control of Sakhalin in 1807.{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|p88}}
{{Blockquote|Mogami's interest in the Sakhalin trade intensified when he learned that Yaenkoroaino, the above-mentioned elder from Nayoro, possessed a memorandum written in Manchurian, which stated that the Ainu elder was an official of the Qing state. Later surveys on Sakhalin by shogunal officials such as Takahashi Jidayú and Nakamura Koichiró only confirmed earlier observations: Sakhalin and Sóya Ainu traded foreign goods at trading posts, and because of the pressure to meet quotas, they fell into debt. These goods, the officials confirmed, originated at Qing posts, where continental traders acquired them during tributary ceremonies. The information contained in these types of reports turned out to be a serious blow to the future of Matsumae's trade monopoly in Ezo.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|pp=149–150}}|Brett L. Walker}}
From 1799 to 1806, the Tokugawa shogunate took direct control of southern Hokkaido. Japan proclaimed sovereignty over Sakhalin in 1807, and in 1809 Mamiya Rinzō claimed that it was an island.<ref>{{cite book |lastLower |firstArthur |titleOcean of Destiny: A concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–1978 |year1978 |publisherUniversity of British Columbia Press |page75 |isbn9780774843522 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgIAOU9ltj48C&qsakhalin}}</ref> During this period, Ainu women were separated from their husbands and either subjected to rape or forcibly married to Japanese men. Meanwhile, Ainu men were deported to merchant subcontractors for five- and ten-year terms of service. Policies of family separation and assimilation, combined with the impact of smallpox, caused the Ainu population to drop significantly in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1Lewallen |titleThe fabric of indigeneity : Ainu identity, gender, and settler colonialism in Japan |publisherUniversity of New Mexico Press |locationAlbuquerque |isbn978-0-8263-5736-6 |pages131–142 |year2016}}</ref> In the 18th century, there were 80,000 Ainu,<ref>{{cite book |titleEncyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity |firstDinah |lastShelton |volume2 |publisherMacmillan Reference |year2005}}</ref> but by 1868, there were only about 15,000 Ainu in Hokkaido, 2,000 in Sakhalin, and around 100 in the Kuril Islands.{{sfnp|Howell|1997|page614}}
Despite their growing influence in the area in the early 19th century as a result of these policies, the Tokugawa shogunate was unable to gain a monopoly on Ainu trade with those on the Asian mainland, even by the year 1853. Santan traders, a group composed mostly of the Ulchi, Nanai, and Oroch peoples of the Amur River, commonly interacted with the Ainu people independent of the Japanese government, especially in the northern part of Hokkaido.<ref name":7">{{cite journal |last1Morris-Suzuki |first1Tessa |dateNovember 15, 2020 |titleIndigenous Diplomacy: Sakhalin Ainu (Enchiw) in the Shaping of Modern East Asia (Part 1: Traders and Travellers) |urlhttps://apjjf.org/2020/22/Morris-Suzuki.html |journalThe Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |volume18 |issue22 |pages2 |doi|access-date}}</ref> In addition to their trading ventures, Santan traders sometimes kidnapped or purchased Ainu women from Rishiri to become their wives. This further escalated Japan's presence in the area, as the Tokugawa shogunate believed a monopoly on the Santan trade would better protect the Ainu people.<ref name":7" /><ref>(Mamiya Rinzō (trans. and ed. John Harrison), 'Kita Ezo Zutsetsu or a Description of the Island of North Ezo by Mamiya Rinzō', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 99, no. 2, 1955, pp. 93‒117) Mamiya, 'Kita Ezo Zutsetsu', 107. The name 'Yaepikarainu' is my approximation based the Manchu version of his name, which was given as 'Yabirinu', and the Japanese version which was given as 'Yaepikaran', and the Ainu honorific naming convention of adding '-ainu' to the end of the names of elders.</ref>Japanese annexation of Hokkaido
In 1869, the imperial government established the Hokkaidō Development Commission as part of the Meiji Restoration. Researcher Katarina Sjöberg quotes Yūko Baba's 1980 account of the Japanese government's reasoning:
{{Blockquote|... The development of Japan's large northern island had several objectives: First, it was seen as a means to defend Japan from a rapidly developing and expansionist Russia. Second ... it offered a solution to the unemployment for the former samurai class ... Finally, development promised to yield the needed natural resources for a growing capitalist economy.{{sfnp|Sjöberg|1993|p=116}}}}
As a result of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875), the Kuril Islands{{Em dash}}along with their Ainu inhabitants{{Em dash}}came under Japanese administration. In 1899, the Japanese government passed an act labeling the Ainu as "former aborigines", with the idea that they would assimilate. This resulted in the Japanese government taking the land where the Ainu people lived and placing it under Japanese control.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1Loos |editor-first1Noel |editor-last2Osani |editor-first2Takeshi |year1993 |titleIndigenous Minorities and Education: Australian and Japanese Perspectives on their Indigenous Peoples, the Ainu, Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders |publisherSanyusha Publishing Co., Ltd. |locationTokyo |isbn978-4-88322-597-2}}{{page needed|dateFebruary 2020}}</ref> Also at this time, the Ainu were granted automatic Japanese citizenship, effectively denying them the status of an indigenous group.
The Ainu went from being a relatively isolated group of people to having their land, language, religion, and customs assimilated into those of the Japanese.<ref name"bbc">{{cite news |firstPhilippa |lastFogarty |titleRecognition at last for Japan's Ainu |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm |workBBC News |publisherBBC |dateJune 6, 2008 |access-dateJune 7, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171108102235/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm |archive-dateNovember 8, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Their land was distributed to the Yamato Japanese settlers to create and maintain farms in the model of Western industrial agriculture. It was known as "colonization" (拓殖) at the time, but later by the euphemism, "opening up undeveloped land" ({{Interlanguage link|開拓|lt開拓|jp}}).{{sfnp|Siddle|1996|p51}} Additionally, factories like flour mills and beer breweries, along with mining practices, resulted in the creation of infrastructure such as roads and railway lines during a development period that lasted until 1904.{{sfnp|Sjöberg|1993|p117}} During this time, the Ainu were ordered to cease religious practices such as animal sacrifice and the custom of tattooing.<ref>{{cite book |lastLevinson |firstDavid |titleEncyclopedia of Modern Asia |volume1 |publisherCharles Scribner's Sons |page72 |year2002 |isbn978-0-684-80617-4}}</ref> The same act applied to the native Ainu on Sakhalin after its annexation as Karafuto Prefecture.<ref>{{cite journal|authorYamada, Yoshiko |year2010|titleA Preliminary Study of Language Contact around Uilta in Sakhalin|journalJournal of the Center for Northern Humanities|volume3|pages59–75|hdl2115/42939}}</ref>
Assimilation after annexation
in 1904]]
The Ainu have historically suffered from economic and social discrimination, as both the Japanese government and mainstream population regarded them as dirty and primitive barbarians.{{sfnp|Walker|2001|p233}} The majority of Ainu were forced to be petty laborers during the Meiji Restoration, which saw the introduction of Hokkaido into the Japanese Empire and the privatization of traditional Ainu lands.{{sfnp|Siddle|1996|p45}} During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Japanese government denied the rights of the Ainu to their traditional cultural practices, such as hunting, gathering, and speaking their native language.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tigweb.org/youth-media/panorama/article.html?ContentID3609 |titleWill the Ainu language die? |dateMay 31, 2004 |access-dateDecember 13, 2015 |websiteTalkingITGlobal |lastShim |firstKaren |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222095803/http://www.tigweb.org/youth-media/panorama/article.html?ContentID3609 |archive-dateDecember 22, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
The legal denial of Ainu cultural practices mostly stemmed from the 1899 Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastCheung |firstS. C. H. |dateNovember 1, 2003 |titleAinu culture in transition |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001632870300051X |journalFutures |seriesFutures of indigenous cultures |languageen |volume35 |issue9 |pages951–959 |doi10.1016/S0016-3287(03)00051-X |issn0016-3287 |url-accesssubscription}}</ref> This law and its associated policies were designed to fully integrate the Ainu into Japanese society while erasing Ainu culture and identity. The Ainu's position as manual laborers and their forced integration into larger Japanese society have led to discriminatory practices by the Japanese government that can still be felt today.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.china.org.cn/english/features/bjrenquan/190878.htm |titleHuman Right Issues on the Ainu People in Japan |daten.d. |access-dateDecember 13, 2015 |websiteChina.org |lastYokoyama |firstYuzuru |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304034543/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/bjrenquan/190878.htm |archive-dateMarch 4, 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Intermarriage between Japanese and Ainu was actively promoted by the Ainu to lessen the chances of discrimination against their offspring. As a result, many Ainu today are indistinguishable from their Japanese neighbors, but some Ainu-Japanese are interested in traditional Ainu culture.{{Citation needed|dateNovember 2023}} For example, Oki, born as the child of an Ainu father and a Japanese mother, became a musician who plays the traditional Ainu instrument, the {{transliteration|ja|tonkori}}.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hmv.co.jp/news/article/605230042/ |script-titleja:アイヌ⇔ダブ越境！異彩を放つOKIの新作 |title |trans-titleCrossing the borders between Ainu and Dub! OKI's distinctive new work |languageja |websiteHMV Japan |dateMay 23, 2006 |access-dateMarch 26, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121021211935/http://www.hmv.co.jp/news/article/605230042/ |archive-dateOctober 21, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref> There are also many small towns in the southeastern or Hidaka region of Hokkaido where ethnic Ainu live, such as in Nibutani ({{transliteration|ain|Niputay}}).
From the early 1870s, Christian missionary work was conducted among the Ainu. The Anglican Communion missionaries included the Rt. Rev. Philip Fyson, Bishop of Hokkaido, and the Rev. John Batchelor. Batchelor wrote extensively in English about the beliefs and daily life of the Ainu in Yezo (or Ezo), and his publications are a source of photographs of the Japanese and Ainu close to the missions.<ref>In particular, Sea-girt Yezo : glimpses of missionary work in North Japan by Batchelor, John (Church Missionary Society 1902) digitised by Google and uploaded to the Internet Archive at https://archive.org/details/seagirtyezoglim00socigoog</ref>
Standard of living
The discrimination and negative stereotypes assigned to the Ainu have manifested in lower levels of education, income, and participation in the economy as compared to their ethnically Japanese counterparts. The Ainu community in Hokkaido in 1993 received welfare payments at a 2.3 times higher rate than that of Hokkaido as a whole. They also had an 8.9% lower enrollment rate from junior high school to high school and a 15.7% lower enrollment into college from high school.{{sfnp|Siddle|1996|p45}} Due to this noticeable and growing gap, the Japanese government has been lobbied by activists to research the Ainu's standard of living nationwide. The Japanese government will provide ¥7&nbsp;million (US$63,000), beginning in 2015, to conduct surveys nationwide on this matter.<ref>{{cite news |titleFirst nationwide survey on Ainu discrimination to be carried out |urlhttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/08/29/national/first-nationwide-survey-ainu-discrimination-carried/ |newspaperJapan Times |dateAugust 29, 2014 |access-dateDecember 13, 2015 |issn0447-5763 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151224182439/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/08/29/national/first-nationwide-survey-ainu-discrimination-carried/ |archive-dateDecember 24, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Ainu and ethnic homogeneity in Japan
The existence of the Ainu has challenged the notion of ethnic homogeneity in post-WWII Japan. After the demise of the multi-ethnic Empire of Japan in 1945, successive governments forged a single Japanese identity by advocating monoculturalism and denying the existence of more than one ethnic group in Japan.<ref name="Eiji Oguma 2020"/>
The Ainu were first recognised as an indigenous people in 1997,{{sfn|Porter|2008|p202}} which began the process of claiming indigenous rights under national and international frameworks.{{sfn|Porter|2008|p202}} Following the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007, Hokkaido politicians pressured the government to recognize Ainu rights. Prime Minister Fukuda Yasuo answered a parliamentary question on May 20, 2008, by stating,<ref>{{cite news |lastFukuda |firstYasuo |dateMay 20, 2008 |script-titleja:衆議院議員鈴木宗男君提出先住民族の定義及びアイヌ民族の先住民族としての権利確立に向けた政府の取り組みに関する第三回質問に対する答弁書 |titleShūgiin giin suzuki muneo-kun teishutsu senjūmin-zoku no teigi oyobi Ainu minzoku no senjūmin-zoku to shite no kenri kakuritsu ni muketa seifu no torikumi ni kansuru daisankai shitsumon ni taisuru tōben-sho |trans-titleResponse to the third question submitted by Mr. Muneo Suzuki, Member of the House of Representatives, regarding the definition of indigenous peoples and the government's efforts to establish the rights of the Ainu people as indigenous peoples. |languageja |publisherJapanese Diet |urlhttps://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b169373.htm |script-quoteja:アイヌの人々が「先住民族」かどうか結論を下せる状況にはないが、アイヌの人々は、いわゆる和人との関係において、日本列島北部周辺、取り分け北海道に先住していたことは歴史的事実であり、また、独自の言語及び宗教を有し、文化の独自性を保持していること等から、少数民族であると認識している。国際的に「先住民族」の定義が確立していない状況の下で、アイヌの人々が御指摘の「先住民族」と一致するものであるか結論を下せる状況にはなく、一致することを前提としてどのような問題が生じるかについて、現時点において予断することは適当とは考えていない。 |quote|trans-quote}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|It is a historical fact that the Ainu are the earlier arrivers of the northern Japanese archipelago, in particular Hokkaido. The Japanese government acknowledges the Ainu to be an ethnic minority as it has maintained a unique cultural identity and has a unique language and religion. However, as there is no established international definition of "indigenous people", the government is not in a position to conclude whether the Ainu should be referred as "indigenous people"...}}
On June 6, 2008, the National Diet of Japan passed a non-binding, bipartisan resolution calling upon the government to recognize the Ainu as indigenous people.<ref>{{cite news |last|dateJune 6, 2008 |script-titleja:アイヌ民族を先住民族とすることを求める決議 |title |trans-titleResolution calling for the Ainu people to be recognized as an indigenous people |languageja |newspaperJapanese Upper House |urlhttps://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/gianjoho/ketsugi/169/080606-2.html}}</ref><ref name"japantimes20082">{{cite news |lastIto |firstM. |dateJune 7, 2008 |titleDiet officially declares Ainu indigenous |newspaperJapan Times |urlhttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/06/07/national/diet-officially-declares-ainu-indigenous/ |url-statuslive |access-dateApril 25, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150408131300/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/06/07/national/diet-officially-declares-ainu-indigenous/ |archive-date=April 8, 2015}}</ref>
In 2019, eleven years after this resolution, the Diet finally passed an act recognizing the Ainu as an indigenous people of Japan.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2019/04/20/asia/japan-ainu-indigenous-peoples-bill-intl/index.html |titleJapan's Ainu will finally be recognized as indigenous people |firstEmiko |lastJozuka |dateApril 20, 2019 |workCNN |access-dateApril 22, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190422013759/https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/20/asia/japan-ainu-indigenous-peoples-bill-intl/index.html |archive-dateApril 22, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastKomai |firstEléonore |dateJuly 7, 2021 |titleThe Ainu and Indigenous politics in Japan: negotiating agency, institutional stability, and change |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-race-ethnicity-and-politics/article/abs/ainu-and-indigenous-politics-in-japan-negotiating-agency-institutional-stability-and-change/4A9A317CFFE3F1A76A4A82736D7F1835 |journalJournal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics |volume7 |pages141–164 |languageen |doi10.1017/rep.2021.16 |s2cid237755856 |issn2056-6085 |url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Despite this recognition of the Ainu as an ethnically distinct group, political figures in Japan continue to define ethnic homogeneity as key to the overall Japanese national identity. For example, then Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō notably claimed in 2020, "No other country but this one has lasted for as long as 2,000 years with one language, one ethnic group, and one dynasty."<ref name"Eiji Oguma 2020">{{cite news |title「麻生発言」で考えた…なぜ「日本は単一民族の国」と思いたがるのか？ |newspaperMainichi Shimbun |dateFebruary 5, 2020 |lastOguma |firstEiji |author-linkEiji Oguma |urlhttp://mmdesign-jpn.la.coocan.jp/shoko/oguma15.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211017061006/http://mmdesign-jpn.la.coocan.jp/shoko/oguma15.htm |archive-dateOctober 17, 2021}}</ref>Origins
, right, with her niece Yukie Chiri, a famous Ainu Japanese transcriber and translator of Ainu epic tales. (1922)]]
The Ainu are regarded as having descended from the indigenous Japanese hunter-gatherers who lived in Japan during the Jōmon period ({{circa}} 14,000 to 300 BCE).<ref>{{cite book |last1Denoon |first1Donald |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXUw6kiX9LQ0C&pgPA22 |titleMulticultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern |last2McCormack |first2Gavan |publisherCambridge University Press |year2001 |isbn978-0-521-00362-9 |pages22–23}}</ref>
The exact origins of the early Ainu remain unclear, but it is generally agreed to be linked to the Satsumon culture of the Epi-Jōmon period, with later influences from the nearby Okhotsk culture.<ref>{{Cite web |script-titleja:公益財団法人 アイヌ民族文化財団 |titleKōeki zaidanhōjin Ainu minzoku bunka zaidan |trans-titlePublic Interest Incorporated Foundation, The Foundation for Ainu Culture |urlhttps://www.ff-ainu.or.jp/ |access-dateDecember 8, 2023 |websitewww.ff-ainu.or.jp |languageja}}</ref> The Ainu culture may be better described as an "Ainu cultural complex", taking into account the regional variable subgroups of Ainu peoples. While the Ainu can be considered a continuation of the indigenous Jomon culture, they also display links to surrounding cultures, pointing to a larger cultural complex flourishing around the Sea of Okhotsk. Some authors have also described the development of the Ainu culture as the "resistance" of a Jomon society to the emerging Japanese state.<ref name"Janhunen 57–78">{{Citation |lastJanhunen |firstJuha A. |titleHandbook of the Ainu Language |chapter2 Ainu ethnic origins |dateOctober 24, 2022 |chapter-urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781501502859-003/html |pages57–78 |access-dateNovember 18, 2023 |publisherDe Gruyter Mouton |languageen |doi10.1515/9781501502859-003 |isbn978-1-5015-0285-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |firstHosanna |lastFukuzawa |date2022 |titleAinu Ethnogenesis and State Evasion (12th–17th Centuries) |journalThe Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |urlhttps://apjjf.org/2022/13/Fukuzawa.html |access-date=November 18, 2023}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hudson|2022}}
One of their {{transliteration|ain|Yukar Upopo}}, or legends, tells that "[T]he Ainu lived in this place a hundred thousand years before the Children of the Sun came."{{sfnp|Sjöberg|1993}}
The historical Ainu economy was based on farming as well as hunting, fishing, and gathering.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html |titleNOVA Online – of the Spirits – Origins of the Ainu |websitePBS |access-dateMay 8, 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080429080550/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html |archive-date=April 29, 2008}}</ref>
The general consensus among historians is to associate the Ainu with the Satsumon culture, which was located in an area stretching from northern Honshu to Hokkaido.{{sfnp|Sato|Amano|Ono|Ishida|2009|loc"...the Satsumon people (a direct ancestoral lineage of the Ainu people)..."}} Linguists such as Juha Janhunen and Alexander Vovin argue for a Satsumon origin of Ainu dialects, with deeper links to cultures centered in Central or Northern Honshu.<ref>Ainu ethnogenesis アイヌ民族起源 – Tokyo, August 2018 Juha Janhunen</ref><ref name"Janhunen 57–78"/> This is in part supported by Ainu-derived loanwords observed in Eastern Old Japanese and the probable distant link between the Ainu and the Emishi.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastJanhunen |firstJuha |dateOctober 1, 2022 |titleOld Japanese in a panchronic perspective |urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/lingty-2022-0017/html?langde |journalLinguistic Typology |languageen |volume26 |issue3 |pages683–691 |doi10.1515/lingty-2022-0017 |s2cid249679997 |issn1613-415X |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
It has also been noted that the Okhotsk culture played a role in the formation of the later Ainu culture.{{sfnp|Lee|Hasegawa|2013|loc"In this paper, we reconstructed spatiotemporal evolution of 19 Ainu language varieties, and the results are in strong agreement with the hypothesis that a recent population expansion of the Okhotsk people played a critical role in shaping the Ainu people and their culture. Together with the recent archaeological, biological and cultural evidence, our phylogeographic reconstruction of the Ainu language strongly suggests that the conventional dual-structure model must be refined to explain these new bodies of evidence. The case of the Ainu language origin we report here also contributes additional detail to the global pattern of language evolution, and our language phylogeny might also provide a basis for making further inferences about the cultural dynamics of the Ainu speakers [44,45]."}}<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMatsumoto |firstHideo |dateFebruary 2009 |titleThe origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G |journalProceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences |volume85 |issue2 |pages69–82 |doi10.2183/pjab.85.69 |pmc3524296 |pmid19212099 |bibcode2009PJAB...85...69M}}</ref> The origin of the Okhotsk culture itself is subject to research. While Okhotsk remains display affinity to the modern Nivkh people of northern Sakhalin, both also display affinities to the Jōmon peoples of Japan, pointing to a possible heterogeneous makeup of Okhotsk society. Satsumon pottery has been found among Okhotsk sites, pointing to a complex network of contacts in the wider area around the Sea of Okhotsk.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Matsumura |first1Hirofumi |last2Hudson |first2Mark J |last3Koshida |first3Kenichiro |last4Minakawa |first4Yoichi |date2006 |titleEmbodying Okhotsk Ethnicity: Human Skeletal Remains from the Aonae Dune Site, Okushiri Island, Hokkaido |urlhttps://muse.jhu.edu/pub/5/article/195365 |journalAsian Perspectives |volume45 |issue1 |pages1–23 |doi10.1353/asi.2006.0010 |issn1535-8283 |hdl10125/17243 |s2cid53332214 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{sfnp|Sato|Adachi|Kimura|Hosomichi|2021}}
The emergence of the Ainu culture is henceforth primarily attributed to the Satsumon culture, which later received some contributions from the Okhotsk culture via cultural contacts in northern Hokkaido after the Satsumon culture expanded northwards and into Sakhalin.<ref>Smale, Joran (June 2014) [https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/28236 End of Okhotsk? A Peer Polity Interaction approach to the interaction, exchange and decline of a Northeast-Asian maritime culture on Hokkaido, Japan]. Master thesis. Leiden University, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden. Quote: "Evidence that mainly Satsumon culture is ancestral to Ainu culture still stands. However, it is clear that there is some continuity between Okhotsk and Ainu culture in the veneration of the bear in Hokkaido."</ref> This view has been corroborated by later analyses.{{sfnp|Sato|Adachi|Kimura|Hosomichi|2021}}
{{Blockquote|Archaeologists have considered that bear worship, which is a religious practice widely observed among the northern Eurasian ethnic groups (including the Ainu, Finns, Nivkh, and Sami), was also shared by the Okhotsk people. On the other hand, no traces of such a religious practice have ever been discovered from archaeological sites of the Jomon and Epi-Jomon periods, which were anterior to the Ainu cultural period. This implies that the Okhotsk culture contributed to the formation of the Ainu culture.{{sfnp|Sato|Adachi|Kimura|Hosomichi|2021}}}}
Relationship with the historical Emishi
While the view that the ancient Emishi were identical to the Ainu has been largely disproven by current research, the exact relationship between them is still under dispute.<ref>{{Cite journal |last工藤 |first雅樹 |date1994 |title考古学から見た古代蝦夷 |urlhttps://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/nihonkokogaku1994/1/1/1_1_139/_article/-char/ja/ |journal日本考古学 |volume1 |issue1 |pages139–154 |viaJ-STAGE}}</ref> It is agreed that at least some Emishi spoke Ainu languages and were ethnically related to the Ainu.<ref name":8">{{Cite journal |last1Boer |first1Elisabeth de |last2Yang |first2Melinda A. |last3Kawagoe |first3Aileen |last4Barnes |first4Gina L. |dateJanuary 2020 |titleJapan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread |journalEvolutionary Human Sciences |languageen |volume2 |pagese13 |doi10.1017/ehs.2020.7 |pmid37588377 |pmc10427481 |issn2513-843X |doi-accessfree}}</ref> The Emishi may, however, have also included non-Ainu groups, which can either be associated with groups distantly related to the Ainu (Ainu-like groups) but forming their own ethnicity, or early Japonic-speakers outside the influence of the Yamato court.<ref name":8" /> The Emishi display clear material culture links to the Ainu of Hokkaido. Based on Ainu-like toponyms throughout Tohoku, it is argued that the Emishi, like the Ainu, descended from the Epi-Jōmon tribes and initially spoke Ainu-related languages.<ref name":8" />
The term "Emishi" in the Nara period (710–794) referred to people who lived in the Tohoku region and whose lifestyle and culture differed markedly from that of the Yamato people; it was originally a highly cultural and political concept with no racial distinction.<ref>{{Cite web |script-titleja:古代の蝦夷（えみし）とアイヌはどのような関係にあるのですか。アイヌの祖先は蝦夷なのですか。 |titleKodai no emishi to Ainu wa dono yōna kankei ni aru no desu ka. Ainu no sosen wa ezo na no desu ka. |trans-titleWhat is the relationship between the ancient Emishi and the Ainu? Were the Ainu ancestors the Emishi? |urlhttps://www.teikokushoin.co.jp/junior/faq/detail/950/ |access-dateSeptember 1, 2023 |website株式会社帝国書院 |language=ja}}</ref>
From the mid-Heian period onward, Emishi who did not fall under the governance of the Yamato Kingship were singled out as northern Emishi. They began to be referred to as "Ezo" (Emishi).
The first written reference to "Ezo", which is thought to be Ainu, can be found in Suwa Daimyōjin Ekotoba, which was written in 1356. Indeed, Ainu have lived in Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, Hokkaido, and the northern Tohoku region since the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web |script-titleja:シントコ（行器） 文化遺産オンライン |titleShintoko (gyō-ki) bunka isan onrain |trans-titleShintoko (Traditional vessels) Cultural Heritage Online |urlhttps://bunka.nii.ac.jp/heritages/detail/507683 |access-dateSeptember 1, 2023 |websitebunka.nii.ac.jp |languageja}}</ref>Genetics{{See also|Genetic history of East Asians|Jōmon people}}Paternal lineages
in traditional dress]]
An analysis of 16 Ainu male individuals found that the majority (14/16) belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup D-M55, while a minority (2/16) belongs to Haplogroup C-M217. D-M55 is found throughout the Japanese archipelago, with very high frequencies among the Ainu of Hokkaido. C-M217 is found more commonly among populations from Northeast Asia and Central Asia.{{sfnp|Tajima|Hayami|Tokunaga|Juji|2004}} Another analysis found that one out of four Ainu men belonged to haplogroup C-M217, while the remaining three belonged to haplogroup D-M55.{{sfnp|Hammer|Karafet|Park|Omoto|2006}}
Maternal lineages
An analysis of 51 Ainu individuals found that around 51% of their mtDNA subclades are unique to the Ainu, while the remaining haplogroups are shared with other Asian populations, especially with the Nivkhs in northern Sakhalin and the Koryaks on the Kamchatka Peninsula.{{sfnp|Tajima|Hayami|Tokunaga|Juji|2004}}
Of the 51 Ainu individuals, around 27% (14/51) belong to N9 (of which 10 were assigned to subclade Y and four to unclassifed N9 clades), around 24% (12/51) to D, around 20% (10/51) to M7, and around 20% (10/51) to G; the minor haplogroups are A (2/51), B (1/51), F (1/51), and an unclassified subclade of M not belonging to M7, M8, CZ, D, or G.{{sfnp|Sato|Amano|Ono|Ishida|2009}}
Autosomal DNA
The Ainu appear genetically most closely related to the Jōmon period peoples of Japan. Previous genetic analyses of Jomon remains found them to represent a deeply diverged East Asian lineage. The Jomon lineage is inferred to have diverged from Ancient East Asians before the divergence between Ancient Northern East Asians and Ancient Southern East Asians, but after the divergence of the basal Tianyuan man and/or Hoabinhians. Beyond their broad affinity with Eastern Asian lineages, the Jomon also display a weak affinity for Ancient North Eurasians (ANE), which may be associated with the introduction of microblade technology to Northeast Asia and northern East Asia during the Last Glacial Maximum via the ANE or Ancient Paleo-Siberians.{{sfnp|Osada|Kawai|2021}}{{sfnp|Cooke|Mattiangeli|Cassidy|Okazaki|2021}}
The genetic makeup of the Ainu represents a "deep branch of East Asian diversity". Compared to contemporary East Asian populations, the Ainu share "a closer genetic relationship with northeast Siberians". The Ainu also display a relative closer genetic affinity with "lowland East Asians" than "highland East Asians" and may have contributed some ancestry to surrounding populations around the Sea of Okhotsk. Differences in the frequency of the derived EDAR gene variant between the Ainu and contemporary East Asians suggest that the ancestors of the Ainu may not have shared the selective pressures with other Ancestral East Asian populations. The Ainu, however, share two variants in the ADH gene cluster with other East Asians at high frequency, unlike Tibetans and Sherpa, "raising the possibility that selective pressure on these variants was different in the high-altitude environments."{{sfnp|Jeong|Nakagome|Di Rienzo|2016}}
The closest modern ethnic groups to the Ainu are the Ryukyuans in southern Japan, followed by contemporary Japanese people. Compared with other East Asian populations, the Ainu are an outgroup, pointing to long-lasting isolation after their divergence. By analyzing the SNP loci of Ainu individuals, it was found that they carry genes associated with facial structure found among Europeans and hair and tooth morphology found among East Asians.{{sfnp|Jinam|Kanzawa-Kiriyama|Inoue|Tokunaga|2015}} Genetic analyses of HLA I and HLA II genes as well as HLA-A, B, and DRB1 gene frequencies placed the Ainu in an intermediate position between indigenous peoples of the Americas and contemporary Northeast Asians.{{sfnp|Tokunaga|Ohashi|Bannai|Juji|2001}}{{sfnp|Kanzawa-Kiriyama|Jinam|Kawai|Sato|2019}}
Studies on modern-day Ainu estimate that they derive between 66% and 79.3% of their ancestry from the Jōmon lineage.{{sfnp|Kanzawa-Kiriyama|Jinam|Kawai|Sato|2019}}{{sfnp|Gakuhari|Nakagome|Rasmussen|Allentoft|2020}} Another study on modern Ainu individuals found that they derive c. 49% of their ancestry directly from the Jōmon people, c. 22% from the Okhotsk people (who themselves could be modeled as 54% Ancient Northeast Asian, 22% Ancient Paleo-Siberian, and 24% Jōmon), and ~29% from the Yamato Japanese (who carried around 11% Jōmon and 89% Yayoi ancestry), corresponding with historical events.{{sfnp|Sato|Adachi|Kimura|Hosomichi|2021}}
Military service
Russo-Japanese War
Ainu men were first recruited into the Japanese military in 1898.<ref>{{Cite book |firstYoshimi |lastYoshiaki |year2015 |orig-year1987 |titleGrassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDn0yBgAAQBAJ&pgPA127 |seriesWeatherhead Books on Asia |translator-firstEthan |translator-lastMark |locationNew York |publisherColumbia University Press |page127 |isbn978-0-231-53859-6 |oclc1047893815}}</ref> Sixty-four Ainu served in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), eight of whom died in battle or from illness contracted during military service. Two received the Order of the Golden Kite, granted for bravery, leadership, or command in battle.
Culture
{{Main|Ainu culture|Ainu cuisine|Ainu music|Yukar|}}
{{Update-EB |sectiony|dateNovember 2016}}
{{Expand Japanese|アイヌ文化|dateJune 2012|sectionyes}}
}}.]]
Traditional Ainu culture is quite different from Japanese culture. According to Tanaka Sakurako from the University of British Columbia, the Ainu culture can be included into a wider "northern circumpacific region", referring to various indigenous cultures of Northeast Asia and "beyond the Bering Strait" in North America.{{sfnp|Tanaka|2000}} The Ainu culture developed from the 13th century (late Kamakura period) to the present day. While most Ainu in Japan now live outwardly similar lives to the Wajin (ethnic Japanese) due to assimilation policies, many still maintain their Ainu identity and respect for traditional Ainu ways, known as "Ainu puri". The distinctive Ainu patterns (Ainu mon'yō) and oral literature (Yukar) have been designated as Hokkaido Heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/about05.html |script-titleja:北海道ウタリ協会 |titleHokkaidō utarikyōkai |trans-titleHokkaido Utari Association |websiteHokkaidō utarikyōkai |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140426001838/http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/about05.html |archive-dateApril 26, 2014 |languageja}}</ref>
Language
{{Main|Ainu language}}
In 2008, the news block World Watch gave an estimate of fewer than 100 remaining speakers of the Ainu language.{{sfnp|Hohmann|2008|p19}} In 1993, linguist Alexander Vovin placed the number at fewer than 15 speakers, characterizing the language as "almost extinct".{{sfnp|Vovin|1993|p1|loc="The Ainu language, almost extinct nowadays, is located on Hokkaidô, the northernmost island of the Japanese Archepelago. Several thousands of Ainu still live there, but there are no more than ten or twenty native speakers of this language among them."}} Because so few present-day speakers are left, study of the Ainu language is limited and is based largely on historical research. Historically, the status of the Ainu language was rather high and was used by early Russian and Japanese administrative officials to communicate with each other and with the Ainu people.
Despite the small number of native speakers of Ainu, there is an active movement to revitalize the language, mainly in Hokkaido but also elsewhere, such as in Kanto.{{sfnp|Martin|2011}} Ainu oral literature has been documented both in hopes of safeguarding it for future generations and for use as a teaching tool for language learners.{{sfnp|Miyaoka|Sakiyama|Krauss|2007}} As of 2011, there were an increasing number of second-language learners, especially in Hokkaido.
The resurgence of Ainu culture and language is in large part due to the pioneering efforts of the late Ainu folklorist, activist, and former Diet member Shigeru Kayano, himself a native speaker. He first opened an Ainu language school in 1987, funded by Ainu Kyokai.{{sfnp|Teeter|Okazaki|2011}}
Although some researchers have attempted to show that the Ainu and Japanese languages are related, modern scholars have rejected the idea that the relationship goes beyond contact, such as the mutual borrowing of words. No attempt to show a relationship with Ainu to any other language has gained wide acceptance, and linguists currently classify Ainu as a language isolate.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|pp=3–5}} Most Ainu people speak either Japanese or Russian.
The Ainu language has no indigenous system of writing and has historically been transliterated using Japanese kana or Russian Cyrillic. {{As of | 2019}}, it was typically written either in katakana or in the Latin alphabet.
Many of the Ainu dialects, especially those from different extremities of Hokkaido, are not mutually intelligible. However, all Ainu speakers understand the classic Ainu language of the {{lang|ain-Latn|Yukar}}, a form of Ainu epic. Without a writing system, the Ainu were masters of narration, with the {{lang|ain-Latn|Yukar}} and other forms of narration such as {{lang|ain-Latn|Uepeker}} ({{lang|ain-Latn|Uwepeker}}) tales being committed to memory and related at gatherings that often lasted many hours or even days.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/ainu.htm|titleAinu|websiteomniglot.com|year2009|access-dateAugust 2, 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100102071247/http://omniglot.com/writing/ainu.htm|archive-dateJanuary 2, 2010|url-statuslive}}</ref>
<!--ethnologue data is incorrect; see ainu language-->
Concepts expressed with prepositions in English, such as 'to', 'from', 'by', 'in', and 'at', appear as postpositional forms in Ainu. Whereas prepositions come before the word they modify, postpositions come after it. A single sentence in Ainu can comprise many added or agglutinated sounds or affixes that represent nouns or ideas.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2023}}Social structure
, Japan]]
Ainu society was traditionally organized into small villages called kotan, typically located in river basins or along seashores where food was readily available, particularly in rivers where salmon traveled upstream. In early modern times, Ainu were forced to relocate their kotan near Japanese fishing grounds to provide labor. As a result, traditional kotan disappeared, and large villages of several dozen families were formed around fishing grounds.{{sfnp|Howell|2004}} The Ainu social structure included chiefs, but judicial functions were not entrusted to them. Instead, an indefinite number of community members sat in judgment upon criminals. Capital punishment did not exist, nor did the community resort to imprisonment. Beating was considered a sufficient and final penalty. However, in the case of murder, the nose and ears of the culprit were cut off, or the tendons of their feet were severed.<ref name"EB1911" />Appearance and dress
]]
Never shaving after a certain age, the men have full beards and moustaches. Men and women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, trimmed semi-circularly behind. The women tattoo ({{lang|ain|anchi-piri}}) their mouths and sometimes their forearms. The mouth tattoos start at a young age with a small spot on the upper lip, gradually increasing in size. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark is used for color.
Traditional Ainu dress consists of a robe spun from the inner bark of the elm tree, called {{lang|ain-Latn|attusi}} or {{lang|ain-Latn|attush}}. The various styles consist generally of a simple short robe with straight sleeves, folded around the body, and tied with a band around the waist. The sleeves end at the wrist or forearm, and the length generally is to the calves. Women also wear an undergarment of Japanese cloth.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAinu |volume1|pages=441–442}} Citations:
* Rev. John Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901)
* Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop), Korea and her Neighbours (1898)
* Basil Hall Chamberlain, Language, Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed in the Light of Aino Studies and Aino Fairy-tales (1895)
* Romyn Hitchcock, The Ainos of Japan (Washington, 1892)
* H. von Siebold, Über die Aino (Berlin, 1881)</ref>
In winter, the skins of animals are worn, with leggings of deerskin and, in Sakhalin, boots made from the skin of dogs or salmon.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.blm.gov/education/00_resources/articles/Columbia_river_basin/posterback.html |titleColumbia River Basin |dateFebruary 25, 2009 |websiteBureau of Land Management |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090225075127/http://www.blm.gov/education/00_resources/articles/Columbia_river_basin/posterback.html |archive-dateFebruary 25, 2009}}</ref> Ainu culture regards earrings, traditionally made from grapevines, as gender-neutral. Women also wear a beaded necklace called a tamasay.<ref name"EB1911" /> Modern craftswomen weave and embroider traditional garments that command very high prices.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2023}}
Dwellings
Their traditional habitations are reed-thatched huts, the largest about {{convert |20|ft|0|abbron}} square, without partitions and having a fireplace in the center. There is no chimney; there is only a hole at the angle of the roof. One window sits on the eastern side, along with two doors. The house of the village head is used as a public meeting-place when one is needed.<ref name"EB1911" />
Another kind of traditional Ainu house is called {{lang|ain-Latn|chise}}.{{sfnp|Sjöberg|1993}} The chise is typically oriented east to west or parallel to a river, with the entrance on the west side also serving as a storeroom. It has three windows, including the sacred rorun-puyar on the east side, through which gods enter and leave and ceremonial tools are taken in and out. The Ainu regard this window as sacred and are told never to look in through it. A chise has a fireplace near the entrance. A husband and wife would traditionally sit on the fireplace's left side (called shiso). Children and guests would sit facing them on the fireplace's right side (called harkiso). The chise has a platform for valuables called iyoykir behind the shiso. The Ainu place sintoko (hokai) and ikayop (quivers) there.
Cuisine
Traditional Ainu cuisine consists of the meat of bears, foxes, wolves, badgers, oxen, and horses, as well as fish, fowl, millet, vegetables, herbs, and roots. The Ainu traditionally never eat raw fish or meat, always boiling or roasting it.<ref name= "EB1911" /> They also cultivated crops such as millet (piyapa), foxtail millet (munchiro), and barnyard millet (menkur), which were used to make a type of sake called "tonoto" for ceremonial purposes.
Salmon was particularly important, referred to as kamuy chep (god's fish) or shipe (true food). In autumn, large quantities of salmon were caught and processed into dried fish for preservation. This served not only as a staple food but also as a major trade item with the Japanese. The Ainu also made extensive use of the bulbs of the Cardiocrinum cordatum (turep), from which they extracted and preserved starch. This tradition of starch usage made it easy for them to adopt potatoes when they were introduced. Ainu cuisine is not commonly eaten outside Ainu communities. Only a few restaurants in Japan – mainly in Tokyo and Hokkaido – serve traditional Ainu dishes.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://japantoday.com/category/features/food/check-out-tokyos-only-ainu-restaurant |titleCheck out Tokyo's only Ainu restaurant |websiteJapan Today |dateMarch 5, 2013 |access-dateJanuary 26, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200126181039/https://japantoday.com/category/features/food/check-out-tokyos-only-ainu-restaurant |archive-dateJanuary 26, 2020 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.hokkaidolikers.com/en/articles/4068 |title"Umizora No Haru", the restaurant where you can {{!}} Hokkaido Likers |websitewww.hokkaidolikers.com |access-dateJanuary 26, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200126181049/https://www.hokkaidolikers.com/en/articles/4068 |archive-dateJanuary 26, 2020 |url-statusdead}}</ref>HuntingThe Ainu traditionally hunt from late autumn to early summer,<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSwr9BTI_2FEC&qainu+hunted+autumn+summer&pgPA18 |lastNuttall |firstMark |titleEncyclopedia of the Arctic |year2012 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-136-78680-8 |page18}}</ref> in part because in late autumn, plant gathering, salmon fishing, and other activities of securing food come to an end, and hunters readily find game in fields and mountains in which plants have withered. A village typically possesses a hunting-ground of its own, or several villages use a joint hunting territory, called an {{lang|ain-Latn|iwor}}.<ref>{{cite book |titleSongs of Gods, Songs of Humans: The Epic Tradition of the Ainu |lastPhillipi |firstDonald L. |year2015 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-1-40087-069-1 |locationPrinceton, NJ |page5 |jstorj.ctt13x0q8v |jstor-accessfree}}</ref> Heavy penalties were imposed on any outsiders trespassing on such hunting grounds or on joint hunting territory. The Ainu traditionally hunt Ussuri brown bears, Asian black bears, Ezo deer (a subspecies of sika deer), hares, red foxes, Japanese raccoon dogs, and other animals.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGeY2yzunY98C&qainu+ezo+deer+rabbit+fox+raccoon&pgPA8 |titleLiving Together: Minority People and Disadvantaged Groups in Japan |lastIshikida |firstMiki Y. |year2005 |publisheriUniverse |isbn978-0-59535-032-2 |page8}}{{self-published source|date February 2020}}</ref> Ezo deer are a particularly important food resource for the Ainu, as are salmon.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpCiNqFj3MQsC&qainu+ezo+deer+salmon&pgPA35 |titleEncyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last West |firstBarbara A. |year 2010 |publisherInfobase Publishing |isbn 978-1-43811-913-7 |page35}}</ref> The Ainu also hunt sea eagles, such as white-tailed sea eagles, along with ravens and other birds.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6Z0C6yH6bZYC&qainu+sea+eagles+ravens&pgPA112 |titlePolitics of Occupation-Centred Practice: Reflections on Occupational Engagement Across Cultures |last1Pollard |first1Nick |last2Sakellariou |first2Dikaios |year2012 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-1-11829-098-9 |page112}}</ref> The Ainu hunted eagles for their tail feathers, which they used in trade with the Japanese.{{sfnp|Sjöberg|1993|p[{{GBurl|tePeAQAAQBAJ|p54}} 54]}} Historically, the Ainu hunted sea-otters{{sfnp|Takahashi|2006|loc"The Ainu hunted sea-otters on Ulup Island where the animals lived, or obtained them by trading with the people of the northern islands."}} and traded their pelts in the Japanese market.{{sfnp|Takahashi|2006|loc"[...] there is not much written about the Japanese fur trade, though some writers mention it as part of the trade between the Japanese and the Ainu."}}
The Ainu hunted with arrows and spears with poison-coated points.{{sfnp|Landor|2012|p[{{GBurl|6JQMmDXI9pQC|24}} 24]}} They obtained the poison, called {{lang|ain-Latn|surku}}, from the roots and stalks of aconites.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaTTBPedwFfAC&qainu+arrows+poison+surku&pgPT1785 |titleMedical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals |lastBarceloux |firstDonald G. |year2012 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-1-11838-276-9 |page1785}}</ref> The recipe for this poison was a household secret that differed from family to family. They enhanced the poison with mixtures of roots and stalks of dog's bane, boiled juice of Mekuragumo (a type of harvestman), Matsumomushi (Notonecta triguttata, a species of backswimmer), tobacco, and other ingredients. They also used stingray stingers or skin-covering stingers.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfUVYsxzBcHQC&qainu+stingray&pgPA62 |titleAdvances in Marine Biology |year1984 |publisherAcademic Press |isbn978-0-08057-944-3 |page=62}}</ref>
They traditionally hunt in groups with dogs.{{sfnp|Poisson|2002|p32}} Before hunting, particularly for bears and similar animals, they may pray to the {{lang|ain-Latn|Kamuy-huci}}, the house guardian goddess, to convey their wishes for a large catch and to the god of mountains for safe hunting.{{sfnp|Batchelor|1901|p[{{GBurl|f3EIAwAAQBAJ|p116}} 116]}} The Ainu traditionally hunt bears during the spring thaw. At that time, bears are weak because they haven't eaten during their long hibernation. Ainu hunters catch hibernating bears or bears that have just left hibernation dens.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|p91}} When they hunt bears in summer, they use a spring trap loaded with an arrow, called an {{lang|ain-Latn|amappo}}.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|p91}} The Ainu usually use arrows to hunt deer.{{sfnp|Siddle|1996|p[{{GBurl|W5DKfJsPv2sC|p85}} 85]}} Also, they drive deer into a river or sea and shoot them with arrows. For a large catch, a whole village would drive a herd of deer off a cliff and club them to death.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLxkoW4AWfoQC&qainu+hunt+deer+cliff&pgPA44 |titleRacism: A Global Reader |last1Reilly |first1Kevin |last2Kaufman |first2Stephen |last3Bodino |first3Angela |year2003 |publisherM. E. Sharpe |isbn978-0-76561-060-7 |page44}}</ref>
Fishing
{{Further|Itaomacip}}
Fishing is important to Ainu culture. They largely catch trout in summer and salmon in autumn, as well as {{lang|ain-Latn|ito}} (Japanese huchen), dace, and other fish. Spears called {{lang|ain-Latn|marek}} were often used. Other methods were {{lang|ain-Latn|tesh}} fishing, {{lang|ain-Latn|uray}} fishing, and {{lang|ain-Latn|rawomap}} fishing. Many villages were built near rivers or along the coast. Each village or individual had a definite river fishing territory. Outsiders could not freely fish there and needed to ask the owner.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng04.html |titleAinu History and Culture |websiteainu-museum.or.jp |access-dateMay 28, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190514051936/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng04.html |archive-dateMay 14, 2019 |url-statusdead}}</ref>Japanese lacquerware
)]]
Japanese lacquerware<ref>{{Cite web |script-titleja:-13-第13回 アイヌの民具（その２）～漆器（しっき）～－「アイヌ文化情報発信！コラム」より－ |titleDai-13-kai Ainu no mingu (sono 2): Shikki ("Ainu bunka jōhō hasshin! koramu" yori) |trans-title-13-13th Ainu Folk Tools (Part 2) ~Lacquerware~ -From "Ainu Culture Information Dissemination! Column"- |languageja |urlhttps://ainu-center.hm.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/13_01_013.htm |access-dateSeptember 1, 2023 |website=ainu-center.hm.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp}}</ref> was used in everyday life as tableware and often used in ceremonies (ritual utensils), such as the cups used to offer alcohol when praying to the kamui. Lacquerware was often treated as treasure, and it was also used as containers for storing other treasures.
One of the characteristics of Ainu lacquerware is that it is almost entirely imported from the south of Honshu. Some pieces may have been lacquered in Matsumae in southern Hokkaido, but since the technique of lacquering is from Honshu, lacquerware can be considered an introduced item among Ainu folk implements.
There are examples of spatulas and other objects used by the Ainu people for ceremonial purposes that remain in clusters of the same size, and some are specifically produced for trading with the Ainu.
Ornaments
in 1904]]
Traditionally, Ainu men wear a crown called a {{lang|ain-Latn|sapanpe}} for important ceremonies. {{lang|ain-Latn|Sapanpe}} are made from wood fiber with bundles of partially shaved wood. The crown has wooden figures of animal gods and other ornaments in its center.<ref name"Service2006">{{cite book |titleAncient Japan |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6z1vkF0xzHcC&qmatanpushi&pgPA39 |year2006 |publisherSocial Studies School Service |isbn978-1-56004-256-3 |page39}}</ref> Men carry an {{lang|ain-Latn|emush}} (ceremonial sword){{sfnp|Fitzhugh|Dubreuil|1999|p[{{GBurl|4oRxAAAAMAAJ|p107}} 107]}} secured by an {{lang|ain-Latn|emush-at}} strap to their shoulders.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBtszAQAAIAAJ&qemush |titleTribal: The Magazine of Tribal Art |year2003 |publisherPrimedia Inc. |pages=76 & 78}}</ref>
Ainu women traditionally wear {{lang|ain-Latn|matanpushi}}, embroidered headbands, and {{lang|ain-Latn|ninkari}}, metal earrings with balls. {{lang|ain-Latn|Matanpushi}} and {{lang|ain-Latn|ninkari}} were originally also worn by men. Furthermore, aprons called {{lang|ain-Latn|maidari}} are now part of women's formal clothes. However, some old documents state that men wore {{lang|ain-Latn|maidari}}.{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2020}} Women sometimes wear a bracelet called a {{lang|ain-Latn|tekunkani}}.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng08.html |titleAinu History and Culture |websiteAinu Museum |access-dateSeptember 30, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130123224933/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng08.html |archive-dateJanuary 23, 2013 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Women may wear a necklace called a {{lang|ain-Latn|rektunpe}}, a long, narrow strip of cloth with metal plaques.<ref name"Service2006" /> They may also wear a necklace that reaches the breast, called a {{lang|ain-Latn|tamasay}} or {{lang|ain-Latn|shitoki}}, usually made from glass balls. Some glass balls came from trade with the Asian continent. The Ainu also obtained glass balls secretly made by the Matsumae clan.{{sfnp|Fitzhugh|Dubreuil|1999|p[{{GBurl|4oRxAAAAMAAJ|p158}} 158]|loc"Some glass beads were brought to the Ainu through trade with the Asian continent, but others were secretly made by the Matsumae clan at their headquarters in Hakodate."}}
Housing
{{Further|Kotan (village)}}
A village is called a {{lang|ain-Latn|kotan}} in the Ainu language. {{lang|ain-Latn|Kotan}} were traditionally located in river basins and along seashores where food was readily available, particularly in the basins of rivers through which salmon traveled upstream. In early modern times, the Ainu people were forced to labor at Japanese fishing grounds. Ainu {{lang|ain-Latn|kotan}} were also forced to relocate to near fishing grounds so that the Japanese could secure a labor force. When the Japanese moved to other fishing grounds, Ainu {{lang|ain-Latn|kotan}} were forced to accompany them. As a result, the traditional {{lang|ain-Latn|kotan}} disappeared, and large villages of several dozen families were formed around the fishing grounds.{{sfnp|Howell|2004}}
{{lang|ain-Latn|Cise}} or {{lang|ain-Latn|cisey}} (houses) in a {{lang|ain-Latn|kotan}} are made of cogon grass, bamboo grass, bark, etc. The length lays east to west or parallel to a river. A {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} is about seven by five meters, with an entrance at the west end that also serves as a storeroom. A {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} has three windows, including the {{lang|ain-Latn|rorun-puyar}}, a window located on the side facing the entrance (i.e., on the east side), through which gods enter and leave and ceremonial tools are taken in and out. The Ainu regard this window as sacred and are told never to look in through it. A {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} has a fireplace near the entrance. A husband and wife would traditionally sit on the fireplace's left side (called {{lang|ain-Latn|shiso}}). Children and guests would sit facing them on the fireplace's right side (called {{lang|ain-Latn|harkiso}}). The {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} has a platform for valuables called {{lang|ain-Latn|iyoykir}} behind the {{lang|ain-Latn|shiso}}. The Ainu place {{lang|ain-Latn|sintoko}} ({{lang|ain-Latn|hokai}}) and {{lang|ain-Latn|ikayop}} (quivers) there.{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
<gallery>
File:PSM V33 D514 Ainu houses.jpg|Ainu {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} (from Popular Science Monthly, Volume 33, 1888)
File:PSM V33 D517 Plan of an ainu house.jpg|Plan of an Ainu {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}}
File:Japan Hokkaido Ainu traditional house ”cise”2 2023.jpg|Gathering place around a {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} fireplace<!--Hokkaido Foundation for History and Culture-->
File:National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka - Interior of the house of Ainu - Saru River basin, Hokkaidô.jpg|Interior of a {{lang|ain-Latn|cise}} in the Saru River basin
</gallery>
Traditions
Ainu working]]
The Ainu people have various types of marriage. A child is traditionally promised in marriage by arrangement between their parents and the parents of their betrothed, or by a go-between. When the betrothed reach a marriageable age, they are told who their spouse is to be. There are also traditional marriages based on the mutual consent of both sexes.{{sfnp|Batchelor|1901|p[{{GBurl|f3EIAwAAQBAJ|p223}} 223]}} In some areas, when a daughter reaches a marriageable age, her parents allow her to live in a small room called a {{lang|ain-Latn|tunpu}}, annexed to the southern wall of the house.<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiiADAAAAMBAJ&qainu+marriage+house&pgPA85 |titleAinu Family Life and Religion |firstJ. K. |lastGoodrich |journalPopular Science |volumeXXXVI |dateApril 1889 |page=85}}</ref> The parents choose her husband from the men who visit her.
The age of marriage is 17 to 18 years of age for men and 15 to 16 years of age for women,<ref name"Service2006" /> who are traditionally tattooed. At these ages, both sexes are regarded as adults.{{sfnp|Poisson|2002|p35}}
When a man proposes to a woman in traditional fashion, he visits her house, and she hands him a full bowl of rice. He then eats half of the rice and returns the rest to her. If the woman eats the remaining rice, she accepts his proposal. If she does not and instead puts it beside her, she rejects his proposal.<ref name"Service2006" /> When a man and woman become engaged or learn that their engagement has been arranged, they exchange gifts. The man sends her a small engraved knife, a workbox, a spool, and other gifts. She sends him embroidered clothes, coverings for the back of the hand, leggings, and other handmade clothes.{{sfnp|Batchelor|1901|p[{{GBurl|f3EIAwAAQBAJ|p=226}} 226]}}
The worn-out fabric of old clothing is used for baby clothes because soft cloth is good for their skin. Additionally, worn-out material was thought to protect babies from the gods of illness and demons, due to these entities' abhorrence of dirty things. Before a baby is breast-fed, they are given a decoction of the endodermis of an alder and the roots of butterburs to discharge impurities.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsILrJPM4DFAC&qainu+decoction+alder&pgRA1-PA110 |titleEarly European Writings on Ainu Culture: Religion and Folklore |lastRefsing |firstKirsten |year2002 |publisherPsychology Press |isbn978-0-70071-486-5 |page=110}}</ref> Children are raised almost naked until about the ages of four to five. Even when they wear clothes, they do not wear belts and leave the front of their clothes open. Subsequently, they wear bark clothes without patterns, such as {{lang|ain-Latn|attush}}, until they come of age.
Ainu babies traditionally are not given permanent names when they are born. Rather, they are called by various temporary names until the age of two or three.
Newborn babies are named {{lang|ain-Latn|ayay}} ("a baby's crying"), {{lang|ain-Latn|shipo}}, {{lang|ain-Latn|poyshi}} ("small excrement"), and {{lang|ain-Latn|shion}} ("old excrement").{{sfnp|Poisson|2002|p31}} Their tentative names have a portion meaning "excrement" or "old things" to ward off the demon of ill-health. Some children are named based on their behavior or habits; others are named after notable events or after their parents' wishes for their future. When children are named, they are never given the same names as others.{{sfnp|Landor|2012|p[{{GBurl|6JQMmDXI9pQC|294}} 294]}}
Men traditionally wear loincloths and have their hair dressed properly for the first time at age 15 to 16. Women are also considered adults at the age of 15 to 16. They traditionally wear underclothes called {{lang|ain-Latn|mour}}{{sfnp|Fitzhugh|Dubreuil|1999|p[{{GBurl|4oRxAAAAMAAJ|p320}} 320]|loc"Ainu women's underclothes were called mour, literally "deer," a sort of one-piece dress with an open front, ..."}} and have their hair dressed properly, with wound waistcloths called {{lang|ain-Latn|raunkut}} and {{lang|ain-Latn|ponkut}} around their bodies.<ref>{{cite book |lastKindaichi |firstKyōsuke |author-linkKyōsuke Kindaichi |year1941 |titleAinu Life and Legends |publisherBoard of Tourist Industry, Japanese Government Railways |url{{GBurl|6cLYAAAAMAAJ|q"pon kut"}} |page30 |quote=One is a nettle-hemp braid named {{lang|ain-Latn|pon kut}} (small sash) or {{lang|ain-Latn|ra-nn kut}} (under sash).}}</ref>
When women reached the age of 12 or 13, the lips, hands, and arms were traditionally tattooed. When they reached the age of 15 or 16, their tattoos would be completed, indicating their qualification for marriage.{{sfnp|Poisson|2002|p35}}Religion
{{Further|Ainu creation myth|Ko-Shintō|Shamanism in Siberia}}
{{Category see also|Ainu mythology}}
}}, or bear spirit sending ceremony, in Hokkaido (1875)]]
The Ainu are traditionally animists, believing that everything in nature has a {{transliteration|ain|kamuy}} (spirit or god) on the inside. The most important include:
* {{transliteration|ain|Kamuy-huci|italic=no}}, goddess of the hearth
* {{transliteration|ain|Kim-un-kamuy|italic=no}}, god of bears and mountains
* {{transliteration|ain|Repun Kamuy|italicno}}, god of the sea, fishing, and marine animals<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng10.html|titleAinu History and Culture|websiteainu-museum.or.jp|access-dateJanuary 20, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181124020805/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng10.html|archive-dateNovember 24, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* {{transliteration|ain|Kotan-kar-kamuy|italicno}}, regarded as the creator of the world in the Ainu religion<ref name"adami">Norbert Richard Adami: Religion und Schaminismus der Ainu auf Sachalin (Karafuto), Bonn 1989, p. 40-42.</ref>
Ainu craftsmen, and the Ainu as a whole, traditionally believed that "anything made with deep sincerity was imbued with spirit and also became a [{{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}]". They also held the belief that ancestors and the power of the family could be invoked through certain patterns in art to protect them from malignant influences.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Hauge |first1Victor |titleFolk Traditions in Japanese Art |last2Hauge |first2Takako |publisherKodansha |year1978 |isbn978-0-87011-360-4 |edition1st |locationTokyo |pages=262}}</ref>
The Ainu religion has no priests by profession. Instead, the village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are necessary. Ceremonies are confined to making libations of {{transliteration|ja|sake}}, saying prayers, and offering willow sticks with wooden shavings attached to them.<ref name="EB1911" /> These sticks are called {{lang|ain-Latn|inaw}} (singular) and {{lang|ain-Latn|nusa}} (plural).
They are placed on an altar used to "send back" the spirits of killed animals. Ainu ceremonies for sending back bears are called {{lang|ain-Latn|Iyomante}}. The Ainu people give thanks to the gods before eating and pray to the deity of fire in times of sickness. Traditional Ainu belief holds that their spirits are immortal and that their spirits will be rewarded hereafter by ascending to {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy mosir}} (Land of the Gods).<ref name="EB1911" />
The Ainu are part of a larger collective of indigenous people who practice "arctolatry", or bear worship.<ref name"Cobb BBC" /> The Ainu believe that the bear holds particular importance as {{lang|ain-Latn|Kim-un Kamuy|italicno}}'s chosen method of delivering the gift of the bear's hide and meat to humans.<ref>{{Cite web|titleHow Japan's Bear-Worshipping Indigenous Group Fought Its Way to Cultural Relevance|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-bear-worshipping-group-in-japan-fought-for-cultural-relevance-180965281/|access-date2021-10-06|websiteSmithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref>
John Batchelor reported that the Ainu view the world as being a spherical ocean on which many islands float, a view based on the fact that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. He wrote that they believe the world rests on the back of a large fish, which, when it moves, causes earthquakes.{{sfnp|Batchelor|1901|pp=51–52}}
Ainu assimilated into mainstream Japanese society have adopted Buddhism and Shintō; some northern Ainu were converted as members of the Russian Orthodox Church. Regarding Ainu communities in Shikotan and other areas that fall within the Russian sphere of cultural influence, there have been a few churches constructed, and some Ainu are reported to have accepted the Christian faith.<ref>[http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/lcs/kiyou/19-1/RitsIILCS_19.1pp.43-55Fumoto.pdf 北千島アイヌの改宗政策について] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304192133/http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/lcs/kiyou/19-1/RitsIILCS_19.1pp.43-55Fumoto.pdf |dateMarch 4, 2016 }} – 立命館大学</ref> There have also been reports that the Russian Orthodox Church has performed some missionary projects in the Sakhalin Ainu community. However, there are only reports of a few conversions to Christianity. Converts have been scorned as {{transliteration|ain|"Nutsa Ainu"|italicno}} (Russian Ainu) by other members of the Ainu community. Reports indicate that many Ainu have kept their faith in their traditional deities.<ref name"Potapova">{{cite journal |lastPotapova |firstН. В. |script-titleja:樺太における宗教活動 |titleKarafuto ni okeru shūkyō katsudō |trans-titleReligious activities in Sakhalin |journal日本とロシアの研究者の目から見るサハリン・樺太の歴史 |publisherHokkaido University |urlhttps://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no11/potapova.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304200935/http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no11/potapova.pdf |archive-dateMarch 4, 2016}}</ref>
According to a 2012 survey conducted by Hokkaido University, a high percentage of Ainu are members of their household family religion, which is Buddhism (especially {{transliteration|ja|Nichiren Shōshū|italicno}} Buddhism). However, it is noted that, similar to the Japanese religious consciousness, there is not a strong feeling of identification with a particular religion, with Buddhist and traditional beliefs both being part of their daily lives.<ref name"Potapova"/>
Rituals
The Ainu religion consists of a pantheistic animist structure in which the world is founded on interactions between humans and {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}. Within all living beings, natural forces, and objects, there is a {{lang|ain-Latn|ramat}} (sacred life force) that is an extension of a greater {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}. {{lang|ain-Latn|Kamuy}} are gods or spirits that choose to visit the human world in temporary physical forms, both animate and inanimate, within the human world. Once the physical vessel dies or breaks, the {{lang|ain-Latn|ramat}} returns to the {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} and leaves its physical form behind as a gift to humans. If the humans treated the vessel and {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} with respect and gratitude, then the {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} would return out of delight for the human world. Due to this interaction, the Ainu lived with deep reverence for nature and all objects and phenomena in the hopes that the {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} would return. The Ainu believed that the {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} granted humans objects, skills, and knowledge to use tools, and thus deserve respect and worship. Daily practices included the moderation of hunting, gathering, and harvesting to not disturb the {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}. Often, the Ainu would make offerings of an {{lang|ain-Latn|inau}} (sacred shaved stick), which usually consisted of whittled willow tree wood with decorative shavings still attached, and wine to the {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}. They also built sacred altars called {{lang|ain-Latn|nusa}} (a fence-like row of taller Inau decorated with bear skulls), separated from the main house and raised storehouses and often observed outdoor rituals.<ref name"Prayer to Kamuy – Religion">{{Cite web |titlePrayer to Kamuy – Religion |urlhttps://www.akarenga-h.jp/en/hokkaido/ainu/a-03/ |access-dateMarch 5, 2023 |websiteAKARENGA |languageen}}</ref>
The Ainu observed a ritual that would return {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}, a divine or spiritual being in Ainu mythology, to the spiritual realm. This {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} sending ritual was called Omante. A bear cub would be captured alive during hibernation and raised in the village as a child. Women would care for the cubs as if they were their children, sometimes even nursing them if needed. Once the bears reached maturity, they would hold another ritual every 5 to 10 years called Iomante (sometimes Iyomante). People from neighboring villages were invited to help celebrate this ritual, in which members of the village would send the bear back to the realm of spirits by gathering around it in a central area and using special ceremonial arrows to shoot it. Afterwards, they would eat the meat. However, in 1955, this ritual was outlawed as animal cruelty. In 2007, it became exempt due to its cultural significance to the Ainu. The ritual has since been modified; it is now an annual festival. The festival begins at sundown with a torch parade. A play is then performed, and this is followed by music and dancing.<ref name"Prayer to Kamuy – Religion"/><ref name":9">{{Cite web |titleAinu Beliefs {{!}} TOTA |urlhttps://www.tota.world/article/853/ |access-dateMarch 5, 2023 |websitewww.tota.world}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastHistory |firstHWYN |dateApril 26, 2019 |titleHWYN |urlhttps://hwyn.org/2019/04/26/bears-and-their-importance-in-ainu-culture-and-religion/ |access-dateMarch 5, 2023 |websitehwyn.org |languageen-US}}</ref>
Other rituals were performed for things such as food and illness. The Ainu had a ritual to welcome the salmon, praying for a big catch, and another to thank the salmon at the end of the season. There was also a ritual for warding off {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} that would bring epidemics, using strong-smelling herbs placed in doorways, windows, and gardens to turn away epidemic {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}. Similarly to many religions, the Ainu also gave prayers and offerings to their ancestors in the spirit world or afterlife. They would also pray to the fire {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}} to deliver their offerings of broken snacks and fruit, as well as tobacco.<ref name"Prayer to Kamuy – Religion" />Dancing in ritualsTraditional dances are performed at ceremonies and banquets. Dancing is a part of the newly organized cultural festivals, and it is even done privately in daily life. Ainu traditional dances often involve large circles of dancers, and sometimes there are onlookers that sing without musical instruments. In rituals, these dances are intimate; they involve the calls and movements of animals and/or insects. Some, like the sword and bow dances, are rituals that were used to worship and give thanks for nature. This was to thank deities that they believed were in their surroundings. There was also a dance in Iomante that mimicked the movements of a living bear. However, some dances are improvised and meant just for entertainment. Overall, Ainu traditional dancing reinforced their connection to nature and the religious world and provided a link to other Arctic cultures.<ref>{{Cite web |titleTraditional Ainu dance {{!}} Silk Roads Programme |urlhttps://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/intangible-cultural-heritage/traditional-ainu-dance |access-dateMarch 5, 2023 |websiteUNESCO}}</ref>Funerals
Funerals included prayers and offerings to the fire {{lang|ain-Latn|kamuy}}, as well as verse laments expressing wishes for a smooth journey to the next world. The items that were to be buried with the dead were first broken or cracked to allow spirits to be released and travel to the afterlife together. Sometimes a burial would be followed by burning the residence of the dead. In the event of an unnatural death, there would be a speech raging against the gods.
In the afterlife, recognized ancestral spirits moved through and influenced the world, though neglected spirits would return to the living world and cause misfortune. Prosperity of family in the afterlife would depend on prayers and offerings left by living descendants; this often led to Ainu parents teaching their children to look after them in the afterlife.<ref name":9" />Institutions
interior]]
Most Hokkaidō Ainu, and some other Ainu, are members of an umbrella group called the Hokkaido Ainu Association. The organization changed its name to Hokkaido Utari Association in 1961 due to the fact that the word Ainu was often used in a derogatory manner by the non-Ainu ethnic Japanese. It was changed back to the Hokkaido Ainu Association in 2009 after the passing of the new law regarding the Ainu. The organization was originally controlled by the government to speed Ainu assimilation and integration into the Japanese nation-state. It is now run exclusively by Ainu and operates mostly independently of the government.
(Sapporo Pirka Kotan)]]
Other key institutions include The Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (FRPAC), established by the Japanese government after the enactment of the Ainu Culture Law in 1997; the Hokkaidō University Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.cais.hokudai.ac.jp/english/ |titleCenter for Ainu & Indigenous Studies |publisherHokkaido University |access-dateSeptember 30, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170901112847/http://www.cais.hokudai.ac.jp/english/ |archive-dateSeptember 1, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref> established in 2007; and various museums and cultural centers. The Ainu people living in Tokyo have also developed a vibrant political and cultural community.<!-- Links to these organizations needed, also Tokyo Ainu documentary --><ref name"2kamuymintara.com">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.2kamuymintara.com/film/eng/top.htm |titleDocumentary Film 'TOKYO Ainu' |website2kamuymintara.com |access-dateSeptember 30, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171001031905/http://www.2kamuymintara.com/film/eng/top.htm |archive-dateOctober 1, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.2kamuymintara.com/film/groups.htm |script-titleja:ドキュメンタリー映画 TOKYO アイヌ 首都圏アイヌ団体紹介 |titleDokyumentarī eiga Tōkyō Ainu: Shutoken Ainu dantai shōkai |trans-titleDocumentary film TOKYO Ainu: Introducing Ainu groups in the Tokyo metropolitan area |website2kamuymintara.com |access-dateSeptember 30, 2017 |languageja |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171001031816/http://www.2kamuymintara.com/film/groups.htm |archive-dateOctober 1, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Since late 2011, the Ainu have developed cultural exchange and cooperation with the Sámi people of northern Europe. Both the Sámi and the Ainu participate in the organization for Arctic indigenous peoples and the Sámi research office in Lapland (Finland).<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/News?lnnxqdhzo3&idc6d2c468-e74a-49e1-8412-89fdae3b22f9 |titleJoint seminar for Sami and Ainu research |websitearcticcentre.org |access-dateMay 28, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170216003002/http://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/News?lnnxqdhzo3&idc6d2c468-e74a-49e1-8412-89fdae3b22f9 |archive-dateFebruary 16, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Currently, there are several Ainu museums and cultural parks. Some of them are:<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2244.html |titleAinu |websitejapan-guide.com |access-dateMay 28, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181023002343/https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2244.html |archive-dateOctober 23, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* National Ainu Museum
* Kawamura Kaneto Ainu Museum
* Ainu Kotan
* Ainu Folklore Museum
* Hokkaido Museum of Northern Peoples
* Nibutani Ainu Culture Museum
* Shinhidaka Ainu Museum
Ethnic rights
, in Germany in 2007.]]
Legal action
On March 27, 1997, the Sapporo District Court decided a landmark case that, for the first time in Japanese history, recognized the right of the Ainu people to enjoy their distinct culture and traditions. The case arose because of a 1978 government plan to build two dams in the Saru River watershed in southern Hokkaidō. The dams were part of a series of development projects under the Second National Development Plan that were intended to industrialize the north of Japan.{{sfnp|Levin|2001|pages445–446}} The planned location for one of the dams was across the valley floor near Nibutani village,{{sfnp|Levin|1999}} the home of a large community of Ainu people and an important center of Ainu culture and history.{{sfnp|Levin|2001|pages419, 447}} When the government commenced construction on the Nibutani Dam in the early 1980s, two Ainu landowners refused to agree to the expropriation of their property. These landowners were Tadashi Kaizawa and Shigeru Kayano—well-known and important leaders in the Ainu community.{{sfnp|Levin|2001|page=443}} After Kaizawa and Kayano declined to sell their land, the Hokkaidō Development Bureau applied for and was subsequently granted a Project Authorization, which required the men to vacate their land. When their appeal of the Authorization was denied, Kayano and Kaizawa's son Koichi (Kaizawa died in 1992) filed suit against the Hokkaidō Development Bureau.
The final decision denied the relief sought by the plaintiffs for pragmatic reasons (the dam was already in place), but the decision was nonetheless heralded as a landmark victory for the Ainu people. Nearly all of the plaintiffs' claims were recognized. Moreover, the decision marked the first time Japanese case law acknowledged the Ainu as an indigenous people and contemplated the responsibility of the Japanese nation to the indigenous people within its borders.{{sfnp|Levin|1999|p442}} The decision included broad fact-finding that underscored the long history of the oppression of the Ainu people by Japan's majority, referred to as {{lang|ja-Latn|wajin}} in the case, and discussions about the case.{{sfnp|Levin|1999}}{{sfnp|Levin|2008}} The decision was issued on March 27, 1997. Because of the broad implications for Ainu rights, the plaintiffs decided not to appeal the decision, which became final two weeks later. After the decision was issued, on May 8, 1997, the Diet passed the Ainu Culture Law and repealed the Ainu Protection Act—the 1899 law that had been the vehicle of Ainu oppression for almost one hundred years.<ref name"ainushinpou">{{cite journal |lastYoshida Hitchingham |firstMasako |titleAct for the Promotion of Ainu Culture and Dissemination of Knowledge Regarding Ainu Traditions – A Translation of the Ainu Shinpou |journalAsian–Pacific Law & Policy Journal |volume1 |issue1 |year2000 |urlhttp://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2011/11/APLPJ_01.1_hitchingham_masako.pdf |access-dateJune 20, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713190741/http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2011/11/APLPJ_01.1_hitchingham_masako.pdf |archive-dateJuly 13, 2015 |url-statuslive}}<br />The law's original Japanese text is available at Wikisource.</ref>{{sfnp|Levin|2001|page467}} While the Ainu Culture Law has been widely criticized for its shortcomings, the shift that it represents in Japan's view of the Ainu people is a testament to the importance of the Nibutani decision. In 2007, the "Cultural Landscape along the Sarugawa River resulting from Ainu Tradition and Modern Settlement" was designated an Important Cultural Landscape of Japan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/412/00003550 |titleDatabase of Registered National Cultural Properties |publisherAgency for Cultural Affairs |access-dateApril 29, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191223144454/https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/412/00003550 |archive-dateDecember 23, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref> A later action seeking the restoration of Ainu assets held in trust by the Japanese government was dismissed in 2008.<ref>Levin & Tsunemoto, Oklahoma Law Review.</ref>
Governmental bodies on Ainu affairs
There is no single government body to coordinate Ainu affairs. Rather, various advisory boards are set up by the Hokkaido government to advise on specific matters. One such committee operated in the late 1990s,{{sfnp|Siddle|1996}} and its work resulted in the {{ill|1997 Ainu Culture Law|ja|アイヌ文化振興法}}.<ref name="ainushinpou" /> This panel was criticized for including no Ainu members.{{sfnp|Siddle|1996}}
In 2006, another panel was established, which notably included an Ainu member for the first time. It completed its work in 2008, issuing a major report that included an extensive historical record and called for substantial government policy changes towards the Ainu.<ref>{{cite news |last1Umeda |first1Sayuri |titleJapan: Official Recognition of Ainu as Indigenous People |urlhttps://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/?disp3_l20540633_text |access-dateJune 26, 2021 |workGlobal Legal Monitor |agencyLibrary of Congress |publisherLibrary of Congress |dateSeptember 5, 2008}}</ref>Formation of Ainu political partyOn January 21, 2012, the {{Nihongo|Ainu Party|アイヌ民族党|Ainu minzoku tō}} was founded<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.ainu-org.jp/english/index.html |titleAinu Party |websiteainu-org.jp |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130710182919/http://www.ainu-org.jp/english/index.html |archive-dateJuly 10, 2013}}</ref> after a group of Ainu activists in Hokkaidō announced the formation of a political party for the Ainu on October 30, 2011. The Ainu Association of Hokkaidō reported that Kayano Shiro, the son of the former Ainu leader Kayano Shigeru, would head the party. Their aim is to contribute to the realization of a society where the Ainu and Japanese can coexist and possess equal rights in Japan.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111031a5.html |titleAinu plan group for Upper House run |newspaperJapan Times |dateOctober 31, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120427092145/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111031a5.html |archive-dateApril 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.asahi.com/national/update/1029/TKY201110290538.html |script-titleja:参議院選挙 |titleSangiinsenkyo |trans-titleHouse of Councillors election |newspaperAsahi Shimbun |languageja |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120709010224/http://www.asahi.com/national/update/1029/TKY201110290538.html |archive-dateJuly 9, 2012}}</ref>
Official promotion
The "2019 Ainu act" simplified procedures for obtaining various permissions from authorities in regards to the traditional lifestyle of the Ainu and nurtured the identity and cultures of the Ainu without defining the ethnic group by blood lineage.<ref>{{Cite news |titleJapan's Ainu recognition bill: What does it mean for Hokkaido's indigenous people?|urlhttps://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/02/25/reference/japans-ainu-recognition-bill-mean-hokkaidos-indigenous-people/ |lastMurakami |firstSakura |dateFebruary 25, 2019 |workJapan Times |languageen-US |access-dateMay 24, 2020}}</ref>
On July 12, 2020, the National Ainu Museum was opened. It had originally been scheduled to open on April 24, 2020, prior to the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games scheduled in the same year in Shiraoi, Hokkaidō. The park was planned to be a base for the protection and promotion of Ainu people, culture, and language.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://ainu-upopoy.jp/en/ |titleUPOPOY NATIONAL AINU MUSEUM and PARK |websiteUPOPOY NATIONAL AINU MUSEUM and PARK |access-dateMay 28, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190528125317/https://ainu-upopoy.jp/en/ |archive-dateMay 28, 2019 |url-statusdead}}</ref> The museum promotes the culture and habits of the Ainu people, who are the original inhabitants of Hokkaidō. Upopoy in the Ainu language means "singing in a large group". The National Ainu Museum building has images and videos exhibiting the history and daily life of the Ainu.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/travelnews/story/70461/upopoy-museum-in-japan-promotes-ainu-culture |titleVisitors can participate in traditional Ainu dance and try out indigenous cuisine |lastDeb |firstSoham |dateAugust 4, 2020 |website=Outlook Traveller}}</ref>
The Ainu cultural contribution is also recognized by a UNESCO listing,<ref>submitted by Ainu Association of Hokkaido, Japan 2008-9</ref> in consequence of a UNESCO decision to list non-physical cultural assets, including songs and dancing.
In July 2023, it was reported that a group of Ainu from Hokkaido was suing the government to reclaim the right of salmon river fishing. This has been outlawed for a century, except for the exemption of a limited number of salmon for ceremonial purposes. The group claimed the Japanese government did not abide by the 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, which it had signed.<ref>{{Cite news |last1Rich |first1Motoko |last2Hida |first2Hikari |dateJuly 2, 2023 |titleJapan's Native Ainu Fight to Restore a Last Vestige of Their Identity |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/02/world/asia/japan-ainu-fishing.html |access-dateJuly 3, 2023 |issn0362-4331}}</ref>GeographyThe traditional locations of the Ainu are Hokkaido, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, and the northern Tōhoku region. Many of the place names that remain in Hokkaido and the Kuril Islands have a phonetic equivalent of the Ainu place names.<ref name"Cobb BBC" />{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}<!-- SOURCES COULD BE FOUND HERE: Information from the Japanese wiki page about the Ainu -->
In 1756 CE, a kanjō-bugyō (a high-ranking Edo period official responsible for finance) implemented an assimilation policy for Ainu engaged in fishing in the Tsugaru Peninsula. From that point on, Ainu culture rapidly disappeared from Honshu.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}<!-- SOURCES FROM JA-WP? -->
After the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875), most of the Ainu from the Kuril islands were moved to the island of Shikotan by providing the pioneers with essential life supplies and for defense purposes (Kurishima Cruise Diary).{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}<!-- SOURCES FROM JA-WP? -->
In 1945, the Soviet Union invaded Japan and occupied Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The Ainu who lived there were repatriated to their home country, Japan, except for those who indicated their willingness to remain.<ref>「昭和21年（1946年）12月19日、東京でデレヴャンコ中将と日本における連合国軍最高司令官代表ポール・J・ミューラー中将が、ソ連領とのその支配下にある地域からの日本人捕虜と民間人の本国送還問題に関する協定に署名した。協定では、日本人捕虜と民間人はソ連領とその支配下のある地域から本国送還されなければならない、と記されていた。日本市民はソ連領から自由意志の原則に基づいて帰還することが特に但し書きされていた。」（ネットワークコミュニティきたみ・[https://archive.today/20070530090801/http://www.city.kitami.lg.jp/650-03/100/nupunkesi100.htm 市史編さんニュース №100 ヌプンケシ] 平成17年1月15日発行）</ref>
Russia
{{Main|Ainu in Russia}}
As a result of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875), the Kuril Islands, along with their Ainu inhabitants, came under Japanese administration. A total of 83 North Kuril Ainu arrived in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on September 18, 1877, after they decided to remain under Russian rule. They refused the offer by Russian officials to move to new reservations in the Commander Islands. An agreement was reached in 1881, and the Ainu decided to settle in the village of Yavin, Kamchatka. In March 1881, the group left Petropavlovsk and started the journey towards Yavin on foot. Four months later, they arrived at their new homes. Another village, Golygino, was founded later. Under Soviet rule, both villages were forced to disband, and residents were moved to the Russian-dominated Zaporozhye rural settlement in Ust-Bolsheretsky Raion.<ref>{{cite AV media |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vIcIErWxe16k |script-titleru:Камчадальские айны добиваются признания |titleKamchadal'skiye ayny dobivayutsya priznaniya |trans-titleKamchadal Ainu seek recognition |publishervostokmediaTV |dateMarch 21, 2011 |viaYouTube |languageru |access-dateOctober 18, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015200143/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vIcIErWxe16k |archive-dateOctober 15, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref> As a result of intermarriage, the three ethnic groups assimilated to form the Kamchadal community. In 1953, K. Omelchenko, the minister for the protection of military and state secrets in the USSR, banned the press from publishing any more information on the Ainu living in the USSR. This order was revoked after two decades.<ref name"kamchatka-etno">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.kamchatka-etno.ru/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id85&Itemid95 |script-titleru:Айны |trans-titleAinu |year2008 |websiteKamchatka-Etno |languageru |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120623191226/http://www.kamchatka-etno.ru/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id85&Itemid95 |archive-date=June 23, 2012}}</ref>
{{As of |2015}}, the North Kuril Ainu of Zaporozhye form the largest Ainu subgroup in Russia. The Nakamura clan (South Kuril Ainu on their paternal side), the smallest group, numbers just six people residing in Petropavlovsk. On Sakhalin Island, a few dozen people identify themselves as Sakhalin Ainu, but many more with partial Ainu ancestry do not acknowledge it. Most of the 888 Japanese people living in Russia (2010 Census) are of mixed Japanese–Ainu ancestry, although they do not acknowledge it (full Japanese ancestry gives them the right of visa-free entry to Japan<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.5-tv.ru/news/37800/ |script-titleru:В России снова появились айны – самый загадочный народ Дальнего востока |titleV Rossii snova poyavilis' ayny – samyy zagadochnyy narod Dal'nego vostoka |trans-titleIn Russia, the Ainu appear again – the most mysterious people of the Far East |dateMarch 22, 2011 |work5-tv.ru |languageru |access-dateFebruary 22, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120719041903/http://www.5-tv.ru/news/37800/ |archive-dateJuly 19, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref>). Similarly, no one identifies themselves as Amur Valley Ainu, although people of partial descent live in Khabarovsk. There is no evidence of living descendants of the Kamchatka Ainu.{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2024}}
In the 2010 Census of Russia, nearly 100 people tried to register themselves as ethnic Ainu in the village, but the governing council of Kamchatka Krai rejected their claim and enrolled them as ethnic Kamchadal.<ref name"kamchatka-etno" /><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://pk.russiaregionpress.ru/archives/4889 |script-titleru:Айны – древние и таинственные |titleAyny – drevniye i tainstvennyye |trans-titleAinu – ancient and mysterious |dateMarch 22, 2011 |workrussiaregionpress.ru |languageru |access-dateFebruary 21, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161229005214/http://pk.russiaregionpress.ru/archives/4889 |archive-dateDecember 29, 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In 2011, the leader of the Ainu community in Kamchatka, Alexei Vladimirovich Nakamura, requested that Vladimir Ilyukhin (Governor of Kamchatka) and Boris Nevzorov (Chairman of the State Duma) include the Ainu in the central list of the Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East. This request was also denied.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://severdv.ru/news/show/?id52022&r27&p41 |script-titleru:Айны просят включить их в Единый перечень коренных народов России |titleAyny prosyat vklyuchit' ikh v Yedinyy perechen' korennykh narodov Rossii |trans-titleAina ask to be included in the Unified List of Indigenous Peoples of Russia |dateJuly 5, 2011 |websiteseverdv.ru |languageru |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325174941/http://severdv.ru/news/show/?id52022&r27&p41 |archive-date=March 25, 2016}}</ref>
Ethnic Ainu living in Sakhalin Oblast and Khabarovsk Krai are not organized politically. According to Alexei Nakamura, {{as of|2012|lcy}}, only 205 Ainu live in Russia (up from just 12 people who self-identified as Ainu in 2008). They, along with the Kurile Kamchadals (Itelmen of the Kuril Islands), are fighting for official recognition.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://nazaccent.ru/interview/13/ |script-titleru:Алексей Накамура |titleAleksey Nakamura |trans-titleAlexey Nakamura |dateJanuary 17, 2012 |worknazaccent.ru |languageru |access-dateFebruary 21, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130516205417/http://nazaccent.ru/interview/13/ |archive-dateMay 16, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.segodnia.ru/content/105359 |script-titleru:Айны – борцы с самураями |titleAyny – bortsy s samurayami |trans-titleAinu – wrestlers with samurai |firstIvan |lastSkvortsov |dateJanuary 29, 2012 |websiteСегодня.ру |languageru |access-dateFebruary 21, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120207002955/http://segodnia.ru/content/105359 |archive-dateFebruary 7, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Since the Ainu are not recognized in the official list of the peoples living in Russia, they are counted as people without nationality, as ethnic Russians, or as Kamchadals.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.rg.ru/2008/04/03/reg-dvostok/ainu.html |script-titleru:Без национальности: Представители малочисленного народа хотят узаконить свой статус |titleBez natsional'nosti: Predstaviteli malochislennogo naroda khotyat uzakonit' svoy status |trans-titleWithout nationality: Representatives of a small number of people want to legitimize their status |dateApril 3, 2008 |firstSvetlana |lastBogdanova |newspaperRossiyskaya Gazeta |languageru |access-dateFebruary 21, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111105115649/http://rg.ru/2008/04/03/reg-dvostok/ainu.html |archive-dateNovember 5, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
The Ainu have emphasized that they were the natives of the Kuril Islands, and that the Japanese and Russians were both invaders.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ainu-people-lay-ancient-claim-to-kurile-islands-the-hunters-and-fishers-who-lost-their-land-to-the-russians-and-japanese-are-gaining-the-confidence-to-demand-their-rights-reports-terry-mccarthy-1552879.html |titleAinu people lay ancient claim to Kurile Islands: The hunters and fishers who lost their land to the Russians and Japanese are gaining the confidence to demand their rights |firstTerry |lastMcCarthy |dateSeptember 22, 1992 |newspaperThe Independent |access-dateAugust 21, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150925182035/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ainu-people-lay-ancient-claim-to-kurile-islands-the-hunters-and-fishers-who-lost-their-land-to-the-russians-and-japanese-are-gaining-the-confidence-to-demand-their-rights-reports-terry-mccarthy-1552879.html |archive-dateSeptember 25, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2004, the small Ainu community living in Russia in Kamchatka Krai wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to reconsider any move to award the Southern Kuril Islands to Japan. In the letter, they blamed the Japanese, the Tsarist Russians, and the Soviets for crimes against the Ainu, such as killings and assimilation; they also urged him to recognize the Japanese genocide against the Ainu people. This proposal was rejected.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml |script-titleru:Трагедия Российского Дальнего Востока |titleTragediya Rossiyskogo Dal'nego Vostoka |trans-titleTragedy of the Russian Far East |firstVladimir |lastYampolsky |newspaperKamchatskoye Vremya |languageru |access-dateFebruary 22, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131103201243/http://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml |archive-dateNovember 3, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Ainu family behind their house in 1912.]]
{{as of|2012}}, both the Kuril Ainu and Kuril Kamchadal ethnic groups lack the fishing and hunting rights that the Russian government grants to the indigenous tribal communities of the far north.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.indigenous.ru/modules.php?nameNews&filearticle&sid894 |script-titleru:Представители малочисленного народа айну на Камчатке хотят узаконить свой статус |titlePredstaviteli malochislennogo naroda aynu na Kamchatke khotyat uzakonit' svoy status |trans-titleRepresentatives of the Ainu people in Kamchatka want to legitimize their status |websiteindigenous.ru |languageru |access-dateFebruary 21, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130513170811/http://www.indigenous.ru/modules.php?nameNews&filearticle&sid894 |archive-dateMay 13, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://english.ruvr.ru/radio_broadcast/2249159/49638669.html |titleThe Ainu: one of Russia's indigenous peoples |websiteVoice of Russia |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120305074855/http://english.ruvr.ru/radio_broadcast/2249159/49638669.html |archive-date=March 5, 2012}}</ref>
In March 2017, Alexei Nakamura revealed that plans for an Ainu village to be created in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and plans for an Ainu dictionary are underway.<ref>{{cite news |first1Takayuki |last1Tanaka |dateMarch 3, 2017 |titleRussian Ainu leader calls for greater respect |urlhttps://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/International-Relations/Russian-Ainu-leader-calls-for-greater-respect/ |workNikkei Asian Review |access-dateFebruary 4, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221151140/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/International-Relations/Russian-Ainu-leader-calls-for-greater-respect/ |archive-dateDecember 21, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Population
The population of the Ainu during the Edo period was a maximum of 26,800; it has since declined, due in part to the spread of infectious diseases. It was traditionally regarded as a Tenryō territory.
According to the 1897 Russian census, 1,446 Ainu native speakers lived in Russian territory.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?rego |script-titleru:Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей. |titlePrilozheniye. Spravochnik statisticheskikh pokazateley. |trans-titleAppendix. Handbook of statistical indicators. |workDemoscope Weekly |access-dateMarch 16, 2019 |languageru |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190703203312/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?rego |archive-dateJuly 3, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg113 |script-titleru:Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей. |titlePrilozheniye. Spravochnik statisticheskikh pokazateley. |trans-titleSupplement. Handbook of statistical indicators. |workDemoscope Weekly |access-dateMarch 16, 2019 |languageru |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190701150105/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg113 |archive-dateJuly 1, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Currently, there is no Ainu category in the Japanese national census, and no fact-finding has been conducted by national institutions. Therefore, the exact number of Ainu people is unknown. However, multiple surveys have been conducted that provide an indication of the total population.
According to a 2006 Hokkaido Agency survey, there were 23,782 Ainu people in Hokkaido.<ref name"ainutyousa">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/about03.html |archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110518015015/http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/about03.html |url-statusdead |script-titleja:北海道アイヌ協会 |titleHokkaidō Ainu kyōkai |trans-titleHokkaido Ainu Association |languageja |archive-dateMay 18, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleReport Ainu Policy and National Understanding (PDF) |authorScience Council of Japan Area Studies Committee Anthropology Subcommittee (日本学術会議 地域研究委員会 人類学分科会) |dateSeptember 15, 2011 |access-dateJanuary 8, 2021 |publisherScience Council of Japan |urlhttp://www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/kohyo/pdf/kohyo-21-h133-1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/kohyo/pdf/kohyo-21-h133-1.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive}}</ref> When viewed by the branch office (currently the Promotion Bureau), there are many in the Iburi / Hidaka branch office. The definition of "Ainu" by the Hokkaido Agency in this survey is "a person who seems to have inherited the blood of Ainu" or "the same livelihood as those with marriage or adoption." Additionally, if the other person is declared not to be "Ainu", then it is not subject to investigation.
A 1971 survey determined an Ainu population of 77,000. Another survey yielded a total of 200,000 Ainu living in Japan.{{sfnp|Poisson|2002|p=5}} However, there are no other surveys that support this high estimate.
Many Ainu live outside of Hokkaido. A 1988 survey estimated that the population of Ainu living in Tokyo was 2,700.<ref name="ainutyousa" /> According to a 1989 survey report on Utari living in Tokyo, it is estimated that the Ainu population of the Tokyo area alone exceeds 10% of Ainu living in Hokkaido; there are more than 10,000 Ainu living in the Tokyo metropolitan area.
In addition to Japan and Russia, it was reported in 1992 that there was a descendant of Kuril Ainu in Poland, but there are also indications that they are a descendant of the Aleut.<ref>「しかしアキヅキトシユキは実際には1975年の樺太・千島交換条約の際に千島に住んでいた90人のアレウト族の末裔だったのではないかと推測している。そのアイヌがどこのだれのことを示しているのかということに関してそれ以上の情報はでてこなかった」<!--In 1992 there were press reports that descendants of the Kuril Ainu were found in Poland, but Akizuki Toshiyuki (personal communication, 1992) speculates that the "Kuril Ainu" in Poland are actually descendants of the ninety Aleuts who lived in the Kurils at the time of the Sakhalin-Kuril exchange of 1875, and whose whereabouts are otherwise unknown.--></ref>{{sfnp|Howell|2005}}<ref>{{cite book |author小坂洋右 |script-titleja:流亡: 日露に追われた北千島アイヌ |titleRyūbō: Nichiro ni owareta Kitachishima Ainu |trans-titleExile: The Ainu of the Northern Kuril Islands Driven by Japan and Russia |languageja |publisher北海道新聞社 |year1992 |isbn9784893639431<!-- |date=March 16, 2019-->}}</ref> On the other hand, the descendant of the children born in Poland by the Polish anthropologist Bronisław Piłsudski, who was a leading Ainu researcher and left a vast amount of research material, such as photographs and wax tubes, was born in Japan.
According to a 2017 survey, the Ainu population in Hokkaido is about 13,000. This is a sharp drop from 24,000 in 2006. However, this is partially due to a decrease in membership in the Ainu Association of Hokkaido, which is cooperating with the survey. Additionally, interest in protecting personal information has increased. It is thought that the number of individuals who cooperate is declining and that it does not match the actual population of Ainu people.<ref nameainu-nik>{{cite news |script-titleja:北海道のアイヌ、10年余で４割減 実態反映せず |titleHokkaidō no Ainu, 10-nen amari de 4 warigen; jittai han'ei sezu |trans-titleHokkaido's Ainu population declines by 40% in 10 years, not reflecting reality |languageja |newspaper日本経済新聞 |dateAugust 27, 2018 |urlhttps://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO34630960X20C18A8CR8000/ |access-dateSeptember 7, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180906195633/https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO34630960X20C18A8CR8000/ |archive-dateSeptember 6, 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Subgroups
These are unofficial subgroups of the Ainu people, with location and population estimates.
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! Subgroup !! Location !! Description !! Population
!Year
|-
| Hokkaido Ainu ||Hokkaido
||Hokkaido Ainu (the predominant community of Ainu in the world today): A Japanese census in 1916 returned 13,557 pure-blooded Ainu in addition to 4,550 multiracial individuals.{{sfnp|Siddle|1996|p92}} A 2017 survey says the Ainu population in Hokkaido is about 13,000. It decreased sharply from 24,000 in 2006.<ref nameainu-nik />
|| 13,000
|2017
|-
| Tokyo Ainu
||Tokyo
|| Tokyo Ainu (a modern-age migration of Hokkaidō Ainu highlighted in a documentary film released in 2010<ref name="2kamuymintara.com" />): According to a 1989 survey, more than 10,000 Ainu live in the Tokyo metropolitan area.
|| 10,000
|1989
|-
| {{extinct}}Tohoku Ainu
||Tohoku
|| Tohoku Ainu (from Honshū; no officially acknowledged population exists): Forty-three Ainu households scattered throughout the Tohoku region were reported during the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPhVpRXZlw9UC&pgPA7 |titleHarukor: An Ainu Woman's Tale |author本多勝一 |publisherUniversity of California Press |year2000 |isbn978-0-520-21020-2 |page7}}</ref> There are people who consider themselves descendants of Shimokita Ainu on the Shimokita Peninsula, while the people on the Tsugaru Peninsula are generally considered Yamato but may be descendants of Tsugaru Ainu after cultural assimilation.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.juen.ac.jp/shakai/kawanisi/research/touhoku/touhoku_6.html |script-titleja:VI 〈東北〉史の意味と射程 |titleVI 〈Tōhoku〉-shi no imi to shatei |trans-titleVI. The Meaning and Scope of Tohoku History |websiteJoetsu University of Education |languageja |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722071748/http://www.juen.ac.jp/shakai/kawanisi/research/touhoku/touhoku_6.html |archive-dateJuly 22, 2011 |access-date=March 2, 2011}}</ref>
|| Extinct
|17th century
|-
|Sakhalin Ainu
|Sakhalin
|Sakhalin Ainu: Pure-blooded individuals may be surviving in Hokkaidō. From both Northern and Southern Sakhalin, a total of 841 Ainu were relocated to Hokkaidō in 1875 by Japan. Only a few in remote interior areas remained when the island was turned over to Russia. Even when Japan was granted Southern Sakhalin in 1905, only a handful returned. The Japanese census of 1905 counted only 120 Sakhalin Ainu (down from 841 in 1875, 93 in Karafuto, and 27 in Hokkaidō). The Soviet census of 1926 counted 5 Ainu, while several of their multiracial children were recorded as ethnic Nivkh, Slav, or Uilta.
* North Sakhalin: Only five pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Soviet Census in Northern Sakhalin. Most of the Sakhalin Ainu (mainly from coastal areas) were relocated to Hokkaidō in 1875 by Japan. The few that remained (mainly in the remote interior) were mostly married to Russians, as can be seen from the works of Bronisław Piłsudski.{{sfnp|Howell|2005|p=187}}
* Southern Sakhalin (Karafuto): Japanese rule until 1945. Japan evacuated almost all the Ainu to Hokkaidō after World War II. Isolated individuals might have remained on Sakhalin.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg1420 |script-titleru:Всесоюзная перепись населения 1926 года. Национальный состав населения по регионам РСФСР. дальне-Восточныи: Саxалинскии округ |titleVsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1926 goda. Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya po regionam RSFSR. dal'ne-Vostochnyi: Saxalinskii okrug |languageru |year1929 |publisherCentral Statistical Office of the USSR |trans-titleAll-Union Population Census of 1926. National composition of the population by regions of the RSFSR. Far East: Sakhalin District |viaДемоскоп Weekly |access-dateMarch 1, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120805133706/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg1420 |archive-dateAugust 5, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1949, there were about 100 Ainu living on Soviet Sakhalin.<ref name"wurm">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idglU0vte5gSkC&pgPA1010 |titleAtlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Maps |last1Wurm |first1Stephen Adolphe |last2Mühlhäusler |first2Peter |last3Tyron |first3Darrell T. |publisherWalter de Gruyter |year1996 |isbn978-3-11-013417-9 |page=1010}}</ref>
|100
|1949
|-
|{{extinct}}Northern Kuril Ainu
|Northern Kuril islands
|Northern Kuril Ainu (no known living population in Japan; existence is not recognized by the Russian government in Kamchatka Krai): Also known as Kurile in Russian records. They were under Russian rule until 1875; they first came under Japanese rule after the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875). The majority of the population was located on the island of Shumshu, with a few others on islands like Paramushir. Together, they numbered 221 in 1860. These individuals had Russian names, spoke Russian fluently, and were Russian Orthodox in religion. As the islands were given to the Japanese, more than a hundred Ainu fled to Kamchatka along with their Russian employers (where they were assimilated into the Kamchadal population).<ref name"wurm" /><ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-I_pId0AuhIC&pgPA163 |titleJapan's Competing Modernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy, 1900–1930 |lastMinichiello |firstSharon |publisherUniversity of Hawaii Press |year1998 |isbn978-0-8248-2080-0 |page163}}</ref> Only about half remained under Japanese rule. To derussify the Kurile, the entire population of 97 individuals was relocated to Shikotan in 1884, given Japanese names, and the children were enrolled in Japanese schools. Unlike the other Ainu groups, the Kurile failed to adjust to their new surroundings; by 1933, only 10 individuals survived (plus another 34 multiracial individuals). The last group of 20 individuals (including a few pure-blooded Ainu) was evacuated to Hokkaidō in 1941, where they soon vanished as a separate ethnic group.{{sfnp|Howell|2005|p187}}
|Extinct
|20th century
|-
|{{extinct}}Southern Kuril Ainu
|Southern Kuril islands
|Southern Kuril Ainu (no known living population): This group numbered almost 2,000 people (mainly in Kunashir, Iturup, and Urup) during the 18th century. In 1884, their population had decreased to 500. Around 50 individuals (mostly multiracial) who remained in 1941 were evacuated to Hokkaidō by the Japanese soon after World War II.<ref name"wurm" /> The last full-blooded Southern Kuril Ainu was Suyama Nisaku, who died in 1956.<ref nameHarrison2007>{{cite thesis |last1Harrison |first1Scott |year2007 |titleThe Indigenous Ainu of Japan and the 'Northern Territories' Dispute |hdl10012/2765}}</ref> The last of the tribe (partial ancestry), Tanaka Kinu, died on Hokkaidō in 1973.<ref nameHarrison2007/>
|Extinct
|1973
|-
|{{extinct}}Kamchatka Ainu
|Kamchatka
|Kamchatka Ainu (no known living population): Known as Kamchatka Kurile in Russian records. They ceased to exist as a separate ethnic group after their defeat in 1706 by the Russians. Individuals were assimilated into the Kurile and Kamchadal ethnic groups. They were last recorded in the 18th century by Russian explorers.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|pp=3–5}}
|Extinct
|18th century
|-
|{{extinct}}Amur Valley Ainu
|Amur River
(Eastern Russia)
|Amur Valley Ainu (probably none remain): A few individuals married to ethnic Russians and ethnic Ulchi were reported by Bronisław Piłsudski in the early 20th century.{{sfnp|Piłsudski|2004|p[{{GBurl|NX0W2N8pgWQC|p816}} 816]}} Only 26 pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Russian Census in Nikolaevski Okrug (present-day Nikolayevsky District, Khabarovsk Krai).<ref>{{cite book |urlhttp://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg1410 |script-titleru:Всесоюзная перепись населения 1926 года. Национальный состав населения по регионам РСФСР. дальне-Восточныи: Николаевскии округ |titleVsesoyuznaya perepis' naseleniya 1926 goda. Natsional'nyy sostav naseleniya po regionam RSFSR. dal'ne-Vostochnyi: Nikolayevskii okrug |languageru |publisherCentral Statistical Office of the USSR |year1929 |trans-titleAll-Union Population Census of 1926. National composition of the population by regions of the RSFSR. Far East: Nikolaevsky District |viaДемоскоп Weekly |access-dateMarch 1, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120805133727/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg1410 |archive-dateAugust 5, 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref> They were probably assimilated into the Slavic rural population. Although no one identifies as Ainu today in Khabarovsk Krai, there are a large number of ethnic Ulch with partial Ainu ancestry.<ref>Shaman: an international journal for Shamanistic research, Volumes 4–5, p.155.</ref>{{sfnp|Piłsudski|2004|p[{{GBurl|NX0W2N8pgWQC|p37}} 37]}}
|Extinct
|20th century
|}
In popular culture
{{In popular culture|date=May 2022}}
* The characters Nakoruru, Rimururu, and Rera from the SNK game series Samurai Shodown are Ainu.
* In the 2006 video game Ōkami, the Oina people, who inhabit the northern land of Kamui, are heavily inspired by the Ainu.
* The manga and anime series Golden Kamuy has an Ainu girl, Asirpa, as one of the protagonists and features many aspects of Ainu culture.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://soranews24.com/2016/04/04/satoru-nodas-golden-kamuy-manga-series-wins-the-2016-manga-taisho-award/ |titleSatoru Noda's Golden Kamuy manga series wins the 2016 Manga Taisho award |lastRogers |firstKrista |dateApril 4, 2016 |websiteSoraNews24 |access-dateFebruary 27, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228030642/https://soranews24.com/2016/04/04/satoru-nodas-golden-kamuy-manga-series-wins-the-2016-manga-taisho-award/ |archive-dateFebruary 28, 2020 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* The character Fredzilla from Big Hero 6 is of Ainu descent.
* The character Okuru from the anime series Samurai Champloo is the sole survivor of an Ainu village wiped out by disease.
* Usui Horokeu, also known as Horohoro in the manga series Shaman King, is a member of an Ainu tribe.
* "Ainu" is a playable nation in the game Europa Universalis IV.
* The history of the island of Hokkaidō and of the Ainu people are part of the plot of a chapter in the manga Silver Spoon.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.themarysue.com/hiromu-arakawas-fma-part-2/ |titleThe Philosophy of Fullmetal Alchemist's Hiromu Arakawa |lastDonovan |firstCaitlin |dateOctober 7, 2014 |websiteThe Mary Sue |access-dateFebruary 27, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228030653/https://www.themarysue.com/hiromu-arakawas-fma-part-2/ |archive-dateFebruary 28, 2020 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* A coming-of-age film, Ainu Mosir, was released in Japan on October 17, 2020. The film portrays Kanto, a sensitive 14-year-old Ainu boy who struggles to come to terms with his father's death and his identity. The film also focuses on the dilemma of the controversial bear sacrifice ritual under the shadow of modern Japanese society and the Ainu's heavy reliance on tourists for their livelihood. Along with other restless teenagers, Kanto is under pressure to retain his Ainu identity and participate in the cultural rituals.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://ainumosir-movie.jp/ |languageja |access-dateNovember 30, 2020 |titleAinu Mosir the Movie}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.tribecafilm.com/films/ainu-mosir-2020 |titleAinu Mosir |access-dateNovember 30, 2020 |workTribeca Film |archive-dateNovember 17, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201117062536/https://tribecafilm.com/films/ainu-mosir-2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In the James Bond novel You Only Live Twice and film, Bond's character spends some time living in an Ainu village and (in the film) is supposedly disguised as one of the local people, "marrying" a local pearl fisher ({{transliteration|ja|ama}}) as part of his cover.
* In the 2013 samurai film Unforgiven, starring Ken Watanabe and which is a remake of the 1992 Clint Eastwood Western film of the same name, the character of Goro Sawada (Yuya Yagira) is half-Ainu.
See also
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* Ainu-ken
* Ainu Revolution Theory
* Akira Ifukube
* Anti-Japaneseism
* Bibliography of the Ainu
* Bikki Sunazawa
* Burakumin
* Constitution of Japan
* Ethnic issues in Japan
** Human rights in Japan
** Racism in Japan
* Ethnocide
* Genocide of indigenous peoples
* Hiram M. Hiller Jr.
* Kankō Ainu
* Matagi
* Mieko Chikappu
* Shizue Ukaji
Ainu culture
* Ainu flag
* Ainu genre painting
* Ikupasuy
{{div col end}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Works cited
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |lastBatchelor |firstJohn |author-linkJohn Batchelor (missionary) |year1901 |titleThe Ainu and their folk-lore |publisherThe Religious Tract Society |locationLondon |isbn978-5-87145-119-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/b29010664}}
* {{cite book |last1Fitzhugh |first1William W. |last2Dubreuil |first2Chisato O. |year1999 |titleAinu: Spirit of a Northern People |publisherArctic Studies Center, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution in association with University of Washington Press |isbn978-0-96734-290-0 |oclc42801973 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/ainuspiritofnort00wash}}
* {{cite journal |lastHohmann |firstSkye |year2008 |titleThe Ainu's modern struggle |journalWorld Watch |volume21 |number6 |pages18–21 |url=http://www.skyehohmann.com/The%20Ainu's%20Modern%20Struggle.pdf}}
* {{cite book |lastHowell |firstDavid L. |year1997 |chapterThe Meiji State and the Logic of Ainu 'Protection' |titleNew Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan |pages612–634 |editor-firstHelen |editor-lastHardacre |locationLeiden |publisherBrill |isbn978-9-00410-735-9 |doi10.1163/9789004644847_049}}
* {{cite journal |lastHowell |firstDavid L. |date2004 |titleMaking 'Useful Citizens' of Ainu Subjects in Early 20th-Century Japan |journalThe Journal of Asian Studies |volume63 |issue1 |pages5–29|doi10.1017/S002191180400004X |doi-accessfree |jstor4133292 |s2cid34934412 |issn=0021-9118}}
* {{cite book |lastHowell |firstDavid L. |year2005 |titleGeographies of Identity in 19th Century Japan |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn978-0-520-24085-8 |url={{google books URL|0prtzCvKb50C}}}}
* {{cite journal |lastHudson |firstMark J. |author-linkMark J. Hudson |year1999a |titleAinu Ethnogenesis and the Northern Fujiwara |journalArctic Anthropology |volume36 |issue1/2 |pages73–83 |jstor40316506}}
* {{cite book |lastHudson |firstMark J. |author-linkMark J. Hudson |date1999b |titleRuins of identity: ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands |publisherUniversity of Hawai'i Press |isbn=9780824864194}}
* {{cite journal |lastHudson |firstMark J. |author-linkMark J. Hudson |date2022 |titleRe-thinking Jōmon and Ainu in Japanese History |journalThe Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |volume20 |issue15 |s2cid251835463 |urlhttps://apjjf.org/2022/15/Hudson.html |access-date=November 18, 2023}}
* {{citation |lastKim |firstLoretta E. |year2019 |titleEthnic Chrysalis |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center}}
* {{cite book |lastKing |firstV. |year2012 |titleThe Ainu of Japan: A critical ethnography |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |lastLandor |first Arnold Henry Savage |author-linkArnold Henry Savage Landor |year2012 |orig-year1893 |titleAlone with the Hairy Ainu: or, 3,800 Miles on a Pack Saddle in Yezo and a Cruise to the Kurile Islands |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-1-10804-941-2}}
* {{cite journal |lastLevin |firstMark |year1999 |titleKayano et al. v. Hokkaido Expropriation Committee: 'The Nibutani Dam Decision' |journalInternational Legal Materials |volume38 |ssrn1635447 |ssrn-accessfree |doi10.1017/S0020782900013061 |s2cid164944206}}
* {{cite journal |lastLevin |firstMark |year2001 |titleEssential Commodities and Racial Justice: Using Constitutional Protection of Japan's Indigenous Ainu People to Inform Understandings of the United States and Japan |journalNew York University Journal of International Law and Politics |volume33 |ssrn1635451 |ssrn-accessfree}}
* {{cite journal |lastLevin |firstMark |year2008 |titleThe Wajin's Whiteness: Law and Race Privilege in Japan |journalHōritsu Jihō |volume80 |number2 |ssrn1551462}}
* {{cite book |lastNakamura |firstKazuyuki |date2010 |editor1-lastKikuchi |editor1-firstToshihiko |script-titleja:北東アジアの歴史と文化 |languageja |titleHokutō Ajia no rekishi to bunka |trans-titleA history and cultures of Northeast Asia |script-chapterja:「北からの蒙古襲来」をめぐる諸問題 |chapterKita kara no mōko shūrai wo meguru shōmondai |trans-chapterSeveral questions around "the Mongol attack from the north" |publisherHokkaido University Press |isbn9784832967342}}
* {{cite book |lastNakamura |firstKazuyuki |date2012 |editor1-lastKatō |editor1-firstHirofumi |editor2-lastSuzuki |editor2-firstKenji |script-titleja:新しいアイヌ史の構築 : 先史編・古代編・中世編 |languageja |titleAtarashii Ainu shi no kōchiku : senshi hen, kodai hen, chūsei hen |script-chapterja:元・明代の史料にみえるアイヌとアイヌ文化 |chapterGen-Mindai no shiryō kara mieru Ainu to Ainu bunka |trans-chapterThe Ainu and Ainu culture from historical records of the Yuan and Ming |publisherHokkaido University Press |urlhttps://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/56288 |pages138–145}}
* {{cite book |lastNakayama |firstTaisho |year2015 |titleJapanese Society on Karafuto |seriesVoices from the Shifting Russo-Japanese Border: Karafuto / Sakhalin |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-315-75268-6 |url{{google books URL|TnTABgAAQBAJ}} |via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |firstLi |lastNarangoa |year2014 |titleHistorical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia |publisherColumbia University Press |locationNew York |isbn=9780231160704}}
* {{cite book |lastPiłsudski |firstBronisław |editor-lastMajewicz |editor-firstAlfred F. |dateDecember 30, 2004 |titleMaterials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore 2 |volume3 |publisherWalter de Gruyter |isbn978-3-11-017614-8 |doi10.1515/9783110895681 |url={{google books URL|NX0W2N8pgWQC}}}}
* {{cite book |lastPoisson |firstBarbara Aoki |year2002 |titleThe Ainu of Japan |publisherLerner Publications |locationMinneapolis |isbn978-0-82254-176-9 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/ainuofjapan00pois}}
* {{cite journal |lastPorter |firstCrystal |dateDecember 2008 |titleAfter the Ainu Shinpō: The United Nations and the Indigenous People of Japan |urlhttps://newvoices.org.au/newvoices/media/JPF-New-Voices-Vol-2.pdf |journalNew Voices |publisherThe Japan Foundation |volume2 |number|pages201–219 |doi10.21159/nv.02.10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241102140455/http://newvoices.org.au/newvoices/media/JPF-New-Voices-Vol-2.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2024}}
* {{cite book |lastSasaki |firstShiro |year1999 |chapterTrading Brokers and Partners with China, Russia, and Japan |titleAinu: Spirit of a Northern People |editor1-firstW. W. |editor1-lastFitzhugh |editor2-firstC. O.|editor2-lastDubreuil |publisherArctic Study Center, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. |url=https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/ainuspiritofnort00wash}}
* {{cite book |lastSchlesinger |firstJonathan |year2017 |titleA World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule |isbn9781503600683 |publisherStanford University Press |url={{google books URL|aCKaDQAAQBAJ}}}}
* {{cite book |lastSiddle |firstRichard |year1996 |titleRace, Resistance, and the Ainu of Japan |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-41513-228-2 |oclc243850790 |url{{google books URL|W5DKfJsPv2sC}}}}
* {{cite book |lastSjöberg |firstKatarina |year1993 |titleThe Return of the Ainu: Cultural Mobilization and the Practice of Ethnicity in Japan |seriesStudies in Anthropology and History |volume9 |publisherHarwood Academic Publishers |locationSwitzerland |isbn978-3-71865-401-7 |doi10.4324/9781315077130 |url={{google books URL|tePeAQAAQBAJ}}}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastSmith |editor-firstNorman |year2017 |titleEmpire and Environment in the Making of Manchuria |publisherUniversity of British Columbia Press |isbn9780774832908}}
* {{cite book |lastStephan |firstJohn |year1971 |titleSakhalin: a history |publisherClarendon Press |locationOxford |isbn=9780198215509}}
* {{cite book |lastTakahashi |firstChikashi |dateApril 18, 2006 |chapterInter-Asian competition in the fur market in the 18th and 19th centuries |titleIntra-Asian Trade and the World Market |editor1-lastLatham |editor1-firstA. J. H. |editor2-lastKawakatsu |editor2-firstHeita |editor2-linkHeita Kawakatsu |seriesRoutledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia |publication-placeAbingdon |publisherRoutledge |isbn9781134194070 |url{{google books URL|JcsjAsz6fs8C}} |access-dateMarch 5, 2024}}
* {{cite thesis |lastTanaka |firstSakurako (Sherry) |date2000 |titleThe Ainu of Tsugaru: the indigenous history and shamanism of northern Japan |publisherUniversity of British Columbia |languageen |doi10.14288/1.0076926 |doi-accessfree}}
* {{cite book |lastWalker |firstBrett |year2001 |titleThe Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and Culture in Japanese Expansion, 1590–1800 |publisherUniversity of California Press |locationBerkeley |isbn978-0-52022-736-1 |oclc45958211 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/conquestainuland00walk |url-accesslimited}}
* {{cite book |lastWalker |firstBrett L. |year2006 |titleThe Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and Culture in Japanese Expansion, 1590–1800 |publisherUniversity of California Press |locationBerkeley |isbn0-520-24834-1|url{{google books URL|D5iOcHB3h5AC}}}}
* {{cite book |lastZgusta |firstRichard |year2015 |titleThe peoples of Northeast Asia through time : precolonial ethnic and cultural processes along the coast between Hokkaido and the Bering Strait |locationLeiden, Netherlands |publisherBrill |isbn9789004300439 |oclc912504787}}
{{Refend}}
; Genetic studies
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last1Tokunaga |first1Katsushi |last2Ohashi |first2Jun |last3Bannai |first3Makoto |last4Juji |first4Takeo |dateSeptember 2001 |titleGenetic link between Asians and native Americans: evidence from HLA genes and haplotypes |journalHuman Immunology |volume62 |issue9 |pages1001–1008 |doi10.1016/S0198-8859(01)00301-9 |doi-accessfree |pmid=11543902}}
* {{cite journal |last1Tajima |first1Atsushi |last2Hayami |first2Masanori |last3Tokunaga |first3Katsushi |last4Juji |first4Takeo |last5Matsuo |first5Masafumi |last6Marzuki |first6Sangkot |last7Omoto |first7Keiichi |last8Horai |first8Satoshi |date2004 |titleGenetic origins of the Ainu inferred from combined DNA analyses of maternal and paternal lineages |journalJournal of Human Genetics |languageen |volume49 |issue4 |pages187–193 |doi10.1007/s10038-004-0131-x |doi-accessfree |pmid14997363 |s2cid8174725 |issn1435-232X}}
* {{cite journal |last1Hammer |first1Michael F. |last2Karafet |first2Tatiana M. |last3Park |first3Hwayong |last4Omoto |first4Keiichi |last5Harihara |first5Shinji |last6Stoneking |first6Mark |last7Horai |first7Satoshi |date2006 |titleDual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes |journalJournal of Human Genetics |languageen |volume51 |issue1 |pages47–58 |doi10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0 |doi-accessfree |pmid16328082 |s2cid6559289 |issn1435-232X}}
* {{cite journal |last1Sato |first1Takehiro |last2Amano |first2Tetsuya |last3Ono |first3Hiroko |last4Ishida |first4Hajime |last5Kodera |first5Haruto |last6Matsumura |first6Hirofumi |last7Yoneda |first7Minoru |last8Masuda |first8Ryuichi |date2009 |titleMitochondrial DNA haplogrouping of the Okhotsk people based on analysis of ancient DNA: an intermediate of gene flow from the continental Sakhalin people to the Ainu |journalAnthropological Science |volume117 |issue3 |pages171–180 |doi10.1537/ase.081202 |doi-accessfree |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/117/3/117_081202/_html/-char/ja/}}
* {{cite journal |last1Jinam |first1Timothy A. |last2Kanzawa-Kiriyama |first2Hideaki |last3Inoue |first3Ituro |last4Tokunaga |first4Katsushi |last5Omoto |first5Keiichi |last6Saitou |first6Naruya |dateOctober 2015 |titleUnique characteristics of the Ainu population in Northern Japan |journalJournal of Human Genetics |languageen |volume60 |issue10 |pages565–571|doi10.1038/jhg.2015.79|doi-accessfree |pmid26178428 |issn=1435-232X}}
* {{cite journal |last1Jeong |first1Choongwon |last2Nakagome |first2Shigeki |last3Di Rienzo |first3Anna |dateJanuary 2016 |titleDeep History of East Asian Populations Revealed Through Genetic Analysis of the Ainu |journalGenetics |volume202 |issue1 |pages261–272|doi10.1534/genetics.115.178673 |pmid26500257 |pmc=4701090}}
* {{cite journal |last1Kanzawa-Kiriyama |first1Hideaki |last2Jinam |first2Timothy A. |last3Kawai |first3Yosuke |last4Sato |first4Takehiro |last5Hosomichi |first5Kazuyoshi |last6Tajima |first6Atsushi |last7Adachi |first7Noboru |last8Matsumura |first8Hirofumi |last9Kryukov |first9Kirill |last10Saitou |first10Naruya |last11Shinoda |first11Ken-Ichi |date2019 |titleLate Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan |journalAnthropological Science |volume127 |issue2 |pages83–108 |doi10.1537/ase.190415 |doi-accessfree|url=http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/42054/1/Late%20Jomon.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1Gakuhari |first1Takashi |last2Nakagome |first2Shigeki |last3Rasmussen |first3Simon |last4Allentoft |first4Morten E. |last5Sato |first5Takehiro |last6Korneliussen |first6Thorfinn |last7Chuinneagáin |first7Blánaid Ní |last8Matsumae |first8Hiromi |last9Koganebuchi |first9Kae |last10Schmidt |first10Ryan |last11Mizushima |first11Souichiro |last12Kondo |first12Osamu |last13Shigehara |first13Nobuo |last14Yoneda |first14Minoru |last15Kimura |first15Ryosuke |dateAugust 25, 2020 |titleAncient Jomon genome sequence analysis sheds light on migration patterns of early East Asian populations |journalCommunications Biology |volume3 |issue1 |pages437 |doi10.1038/s42003-020-01162-2 |issn2399-3642 |pmc7447786 |pmid32843717}}
* {{cite journal |last1Sato |first1Takehiro |last2Adachi |first2Noboru |last3Kimura |first3Ryosuke |last4Hosomichi |first4Kazuyoshi |last5Yoneda |first5Minoru |last6Oota |first6Hiroki |last7Tajima |first7Atsushi |last8Toyoda |first8Atsushi |last9Kanzawa-Kiriyama |first9Hideaki |last10Matsumae |first10Hiromi |last11Koganebuchi |first11Kae |last12Shimizu |first12Kentaro K. |last13Shinoda |first13Ken-ichi |last14Hanihara |first14Tsunehiko |last15Weber |first15Andrzej |date2021 |titleWhole-Genome Sequencing of a 900-Year-Old Human Skeleton Supports Two Past Migration Events from the Russian Far East to Northern Japan |journalGenome Biology and Evolution |volume13 |issue9 |doi10.1093/gbe/evab192 |doi-accessfree |issn1759-6653 |pmc8449830 |pmid34410389}}
* {{cite journal |last1Osada |first1Naoki |last2Kawai |first2Yosuke |date2021 |titleExploring models of human migration to the Japanese archipelago using genome-wide genetic data |journalAnthropological Science |volume129 |issue1 |pages45–58 |doi10.1537/ase.201215 |doi-accessfree}}
* {{cite journal |last1Cooke |first1Niall P. |last2Mattiangeli |first2Valeria |last3Cassidy |first3Lara M. |last4Okazaki |first4Kenji |last5Stokes |first5Caroline A. |last6Onbe |first6Shin |last7Hatakeyama |first7Satoshi |last8Machida |first8Kenichi |last9Kasai |first9Kenji |last10Tomioka |first10Naoto |last11Matsumoto |first11Akihiko |date2021 |titleAncient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations |journalScience Advances |volume7 |issue38 |pageseabh2419 |languageen |doi10.1126/sciadv.abh2419 |pmc8448447 |pmid34533991 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.2419C}}
{{Refend}}
; Language
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last1Lee |first1Sean |last2Hasegawa |first2Toshikazu |dateApril 2013 |titleEvolution of the Ainu Language in Space and Time |journalPLOS ONE |volume8 |issue4 |pagese62243 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0062243 |doi-accessfree |pmid23638014 |pmc3637396 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...862243L}}
* {{cite journal |lastMartin |firstKylie |year2011 |script-titleja:特集 超国家的枠組、標準化、ネットワーク化--ヨーロッパ、日本、アフリカの組織的多様性マネージメント |languageja |titleTokushū chōkokkateki wakugumi, hyōjunka, nettowāku-ka -- Yōroppa, Nihon, Afurika no soshiki-teki tayō-sei manējimento |trans-titleOn the road to Ainu language revitalization |journalMedia and Communication Studies |volume60 |pages57–93 |id={{NCID|AA12286697}}}}
* {{cite book |editor1-firstOsahito |editor1-lastMiyaoka |editor2-firstOsamu |editor2-lastSakiyama |editor3-firstMichael E. |editor3-lastKrauss |date2007 |titleThe Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |isbn978-0-19-153289-4 |pages377–382 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199266623.001.0001}}
* {{cite book |lastShibatani |firstMasayoshi |year1990 |titleThe Languages of Japan |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-36918-3 |oclc19456186 |url{{google books URL|sD-MFTUiPYgC}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1Teeter |first1Jennifer |last2Okazaki |first2Takayuki |year2011 |titleAinu as a Heritage Language of Japan: History, Current State and Future of Ainu Language Policy and Education |journalHeritage Language Journal |volume8 |issue2 |pages96–114 |doi10.46538/hlj.8.2.5 |doi-accessfree |id={{ERIC|EJ937154}}}}
* {{cite book |lastVovin |firstAlexander Vladimirovich |author-linkAlexander Vovin |year1993 |titleA Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu |locationLeiden |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-09905-0 |url={{google books URL|8w1_cCWIpEoC}}}}
* {{cite book |lastVovin |firstAlexander Vladimirovich |author-linkAlexander Vovin |year2008 |script-titleja:萬葉集と風土記に見られる不思議な言葉 と上代日本列島に於けるアイヌ語の分布 |languageja |titleMan'yōshū to Fudoki ni Mirareru Fushigina Kotoba to Jōdai Nihon Retto ni Okeru Ainugo no Bunpu |trans-titleStrange Words in the ''Man'yoshū and the Fudoki and the Distribution of the Ainu Language in the Japanese Islands in Prehistory |publisherKokusai Nihon Bunka Kenkyū Sentā |urlhttp://www.nichibun.ac.jp/graphicversion/dbase/forum/pdf/fn215.pdf |access-dateMarch 27, 2011 |archive-dateFebruary 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211234350/http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/graphicversion/dbase/forum/pdf/fn215.pdf}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1Trekhsviatskyi |first1Anatolii |titleAt the far edge of the Chinese Oikoumene: Mutual relations of the indigenous population of Sakhalin with the Yuan and Ming dynasties |journalJournal of Asian History |date2007 |volume41 |issue2 |pages131–155 |issn0021-910X |jstor41933457}}
* {{cite book |lastEtter |firstCarl |year2004 |titleAinu Folklore: Traditions and Culture of the Vanishing Aborigines of Japan |orig-year1949 |publisherKessinger Publishing |locationWhitfish, MT |isbn978-1-4179-7697-3}}
* {{cite book |lastHonda |firstKatsuichi |year1993 |titleAinu Minzoku |publisherAsahi Shimbun Publishing |locationTokyo |isbn978-4-02-256577-8|languageja |oclc=29601145}}
* {{cite book |lastHori |firstIchiro |year1968 |titleFolk Religion in Japan: Continuity and Change |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |locationChicago |seriesHaskell lectures on History of religions |volume1}}
* {{cite book |lastHabu |firstJunko |year2004 |titleAncient Jomon of Japan |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge |isbn978-0-521-77670-7 |oclc53131386}}
* Hitchingham, Masako Yoshida (trans.), [https://www.webcitation.org/5t212GASC?url=http://www.hawaii.edu/aplpj/articles/APLPJ_01.1_hitchingham_masako.pdf Act for the Promotion of Ainu Culture & Dissemination of Knowledge Regarding Ainu Traditions], Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal, vol. 1, no. 1 (2000).
* Kayano, Shigeru (1994). Our Land Was A Forest: An Ainu Memoir. Westview Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8133-1880-6}}. {{ISBN|978-0-8133-1880-6}}.
* {{cite book |lastBatchelor |firstJohn |year1892 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrcoNAAAAIAAJ|titleThe Ainu of Japan: the religion, superstitions, and general history of the hairy aborigines of Japan |publisherReligious Tract Society |locationLondon |page336 |access-dateMarch 1, 2012}}
* {{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7-u-KkE5XqkC |titleAino Folk-Tales |editorBasil Hall Chamberlain |publisherForgotten Books |isbn978-1-60620-087-2 |year=1888}}
* {{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiJzhAAAAMAAJ |titleAino folk-tales |othersEdward B. Taylor, Introduction |date1888 |authorBasil Hall Chamberlain |seriesPublications of the Folklore Society, vol. 22 |publisher C. G. Röder |place=Leipzig}} (Indiana University, digitized September 3, 2009)
* {{cite book |last1Batchelor |first1John |last2Miyabe |first2Kingo |year1898 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRrYUAAAAYAAJ |titleAinu economic plants |volume21 |page43 |access-date=April 23, 2012}} [Original from Harvard University Digitized January 30, 2008] [YOKOHAMA : R. MEIKLEJOHN & CO., NO 49.]
{{Refend}}
* The Collected Works of Bronisław Piłsudski, translated and edited by Alfred F. Majewicz with the assistance of Elzbieta Majewicz.
** Volume 1: The Aborigines of Sakhalin
** [https://polona.pl/item/materials-for-the-study-of-the-ainu-language-and-folklore,MjU3MzgwMjc/8/#info:metadata Volume 2: Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore (Kraków 1912)]
** Volume 3: Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore II
** Volume 4: Materials for the Study of Tungusic Languages and Folklore
External links
{{Commons category|Ainu}}
{{Wikisourcehas|2=Aino Folk-Tales'', Chamberlain, B. H. Folk-Lore Society, 1888. (Members edition, without expurgation)}}
; Organizations
* [http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ Hokkaido Utari Kyokai/Ainu Association of Hokkaido] {{in lang|ja|en}}
* [http://www.city.sapporo.jp/shimin/pirka-kotan/en/index.html Sapporo Pirka Kotan Ainu Cultural Center] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210614000643/https://www.city.sapporo.jp/shimin/pirka-kotan/en/index.html|dateJune 14, 2021}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171214183443/https://www.frpac.or.jp/web/english/ Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (centers located in Sapporo and Tokyo)] {{in lang|ja|en}}
* [http://www.cais.hokudai.ac.jp/english/ Hokkaido University Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170901112847/http://www.cais.hokudai.ac.jp/english/|dateSeptember 1, 2017}}
* [http://city.hokkai.or.jp/~ayaedu/ Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu] in Samani, Hokkaidō
* [https://www.ff-ainu.or.jp/web/english/together.html/The Foundation for Ainu Culture] {{in lang|ja|en}}
; Museums and exhibits
* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/features/ainu/ Smithsonian Institution]
* [http://archive.fieldmuseum.org/research_collections/anthropology/anthro_sites/boone/ainu/gal_jp_ainu.html The Boone Collection]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160130060719/http://www.ainu-museum-nibutani.org/ Nibutani Ainu Cultural Museum] {{in lang|ja}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151029080519/http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/ The Ainu Museum at Shiraoi]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180726170031/https://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/eastasian/japanrice/ Ainu Komonjo (18th & 19th century records) – Ohnuki Collection]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030927154809/http://www.molli.org.uk/explorers/the_regions/north_america.asp The Regions: North America]—Ainu–North American cultural similarities
; Articles
* [https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2008/0609/p04s01-woap.html "Japan's Ainu hope new identity leads to more rights"] in The Christian Science Monitor, June 9, 2008
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090225075127/http://www.blm.gov/education/00_resources/articles/Columbia_river_basin/posterback.html A Salmon's Life: An Incredible Journey (Columbia River basin, June 8, 2016)]—Posterback Activities
; Video
* [http://www.filmpreservation.org/preserved-films/screening-room/a-trip-through-japan-with-the-ywca-ca-1919 "A Trip through Japan with the YWCA (ca. 1919)"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151027195839/http://www.filmpreservation.org/preserved-films/screening-room/a-trip-through-japan-with-the-ywca-ca-1919|dateOctober 27, 2015}}—Rare Japanese video featuring Ainu
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=endv3PVpXFg The Ainu: The First Peoples of Japan. Old videos and photographs arranged by Rawn Joseph]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjBYtYAOsJc "The Despised Ainu People". The Ainus' Tense Relationship with Japan. 1994. Journeyman.tv]
{{Ethnic groups in Japan|state=expanded}}
{{Ethnic groups in Russia|state=expanded}}
{{Kuril Islands}}
{{East Asian topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ainu People}}
Category:Ethnic groups in Japan
Category:Ethnic groups in Russia
Category:History of Hokkaido
Category:History of Northeast Asia
Category:History of Sakhalin
Category:Indigenous peoples of East Asia
Category:People of Kamakura-period Japan
Category:Japanese people of Russian descent
Category:Russian people of Japanese descent
Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples in Asia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_people | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.552349 |
1536 | Acropolis | thumb|upright=1.5|Acropolis of Athens in Athens, Greece
An acropolis was the settlement of an upper part of an ancient Greek city, especially a citadel, and frequently a hill with precipitous sides, mainly chosen for purposes of defense. The term is typically used to refer to the Acropolis of Athens, yet every Greek city had an acropolis of its own. Acropolises were used as religious centers and places of worship, forts, and places in which the royal and high-status resided. Acropolises became the nuclei of large cities of classical ancient times, and served as important centers of a community. Some well-known acropolises have become the centers of tourism in present-day, and, especially, the Acropolis of Athens has been a revolutionary center for the studies of ancient Greece since the Mycenaean period. Many of them have become a source of revenue for Greece, and represent some great technology during the period.
Origin
An acropolis is defined by the Greek definition of , ; from () or () meaning “highest; edge; extremity”, and () meaning “city.” The plural of () is , also commonly as and , and in Greek. The term acropolis is also used to describe the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many Maya cities, including Tikal and Copán. Acropolis is also the term used by archaeologists and historians for the urban Castro culture settlements located in Northwestern Iberian hilltops.
thumb|Acropolis of Lindos, on the island of Rhodes, Greece
It is primarily associated with the Greek cities of Athens, Argos (with Larisa), Thebes (with Cadmea), Corinth (with its Acrocorinth), and Rhodes (with its Acropolis of Lindos). It may also be applied generically to all such citadels including Rome, Carthage, Jerusalem, Celtic Bratislava, Asia Minor, or Castle Rock in Edinburgh. An example in Ireland is the Rock of Cashel. In Central Italy, many small rural communes still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as of the commune. Other parts of the world have developed other names for the high citadel, or , which often have reinforced a naturally strong site. Because of this, many cultures have included acropolises in their societies, however, do not use the same name for them.
Differing acropolises
The acropolis of a city was used in many ways, with regards to ancient time and through references. Because an acropolis was built at the highest part of a city, it served as a highly functional form of protection, a fortress, and was as well as a home to the royal of a city and a centre for religion through the worshipping of different gods. There have been many classical and ancient acropolises, including the most commonly-known, Acropolis of Athens, as well as the Tepecik Acropolis at Patara, Ankara Acropolis, Acropolis of La Blanca, Acropolis at the Maya Site in Guatemala, and the Acropolis at Halieis.
thumb|left|The Parthenon in Athens
The most famous example is the Athenian Acropolis, which is a collection of structures featuring a citadel on the highest part of land in ancient (and modern-day) Athens, Greece. Many notable structures at the site were constructed in the 5th century BCE, including the Propylaea, Erechtheion, and the Temple of Athena. The Temple is also commonly known as the Parthenon, which is derived from the divine Athena Parthenos. Its fortification wall and Bastion date back to the Classical period. It included a fortified wall, sanctuary of Apollo (two temples, an altar, a race course), and necropolis (cemetery). This acropolis was well known as a spot for holy worshipping, and was symbolic of the time. It has also been a place that has historically recognized the legislative changes that Turkey has faced. This acropolis developed as a place of residence for the city of La Blanca's rulers. This funerary structure was integrated into this sacred landscape, and illustrated the prosperity of power between the royal figures of Pedras Negras in Guatemala. The civilization developed its religious, educational, and cultural aspects of the acropolis, and is used today as a location that holds events, such as operas.
The neighborhood of Morningside Heights in New York City is commonly referred to as the "Academic Acropolis" due to its high elevation and the concentration of educational institutions in the area, including Columbia University and its affiliates, Barnard College, Teachers College, Union Theological Seminary and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America; Manhattan School of Music; Bank Street College of Education; and New York Theological Seminary. The analogy is also aided by the neoclassical architecture of the Columbia University campus, which was designed by McKim, Mead & White in the early 20th century.
Excavations
Much of the modern-day uses of acropolises have been discovered through excavations that have developed over the course of many years. For example, the Athenian Acropolis includes a Great Temple that holds the Parthenon, a specific space for ancient worship. Through today's findings and research, the Parthenon treasury is able to be recognized as the west part of the structure (the Erechtheion), as well as the Parthenon itself. Most excavations have been able to provide archaeologists with samples of pottery, ceramics, and vessels. The excavation of the Acropolis of Halieis produced remains that provided context that dated the Acropolis at Halieis from the Final Neolithic period through the first Early Helladic period.
See also
Acropolis of Rhodes
Acropolis Palaiokastro
Idjang
Tell (archaeology)
Hillfort
References
External links
Acropolis Museum
Acropolis: description, photo album
The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website)
The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website)
The Acropolis: A Walk Through History
The Parthenon Frieze (Hellenic Ministry of Culture web site)
UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens
Category:Ancient Greek architecture
Category:Culture of Greece
Category:Archaeological terminology
Category:Ancient Greek fortifications | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.567913 |
1537 | Acupuncture | {{Short description|Pseudoscientific needling treatment}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox interventions
| name = Acupuncture
| image = Acupuncture1-1.jpg
| ICD10 = {{ICD10PCS|8E0H30Z|8/E/0/H/}}
| ICD9unlinked = {{ICD9proc|99.91}}-{{ICD9proc|99.92}}
| MeshID = D015670
| OPS301 = {{OPS301|8-975}}.2
| other_codes =
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|s=针灸
|t=針灸{{efn|The word "needle" can be written with either of the two characters {{lang|zh|針}} or {{lang|zh|鍼}} in traditional contexts.}}
|l="needling [and] moxibustion"
|p=zhēnjiǔ
|w=chên<sup>1</sup>-chiu<sup>3</sup>
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|zh|en|1|.|j|iu|3}}
|j=zam<sup>1</sup>-gau<sup>3</sup>
|y=jāmgau
|ci={{IPAc-yue|z|am|1|.|g|au|3}}
|poj=chiam-kù
}}
{{Alternative medicine sidebar}}
Acupuncture{{efn|From the Latin {{lang|la|acus}} (needle) and {{lang|la|punctura}} (to puncture).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Pyne D, Shenker NG | title Demystifying acupuncture | journal Rheumatology | volume 47 | issue 8 | pages 1132–36 | date August 2008 | pmid 18460551 | doi 10.1093/rheumatology/ken161 | doi-access free }}</ref>}} is a form of alternative medicine<ref nameBerman2010>{{cite journal | vauthors Berman BM, Langevin HM, Witt CM, Dubner R | s2cid 10129706 | title Acupuncture for chronic low back pain | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 363 | issue 5 | pages 454–61 | date July 2010 | pmid 20818865 | doi 10.1056/NEJMct0806114 }}</ref> and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body.<ref name"Adams 2011"/> Acupuncture is a pseudoscience;<ref nameBaran2014>{{cite book |vauthorsBaran GR, Kiana MF, Samuel SP |titleHealthcare and Biomedical Technology in the 21st Century |chapterScience, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How do They Differ? |publisherSpringer |year2014 |pages19–57 |doi10.1007/978-1-4614-8541-4_2 |isbn978-1-4614-8540-7 |quotevarious pseudosciences maintain their popularity in our society: acupuncture, astrology, homeopathy, etc.}}</ref><ref nameKhine2012>{{cite book |vauthorsGood R |veditorsKhine MS |titleAdvances in Nature of Science Research: Concepts and Methodologies |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4uOqSId2IjsC&pgPA103 |year2012 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-94-007-2457-0 |page103 |chapterChapter 5: Why the Study of Pseudoscience Should Be Included in Nature of Science Studies |quoteBelieving in something like chiropractic or acupuncture really can help relieve pain to a small degree [...] but many related claims of medical cures by these pseudosciences are bogus. |access-date3 August 2016 |archive-date15 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415011907/https://books.google.com/books?id4uOqSId2IjsC&pgPA103 |url-statuslive }}</ref> the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientific knowledge,<ref name"Barrett2007" /> and it has been characterized as quackery.{{efn|name="quackery"}}
There is a range of acupuncture technological variants that originated in different philosophies,<ref name"Peñas2010" /> and techniques vary depending on the country in which it is performed. However, it can be divided into two main foundational philosophical applications and approaches; the first being the modern standardized form called eight principles TCM and the second being an older system that is based on the ancient Daoist wuxing, better known as the five elements or phases in the West.<ref name"Ernst2006" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date2009-12-01|titleA Study of the Sa-Ahm Five Element Acupuncture Theory|journalJournal of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies|languageen|volume2|issue4|pages309–320|doi10.1016/S2005-2901(09)60074-1|issn2005-2901|last1Ahn|first1Chang-Beohm|last2Jang|first2Kyung-Jun|last3Yoon|first3Hyun-Min|last4Kim|first4Cheol-Hong|last5Min|first5Young-Kwang|last6Song|first6Chun-Ho|last7Lee|first7Jang-Cheon|pmid20633508|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleSyndrome differentiation according to the eight principles |urlhttp://www.shen-nong.com/eng/exam/diagnosis_eightprinciples.html |access-date3 February 2021 |websitewww.shen-nong.com |publisherShen-nong Limited |archive-date10 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200810023753/http://www.shen-nong.com/eng/exam/diagnosis_eightprinciples.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Acupuncture is most often used to attempt pain relief,<ref name"Ernst 2011" /><ref name"NCCAM2010" /> though acupuncturists say that it can also be used for a wide range of other conditions. Acupuncture is typically used in combination with other forms of treatment.<ref name"Hutchinson2012">{{cite journal | vauthors Hutchinson AJ, Ball S, Andrews JC, Jones GG | title The effectiveness of acupuncture in treating chronic non-specific low back pain: a systematic review of the literature | journal Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research | volume 7 | issue 1 | pages 36 | date October 2012 | pmid 23111099 | pmc 3563482 | doi 10.1186/1749-799X-7-36 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
The global acupuncture market was worth US$24.55 billion in 2017. The market was led by Europe with a 32.7% share, followed by Asia-Pacific with a 29.4% share and the Americas with a 25.3% share. It was estimated in 2021 that the industry would reach a market size of US$55 billion by 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAcupuncture Market Share, Size Global Industry Revenue, Business Growth, Demand and Applications Market Research Report to 2023|urlhttps://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/acupuncture-market-share-size-global-industry-revenue-business-growth-demand-and-applications-market-research-report-to-2023-2021-08-30|access-date2021-10-19|websiteMarketWatch|languageEN-US|archive-date20 October 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211020235421/https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/acupuncture-market-share-size-global-industry-revenue-business-growth-demand-and-applications-market-research-report-to-2023-2021-08-30|url-statusdead}}</ref>
<!-- Efficacy and safety -->
The conclusions of trials and systematic reviews of acupuncture generally provide no good evidence of benefits, which suggests that it is not an effective method of healthcare.<ref namesys0/><ref namesys/> Acupuncture is generally safe when done by appropriately trained practitioners using clean needle techniques and single-use needles.<ref name"Xu S"/><ref name"nciacupuncture"/> When properly delivered, it has a low rate of mostly minor adverse effects.<ref name"Adams 2011"/><ref name"Xu S"/> When accidents and infections do occur, they are associated with neglect on the part of the practitioner, particularly in the application of sterile techniques.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/><ref name"nciacupuncture"/> A review conducted in 2013 stated that reports of infection transmission increased significantly in the preceding decade.<ref name"Gnatta2013"/> The most frequently reported adverse events were pneumothorax and infections.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> Since serious adverse events continue to be reported, it is recommended that acupuncturists be trained sufficiently to reduce the risk.<ref name="Ernst 2011"/>
<!-- Mechanism, Epidemiology and History -->
Scientific investigation has not found any histological or physiological evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as qi, meridians, and acupuncture points,{{efn |nameSinghErnst2008 |Singh & Ernst (2008) stated, "Scientists are still unable to find a shred of evidence to support the existence of meridians or Ch'i",<ref>{{harvnb|Singh & Ernst|2008|page 72}}</ref> "The traditional principles of acupuncture are deeply flawed, as there is no evidence at all to demonstrate the existence of Ch'i or meridians"<ref>{{harvnb|Singh & Ernst|2008|page107}}</ref> and "As yin and yang, acupuncture points and meridians are not a reality, but merely the product of an ancient Chinese philosophy".<ref>{{harvnb|Singh & Ernst|2008|page 387}}</ref>}}<ref name"Ahn2008"/> and many modern practitioners no longer support the existence of qi or meridians, which was a major part of early belief systems.<ref name"Peñas2010"/><ref nameMann2000/><ref nameWilliams2013/> Acupuncture is believed to have originated around 100&nbsp;BC in China, around the time The Inner Classic of Huang Di (Huangdi Neijing) was published,<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> though some experts suggest it could have been practiced earlier.<ref name"Ernst2006"/> Over time, conflicting claims and belief systems emerged about the effect of lunar, celestial and earthly cycles, yin and yang energies, and a body's "rhythm" on the effectiveness of treatment.<ref name"Prioreschi2004"/> Acupuncture fluctuated in popularity in China due to changes in the country's political leadership and the preferential use of rationalism or scientific medicine.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> Acupuncture spread first to Korea in the 6th century AD, then to Japan through medical missionaries,<ref name"abc"/> and then to Europe, beginning with France.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> In the 20th century, as it spread to the United States and Western countries, spiritual elements of acupuncture that conflicted with scientific knowledge were sometimes abandoned in favor of simply tapping needles into acupuncture points.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/><ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/><ref name="Jackson 2011 p. 610"/>
{{TOC limit|3}}
Clinical practice
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine.<ref nameBerman2010/> It is used most commonly for pain relief,<ref name"Ernst 2011"/><ref nameNCCAM2010>{{cite web|titleAcupuncture for Pain|urlhttp://nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/acupuncture-for-pain.htm|workNCCIH|access-date9 May 2014|dateJanuary 2008|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20151011153254/https://nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/introduction|archive-date11 October 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> though it is also used to treat a wide range of conditions. Acupuncture is generally only used in combination with other forms of treatment.<ref nameHutchinson2012/> For example, the American Society of Anesthesiologists states it may be considered in the treatment of nonspecific, noninflammatory low back pain only in conjunction with conventional therapy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Benzon HT, Connis RT, De Leon-Casasola OA, Glass DD, Korevaar WC, Cynwyd B, Mekhail NA, Merrill DG, Nickinovich DG, Rathmell JP, Sang CN, Simon DL | title Practice guidelines for chronic pain management: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Chronic Pain Management and the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine | journal Anesthesiology | volume 112 | issue 4 | pages 810–33 | date April 2010 | pmid 20124882 | doi 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181c43103 | doi-access free }}</ref>
Acupuncture is the insertion of thin needles into the skin.<ref name"Adams 2011"/> According to the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (Mayo Clinic), a typical session entails lying still while approximately five to twenty needles are inserted; for the majority of cases, the needles will be left in place for ten to twenty minutes.<ref namemayo2012>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/acupuncture/basics/what-you-can-expect/prc-20020778|workMayo Clinic Staff|publisherMayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research|titleWhat you can expect|dateJanuary 2012|access-date21 July 2014|archive-date8 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808235324/http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/acupuncture/basics/what-you-can-expect/prc-20020778|url-statuslive}}</ref> It can be associated with the application of heat, pressure, or laser light.<ref name"Adams 2011"/> Classically, acupuncture is individualized and based on philosophy and intuition, and not on scientific research.<ref>{{cite journal | lastSchwartz | firstL | urlhttp://medicalacupuncture.org/aama_marf/journal/vol12_1/evidence.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20011121060240/http://medicalacupuncture.org/aama_marf/journal/vol12_1/evidence.html|archive-date21 November 2001 |journalMedical Acupuncture | pages38–41 | year2000 |volume12 | issue1 | titleEvidence-Based Medicine And Traditional Chinese Medicine: Not Mutually Exclusive}}</ref> There is also a non-invasive therapy developed in early 20th-century Japan using an elaborate set of instruments other than needles for the treatment of children ({{Lang|ja-latn|shōnishin}} or {{Lang|ja-latn|shōnihari}}).<ref>{{cite book | first Stephen | last Birch | name-list-style vanc |titleJapanese Pediatric Acupuncture|publisherThieme |year2011 |isbn978-3131500618}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first Thomas | last Wernicke | name-list-style vanc |titleThe Art of Non-Invasive Paediatric Acupuncture|publisherJessica Kingsley Publishers |year2014 |isbn=978-1848191600}}</ref>
Clinical practice varies depending on the country.<ref nameErnst2006>{{cite journal | vauthors Ernst E | title Acupuncture – a critical analysis | journal Journal of Internal Medicine | volume 259 | issue 2 | pages 125–37 | date February 2006 | pmid 16420542 | doi 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2005.01584.x | s2cid 22052509 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref nameDummies/> A comparison of the average number of patients treated per hour found significant differences between China (10) and the United States (1.2).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Napadow V, Kaptchuk TJ | s2cid 2094918 | title Patient characteristics for outpatient acupuncture in Beijing, China | journal Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume 10 | issue 3 | pages 565–72 | date June 2004 | pmid 15253864 | doi 10.1089/1075553041323849 }}</ref> Chinese herbs are often used.<ref nameSherman>{{cite journal | vauthors Sherman KJ, Cherkin DC, Eisenberg DM, Erro J, Hrbek A, Deyo RA | title The practice of acupuncture: who are the providers and what do they do? | journal Annals of Family Medicine | volume 3 | issue 2 | pages 151–58 | year 2005 | pmid 15798042 | pmc 1466855 | doi 10.1370/afm.248 }}</ref> There is a diverse range of acupuncture approaches, involving different philosophies.<ref name"Peñas2010"/> Although various different techniques of acupuncture practice have emerged, the method used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) seems to be the most widely adopted in the US.<ref nameBerman2010/> Traditional acupuncture involves needle insertion, moxibustion, and cupping therapy,<ref name"Xu S"/> and may be accompanied by other procedures such as feeling the pulse and other parts of the body and examining the tongue.<ref nameBerman2010/> Traditional acupuncture involves the belief that a "life force" (qi) circulates within the body in lines called meridians.<ref nameNHS>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Acupuncture/Pages/Introduction.aspx|titleAcupuncture|publisherNHSChoices|access-date2 May 2015|archive-date3 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150503085352/http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Acupuncture/Pages/Introduction.aspx|url-statuslive}}</ref> The main methods practiced in the UK are TCM and Western medical acupuncture.<ref nameWheway2012/> The term Western medical acupuncture is used to indicate an adaptation of TCM-based acupuncture which focuses less on TCM.<ref nameNHS/><ref nameWhiteCummings2008>{{cite book | first1 Adrian | last1 White | first2 Mike | last2 Cummings | first3 Jacqueline | last3 Filshie | name-list-style vanc |titleAn Introduction to Western Medical Acupuncture|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMiw5AAAACAAJ|year2008|publisherChurchill Livingstone|isbn978-0-443-07177-5|page7|chapter2}}</ref> The Western medical acupuncture approach involves using acupuncture after a medical diagnosis.<ref nameNHS/> Limited research has compared the contrasting acupuncture systems used in various countries for determining different acupuncture points, and thus there is no defined standard for acupuncture points.<ref nameMillers2014>{{cite book|titleMiller's Anesthesia|date2014|publisherElsevier|isbn978-0702052835|page=1235}}</ref>
In traditional acupuncture, the acupuncturist decides which points to treat by observing and questioning the patient to make a diagnosis according to the tradition used. In TCM, the four diagnostic methods are: inspection, auscultation and olfaction, inquiring, and palpation. Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge.<ref nameCheng1987/> Auscultation and olfaction involve listening for particular sounds, such as wheezing, and observing body odor.<ref nameCheng1987/> Inquiring involves focusing on the "seven inquiries": chills and fever; perspiration; appetite, thirst and taste; defecation and urination; pain; sleep; and menses and leukorrhea.<ref nameCheng1987/> Palpation is focusing on feeling the body for tender {{Lang|zh-latn|A-shi}} points and feeling the pulse.<ref nameCheng1987>Cheng, 1987, chapter 12.</ref>
Needles
The most common mechanism of stimulation of acupuncture points employs penetration of the skin by thin metal needles, which are manipulated manually or the needle may be further stimulated by electrical stimulation (electroacupuncture).<ref nameBerman2010/> Acupuncture needles are typically made of stainless steel, making them flexible and preventing them from rusting or breaking.<ref nameHicks2005/> Needles are usually disposed of after each use to prevent contamination.<ref nameHicks2005/> Reusable needles when used should be sterilized between applications.<ref nameHicks2005>{{cite book | first Angela | last Hicks | name-list-style vanc |edition1 |page41 |titleThe Acupuncture Handbook: How Acupuncture Works and How It Can Help You |publisherPiatkus Books |year2005 |isbn978-0749924720}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastCollinge |firstWilliam J. |name-list-stylevanc |titleThe American Holistic Health Association Complete guide to alternative medicine |publisherWarner Books |locationNew York |year1996 |isbn978-0-446-67258-0 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/americanholistic00coll }}</ref> In many areas, only sterile, single-use acupuncture needles are allowed, including the State of California, USA.<ref>Department of Consumer Affairs, California Acupuncture Board. Title 16, Article 5. Standards of Practice, 1399.454. Single Use Needles. www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/laws_regs/art5.shtml 1-10-2020.</ref> Needles vary in length between {{convert|13|and|130|mm|in}}, with shorter needles used near the face and eyes, and longer needles in areas with thicker tissues; needle diameters vary from 0{{convert|.16|mm|3|abbron}} to 0{{convert|.46|mm|3|abbron}},<ref nameAung116>Aung & Chen, 2007, p. [https://books.google.com/books?idI6NclaeDWjgC&pgPA116 116].</ref> with thicker needles used on more robust patients. Thinner needles may be flexible and require tubes for insertion. The tip of the needle should not be made too sharp to prevent breakage, although blunt needles cause more pain.<ref nameFCA>{{cite book| pages [https://books.google.com/books?idbKoMiuhSb3YC&pgPA2 2–3] | titleFundamentals of Chinese Acupuncture | vauthors Ellis A, Wiseman N, Boss K | isbn978-0912111339 | publisherParadigm Publications | year1991 }}</ref>
Apart from the usual filiform needle, other needle types include three-edged needles and the Nine Ancient Needles.<ref nameAung116/> Japanese acupuncturists use extremely thin needles that are used superficially, sometimes without penetrating the skin, and surrounded by a guide tube (a 17th-century invention adopted in China and the West). Korean acupuncture uses copper needles and has a greater focus on the hand.<ref nameDummies>{{cite book | pages[https://books.google.com/books?idb6_1FOwC_GYC&pgPA126 126–28] | titleComplementary Medicine For Dummies | lastYoung | firstJ | publisherJohn Wiley & Sons | year2007 | isbn978-0470519684}}</ref> Needling technique Insertion The skin is sterilized and needles are inserted, frequently with a plastic guide tube. Needles may be manipulated in various ways, including spinning, flicking, or moving up and down relative to the skin. Since most pain is felt in the superficial layers of the skin, a quick insertion of the needle is recommended.<ref nameAung2007>Aung & Chen, 2007, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?idI6NclaeDWjgC&pgPA113 113–14].</ref> Often the needles are stimulated by hand in order to cause a dull, localized, aching sensation that is called de qi, as well as "needle grasp," a tugging feeling felt by the acupuncturist and generated by a mechanical interaction between the needle and skin.<ref nameBerman2010/> Acupuncture can be painful.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Loyeung BY, Cobbin DM | title Investigating the effects of three needling parameters (manipulation, retention time, and insertion site) on needling sensation and pain profiles: a study of eight deep needling interventions | journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume 2013 | pages 1–12 | year 2013 | pmid 24159337 | pmc 3789497 | doi 10.1155/2013/136763 | doi-access free }}</ref> The acupuncturist's skill level may influence the painfulness of the needle insertion; a sufficiently skilled practitioner may be able to insert the needles without causing any pain.<ref nameAung2007/>
{{Lang|zh-latn|De-qi}} sensation
{{Lang|zh-latn|De-qi}} ({{lang-zh|s得气|pdé qì}}; "arrival of qi") refers to a claimed sensation of numbness, distension, or electrical tingling at the needling site. If these sensations are not observed then inaccurate location of the acupoint, improper depth of needle insertion, inadequate manual manipulation, are blamed. If {{Lang|zh-latn|de-qi}} is not immediately observed upon needle insertion, various manual manipulation techniques are often applied to promote it (such as "plucking", "shaking" or "trembling").<ref name"AungChen2007">{{cite book | first1 Steven | last1 Aung | first2 William | last2 Chen | name-list-style vanc |titleClinical Introduction to Medical Acupuncture|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI6NclaeDWjgC|year2007|publisherThieme|isbn978-1588902214|page=116}}</ref>
Once {{Lang|zh-latn|de-qi}} is observed, techniques might be used which attempt to "influence" the {{Lang|zh-latn|de-qi}}; for example, by certain manipulation the {{Lang|zh-latn|de-qi}} can allegedly be conducted from the needling site towards more distant sites of the body.<!---is this threading?---> Other techniques aim at "tonifying" ({{lang-zh|s补|pbǔ}}) or "sedating" ({{lang-zh|s泄|pxiè}}) qi.<ref name"AungChen2007"/> The former techniques are used in deficiency patterns, the latter in excess patterns.<ref name"AungChen2007"/> De qi is more important in Chinese acupuncture, while Western and Japanese patients may not consider it a necessary part of the treatment.<ref nameDummies/> Related practices * Acupressure, a non-invasive form of bodywork, uses physical pressure applied to acupressure points by the hand or elbow, or with various devices.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Lee EJ, Frazier SK | title The efficacy of acupressure for symptom management: a systematic review | journal Journal of Pain and Symptom Management | volume 42 | issue 4 | pages 589–603 | date October 2011 | pmid 21531533 | pmc 3154967 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2011.01.007 }}</ref>
* Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion, the burning of cone-shaped preparations of moxa (made from dried mugwort) on or near the skin, often but not always near or on an acupuncture point. Traditionally, acupuncture was used to treat acute conditions while moxibustion was used for chronic diseases. Moxibustion could be direct (the cone was placed directly on the skin and allowed to burn the skin, producing a blister and eventually a scar), or indirect (either a cone of moxa was placed on a slice of garlic, ginger or other vegetable, or a cylinder of moxa was held above the skin, close enough to either warm or burn it).<ref>Needham & Lu, 2002, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id0-0tdqBr58cC&pgPA170 170–73] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230328220246/https://books.google.com/books?id0-0tdqBr58cC&pgPA170 |date28 March 2023 }}.</ref>
* Cupping therapy is an ancient Chinese form of alternative medicine in which a local suction is created on the skin; practitioners believe this mobilizes blood flow in order to promote healing.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.britishcuppingsociety.org/ | titleBritish Cupping Society | access-date25 March 2014 | archive-date27 December 2021 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227225757/https://www.britishcuppingsociety.org/ | url-statuslive }}</ref>
* Tui na is a TCM method of attempting to stimulate the flow of qi by various bare-handed techniques that do not involve needles.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/tui+na |titleTui na |authorFarlex |year2012 |publisherFarlex |access-date25 March 2014 |archive-date23 October 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131023061520/http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/tui+na |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Electroacupuncture is a form of acupuncture in which acupuncture needles are attached to a device that generates continuous electric pulses (this has been described as "essentially transdermal electrical nerve stimulation <nowiki>[</nowiki>TENS<nowiki>]</nowiki> masquerading as acupuncture").<ref nameColquhoun2013>{{cite journal | vauthors Colquhoun D, Novella SP | title Acupuncture is theatrical placebo | journal Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume 116 | issue 6 | pages 1360–63 | date June 2013 | pmid 23709076 | doi 10.1213/ANE.0b013e31828f2d5e | s2cid 207135491 | url http://www.dcscience.net/Colquhoun-Novella-A%26A-2013.pdf | author-link David Colquhoun | access-date 9 February 2014 | archive-date 20 November 2018 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181120055409/http://www.dcscience.net/Colquhoun-Novella-A%26A-2013.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>
* Fire needle acupuncture also known as fire needling is a technique which involves quickly inserting a flame-heated needle into areas on the body.<ref name"Yan1997">{{cite book | first Cui-lan | last Yan | name-list-style vanc | title The Treatment of External Diseases with Acupuncture and Moxibustion|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW0Ety2Hqug8C&pgPA112|date1997|publisherBlue Poppy Enterprises, Inc.|isbn978-0-936185-80-4|page112}}</ref>
* Sonopuncture is a stimulation of the body similar to acupuncture using sound instead of needles.<ref>{{Cite book |titleEducational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine |chapterSonopuncture |page[https://books.google.com/books?idBNR1KGJXX9cC&pgPA34 34] |publisherThe Hunter Press |year2008 |isbn978-0977655243}}</ref> This may be done using purpose-built transducers to direct a narrow ultrasound beam to a depth of 6–8 centimetres at acupuncture meridian points on the body.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAlternative Therapies |authorBhagat |year2004 |isbn978-8180612206 |pages[https://books.google.com/books?idoKfvc8bvGwsC&pgPA165 164–65]|publisherJaypee Brothers Medical Publishers }}</ref> Alternatively, tuning forks or other sound emitting devices are used.<ref>{{Cite book |publisherAmerican Cancer Society |year2000 |isbn978-0944235249 |page[https://archive.org/details/americancancerso00amer_0/page/158 158] |chapterSonopuncture |titleAmerican Cancer Society's Guide to complementary and alternative cancer methods |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/americancancerso00amer_0/page/158 }}</ref>
* Acupuncture point injection is the injection of various substances (such as drugs, vitamins or herbal extracts) into acupoints.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?CdrID467825 | titleCancer Dictionary – Acupuncture point injection | access-date4 April 2011 | publisherNational Cancer Institute | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110327191321/http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?CdrID467825| archive-date27 March 2011| date2 February 2011 }}</ref> This technique combines traditional acupuncture with injection of what is often an effective dose of an approved pharmaceutical drug, and proponents claim that it may be more effective than either treatment alone, especially for the treatment of some kinds of chronic pain. However, a 2016 review found that most published trials of the technique were of poor value due to methodology issues and larger trials would be needed to draw useful conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Sha T, Gao LL, Zhang CH, Zheng JG, Meng ZH | title An update on acupuncture point injection | journal QJM | volume 109 | issue 10 | pages 639–41 | date October 2016 | pmid 27083985 | doi 10.1093/qjmed/hcw055 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Auriculotherapy, commonly known as ear acupuncture, auricular acupuncture, or auriculoacupuncture, is considered to date back to ancient China. It involves inserting needles to stimulate points on the outer ear.<ref nameBarrett2008/> The modern approach was developed in France during the early 1950s.<ref nameBarrett2008/> There is no scientific evidence that it can cure disease; the evidence of effectiveness is negligible.<ref nameBarrett2008>{{cite web|last1Barrett|first1Stephen|titleAuriculotherapy: A Skeptical Look|urlhttp://www.acuwatch.org/reports/auriculotherapy.shtml|websiteAcupuncture Watch|date2 February 2008|access-date31 August 2014|archive-date28 May 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190528151121/https://www.acuwatch.org/reports/auriculotherapy.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Scalp acupuncture, developed in Japan, is based on reflexological considerations regarding the scalp.
* Koryo hand acupuncture, developed in Korea, centers around assumed reflex zones of the hand. Medical acupuncture attempts to integrate reflexological concepts, the trigger point model, and anatomical insights (such as dermatome distribution) into acupuncture practice, and emphasizes a more formulaic approach to acupuncture point location.<ref name"AAMA list">{{cite journal | vauthors Braverman S |titleMedical Acupuncture Review: Safety, Efficacy, And Treatment Practices |journalMedical Acupuncture |volume15 |issue3 |year2004 |urlhttp://www.medicalacupuncture.org/aama_marf/journal/vol15_3/article1.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050327073325/http://www.medicalacupuncture.org/aama_marf/journal/vol15_3/article1.html|archive-date27 March 2005}}</ref>
* Cosmetic acupuncture is the use of acupuncture in an attempt to reduce wrinkles on the face.<ref nameNYT>{{cite news|workThe New York Times|titleHold the Chemicals, Bring on the Needles|lastIsaacs|firstNora|name-list-stylevanc|date13 December 2007|access-date23 November 2009|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/13/fashion/13SKIN.html|archive-date28 August 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110828113916/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/13/fashion/13SKIN.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* Bee venom acupuncture is a treatment approach of injecting purified, diluted bee venom into acupoints.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Lim SM, Lee SH | title Effectiveness of bee venom acupuncture in alleviating post-stroke shoulder pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal Journal of Integrative Medicine | volume 13 | issue 4 | pages 241–47 | date July 2015 | pmid 26165368 | doi = 10.1016/S2095-4964(15)60178-9 }}</ref>
* Veterinary acupuncture is the use of acupuncture on domesticated animals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Habacher G, Pittler MH, Ernst E | title Effectiveness of acupuncture in veterinary medicine: systematic review | journal Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume 20 | issue 3 | pages 480–88 | year 2006 | pmid 16734078 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02885.x }}</ref>
{{gallery
|File:Acupuncture point Hegu (LI 4).jpg|Acupressure being applied to a hand|File:Sujichim (hand acupuncture).jpg|Sujichim, hand acupuncture|File:A Dose of Moxa.jpg|Japanese moxibustion|File:Fire cupping in Haikou - 02.JPG|A woman receiving fire cupping in China}}
Efficacy
{{as of|2021}}, many thousands of papers had been published on the efficacy of acupuncture for the treatment of various adult health conditions, but there was no robust evidence it was beneficial for anything, except shoulder pain and fibromyalgia.<ref namesys0>{{cite journal |vauthorsAllen J, Mak SS, Begashaw M, Larkin J, Miake-Lye I, Beroes-Severin J, Olson J, Shekelle PG |titleUse of Acupuncture for Adult Health Conditions, 2013 to 2021: A Systematic Review |journalJAMA Netw Open |volume5 |issue11 |pagese2243665 |dateNovember 2022 |pmid36416820 |doi10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.43665 |pmc9685495 |typeSystematic review |quoteDespite the large literature on acupuncture, most reviews concluded that their confidence in the effect was limited. }}</ref> For Science-Based Medicine, Steven Novella wrote that the overall pattern of evidence was reminiscent of that for homeopathy, compatible with the hypothesis that most, if not all, benefits were due to the placebo effect, and strongly suggestive that acupuncture had no beneficial therapeutic effects at all.<ref namesys>{{cite web |publisherScience-Based Medicine |vauthorsNovella S |titleSystematic Review of Systematic Reviews of Acupuncture |date14 December 2022 |urlhttps://sciencebasedmedicine.org/systematic-review-of-systematic-reviews-of-acupuncture/ |access-date15 December 2022 |archive-date15 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221215073724/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/systematic-review-of-systematic-reviews-of-acupuncture/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Harriet Hall noticed that according to Edzard Ernst, systematic reviews agree that acupuncture works for neck pain, but not for every other pain&mdash;and that makes its whole enterprise suspicious.<ref name"b319">{{cite book | firstHarriet | lastHall | editor-last1Hupp | editor-firstStephen | editor-last2Santa Maria | editor-first2Cara L. | titlePseudoscience in Therapy: A Skeptical Field Guide | publisherCambridge University Press | year2023 | isbn978-1-316-51922-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNP-xEAAAQBAJ&pgPA112 | access-date8 March 2025 | pages112–113}}</ref>
Research methodology and challenges
Sham acupuncture and research
It is difficult but not impossible to design rigorous research trials for acupuncture.<ref nameWhite2001/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Witt CM, Aickin M, Baca T, Cherkin D, Haan MN, Hammerschlag R, Hao JJ, Kaplan GA, Lao L, McKay T, Pierce B, Riley D, Ritenbaugh C, Thorpe K, Tunis S, Weissberg J, Berman BM | title Effectiveness Guidance Document (EGD) for acupuncture research – a consensus document for conducting trials | journal BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume 12 | issue 1 | pages 148 | date September 2012 | pmid 22953730 | pmc 3495216 | doi 10.1186/1472-6882-12-148 | doi-access free }}</ref> Due to acupuncture's invasive nature, one of the major challenges in efficacy research is in the design of an appropriate placebo control group.<ref nameErsnt-2007/><ref nameJohnson2006>{{cite journal | vauthors Johnson MI | title The clinical effectiveness of acupuncture for pain relief&nbsp;– you can be certain of uncertainty | journal Acupuncture in Medicine | volume 24 | issue 2 | pages 71–79 | date June 2006 | pmid 16783282 | doi 10.1136/aim.24.2.71 | s2cid 23222288 }}</ref> For efficacy studies to determine whether acupuncture has specific effects, "sham" forms of acupuncture where the patient, practitioner, and analyst are blinded seem the most acceptable approach.<ref nameWhite2001>{{cite journal | vauthors White AR, Filshie J, Cummings TM | title Clinical trials of acupuncture: consensus recommendations for optimal treatment, sham controls and blinding | journal Complementary Therapies in Medicine | volume 9 | issue 4 | pages 237–45 | date December 2001 | pmid 12184353 | doi 10.1054/ctim.2001.0489 | author4 International Acupuncture Research Forum | s2cid 4479335 }}</ref> Sham acupuncture uses non-penetrating needles or needling at non-acupuncture points,<ref>{{harvnb|Madsen|2009|pagea3115}}</ref> e.g. inserting needles on meridians not related to the specific condition being studied, or in places not associated with meridians.<ref nameUrruela2012>{{cite journal | vauthors Amezaga Urruela M, Suarez-Almazor ME | title Acupuncture in the treatment of rheumatic diseases | journal Current Rheumatology Reports | volume 14 | issue 6 | pages 589–97 | date December 2012 | pmid 23055010 | pmc 3691014 | doi 10.1007/s11926-012-0295-x }}</ref> The under-performance of acupuncture in such trials may indicate that therapeutic effects are due entirely to non-specific effects, or that the sham treatments are not inert, or that systematic protocols yield less than optimal treatment.<ref nameLangevin2011/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Paterson C, Dieppe P | title Characteristic and incidental (placebo) effects in complex interventions such as acupuncture | journal BMJ | volume 330 | issue 7501 | pages 1202–05 | date May 2005 | pmid 15905259 | pmc 558023 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.330.7501.1202 }}</ref>
A 2014 review in Nature Reviews Cancer found that "contrary to the claimed mechanism of redirecting the flow of qi through meridians, researchers usually find that it generally does not matter where the needles are inserted, how often (that is, no dose-response effect is observed), or even if needles are actually inserted. In other words, "sham" or "placebo" acupuncture generally produces the same effects as "real" acupuncture and, in some cases, does better."<ref nameGorski2014/> A 2013 meta-analysis found little evidence that the effectiveness of acupuncture on pain (compared to sham) was modified by the location of the needles, the number of needles used, the experience or technique of the practitioner, or by the circumstances of the sessions.<ref nameMacPherson2013/> The same analysis also suggested that the number of needles and sessions is important, as greater numbers improved the outcomes of acupuncture compared to non-acupuncture controls.<ref nameMacPherson2013>{{cite journal | vauthors MacPherson H, Maschino AC, Lewith G, Foster NE, Witt CM, Witt C, Vickers AJ | title Characteristics of acupuncture treatment associated with outcome: an individual patient meta-analysis of 17,922 patients with chronic pain in randomised controlled trials | journal PLOS ONE | volume 8 | issue 10 | pages e77438 | year 2013 | pmid 24146995 | pmc 3795671 | doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0077438 | editor1-last Eldabe | author7 Acupuncture Trialists' Collaboration | editor1-first Sam | bibcode 2013PLoSO...877438M | doi-access free }}</ref> There has been little systematic investigation of which components of an acupuncture session may be important for any therapeutic effect, including needle placement and depth, type and intensity of stimulation, and number of needles used.<ref nameLangevin2011>{{cite journal | vauthors Langevin HM, Wayne PM, Macpherson H, Schnyer R, Milley RM, Napadow V, Lao L, Park J, Harris RE, Cohen M, Sherman KJ, Haramati A, Hammerschlag R | title Paradoxes in acupuncture research: strategies for moving forward | journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume 2011 | pages 1–11 | year 2011 | pmid 20976074 | pmc 2957136 | doi 10.1155/2011/180805 | doi-access free }}</ref> The research seems to suggest that needles do not need to stimulate the traditionally specified acupuncture points or penetrate the skin to attain an anticipated effect (e.g. psychosocial factors).<ref nameBerman2010/>
A response to "sham" acupuncture in osteoarthritis may be used in the elderly, but placebos have usually been regarded as deception and thus unethical.<ref nameCherniack2010/> However, some physicians and ethicists have suggested circumstances for applicable uses for placebos such as it might present a theoretical advantage of an inexpensive treatment without adverse reactions or interactions with drugs or other medications.<ref nameCherniack2010>{{cite journal | vauthors Cherniack EP | title Would the elderly be better off if they were given more placebos? | journal Geriatrics & Gerontology International | volume 10 | issue 2 | pages 131–37 | date April 2010 | pmid 20100289 | doi 10.1111/j.1447-0594.2009.00580.x | s2cid 36539535 | doi-access free }}</ref> As the evidence for most types of alternative medicine such as acupuncture is far from strong, the use of alternative medicine in regular healthcare can present an ethical question.<ref namePosadzki2012>{{cite journal | vauthors Posadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E | title Prevalence of use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) by physicians in the UK: a systematic review of surveys | journal Clinical Medicine | volume 12 | issue 6 | pages 505–12 | date December 2012 | pmid 23342401 | pmc 5922587 | doi 10.7861/clinmedicine.12-6-505 }}</ref>
Using the principles of evidence-based medicine to research acupuncture is controversial, and has produced different results.<ref nameErsnt-2007>{{cite journal | vauthors Ernst E, Pittler MH, Wider B, Boddy K | s2cid 40080937 | title Acupuncture: its evidence-base is changing | journal The American Journal of Chinese Medicine | volume 35 | issue 1 | pages 21–25 | year 2007 | pmid 17265547 | doi 10.1142/S0192415X07004588 }}</ref> Some research suggests acupuncture can alleviate pain but the majority of research suggests that acupuncture's effects are mainly due to placebo.<ref nameErnst2006/> Evidence suggests that any benefits of acupuncture are short-lasting.<ref nameWang-2008>{{cite journal | vauthors Wang SM, Kain ZN, White PF | s2cid 24912939 | title Acupuncture analgesia: II. Clinical considerations | journal Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume 106 | issue 2 | pages 611–21, table of contents | date February 2008 | pmid 18227323 | doi 10.1213/ane.0b013e318160644d | doi-access free }}</ref> There is insufficient evidence to support use of acupuncture compared to mainstream medical treatments.<ref nameGoldmanSchafer2015>{{cite book| first1 Lee | last1 Goldman | first2 Andrew I. | last2 Schafer | name-list-style vanc |titleGoldman-Cecil Medicine: Expert Consult – Online|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id40Z9CAAAQBAJ&pgPA98-IA61|date21 April 2015|publisherElsevier Health Sciences|isbn978-0-323-32285-0|page98}}</ref> Acupuncture is not better than mainstream treatment in the long term.<ref name=Urruela2012/>
The use of acupuncture has been criticized owing to there being little scientific evidence for explicit effects, or the mechanisms for its supposed effectiveness, for any condition that is discernible from placebo.<ref nameGorski2014>{{cite journal | vauthors Gorski DH | title Integrative oncology: really the best of both worlds? | journal Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume 14 | issue 10 | pages 692–700 | date October 2014 | pmid 25230880 | doi 10.1038/nrc3822 | s2cid 33539406 }}</ref> Acupuncture has been called "theatrical placebo",<ref nameColquhoun2013/> and David Gorski argues that when acupuncture proponents advocate "harnessing of placebo effects" or work on developing "meaningful placebos", they essentially concede it is little more than that.<ref nameGorski2014/> Publication bias Publication bias is cited as a concern in the reviews of randomized controlled trials of acupuncture.<ref nameColquhoun2013/><ref nameLee2006>{{cite journal | vauthors Lee A, Copas JB, Henmi M, Gin T, Chung RC | title Publication bias affected the estimate of postoperative nausea in an acupoint stimulation systematic review | journal Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume 59 | issue 9 | pages 980–83 | date September 2006 | pmid 16895822 | doi 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.02.003 }}</ref><ref nameTang1999>{{cite journal | vauthors Tang JL, Zhan SY, Ernst E | title Review of randomised controlled trials of traditional Chinese medicine | journal BMJ | volume 319 | issue 7203 | pages 160–61 | date July 1999 | pmid 10406751 | pmc 28166 | doi 10.1136/bmj.319.7203.160 }}</ref> A 1998 review of studies on acupuncture found that trials originating in China, Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were uniformly favourable to acupuncture, as were ten out of eleven studies conducted in Russia.<ref nameVickers1998>{{cite journal | vauthors Vickers A, Goyal N, Harland R, Rees R | title Do certain countries produce only positive results? A systematic review of controlled trials | journal Controlled Clinical Trials | volume 19 | issue 2 | pages 159–66 | date April 1998 | pmid 9551280 | doi 10.1016/S0197-2456(97)00150-5 | s2cid 18860471 }}</ref> A 2011 assessment of the quality of randomized controlled trials on traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture, concluded that the methodological quality of most such trials (including randomization, experimental control, and blinding) was generally poor, particularly for trials published in Chinese journals (though the quality of acupuncture trials was better than the trials testing traditional Chinese medicine remedies).<ref nameHe-2011/> The study also found that trials published in non-Chinese journals tended to be of higher quality.<ref nameHe-2011>{{cite journal | vauthors He J, Du L, Liu G, Fu J, He X, Yu J, Shang L | title Quality assessment of reporting of randomization, allocation concealment, and blinding in traditional Chinese medicine RCTs: a review of 3159 RCTs identified from 260 systematic reviews | journal Trials | volume 12 | issue 1 | pages 122 | date May 2011 | pmid 21569452 | pmc 3114769 | doi 10.1186/1745-6215-12-122 | doi-access free }}</ref> Chinese authors use more Chinese studies, which have been demonstrated to be uniformly positive.<ref nameErnst2012>{{cite journal | vauthors Ernst E | title Acupuncture: what does the most reliable evidence tell us? An update | journal Journal of Pain and Symptom Management | volume 43 | issue 2 | pages e11–13 | date February 2012 | pmid 22248792 | doi 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2011.11.001 | doi-access free }}</ref> A 2012 review of 88 systematic reviews of acupuncture published in Chinese journals found that less than half of these reviews reported testing for publication bias, and that the majority of these reviews were published in journals with impact factors of zero.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ma B, Qi GQ, Lin XT, Wang T, Chen ZM, Yang KH | title Epidemiology, quality, and reporting characteristics of systematic reviews of acupuncture interventions published in Chinese journals | journal Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume 18 | issue 9 | pages 813–17 | date September 2012 | pmid 22924413 | doi 10.1089/acm.2011.0274 }}</ref> A 2015 study comparing pre-registered records of acupuncture trials with their published results found that it was uncommon for such trials to be registered before the trial began. This study also found that selective reporting of results and changing outcome measures to obtain statistically significant results was common in this literature.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Su CX, Han M, Ren J, Li WY, Yue SJ, Hao YF, Liu JP | title Empirical evidence for outcome reporting bias in randomized clinical trials of acupuncture: comparison of registered records and subsequent publications | journal Trials | volume 16 | issue 1 | pages 28 | date January 2015 | pmid 25626862 | pmc 4320495 | doi 10.1186/s13063-014-0545-5 | doi-access free }}</ref>
Scientist Steven Salzberg identifies acupuncture and Chinese medicine generally as a focus for "fake medical journals" such as the Journal of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies and Acupuncture in Medicine.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensalzberg/2017/01/03/fake-medical-journals-are-spreading-and-they-are-filled-with-bad-science/|titleFake Medical Journals Are Spreading, And They Are Filled With Bad Science|firstSteven|lastSalzberg|websiteForbes|access-date21 August 2017|archive-date24 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170824113043/https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensalzberg/2017/01/03/fake-medical-journals-are-spreading-and-they-are-filled-with-bad-science/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Safety Adverse events Acupuncture is generally safe when administered by an experienced, appropriately trained practitioner using clean-needle technique and sterile single-use needles.<ref name"nciacupuncture">{{cite web|titleAcupuncture&nbsp;– for health professionals (PDQ)|url http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/acupuncture-pdq#section/_71|publisherNational Cancer Institute|date 23 September 2005|access-date16 July 2015|archive-date 17 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150717182155/http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/acupuncture-pdq#section/_71|url-status live}}</ref> When improperly delivered it can cause adverse effects.<ref name"Xu S"/> Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or neglect on the part of the practitioner.<ref name"nciacupuncture"/> To reduce the risk of serious adverse events after acupuncture, acupuncturists should be trained sufficiently.<ref name"Ernst 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors Ernst E, Lee MS, Choi TY | title Acupuncture: does it alleviate pain and are there serious risks? A review of reviews | journal Pain | volume 152 | issue 4 | pages 755–64 | date April 2011 | pmid 21440191 | doi 10.1016/j.pain.2010.11.004 | s2cid 20205666 | url http://www.dcscience.net/Ernst-2011-AcupunctAlleviatePainRiskReview.pdf | access-date 20 January 2017 | archive-date 20 September 2017 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170920124317/http://www.dcscience.net/Ernst-2011-AcupunctAlleviatePainRiskReview.pdf | url-status live }}
*Comment in: {{cite journal | lastHall | firstHarriet | titleAcupuncture's claims punctured: Not proven effective for pain, not harmless | journalPain | publisherOvid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume152 | issue4 | year2011 | issn0304-3959 | doi10.1016/j.pain.2011.01.039 | pages711–712| pmid21440190 | s2cid4472996 }}</ref> A 2009 overview of Cochrane reviews found acupuncture is not effective for a wide range of conditions.<ref nameErnst2009>{{cite journal | vauthors Ernst E | title Acupuncture: what does the most reliable evidence tell us? | journal Journal of Pain and Symptom Management | volume 37 | issue 4 | pages 709–14 | date April 2009 | pmid 18789644 | doi 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2008.04.009 | doi-access free }}</ref> People with serious spinal disease, such as cancer or infection, are not good candidates for acupuncture.<ref nameBerman2010/> Contraindications to acupuncture (conditions that should not be treated with acupuncture) include coagulopathy disorders (e.g. hemophilia and advanced liver disease), warfarin use, severe psychiatric disorders (e.g. psychosis), and skin infections or skin trauma (e.g. burns).<ref nameBerman2010/> Further, electroacupuncture should be avoided at the spot of implanted electrical devices (such as pacemakers).<ref name=Berman2010/>
A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews (internationally and without language restrictions) found that serious complications following acupuncture continue to be reported.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> Between 2000 and 2009, ninety-five cases of serious adverse events, including five deaths, were reported.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> Many such events are not inherent to acupuncture but are due to malpractice of acupuncturists.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> This might be why such complications have not been reported in surveys of adequately trained acupuncturists.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> Most such reports originate from Asia, which may reflect the large number of treatments performed there or a relatively higher number of poorly trained Asian acupuncturists.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> Many serious adverse events were reported from developed countries.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> These included Australia, Austria, Canada, Croatia, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, and the US.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> The number of adverse effects reported from the UK appears particularly unusual, which may indicate less under-reporting in the UK than other countries.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> Reports included 38 cases of infections and 42 cases of organ trauma.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/> The most frequent adverse events included pneumothorax, and bacterial and viral infections.<ref name"Ernst 2011"/>
A 2013 review found (without restrictions regarding publication date, study type or language) 295 cases of infections; mycobacterium was the pathogen in at least 96%.<ref nameGnatta2013/> Likely sources of infection include towels, hot packs or boiling tank water, and reusing reprocessed needles.<ref nameGnatta2013/> Possible sources of infection include contaminated needles, reusing personal needles, a person's skin containing mycobacterium, and reusing needles at various sites in the same person.<ref nameGnatta2013/> Although acupuncture is generally considered a safe procedure, a 2013 review stated that the reports of infection transmission increased significantly in the prior decade, including those of mycobacterium.<ref nameGnatta2013/> Although it is recommended that practitioners of acupuncture use disposable needles, the reuse of sterilized needles is still permitted.<ref nameGnatta2013/> It is also recommended that thorough control practices for preventing infection be implemented and adapted.<ref nameGnatta2013>{{cite journal | vauthors Gnatta JR, Kurebayashi LF, Paes da Silva MJ | title Atypical mycobacterias associated to acupuncuture: an integrative review | journal Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem | volume 21 | issue 1 | pages 450–58 | date February 2013 | pmid 23546331 | doi 10.1590/s0104-11692013000100022 | doi-access free }}</ref>
English-language
A 2013 systematic review of the English-language case reports found that serious adverse events associated with acupuncture are rare, but that acupuncture is not without risk.<ref name"Xu S"/> Between 2000 and 2011 the English-language literature from 25 countries and regions reported 294 adverse events.<ref name"Xu S"/> The majority of the reported adverse events were relatively minor, and the incidences were low.<ref name"Xu S"/> For example, a prospective survey of 34,000 acupuncture treatments found no serious adverse events and 43 minor ones, a rate of 1.3 per 1000 interventions.<ref name"Xu S"/> Another survey found there were 7.1% minor adverse events, of which 5 were serious, amid 97,733 acupuncture patients.<ref name"Xu S"/> The most common adverse effect observed was infection (e.g. mycobacterium), and the majority of infections were bacterial in nature, caused by skin contact at the needling site.<ref name"Xu S"/> Infection has also resulted from skin contact with unsterilized equipment or with dirty towels in an unhygienic clinical setting.<ref name"Xu S"/> Other adverse complications included five reported cases of spinal cord injuries (e.g. migrating broken needles or needling too deeply), four brain injuries, four peripheral nerve injuries, five heart injuries, seven other organ and tissue injuries, bilateral hand edema, epithelioid granuloma, pseudolymphoma, argyria, pustules, pancytopenia, and scarring due to hot-needle technique.<ref name"Xu S"/> Adverse reactions from acupuncture, which are unusual and uncommon in typical acupuncture practice, included syncope, galactorrhoea, bilateral nystagmus, pyoderma gangrenosum, hepatotoxicity, eruptive lichen planus, and spontaneous needle migration.<ref name"Xu S">{{cite journal | vauthors Xu S, Wang L, Cooper E, Zhang M, Manheimer E, Berman B, Shen X, Lao L | title Adverse events of acupuncture: a systematic review of case reports | journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume 2013 | pages 1–15 | year 2013 | pmid 23573135 | pmc 3616356 | doi 10.1155/2013/581203 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
A 2013 systematic review found 31 cases of vascular injuries caused by acupuncture, three causing death.<ref nameBergqvist/> Two died from pericardial tamponade and one was from an aortoduodenal fistula.<ref nameBergqvist>{{cite journal | vauthors Bergqvist D | title Vascular injuries caused by acupuncture. A systematic review | journal International Angiology | volume 32 | issue 1 | pages 1–8 | date February 2013 | pmid 23435388 | url http://www.minervamedica.it/en/journals/international-angiology/article.php?codR34Y2013N01A0001 | access-date 1 March 2014 | archive-date 1 March 2014 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140301091317/http://www.minervamedica.it/en/journals/international-angiology/article.php?codR34Y2013N01A0001 | url-status live }}</ref> The same review found vascular injuries were rare, bleeding and pseudoaneurysm were most prevalent.<ref nameBergqvist/> A 2011 systematic review (without restriction in time or language), aiming to summarize all reported case of cardiac tamponade after acupuncture, found 26 cases resulting in 14 deaths, with little doubt about cause in most fatal instances.<ref nameErnst-Zhang/> The same review concluded that cardiac tamponade was a serious, usually fatal, though theoretically avoidable complication following acupuncture, and urged training to minimize risk.<ref nameErnst-Zhang>{{cite journal | vauthors Ernst E, Zhang J | title Cardiac tamponade caused by acupuncture: a review of the literature | journal International Journal of Cardiology | volume 149 | issue 3 | pages 287–89 | date June 2011 | pmid 21093944 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijcard.2010.10.016 }}</ref>
A 2012 review found that a number of adverse events were reported after acupuncture in the UK's National Health Service (NHS), 95% of which were not severe,<ref nameWheway2012/> though miscategorization and under-reporting may alter the total figures.<ref nameWheway2012/> From January 2009 to December 2011, 468 safety incidents were recognized within the NHS organizations.<ref nameWheway2012/> The adverse events recorded included retained needles (31%), dizziness (30%), loss of consciousness/unresponsive (19%), falls (4%), bruising or soreness at needle site (2%), pneumothorax (1%) and other adverse side effects (12%).<ref nameWheway2012/> Acupuncture practitioners should know, and be prepared to be responsible for, any substantial harm from treatments.<ref nameWheway2012/> Some acupuncture proponents argue that the long history of acupuncture suggests it is safe.<ref nameWheway2012/> However, there is an increasing literature on adverse events (e.g. spinal-cord injury).<ref nameWheway2012>{{cite journal | vauthors Wheway J, Agbabiaka TB, Ernst E | title Patient safety incidents from acupuncture treatments: a review of reports to the National Patient Safety Agency | journal The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine | volume 24 | issue 3 | pages 163–69 | date January 2012 | pmid 22936058 | doi 10.3233/JRS-2012-0569 }}</ref>
Acupuncture seems to be safe in people getting anticoagulants, assuming needles are used at the correct location and depth,<ref nameMcculloch2014/> but studies are required to verify these findings.<ref name"Mcculloch2014">{{cite journal | vauthors Mcculloch M, Nachat A, Schwartz J, Casella-Gordon V, Cook J | title Acupuncture safety in patients receiving anticoagulants: a systematic review | journal The Permanente Journal | volume 19 | issue 1 | pages 68–73 | year 2014 | pmid 25432001 | pmc 4315381 | doi 10.7812/TPP/14-057 }}</ref>
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese-language
A 2010 systematic review of the Chinese-language literature found numerous acupuncture-related adverse events, including pneumothorax, fainting, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and infection as the most frequent, and cardiovascular injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhage, pneumothorax, and recurrent cerebral hemorrhage as the most serious, most of which were due to improper technique.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Between 1980 and 2009, the Chinese-language literature reported 479 adverse events.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Prospective surveys show that mild, transient acupuncture-associated adverse events ranged from 6.71% to 15%.<ref nameZhang-2010/> In a study with 190,924 patients, the prevalence of serious adverse events was roughly 0.024%.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Another study showed a rate of adverse events requiring specific treatment of 2.2%, 4,963 incidences among 229,230 patients.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Infections, mainly hepatitis, after acupuncture are reported often in English-language research, though are rarely reported in Chinese-language research, making it plausible that acupuncture-associated infections have been underreported in China.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Infections were mostly caused by poor sterilization of acupuncture needles.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Other adverse events included spinal epidural hematoma (in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine), chylothorax, injuries of abdominal organs and tissues, injuries in the neck region, injuries to the eyes, including orbital hemorrhage, traumatic cataract, injury of the oculomotor nerve and retinal puncture, hemorrhage to the cheeks and the hypoglottis, peripheral motor-nerve injuries and subsequent motor dysfunction, local allergic reactions to metal needles, stroke, and cerebral hemorrhage after acupuncture.<ref nameZhang-2010/>
A causal link between acupuncture and the adverse events cardiac arrest, pyknolepsy, shock, fever, cough, thirst, aphonia, leg numbness, and sexual dysfunction remains uncertain.<ref nameZhang-2010>{{cite journal | vauthors Zhang J, Shang H, Gao X, Ernst E | title Acupuncture-related adverse events: a systematic review of the Chinese literature | journal Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume 88 | issue 12 | pages 915–21C | date December 2010 | pmid 21124716 | pmc 2995190 | doi 10.2471/BLT.10.076737 }}</ref> The same review concluded that acupuncture can be considered inherently safe when practiced by properly trained practitioners, but the review also stated there is a need to find effective strategies to minimize the health risks.<ref nameZhang-2010/> Between 1999 and 2010, the Korean-language literature contained reports of 1104 adverse events.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Shin HK, Jeong SJ, Lee MS, Ernst E | title Adverse events attributed to traditional Korean medical practices: 1999–2010 | journal Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume 91 | issue 8 | pages 569–75 | date August 2013 | pmid 23940404 | pmc 3738306 | doi 10.2471/BLT.12.111609 }}</ref> Between the 1980s and 2002, the Japanese-language literature contained reports of 150 adverse events.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Yamashita H, Tsukayama H | title Safety of acupuncture practice in Japan: patient reactions, therapist negligence and error reduction strategies | journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume 5 | issue 4 | pages 391–98 | date December 2008 | pmid 18955234 | pmc 2586322 | doi 10.1093/ecam/nem086 }}</ref>
Children and pregnancy
Although acupuncture has been practiced for thousands of years in China, its use in pediatrics in the United States did not become common until the early 2000s. In 2007, the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) conducted by the National Center For Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that approximately 150,000 children had received acupuncture treatment for a variety of conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url https://nccih.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/news/nhsr12.pdf |title Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults and Children: United States, 2007 |date 10 December 2008 |website National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health |publisher NCHS |last Barnes |first Patricia M. |access-date 5 February 2016 |archive-date 16 March 2016 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160316075748/https://nccih.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/news/nhsr12.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref>
In 2008, a study determined that the use of acupuncture-needle treatment on children was "questionable" due to the possibility of adverse side-effects and the pain manifestation differences in children versus adults. The study also includes warnings against practicing acupuncture on infants, as well as on children who are over-fatigued, very weak, or have over-eaten.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Jindal V, Ge A, Mansky PJ | title Safety and efficacy of acupuncture in children: a review of the evidence | journal Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology | volume 30 | issue 6 | pages 431–42 | date June 2008 | pmid 18525459 | pmc 2518962 | doi 10.1097/MPH.0b013e318165b2cc }}</ref>
When used on children, acupuncture is considered safe when administered by well-trained, licensed practitioners using sterile needles; however, a 2011 review found there was limited research to draw definite conclusions about the overall safety of pediatric acupuncture.<ref name"Adams 2011"/> The same review found 279 adverse events, 25 of them serious.<ref name"Adams 2011"/> The adverse events were mostly mild in nature (e.g., bruising or bleeding).<ref name"Adams 2011"/> The prevalence of mild adverse events ranged from 10.1% to 13.5%, an estimated 168 incidences among 1,422 patients.<ref name"Adams 2011"/> On rare occasions adverse events were serious (e.g. cardiac rupture or hemoptysis); many might have been a result of substandard practice.<ref name"Adams 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors Adams D, Cheng F, Jou H, Aung S, Yasui Y, Vohra S | s2cid 46502395 | title The safety of pediatric acupuncture: a systematic review | journal Pediatrics | volume 128 | issue 6 | pages e1575–87 | date December 2011 | pmid 22106073 | doi 10.1542/peds.2011-1091 }}</ref> The incidence of serious adverse events was 5 per one million, which included children and adults.<ref name"Adams 2011"/>
When used during pregnancy, the majority of adverse events caused by acupuncture were mild and transient, with few serious adverse events.<ref name"Park-2014"/> The most frequent mild adverse event was needling or unspecified pain, followed by bleeding.<ref name"Park-2014"/> Although two deaths (one stillbirth and one neonatal death) were reported, there was a lack of acupuncture-associated maternal mortality.<ref name"Park-2014"/> Limiting the evidence as certain, probable or possible in the causality evaluation, the estimated incidence of adverse events following acupuncture in pregnant women was 131 per 10,000.<ref name"Park-2014">
{{cite journal | vauthors Park J, Sohn Y, White AR, Lee H | title The safety of acupuncture during pregnancy: a systematic review | journal Acupuncture in Medicine | volume 32 | issue 3 | pages 257–66 | date June 2014 | pmid 24554789 | pmc 4112450 | doi 10.1136/acupmed-2013-010480 | type = Systematic review }}
</ref>
Although acupuncture is not contraindicated in pregnant women, some specific acupuncture points are particularly sensitive to needle insertion; these spots, as well as the abdominal region, should be avoided during pregnancy.<ref name"Berman2010"/> Moxibustion and cupping
<!-- Traditional acupuncture involves moxibustion and cupping. -->
Four adverse events associated with moxibustion were bruising, burns and cellulitis, spinal epidural abscess, and large superficial basal cell carcinoma.<ref name"Xu S"/> Ten adverse events were associated with cupping.<ref name"Xu S"/> The minor ones were keloid scarring, burns, and bullae;<ref name"Xu S"/> the serious ones were acquired hemophilia A, stroke following cupping on the back and neck, factitious panniculitis, reversible cardiac hypertrophy, and iron deficiency anemia.<ref name"Xu S"/>
Risk of forgoing conventional medical care
As with other alternative medicines, unethical or naïve practitioners may induce patients to exhaust financial resources by pursuing ineffective treatment.<ref nameBarrett2007>{{cite web|lastBarrett|firstS|titleBe Wary of Acupuncture, Qigong, and "Chinese Medicine"|urlhttp://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/acu.html|publisherQuackwatch|access-date4 May 2015|date30 December 2007|author-linkStephen Barrett|archive-date2 June 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180602104856/https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/acu.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| titleFinal Report, Report into Traditional Chinese Medicine| url http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/committee.nsf/0/ca78e168ce1b6fa2ca2570b400200a34/$FILE/reportversion2.pdf| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110628190713/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/committee.nsf/0/ca78e168ce1b6fa2ca2570b400200a34/$FILE/reportversion2.pdf| archive-date 28 June 2011| publisherParliament of New South Wales| access-date 3 November 2010| date9 November 2005| url-status dead}}</ref> Professional ethics codes set by accrediting organizations such as the National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine require practitioners to make "timely referrals to other health care professionals as may be appropriate."<ref nameNCCAOMethics>{{cite web |url http://www.nccaom.org/about/pdfdocs/Code_of_Ethics.pdf | publisher National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine | title NCCAOM Code of Ethics | access-date3 November 2010 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101127060246/http://nccaom.org/about/pdfdocs/Code_of_Ethics.pdf| archive-date27 November 2010}}</ref> Stephen Barrett states that there is a "risk that an acupuncturist whose approach to diagnosis is not based on scientific concepts will fail to diagnose a dangerous condition".<ref nameHumberAlmeder2013>{{cite book | last Barrett | first Stephen | editor1-last Humber | editor1-first James M. | editor2-last Almeder | editor2-first Robert F. | name-list-style vanc |chapter'Alternative' Medicine: More Hype Than Hope |titleAlternative Medicine and Ethics |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idehWzBwAAQBAJ&pgPA10 |year2013 |publisherSpringer Science & Business Media |isbn978-1-4757-2774-6 |page10}}</ref>
Conceptual basis
{{Infobox Chinese|s针刺|hpzhēncì}}
Traditional
{{Main|Qi|Traditional Chinese medicine|Meridian (Chinese medicine)|List of acupuncture points}}
Acupuncture is a substantial part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Early acupuncture beliefs relied on concepts that are common in TCM, such as a life force energy called qi.<ref nameAung11>Aung & Chen {{cite book| first1 Steven K. H. | last1 Aung| first2 William Pai-Dei | last2 Chen | name-list-style vanc |titleClinical Introduction to Medical Acupuncture|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI6NclaeDWjgC&pgPR1|year2007|publisherThieme|isbn978-1-58890-221-4|pages11–12}}</ref> Qi was believed to flow from the body's primary organs (zang-fu organs) to the "superficial" body tissues of the skin, muscles, tendons, bones, and joints, through channels called meridians.<ref namemeridian-theory>"（三）十二经脉 ...（四）奇经八脉 ..." [(3.) The Twelve Vessels ... (4.) The Extraordinary Eight Vessels ...] as seen at {{cite web |url http://www.pharmnet.com.cn/tcm/knowledge/detail/100044.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161110121328/http://www.pharmnet.com.cn/tcm/knowledge/detail/100044.html |archive-date 10 November 2016 |script-titlezh:经络学 |access-date22 February 2011 |languagezh |trans-titleMeridian theory}}</ref> Acupuncture points where needles are inserted are mainly (but not always) found at locations along the meridians.<ref nameAung101/> Acupuncture points not found along a meridian are called extraordinary points and those with no designated site are called {{Lang|zh-latn|A-shi}} points.<ref nameAung101>Aung & Chen, 2007, p. [https://books.google.com/books?idI6NclaeDWjgC&pgPA101 101].</ref>
In TCM, disease is generally perceived as a disharmony or imbalance in energies such as yin, yang, qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians, and of the interaction between the body and the environment.<ref>{{harvnb|Wiseman & Ellis|1996|page77}}</ref> Therapy is based on which "pattern of disharmony" can be identified.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors Ergil MC, Ergil KV | page [https://books.google.com/books?idkdZ1rFKW&pgPA19 19], [https://books.google.com/books?idkdZ1rFKW&pgPA148 148] | title Pocket Atlas of Chinese Medicine | year 2009 | publisher Thieme | location Stuttgart | isbn 978-3131416117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors Flaws B, Finney D | year 2007 | title A handbook of TCM patterns & their treatments | edition 6th | publisher Blue Poppy Press | isbn 978-0936185705 | pages [https://books.google.com/books?idiJT3mz20yHoC&pgPA1 1] }}</ref> For example, some diseases are believed to be caused by meridians being invaded with an excess of wind, cold, and damp.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors Flaws B, Finney D | title A handbook of TCM patterns & their treatments | publisher Blue Poppy Press | year 1996 | edition 6 (2007) |isbn 978-0936185705 | pages [https://books.google.com/books?idiJT3mz20yHoC&pgPA169 169–73] }}</ref> In order to determine which pattern is at hand, practitioners examine things like the color and shape of the tongue, the relative strength of pulse-points, the smell of the breath, the quality of breathing, or the sound of the voice.<ref nameTongue>{{cite book | title Tongue Diagnosis in Chinese Medicine | last Maciocia | first G | publisher Eastland Press | year 1995 | isbn 978-0939616190 }}</ref><ref nameMaciocia>{{Cite book | first G | last Maciocia | title The Foundations of Chinese Medicine | publisher Churchill Livingstone | year 2005 | isbn 978-0443074899 }}</ref> TCM and its concept of disease does not strongly differentiate between the cause and effect of symptoms.<ref>{{cite book| page[https://books.google.com/books?idt23zKB1FSVYC&pgPA26 26]| lastRoss |firstJ|titleZang Fu, the organ systems of traditional Chinese medicine| publisherElsevier |year1984 | isbn978-0443034824 }}</ref>Purported scientific basisMany within the scientific community consider acupuncture to be quackery{{efn|name"quackery"|Attributed to multiple sources:<ref name"Wang2013" /><ref name"rank" /><ref namecrappy/><ref nameJarvis>{{cite journal|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1643742/|titleQuackery: a national scandal|firstW.T.|lastJarvis|journalClinical Chemistry|dateAugust 1992|volume38|issue8B part 2|pages1574–86|pmid1643742}}</ref><ref nameNaudet>{{cite journal|urlhttps://hal.science/hal-01138648|titleHas evidence-based medicine left quackery behind?|first1Florian|last1Naudet|first2Bruno|last2Falissard|author2-link Bruno Falissard |first3Rémy|last3Boussageon|first4David|last4Healy|journalInternal and Emergency Medicine|volume10|issue5|pages631–4|date2015|doi10.1007/s11739-015-1227-3|pmid25828467|s2cid20697592 }}</ref>}} and pseudoscience, having no effect other than as "theatrical placebo".<ref nameWang2013>{{cite journal | vauthors Wang SM, Harris RE, Lin YC, Gan TJ | title Acupuncture in 21st century anesthesia: is there a needle in the haystack? | journal Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume 116 | issue 6 | pages 1356–59 | date June 2013 | pmid 23709075 | doi 10.1213/ANE.0b013e31828f5efa | s2cid 1106695 | url http://www.dcscience.net/Wang-acupunc-A%26A-2013.pdf | access-date 22 March 2015 | archive-date 23 September 2015 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213155/http://www.dcscience.net/Wang-acupunc-A%26A-2013.pdf | url-status live }}</ref><ref namerank>{{cite web |authorGorski D |author-linkDavid Gorski |websiteScience-Based Medicine |date23 June 2014 |titleKetogenic diet does not 'beat chemo for almost all cancers' |urlhttps://sciencebasedmedicine.org/ketogenic-diets-for-cancer-hype-versus-science/ |quoteit is quite obvious that modalities such as homeopathy, acupuncture, reflexology, craniosacral therapy, Hulda Clark's "zapper," the Gerson therapy and Gonzalez protocol for cancer, and reiki (not to mention every other "energy healing" therapy) are the rankest quackery |access-date6 August 2019 |archive-date27 September 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190927214952/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/ketogenic-diets-for-cancer-hype-versus-science/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> David Gorski has argued that of all forms of quackery, acupuncture has perhaps gained most acceptance among physicians and institutions.<ref namecrappy>{{cite web |authorGorski D |author-linkDavid Gorski |websiteScience-Based Medicine |date7 May 2018 |titlePLOS ONE, peer review, and a 'crappy' acupuncture study |urlhttps://sciencebasedmedicine.org/plos-one-peer-review-and-a-crappy-acupuncture-study/}}</ref> Academics Massimo Pigliucci and Maarten Boudry describe acupuncture as a "borderlands science" lying between science and pseudoscience.<ref nameMassimo2013>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPc4OAAAAQBAJ | titlePhilosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem | publisherUniversity of Chicago Press | lastPigliucci | firstMassimo | name-list-stylevanc | year2013 | page206 | isbn978-0226051826 | access-date3 June 2020 | archive-date15 April 2023 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415011850/https://books.google.com/books?idPc4OAAAAQBAJ | url-status=live }}</ref>
A 2015 paper by several professors states that acupuncture has "no credible or respectable place in medicine", because it is often considered to be pseudoscience or quackery.<ref name"Naudet Falissard Boussageon Healy 2015 pp. 631–634">{{Cite journal |last1Naudet |first1Florian |last2Falissard |first2Bruno |last3Boussageon |first3Rémy |last4Healy |first4David |date2015 |titleHas evidence-based medicine left quackery behind? |urlhttps://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01138648/file/Has%20evidence-based%20medicine%20left%20quackery%20behind_accepted.pdf |journalInternal and Emergency Medicine |volume10 |issue5 |pages631–634 |doi10.1007/s11739-015-1227-3 |issn1970-9366 |pmid25828467 |s2cid20697592 |quoteTreatments such as relaxation techniques, chiropractic, therapeutic massage, special diets, megavitamins, acupuncture, naturopathy, homeopathy, hypnosis and psychoanalysis are often considered as ‘‘pseudoscience’’ or ‘‘quackery’’ with no credible or respectable place in medicine, because in evaluation they have not been shown to ‘‘work’’}}</ref>Rationalizations of traditional medicineIt is a generally held belief within the acupuncture community that acupuncture points and meridians structures are special conduits for electrical signals, but no research has established any consistent anatomical structure or function for either acupuncture points or meridians.{{efn|nameSinghErnst2008}}<ref name"Ahn2008">{{cite journal | vauthors Ahn AC, Colbert AP, Anderson BJ, Martinsen OG, Hammerschlag R, Cina S, Wayne PM, Langevin HM | title Electrical properties of acupuncture points and meridians: a systematic review | journal Bioelectromagnetics | volume 29 | issue 4 | pages 245–56 | date May 2008 | pmid 18240287 | doi 10.1002/bem.20403 | s2cid 7001749 | url https://mn.uio.no/fysikk/english/research/projects/bioimpedance/publications/papers/meridian_rev.pdf | access-date 2 March 2012 | archive-date 18 May 2021 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210518004121/https://www.mn.uio.no/fysikk/english/research/projects/bioimpedance/publications/papers/meridian_rev.pdf | url-status live }}</ref> Human tests to determine whether electrical continuity was significantly different near meridians than other places in the body have been inconclusive.<ref name"Ahn2008"/> Scientific research has not supported the existence of qi, meridians, or yin and yang.{{efn|nameSinghErnst2008}}<ref name"Ahn2008"/><ref nameMann2000>{{cite book | last Mann | first F | author-link Felix Mann | isbn 978-0750648578 | publisher Elsevier | year 2000 | title Reinventing Acupuncture: A New Concept of Ancient Medicine}}</ref> A Nature editorial described TCM as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action.<ref nameswallow>{{cite journal | title Hard to swallow | journal Nature | volume 448 | issue 7150 | pages 105–06 | date July 2007 | pmid 17625521 | doi 10.1038/448106a | bibcode 2007Natur.448S.105. | doi-access free }}</ref> Quackwatch states that "TCM theory and practice are not based upon the body of knowledge related to health, disease, and health care that has been widely accepted by the scientific community. TCM practitioners disagree among themselves about how to diagnose patients and which treatments should go with which diagnoses. Even if they could agree, the TCM theories are so nebulous that no amount of scientific study will enable TCM to offer rational care."<ref nameBarrett2007/> Academic discussions of acupuncture still make reference to pseudoscientific concepts such as qi and meridians despite the lack of scientific evidence.<ref nameUlett2002/>
Release of endorphins or adenosine
Some modern practitioners support the use of acupuncture to treat pain, but have abandoned the use of qi, meridians, yin, yang and other mystical energies as an explanatory frameworks.<ref name"Peñas2010">{{cite book |last1de las Peñas |first1César Fernández |last2Arendt-Nielsen |first2Lars |last3Gerwin |first3Robert D |name-list-stylevanc |titleTension-type and cervicogenic headache: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management |publisherJones & Bartlett Learning |year2010 |isbn978-0763752835 |pages251–54 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHpRwMB-cNCoC&pgPA251 |access-date27 January 2016 |archive-date4 February 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230204181953/https://books.google.com/books?idHpRwMB-cNCoC&pgPA251 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameMann2000/><ref nameWilliams2013/> The use of qi as an explanatory framework has been decreasing in China, even as it becomes more prominent during discussions of acupuncture in the US.<ref name=Ulett2002/>
Many acupuncturists attribute pain relief to the release of endorphins when needles penetrate, but no longer support the idea that acupuncture can affect a disease.<ref nameWilliams2013>{{cite encyclopedia | last Williams | first WF | title Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy | isbn 978-1135955229 | encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience | publisher Routledge | year 2013 | pages 3–4 | url https://books.google.com/books?idvH1EAgAAQBAJ }}</ref><ref nameUlett2002>{{cite book | last Ulett | first GA | title The Skeptic: Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience | publisher ABC-CLIO | editor Shermer, M | isbn 978-1576076538 | chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idGr4snwg7iaEC&pgPA283 | pages 283–91 | chapter Acupuncture | year 2002 }}</ref> Some studies suggest acupuncture causes a series of events within the central nervous system,<ref nameWang2008>{{cite journal | vauthors Wang SM, Kain ZN, White P | title Acupuncture analgesia: I. The scientific basis | journal Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume 106 | issue 2 | pages 602–10 | date February 2008 | pmid 18227322 | doi 10.1213/01.ane.0000277493.42335.7b | s2cid 29330113 | doi-access free }}</ref> and that it is possible to inhibit acupuncture's analgesic effects with the opioid antagonist naloxone.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Staud R, Price DD | title Mechanisms of acupuncture analgesia for clinical and experimental pain | journal Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics | volume 6 | issue 5 | pages 661–67 | date May 2006 | pmid 16734514 | doi 10.1586/14737175.6.5.661 | s2cid 2647845 }}</ref> Mechanical deformation of the skin by acupuncture needles appears to result in the release of adenosine.<ref nameBerman2010/> The anti-nociceptive effect of acupuncture may be mediated by the adenosine A1 receptor.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Langevin HM | title Acupuncture, connective tissue, and peripheral sensory modulation | journal Critical Reviews in Eukaryotic Gene Expression | volume 24 | issue 3 | pages 249–53 | year 2014 | pmid 25072149 | doi 10.1615/CritRevEukaryotGeneExpr.2014008284 }}</ref> A 2014 review in Nature Reviews Cancer analyzed mouse studies that suggested acupuncture relieves pain via the local release of adenosine, which then triggered nearby A1 receptors. The review found that in those studies, because acupuncture "caused more tissue damage and inflammation relative to the size of the animal in mice than in humans, such studies unnecessarily muddled a finding that local inflammation can result in the local release of adenosine with analgesic effect."<ref nameGorski2014/> History Origins
({{circa|1368|1644}})]]
Acupuncture, along with moxibustion, is one of the oldest practices of traditional Chinese medicine.<ref name"abc">{{cite book| first1 Gwei-Djen | last1 Lu | first2 Joseph | last2 Needham | name-list-style vanc |titleCelestial Lancets: A History and Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa|isbn978-0700714582 |date2002| publisher Psychology Press }}</ref> Most historians believe the practice began in China, though there are some conflicting narratives on when it originated.<ref nameWhite-Ernst>{{cite journal | vauthors White A, Ernst E | title A brief history of acupuncture | journal Rheumatology | volume 43 | issue 5 | pages 662–63 | date May 2004 | pmid 15103027 | doi 10.1093/rheumatology/keg005 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403">{{cite book |editorPorter, Stuart B|chapter18:Acupuncture in Physiotherapy|lastBannan| firstAndrew | titleTidy's Physiotherapy15: Tidy's Physiotherapy | publisherElsevier | seriesChurchill Livingstone | year2013 | isbn978-0-7020-4344-4 | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRUlRPxA6O9YC&pgPA403| page403}}</ref> Academics David Ramey and Paul Buell said the exact date acupuncture was founded depends on the extent to which dating of ancient texts can be trusted and the interpretation of what constitutes acupuncture.<ref nameRamey/>
Acupressure therapy was prevalent in India. Once Buddhism spread to China, the acupressure therapy was also integrated into common medical practice in China and it came to be known as acupuncture. The major points of Indian acupressure and Chinese acupuncture are similar to each other.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwGQUBAAAQBAJ&pgPA27|page27|authorJoseph S. Alter|titleAsian Medicine and Globalization|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press|year2013|isbn9780812205251|access-date13 February 2022|archive-date15 April 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415012411/https://books.google.com/books?idwGQUBAAAQBAJ&pgPA27|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to an article in Rheumatology, the first documentation of an "organized system of diagnosis and treatment" for acupuncture was in Inner Classic of Huang Di (Huangdi Neijing) from about 100&nbsp;BC.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> Gold and silver needles found in the tomb of Liu Sheng from around 100&nbsp;BC are believed to be the earliest archaeological evidence of acupuncture, though it is unclear if that was their purpose.<ref nameRamey>{{cite journal | vauthors Ramey D, Buell D | year 2004 | title A true history of acupuncture | url http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1211/fact.2004.00244/full | doi 10.1211/fact.2004.00244 | volume 9 | issue 4 | journal Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies | pages 269–73 | s2cid 71106490 | trans-title 2017-01-01 | access-date 21 March 2014 | archive-date 24 May 2014 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140524190347/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1211/fact.2004.00244/full | url-status live }}</ref> According to Plinio Prioreschi, the earliest known historical record of acupuncture is the Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian"), written by a historian around 100&nbsp;BC.<ref name"Prioreschi2004"/> It is believed that this text was documenting what was established practice at that time.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/>Alternative theoriesThe 5,000-year-old mummified body of Ötzi the Iceman was found with 15 groups of tattoos,<ref nameDorfer-1999/> many of which were located at points on the body where acupuncture needles are used for abdominal or lower back problems. Evidence from the body suggests Ötzi had these conditions.<ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/> This has been cited as evidence that practices similar to acupuncture may have been practised elsewhere in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age;<ref nameDorfer-1999>{{cite journal | vauthors Dorfer L, Moser M, Bahr F, Spindler K, Egarter-Vigl E, Giullén S, Dohr G, Kenner T | title A medical report from the Stone Age? | journal Lancet | volume 354 | issue 9183 | pages 1023–25 | date September 1999 | pmid 10501382 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12242-0 | s2cid 29084491 | url http://www.utexas.edu/courses/classicalarch/readings/Iceman_Tattoos.pdf | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100922184626/http://www.utexas.edu/courses/classicalarch/readings/Iceman_Tattoos.pdf | url-status dead | archive-date 22 September 2010 }}</ref> however, The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine calls this theory "speculative".<ref name"Jackson 2011 p. 610">{{cite book | lastJackson | firstM. | titleThe Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine | publisherOUP Oxford | seriesOxford Handbooks in History | year2011 | isbn978-0-19-954649-7 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcpjgoazGIC4C&pgPT610| page610}}</ref> It is considered unlikely that acupuncture was practised before 2000&nbsp;BC.<ref name=Ramey/>
Acupuncture may have been practised during the Neolithic era, near the end of the Stone Age, using sharpened stones called Bian shi.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|70}} Many Chinese texts from later eras refer to sharp stones called "plen", which means "stone probe", that may have been used for acupuncture purposes.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|70}} The ancient Chinese medical text, Huangdi Neijing, indicates that sharp stones were believed at-the-time to cure illnesses at or near the body's surface, perhaps because of the short depth a stone could penetrate.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|71}} However, it is more likely that stones were used for other medical purposes, such as puncturing a growth to drain its pus.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/><ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/> The Mawangdui texts, which are believed to be from the 2nd century BC, mention the use of pointed stones to open abscesses, and moxibustion, but not for acupuncture.<ref name"Prioreschi2004"/> It is also speculated that these stones may have been used for bloodletting, due to the ancient Chinese belief that illnesses were caused by demons within the body that could be killed or released.<ref name"Singh Ernst 2008 p. 42">{{cite book | vauthorsSingh S, Ernst E | titleTrick Or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine | publisherW. W. Norton | seriesNorton paperback | year2008 | isbn978-0-393-06661-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5m6CKTEr3I0C&pgPA42 | page42 | access-date27 January 2016 | archive-date4 February 2023 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230204181954/https://books.google.com/books?id5m6CKTEr3I0C&pgPA42 | url-statuslive }}</ref> It is likely bloodletting was an antecedent to acupuncture.<ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/>
According to historians Lu Gwei-djen and Joseph Needham, there is substantial evidence that acupuncture may have begun around 600&nbsp;BC.<ref name"abc"/> Some hieroglyphs and pictographs from that era suggests acupuncture and moxibustion were practised.<ref name"Robson">{{cite book | last Robson | first T | title An Introduction to Complementary Medicine | isbn 978-1741140545 | year 2004 | publisher Allen & Unwin | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE6oa37ZyTxEC&pgPA90 | page 90 }}</ref> However, historians Lu and Needham said it was unlikely a needle could be made out of the materials available in China during this time period.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|71–72}} It is possible that bronze was used for early acupuncture needles. Tin, copper, gold and silver are also possibilities, though they are considered less likely, or to have been used in fewer cases.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|69}} If acupuncture was practised during the Shang dynasty (1766 to 1122&nbsp;BC), organic materials like thorns, sharpened bones, or bamboo may have been used.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|70}} Once methods for producing steel were discovered, it would replace all other materials, since it could be used to create a very fine, but sturdy needle.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|74}} Lu and Needham noted that all the ancient materials that could have been used for acupuncture and which often produce archaeological evidence, such as sharpened bones, bamboo or stones, were also used for other purposes.<ref name"abc"/> An article in Rheumatology said that the absence of any mention of acupuncture in documents found in the tomb of Mawangdui from 198&nbsp;BC suggest that acupuncture was not practised by that time.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/>
Belief systems
Several different and sometimes conflicting belief systems emerged regarding acupuncture. This may have been the result of competing schools of thought.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> Some ancient texts referred to using acupuncture to cause bleeding, while others mixed the ideas of blood-letting and spiritual ch'i energy. Over time, the focus shifted from blood to the concept of puncturing specific points on the body, and eventually to balancing Yin and Yang energies as well.<ref name"Prioreschi2004"/> According to David Ramey, no single "method or theory" was ever predominantly adopted as the standard.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ramey DW | title Inaccurate acupuncture history | journal Rheumatology | volume 43 | issue 12 | pages 1593; author reply 1593–94 | date December 2004 | pmid 15564643 | doi 10.1093/rheumatology/keh363 | doi-access free }}</ref> At the time, scientific knowledge of medicine was not yet developed, especially because in China dissection of the deceased was forbidden, preventing the development of basic anatomical knowledge.<ref name=White-Ernst/>
It is not certain when specific acupuncture points were introduced, but the autobiography of Bian Que from around 400–500&nbsp;BC references inserting needles at designated areas.<ref name"abc"/> Bian Que believed there was a single acupuncture point at the top of one's skull that he called the point "of the hundred meetings."<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|83}} Texts dated to be from 156 to 186&nbsp;BC document early beliefs in channels of life force energy called meridians that would later be an element in early acupuncture beliefs.<ref name=Ramey/>
Ramey and Buell said the "practice and theoretical underpinnings" of modern acupuncture were introduced in ''The Yellow Emperor's Classic (Huangdi Neijing) around 100&nbsp;BC.<ref namePrioreschi2004>{{cite book | last Prioreschi | first P | pages [https://books.google.com/books?idMJUMhEYGOKsC&pgPA147 147–48] | year 2004 | isbn 978-1888456011 | publisher Horatius Press | title A history of Medicine, Volume 2 }}</ref><ref nameRamey/> It introduced the concept of using acupuncture to manipulate the flow of life energy (qi) in a network of meridian (channels) in the body.<ref nameRamey/><ref name"Epler">{{cite journal | vauthors Epler DC | title Bloodletting in early Chinese medicine and its relation to the origin of acupuncture | journal Bulletin of the History of Medicine | volume 54 | issue 3 | pages 337–67 | year 1980 | pmid 6998524 }}</ref> The network concept was made up of acu-tracts, such as a line down the arms, where it said acupoints were located. Some of the sites acupuncturists use needles at today still have the same names as those given to them by the Yellow Emperor's Classic''.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|93}} Numerous additional documents were published over the centuries introducing new acupoints.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|101}} By the 4th century AD, most of the acupuncture sites in use today had been named and identified.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|101}}
Early development in China
Establishment and growth
In the first half of the 1st century AD, acupuncturists began promoting the belief that acupuncture's effectiveness was influenced by the time of day or night, the lunar cycle, and the season.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|140–41}} The 'science of the yin-yang cycles' ({{lang|zh|運氣學}} {{transliteration|zh|yùn qì xué}}{{efn|A reference to the five movements and six qi ({{lang|zh|五運六氣}} {{transliteration|zh|wǔ yùn liù qì}}).}}) was a set of beliefs that curing diseases relied on the alignment of both heavenly ({{Lang|zh-latn|tian}}) and earthly ({{Lang|zh-latn|di}}) forces that were attuned to cycles like that of the sun and moon.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|140–41}} There were several different belief systems that relied on a number of celestial and earthly bodies or elements that rotated and only became aligned at certain times.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|140–41}} According to Needham and Lu, these "arbitrary predictions" were depicted by acupuncturists in complex charts and through a set of special terminology.<ref name"abc"/>
Acupuncture needles during this period were much thicker than most modern ones and often resulted in infection. Infection is caused by a lack of sterilization, but at that time it was believed to be caused by use of the wrong needle, or needling in the wrong place, or at the wrong time.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|102–03}} Later, many needles were heated in boiling water, or in a flame. Sometimes needles were used while they were still hot, creating a cauterizing effect at the injection site.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|104}} Nine needles were recommended in the Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion{{efn|{{lang-zh|t針灸大成|s针灸大成|pZhēn jiǔ dà chéng|wChen Chiu Ta Chʻeng}}.}} from 1601, which may have been because of an ancient Chinese belief that nine was a magic number.<ref name="abc"/>{{RP|102–03}}
Other belief systems were based on the idea that the human body operated on a rhythm and acupuncture had to be applied at the right point in the rhythm to be effective.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|140–41}} In some cases a lack of balance between Yin and Yang were believed to be the cause of disease.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|140–41}}
In the 1st century AD, many of the first books about acupuncture were published and recognized acupuncturist experts began to emerge. The Zhen Jiu Jia Yi Jing,{{efn|{{lang-zh|t針灸甲乙經|s针灸甲乙经|pZhēn jiǔ jiǎ yǐ jīng}}.}} which was published in the mid-3rd century, became the oldest acupuncture book that is still in existence in the modern era.<ref name"abc"/> Other books like the Yu Gui Zhen Jing,{{efn|{{lang-zh|t玉匱鍼經|s玉匮针经|pYù guì zhēn jīng|wYü Kuei Chen Ching}}.}} written by the Director of Medical Services for China, were also influential during this period, but were not preserved.<ref name"abc"/> In the mid 7th century, Sun Simiao published acupuncture-related diagrams and charts that established standardized methods for finding acupuncture sites on people of different sizes and categorized acupuncture sites in a set of modules.<ref name"abc"/>
Acupuncture became more established in China as improvements in paper led to the publication of more acupuncture books.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-10-20 |titleSome Sepsis Stuff {{!}} Science-Based Medicine |urlhttps://sciencebasedmedicine.org/some-sepsis-stuff/ |access-date2022-11-04 |websitesciencebasedmedicine.org |languageen-US |archive-date4 November 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221104115738/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/some-sepsis-stuff/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Imperial Medical Service and the Imperial Medical College, which both supported acupuncture, became more established and created medical colleges in every province.<ref name"abc"/>{{rp|129}} The public was also exposed to stories about royal figures being cured of their diseases by prominent acupuncturists.<ref name"abc"/>{{rp|129–35}} By time the Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion was published during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644&nbsp;AD), most of the acupuncture practices used in the modern era had been established.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/>
Decline
By the end of the Song dynasty (1279&nbsp;AD), acupuncture had lost much of its status in China.<ref nameBarnes2005>{{cite book | last Barnes | first Linda L | title Needles, Herbs, Gods, and Ghosts: China, Healing, and the West to 1848 | year 2005 | publisher Harvard University Press | isbn 978-0674018723}}</ref>{{rp|25}} It became rarer in the following centuries, and was associated with less prestigious professions like alchemy, shamanism, midwifery and moxibustion.<ref nameBarnes2005/>{{rp|25}} Additionally, by the 18th century, scientific rationality was becoming more popular than traditional superstitious beliefs.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> By 1757 a book documenting the history of Chinese medicine called acupuncture a "lost art".<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|160}} Its decline was attributed in part to the popularity of prescriptions and medications, as well as its association with the lower classes.<ref name=Barnes2005/>{{rp|188}}
In 1822, the Chinese Emperor signed a decree excluding the practice of acupuncture from the Imperial Medical Institute.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> He said it was unfit for practice by gentlemen-scholars.<ref nameBarnes2005/>{{rp|308}} In China acupuncture was increasingly associated with lower-class, illiterate practitioners.<ref nameBarnes2005/>{{rp|58}} It was restored for a time, but banned again in 1929 in favor of science-based medicine. Although acupuncture declined in China during this time period, it was also growing in popularity in other countries.<ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/>
International expansion
). Japanese reprint by Suharaya Heisuke (Edo, 1. year Kyōhō = 1716).]]
Korea is believed to be the first country in Asia that acupuncture spread to outside of China.<ref name"abc"/> Within Korea there is a legend that acupuncture was developed by emperor Dangun, though it is more likely to have been brought into Korea from a Chinese colonial prefecture in 514&nbsp;AD.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|262–63}} Acupuncture use was commonplace in Korea by the 6th century. It spread to Vietnam in the 8th and 9th centuries.<ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/> As Vietnam began trading with Japan and China around the 9th century, it was influenced by their acupuncture practices as well.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> China and Korea sent "medical missionaries" that spread traditional Chinese medicine to Japan, starting around 219&nbsp;AD. In 553, several Korean and Chinese citizens were appointed to re-organize medical education in Japan and they incorporated acupuncture as part of that system.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|264}} Japan later sent students back to China and established acupuncture as one of five divisions of the Chinese State Medical Administration System.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|264–65}}
Acupuncture began to spread to Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Around this time the surgeon-general of the Dutch East India Company met Japanese and Chinese acupuncture practitioners and later encouraged Europeans to further investigate it.<ref name"abc"/>{{RP|264–65}} He published the first in-depth description of acupuncture for the European audience and created the term "acupuncture" in his 1683 work De Acupunctura.<ref name"Singh Ernst 2008 p. 42"/> France was an early adopter among the West due to the influence of Jesuit missionaries, who brought the practice to French clinics in the 16th century.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> The French doctor Louis Berlioz (the father of the composer Hector Berlioz) is usually credited with being the first to experiment with the procedure in Europe in 1810, before publishing his findings in 1816.<ref nameBarnes2005/>{{rp|308}}
By the 19th century, acupuncture had become commonplace in many areas of the world.<ref nameabc/>{{RP|295}} Americans and Britons began showing interest in acupuncture in the early 19th century, although interest waned by mid-century.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> Western practitioners abandoned acupuncture's traditional beliefs in spiritual energy, pulse diagnosis, and the cycles of the moon, sun or the body's rhythm. Diagrams of the flow of spiritual energy, for example, conflicted with the West's own anatomical diagrams. It adopted a new set of ideas for acupuncture based on tapping needles into nerves.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/><ref name"Porter 2013 p. 403"/><ref name"Jackson 2011 p. 610"/> In Europe it was speculated that acupuncture may allow or prevent the flow of electricity in the body, as electrical pulses were found to make a frog's leg twitch after death.<ref name"Singh Ernst 2008 p. 42"/>
The West eventually created a belief system based on Travell trigger points that were believed to inhibit pain. They were in the same locations as China's spiritually identified acupuncture points, but under a different nomenclature.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> The first elaborate Western treatise on acupuncture was published in 1683 by Willem ten Rhijne.<ref nameBarnes2005/>{{rp|75}}
Modern era
, California]]
In China, the popularity of acupuncture rebounded in 1949 when Mao Zedong took power and sought to unite China behind traditional cultural values. It was also during this time that many Eastern medical practices were consolidated under the name traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).<ref name="Porter 2013 p. 403"/>
New practices were adopted in the 20th century, such as using a cluster of needles,<ref nameabc/>{{RP|164}} electrified needles, or leaving needles inserted for up to a week.<ref nameabc/>{{RP|164}} A lot of emphasis developed on using acupuncture on the ear.<ref nameabc/>{{RP|164}} Acupuncture research organizations such as the International Society of Acupuncture were founded in the 1940s and 1950s and acupuncture services became available in modern hospitals.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1Lu|first1Dominic P.|last2Lu|first2Gabriel P.|dateOctober 2013|titleAn Historical Review and Perspective on the Impact of Acupuncture on U.S. Medicine and Society|journalMedical Acupuncture|volume25|issue5|pages311–16|doi10.1089/acu.2012.0921|issn1933-6586|pmc3796320|pmid24761180}}</ref> China, where acupuncture was believed to have originated, was increasingly influenced by Western medicine.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> Meanwhile, acupuncture grew in popularity in the US. The US Congress created the Office of Alternative Medicine in 1992 and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) declared support for acupuncture for some conditions in November 1997. In 1999, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine was created within the NIH. Acupuncture became the most popular alternative medicine in the US.<ref nameWang2008/>
Politicians from the Chinese Communist Party said acupuncture was superstitious and conflicted with the party's commitment to science.<ref nameCrozier1968/> Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong later reversed this position,<ref nameCrozier1968>{{cite book | vauthors Crozier RC |title Traditional medicine in modern China: science, nationalism, and the tensions of cultural change |edition1 |publisher Harvard University Press |locationCambridge |year1968 |isbn978-0674901056|pages101–205}}</ref> arguing that the practice was based on scientific principles.<ref nameTaylor2011>{{cite book | lastTaylor | firstK | titleChinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945–63: a Medicine of Revolution | year2005 | isbn978-0415345125 | publisherRoutledgeCurzon |page109}}</ref> During the Cultural Revolution, disbelief in acupuncture anesthesia was subjected to ruthless political repression.<ref>{{cite book | lastUnschuld | firstPaul Ulrich | titleMedicine in China: A History of Ideas | publisherUniversity of California Press | seriesComparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care | year2010 | isbn978-0-520-26613-1 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4agwDwAAQBAJ&pgPA364 | access-date8 July 2024 | page364}}</ref>
In 1971, New York Times reporter James Reston published an article on his acupuncture experiences in China, which led to more investigation of and support for acupuncture.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> The US President Richard Nixon visited China in 1972.<ref name"CSICOP"/> During one part of the visit, the delegation was shown a patient undergoing major surgery while fully awake, ostensibly receiving acupuncture rather than anesthesia.<ref name"CSICOP"/> Later it was found that the patients selected for the surgery had both a high pain tolerance and received heavy indoctrination before the operation; these demonstration cases were also frequently receiving morphine surreptitiously through an intravenous drip that observers were told contained only fluids and nutrients.<ref name"CSICOP">{{cite journal|urlhttp://www.csicop.org/si/show/china_conference_1/ |titleTraditional Medicine and Pseudoscience in China: A Report of the Second CSICOP Delegation (Part 1) | vauthors Beyerstein BL, Sampson W |volume20 |issue4 |year1996 |journalSkeptical Inquirer |publisherCommittee for Skeptical Inquiry |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091004020227/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/china_conference_1/ |archive-date4 October 2009 }}</ref> One patient receiving open heart surgery while awake was ultimately found to have received a combination of three powerful sedatives as well as large injections of a local anesthetic into the wound.<ref nameColquhoun2013/> After the National Institute of Health expressed support for acupuncture for a limited number of conditions, adoption in the US grew further.<ref nameWhite-Ernst/> In 1972 the first legal acupuncture center in the US was established in Washington DC<ref name"JCIM_Lee">{{cite journal|urlhttp://www.jcimjournal.com/en/index.aspx/ |titleThe first acupuncture center in the United States: an interview with Yao Wu Lee, Washington Acupuncture Center |firstAY |lastFan |volume20 |issue5 |year2012 |journalJournal of Integrative Medicine |publisherCommittee for Journal of Chinese Integrative Medicine |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120727004846/http://www.jcimjournal.com/en/index.aspx |archive-date27 July 2012 }}</ref> and in 1973 the American Internal Revenue Service allowed acupuncture to be deducted as a medical expense.<ref name"'70s 133">{{cite book|title How We Got Here: The '70s|lastFrum|first David|author-linkDavid Frum|year 2000|publisherBasic Books|location New York City|isbn978-0465041954|page [https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/133 133]|url= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/133}}</ref>
In 2006, a BBC documentary Alternative Medicine filmed a patient undergoing open heart surgery allegedly under acupuncture-induced anesthesia. It was later revealed that the patient had been given a cocktail of anesthetics.<ref nameSinghGuardian>{{cite news | title A groundbreaking experiment ... or a sensationalized TV stunt? | first Simon | last Singh | name-list-style vanc | work The Guardian | date 26 March 2006 | url https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/mar/25/science.broadcasting | access-date 13 December 2016 | archive-date 2 February 2017 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170202092852/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/mar/25/science.broadcasting | url-status live }}</ref><ref nameSinghTelegraph>{{cite news|titleDid we really witness the 'amazing power' of acupuncture?|workThe Daily Telegraph|date14 February 2006 | first Simon | last Singh | name-list-style vanc |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3344833/Did-we-really-witness-the-amazing-power-of-acupuncture.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3344833/Did-we-really-witness-the-amazing-power-of-acupuncture.html |archive-date11 January 2022 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed "acupuncture and moxibustion of traditional Chinese medicine" on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List following China's nomination.<ref name"unes_Acup">{{cite web | title Acupuncture and moxibustion of traditional Chinese medicine – intangible heritage | work unesco.org – Culture Sector – UNESCO | access-date 17 January 2017 | url http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/acupuncture-and-moxibustion-of-traditional-chinese-medicine-00425 | archive-date 29 January 2016 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160129043402/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/acupuncture-and-moxibustion-of-traditional-chinese-medicine-00425 | url-status live }}</ref>
Adoption
Acupuncture is most heavily practiced in China<ref nameZhang-2010/> and is popular in<ref nameZhang-2010/> the US,<ref name"Xu S"/> Australia,<ref name"dahfdfaDF"/> and Europe.<ref name"Ramsay2009"/> In Switzerland, acupuncture has become the most frequently used alternative medicine since 2004.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Carruzzo P, Graz B, Rodondi PY, Michaud PA | title Offer and use of complementary and alternative medicine in hospitals of the French-speaking part of Switzerland | journal Swiss Medical Weekly | volume 143 | pages w13756 | date September 2013 | pmid 24018633 | doi 10.4414/smw.2013.13756 | doi-access free }}</ref> In the United Kingdom, a total of 4 million acupuncture treatments were administered in 2009.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hopton AK, Curnoe S, Kanaan M, Macpherson H | title Acupuncture in practice: mapping the providers, the patients and the settings in a national cross-sectional survey | journal BMJ Open | volume 2 | issue 1 | pages e000456 | year 2012 | pmid 22240649 | pmc 3278493 | doi 10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000456 | publisher bmj.com }}</ref> Acupuncture is used in most pain clinics and hospices in the UK.<ref nameNHS/> An estimated 1 in 10 adults in Australia used acupuncture in 2004.<ref name"dahfdfaDF">{{cite journal | vauthors Xue CC, Zhang AL, Lin V, Myers R, Polus B, Story DF | title Acupuncture, chiropractic and osteopathy use in Australia: a national population survey | journal BMC Public Health | volume 8 | issue 1 | pages 105 | date April 2008 | pmid 18377663 | pmc 2322980 | doi 10.1186/1471-2458-8-105 | display-authors 1 | doi-access free }}</ref> In Japan, it is estimated that 25 percent of the population will try acupuncture at some point,<ref nameIshizaki2010/> though in most cases it is not covered by public health insurance.<ref nameIshizaki2010/> Users of acupuncture in Japan are more likely to be elderly and to have a limited education.<ref nameIshizaki2010/> Approximately half of users surveyed indicated a likelihood to seek such remedies in the future, while 37% did not.<ref nameIshizaki2010>{{cite journal | vauthors Ishizaki N, Yano T, Kawakita K | title Public status and prevalence of acupuncture in Japan | journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume 7 | issue 4 | pages 493–500 | date December 2010 | pmid 18955345 | pmc 2892353 | doi 10.1093/ecam/nen037 }}</ref> Less than one percent of the US population reported having used acupuncture in the early 1990s.<ref nameSamadi2012>{{cite web|titleMore Americans using acupuncture for common ailments|firstDavid B.|lastSamadi|name-list-stylevanc|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/health/more-americans-using-acupuncture-for-common-ailments/|publisherFox News Channel|access-date25 May 2013|archive-date28 July 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728054400/http://www.foxnews.com/health/2012/05/15/more-americans-using-acupuncture-for-common-ailments/|url-statuslive}}</ref> By the early 2010s, more than 14 million Americans reported having used acupuncture as part of their health care.<ref name=Samadi2012/>
In the US, acupuncture is increasingly ({{As of|2014|lcy}}) used at academic medical centers,<ref nameGorski2014/> and is usually offered through CAM centers or anesthesia and pain management services. Examples include those at Harvard University, Stanford University, Johns Hopkins University, and UCLA.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Highfield ES, Kaptchuk TJ, Ott MJ, Barnes L, Kemper KJ | title Availability of acupuncture in the hospitals of a major academic medical center: a pilot study | journal Complementary Therapies in Medicine | volume 11 | issue 3 | pages 177–83 | date September 2003 | pmid 14659382 | doi 10.1016/S0965-2299(03)00069-4 | url http://www.complementarytherapiesinmedicine.com/article/S0965-2299%2803%2900069-4/abstract | publisher Elsevier }}</ref> CDC clinical practice guidelines from 2022 list acupuncture among the types of complementary and alternative medicines physicians should consider in preference to opioid prescription for certain kinds of pain.<ref>{{cite journal |pages1–95 |publisherCDC |date4 November 2022 |titleCDC Clinical Practice Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Pain |urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/rr/rr7103a1.htm |vauthorsDowell D, Ragan KR, Jones CN, Baldwin GT, Chou R |volume71 |issue3 |journalMorbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |access-date23 December 2022 |archive-date23 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221223102004/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/rr/rr7103a1.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The use of acupuncture in Germany increased by 20% in 2007, after the German acupuncture trials supported its efficacy for certain uses.<ref name"accupuncture-rponline"/> In 2011, there were more than one million users,<ref name"accupuncture-rponline">{{cite web|titleFrauen häufiger mit Akupunktur behandelt|urlhttp://www.rp-online.de/gesundheit/medizin-und-vorsorge/frauen-haeufiger-mit-akupunktur-behandelt-1.2973239|workRheinische Post|date30 August 2012|access-date25 May 2013|languagede|archive-date4 December 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121204125847/http://www.rp-online.de/gesundheit/medizin-und-vorsorge/frauen-haeufiger-mit-akupunktur-behandelt-1.2973239|url-statuslive}}</ref> and insurance companies have estimated that two-thirds of German users are women.<ref name"accupuncture-rponline"/> As a result of the trials, German public health insurers began to cover acupuncture for chronic low back pain and osteoarthritis of the knee, but not tension headache or migraine.<ref nameBirch2007/> This decision was based in part on socio-political reasons.<ref nameBirch2007>{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.paradigm-pubs.com/sites/www.paradigm-pubs.com/files/files/Birch-german-studies.pdf |journalJournal of Chinese Medicine |titleReflections on the German Acupuncture studies |vauthorsBirch S |issue83 |year2007 |pages12–17 |access-date20 January 2014 |archive-date16 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140116140150/http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/sites/www.paradigm-pubs.com/files/files/Birch-german-studies.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref> Some insurers in Germany chose to stop reimbursement of acupuncture because of the trials.<ref nameHe2013>{{cite journal | vauthors He W, Tong Y, Zhao Y, Zhang L, Ben H, Qin Q, Huang F, Rong P | title Review of controlled clinical trials on acupuncture versus sham acupuncture in Germany | journal Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine | volume 33 | issue 3 | pages 403–07 | date June 2013 | pmid 24024341 | doi 10.1016/s0254-6272(13)60187-9 | display-authors 4 | doi-access free }}</ref> For other conditions, insurers in Germany were not convinced that acupuncture had adequate benefits over usual care or sham treatments.<ref namePorter2013>{{cite book | first Stuart B. | last Porter | name-list-style vanc |page408 |titleTidy's Physiotherapy |edition15 |editorStuart B. Porter |publisherChurchill Livingstone |year2013 |isbn978-0702043444}}</ref> Highlighting the results of the placebo group, researchers refused to accept a placebo therapy as efficient.<ref name"Hinrichs">{{cite book | first1 TJ | last1 Hinrichs | first2 Linda L. | last2 Barnes | name-list-style vanc |page314 |titleChinese Medicine and Healing: An Illustrated History |edition1 | editor1-first TJ | editor1-last Hinrichs | editor2-first Linda L. | editor2-last Barnes |publisherBelknap Press |year2013 |isbn978-0674047372}}</ref>
Regulation
{{Main|Regulation of acupuncture}}
There are various government and trade association regulatory bodies for acupuncture in the United Kingdom, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, and in European countries and elsewhere. The World Health Organization recommends that an acupuncturist receive 200 hours of specialized training if they are a physician and 2,500 hours for non-physicians before being licensed or certified; many governments have adopted similar standards.
In Hong Kong, the practice of acupuncture is regulated by the Chinese Medicine Council, which was formed in 1999 by the Legislative Council. It includes a licensing exam, registration, and degree courses approved by the board.<ref>{{cite news|titleHong Kong's traditional Chinese medicine laws 'putting public at risk'|date23 July 2007|firstMark|lastO'Neill|urlhttp://www.scmp.com/article/601500/hong-kongs-traditional-chinese-medicine-laws-putting-public-risk|newspaperSouth China Morning Post|access-date14 May 2015|archive-date19 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150519083803/http://www.scmp.com/article/601500/hong-kongs-traditional-chinese-medicine-laws-putting-public-risk|url-statuslive}}</ref> Canada has acupuncture licensing programs in the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta and Quebec; standards set by the Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture Association of Canada are used in provinces without government regulation.<ref name"Ramsay2009">{{cite book|firstCynthia|lastRamsay|name-list-stylevanc|titleUnnatural Regulation: Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy in Canada|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4Y5oPvK4QVwC&pgPA43|year2009|publisherThe Fraser Institute|page43|idGGKEY:0KK0XUSQASK|access-date27 January 2016|archive-date15 April 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415012412/https://books.google.com/books?id4Y5oPvK4QVwC&pgPA43|url-statuslive}}</ref> Regulation in the US began in the 1970s in California, which was eventually followed by every state but Wyoming and Idaho. Licensing requirements vary greatly from state to state. The needles used in acupuncture are regulated in the US by the Food and Drug Administration.<ref name"ChanLee2001">{{cite book | first1 Kevin | last1 Chan | first2 Henry | last2 Lee | name-list-style vanc |titleThe Way Forward for Chinese Medicine|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idx5EIubrfg6wC&pgPA349|year2001|publisherCRC Press|isbn978-1-4200-2423-4|page349}}</ref> In some states acupuncture is regulated by a board of medical examiners, while in others by the board of licensing, health or education.
In Japan, acupuncturists are licensed by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare after passing an examination and graduating from a technical school or university.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|title WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine|publisher World Health Organization|year 2005|isbn 978-92-4-156286-7|page 195|url https://books.google.com/books?idVO8K9h9GvaoC&pgPA195}}</ref> In Australia, the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia regulates acupuncture, among other Chinese medical traditions, and restricts the use of titles like 'acupuncturist' to registered practitioners only.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.chinesemedicineboard.gov.au/Codes-Guidelines/FAQ/Registration.aspx|titleChinese Medicine Board of Australia – Registration and how to apply|websitewww.chinesemedicineboard.gov.au|languageen|access-date2020-02-07|archive-date26 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200226065209/https://www.chinesemedicineboard.gov.au/Codes-Guidelines/FAQ/Registration.aspx|url-statuslive}}</ref> The practice of Acupuncture in New Zealand in 1990 acupuncture was included into the Governmental Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) Act. This inclusion granted qualified and professionally registered acupuncturists the ability to provide subsidised care and treatment to citizens, residents, and temporary visitors for work- or sports-related injuries that occurred within the country of New Zealand. The two bodies for the regulation of acupuncture and attainment of ACC treatment provider status in New Zealand are Acupuncture NZ,<ref>{{Cite web|titleHome|urlhttps://www.acupuncture.org.nz/|access-date2020-11-13|websiteAcupuncture NZ|archive-date19 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210119203419/https://www.acupuncture.org.nz/|url-statuslive}}</ref> and The New Zealand Acupuncture Standards Authority.<ref>{{Cite web|titleNZASA - Home|urlhttps://nzasa.org/|access-date2020-12-24|websitenzasa.org|archive-date14 April 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414013230/https://nzasa.org/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2001/0049/latest/DLM99494.html|titleAccident Compensation Act 2001 No 49 (As at 30 March 2021), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation|access-date24 December 2020|archive-date23 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210123043453/https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2001/0049/latest/DLM99494.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> At least 28 countries in Europe have professional associations for acupuncturists.<ref name":0"/> In France, the Académie Nationale de Médecine (National Academy of Medicine) has regulated acupuncture since 1955.<ref>{{cite journal|lastBossy|firstJean|titleAcupuncture in France|journalAcupuncture in Medicine|publisherSage Journals|dateJanuary 1, 1988|volume5|pages6–8|doi10.1136/aim.5.1.6|s2cid70372649|quoteSince 1955, the French Academy of Medicine accepted and included Acupuncture as a part of medicine because it includes both diagnosis and therapeutic treatment|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order per WP:SEEALSO -->
{{Columnslist|colwidth=30em|
* Auriculotherapy
* Baunscheidtism
* Colorpuncture
* Dry needling
* List of acupuncture points
* List of ineffective cancer treatments&nbsp;– Includes moxibustion
* Moxibustion
* Pharmacopuncture
* Pressure point
* Regulation of acupuncture
}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
Notes
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist|groupn}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
<!-- The short citations in the References section are interlinked with the full citations here. -->
* {{cite book | refAung2007 | last1 Aung | first1 SKH | last2 Chen | first2 WPD | name-list-style vanc | year 2007 | title Clinical Introduction to Medical Acupuncture | publisher Thieme Medical Publishers | isbn 978-1588902214 }}
* {{cite book | refCheng1987 | lastCheng | first X | title Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion |edition 1st | year 1987 | publisher Foreign Languages Press | isbn 978-7119003788}} <!--revisit and verify cites against 3rd ed-->
* {{cite book | vauthors Singh S, Ernst E |author-link1 Simon Singh |author-link2Edzard Ernst |title Trick or Treatment: Alternative Medicine on Trial |locationLondon |publisher Bantam |year2008 |isbn 978-0593061299 |ref= {{harvid|Singh & Ernst|2008}}}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors Madsen MV, Gøtzsche PC, Hróbjartsson A | title Acupuncture treatment for pain: systematic review of randomised clinical trials with acupuncture, placebo acupuncture, and no acupuncture groups | journal BMJ | volume 338 | pages a3115 | date January 2009 | pmid 19174438 | pmc 2769056 | doi 10.1136/bmj.a3115 | ref {{harvid|Madsen|2009}} }}
* {{cite book | vauthors Wiseman N, Ellis A | year 1996 | title Fundamentals of Chinese medicine | publisher Paradigm Publications | isbn 978-0912111445 |ref{{harvid|Wiseman & Ellis|1996}}}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |last Brown |first Brandon P |year 2011 |title "Acupuncture." ''Magill's Medical Guide'', 6th ed., vol. 1 |publisher Salem Press |isbn 978-1-63700-107-3}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopediaThe Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGr4snwg7iaEC&pgPA283|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-1-57607-653-8|pages283 ff | vauthors Ulett GA | veditors Shermer M|titleAcupuncture |year2002 |refnone}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | veditors William FW|encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvH1EAgAAQBAJ&pgPT31|year2013|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-135-95522-9|pages3–4 |titleAcupuncture |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last Bivins |first Roberta E. |translator |year 2000 |title Acupuncture, Expertise, and Cross-Cultural Medicine |publisher Palgrave| location New York |isbn 0333918932}}
* FRONTLINE: The Alternative Fix - "[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/altmed/themes/acupuncture.html What is acupuncture?]" (4 November 2003). PBS Video.
{{Acupuncture}}
{{Alternative medicine |state=collapsed}}
{{Traditional Chinese medicine}}
{{Pseudoscience}}
{{Sister bar|autoyes|wiktacupuncture|q=Traditional Chinese medicine}}
{{Authority control}}
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Category:Alternative medicine
Category:Chinese inventions
Category:Energy therapies
Category:Pain management
Category:Pseudoscience
Category:Traditional Chinese medicine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.648101 |
1538 | Adder (disambiguation) | Vipera berus, the common European adder, is a snake found in Europe and northern Asia.
Adder may also refer to:
AA-12 Adder, a Russian air-to-air missile
Adder (electronics), an electronic circuit designed to do addition
Adder Technology, a manufacturing company
Armstrong Siddeley Adder, a late 1940s British turbojet engine
Blackadder, a series of BBC sitcoms
Golden Axe: The Revenge of Death Adder, a video game
HMS Adder, any of seven ships of the Royal Navy
Any of several groups of venomous snakes
USS Adder, a US submarine
See also
Addition, a mathematical operation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.652171 |
1540 | Aeneas | {{short description|Trojan hero in Greco-Roman mythology}}
{{About|the Greco-Roman hero}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Roman
| image = Iapyx removing arrowhead from Aeneas.jpg
| caption = Iapyx removing an arrowhead from the leg of Aeneas, with Aeneas's son, Ascanius, crying beside him. Antique fresco from Pompeii.
| siblings = Lyrus
| name = Aeneas
| offspring = {{ubl|Ascanius (by Creusa)|Silvius (by Lavinia)}}
| consort = {{ubl|Creusa|Dido|Lavinia}}
| abode = Alba Longa
| deity_of = Founder of Alba Longa
| parents = Anchises and Aphrodite
}}
{{Greek mythology sidebar}}
, 1598 (Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy)]]
In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas ({{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|n|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ih|NEE|əs}},<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aeneas |titleAeneas |websiteMerriam-Webster |access-date2015-07-14 |year2015}}</ref> {{IPA|la|äe̯ˈneːäːs̠|lang}}; from {{Langx|grc|Αἰνείας|Aineíās}}) was a Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus).<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idma0dM1ULeWoC&pgPA43|page43|titleExemplary Traits: Reading Characterization in Roman Poetry|authorJ. Mira Seo|publisherOxford University Press|date2013|isbn978-0-19-973428-3 }}</ref> His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy (both being grandsons of Ilus, founder of Troy), making Aeneas a second cousin to Priam's children (such as Hector and Paris). He is a minor character in Greek mythology and is mentioned in Homer's Iliad. Aeneas receives full treatment in Roman mythology, most extensively in Virgil's Aeneid, where he is cast as an ancestor of Romulus and Remus. He became the first true hero of Rome. Snorri Sturluson identifies him with the Norse god Víðarr of the Æsir.<ref name"ReferenceA">The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur [1916] Prologue II at Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Accessed 11/14/17</ref> Etymology
, with portrait of Aeneas. c. 510–480 BCE.]]
Aeneas is the Romanization of the hero's original Greek name {{Langx|grc|Αἰνείας|labelnone}} (Aineías). Aineías is first introduced in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite when Aphrodite gives him his name from the adjective {{Langx|grc|αὶνóν|labelnone|italic=yes}}
({{Transliteration|grc|ainon|italic=yes}},
"terrible"), for the "terrible grief" ({{Langx|el|αὶνóν ἄχος|labelnone|italicinvert}}) he has caused her by being born a mortal who will age and die.<ref group"lower-alpha">"His name will be Aineias [Aeneas], since it was an unspeakable [ainos] akhos that took hold of me – grief that I had fallen into the bed of a mortal man." (Nagy 2001, [https://uh.edu/~cldue/texts/aphrodite.html#_ftn18 198–99])</ref><ref name":0">Nagy, Gregory, trans. (2001) [http://www.uh.edu/~cldue/texts/aphrodite.html Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite], edited by C. Dué Hackney. Houston: University of Houston.</ref> It is a popular etymology for the name, apparently exploited by Homer in the Iliad.<ref>Andrew Faulkner, [https://books.google.com/books?idVuATDAAAQBAJ&dqaeneas%20etymology&pgPA257 The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite: Introduction, Text, and Commentary] (2008) p. 257</ref> Later in the Medieval period there were writers who held that, because the Aeneid was written by a philosopher, it is meant to be read philosophically.<ref>Desmond, Marilynn (1994), [https://books.google.com/books?id2b1qK94kbgIC&dqaeneas%20etymology%20ennos%20demas&pgPA85 Reading Dido: Gender, Textuality, and Medieval Aeneid]. pp. 85–86.</ref> As such, in the "natural order", the meaning of Aeneas' name combines Greek {{Langx|grc|ennos|labelnone|italicyes}} ("dweller") with {{Langx|grc|demas|labelnone|italicyes}} ("body"), which becomes {{Langx|grc|ennaios|labelnone|italicyes}} or "in-dweller"—i.e. as a god inhabiting a mortal body.<ref>John of Salisbury, Polycraticus 8.24–25; Bernard Sylvestris of Tours, Commentum supra sex libros Eneidos Vergilii</ref> However, there is no certainty regarding the origin of his name.
Epithets
In imitation of the Iliad, Virgil borrows epithets of Homer, including: Anchisiades, magnanimum, magnus, heros, and bonus. Though he borrows many, Virgil gives Aeneas two epithets of his own, in the Aeneid: pater and pius. The epithets applied by Virgil are an example of an attitude different from that of Homer, for whilst Odysseus is {{Langx|grc|poikilios|labelnone|italicyes}} ("wily"), Aeneas is described as {{Langx|grc|pius|labelnone|italicyes}} ("pious"), which conveys a strong moral tone. The purpose of these epithets seems to enforce the notion of Aeneas' divine hand as father and founder of the Roman race, and their use seems circumstantial: when Aeneas is praying he refers to himself as pius, and is referred to as such by the author only when the character is acting on behalf of the gods to fulfill his divine mission. Likewise, Aeneas is called pater when acting in the interest of his men.<ref>Parry, Milman (1971), [https://books.google.com/books?idcbvyswUgSnEC&dqaeneas%20epithets&pgPA169 The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry], edited by Adam Parry. p. 169</ref>Greek myth and eposHomeric Hymn to Aphrodite
(1889 or 1890)|thumb]]
The story of the birth of Aeneas is told in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, one of the major Homeric Hymns. Aphrodite has caused Zeus the king of the Gods to fall in love with mortal women. In retaliation, Zeus decided to put a desire over her heart for the mortal Prince Anchises, who is tending his cattle among the hills near Mount Ida. When Aphrodite saw him, she was immediately smitten. She adorns herself as if for a wedding among the gods and appears before him. He is overcome by her beauty, believing that she is a goddess, but Aphrodite identifies herself as a Phrygian princess. After they make love, Aphrodite reveals her true identity to him and Anchises fears what might happen to him as a result of their liaison. Aphrodite assures him that he will be protected and tells him that she will bear him a son to be called Aeneas. However, she warns him that he must never tell anyone that he has lain with a goddess. When Aeneas is born, Aphrodite takes him to the nymphs of Mount Ida, instructing them to raise the child to age five, then take him to Anchises.<ref name":0" /> According to other sources, Anchises later brags about his encounter with Aphrodite, and as a result is struck in the foot with a thunderbolt by Zeus. Thereafter he is lame in that foot, so that Aeneas has to carry him from the flames of Troy.<ref>Virgil, Aeneid</ref>Homer's Iliad
, black-figured oinochoe, {{circa}} 520–510&nbsp;BCE, Louvre (F&nbsp;118)]]
Aeneas is a minor character in the Iliad, where he is twice saved from death by the gods as if for an as-yet-unknown destiny but is an honorable warrior in his own right. Having held back from the fighting, aggrieved with Priam because in spite of his brave deeds he was not given his due share of honor, he leads an attack against Idomeneus to recover the body of his brother-in-law Alcathous at the urging of Deiphobus.<ref>{{cite book |authorHomer |titleThe Iliad |translatorSamuel Butler |year2019 |orig-year1999 |otherstranscribed by A. Haines |viaProject Gutenberg |urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/2199/2199-h/2199-h.htm}}</ref> He is the leader of the Trojans' Dardanian allies, as well as a third cousin and principal lieutenant of Hector, son and heir of the Trojan king Priam.
Aeneas's mother Aphrodite frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield, and he is a favorite of the Sun God Apollo. Aphrodite and Apollo would frequently rescue Aeneas from combat with Diomedes of Argos, who nearly kills him, and carry him away to Pergamos for healing. Even the Sea God Poseidon, who usually favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue after he falls under the assault of Achilles, noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people.
Bruce Louden presents Aeneas as an archetype: The sole virtuous individual (or family) spared from general destruction, following the mytheme of Utnapishtim, Baucis and Philemon, Noah, and Lot.<ref>{{cite conference |lastLouden |firstBruce |titleAeneas in the Iliad: The one just man |typeabstract |conference102nd Annual Meeting of Classical Association of the Middle West and South (CAMWS) |year2006 |urlhttps://camws.org/meeting/2006/abstracts/louden.html}}</ref> Pseudo-Apollodorus in his Bibliotheca explains that "...&nbsp;the Greeks [spared] him alone, on account of his piety."<ref>{{cite book |authorApollodorus |titleEpitome |editor-firstJames G. |editor-lastFrazer |atV, 21 |publisherTufts University |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DEpitome%3Abook%3DE%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D21}}</ref> Heinrich Schliemann wrote that it seemed "extremely probable that, at the time of Homer's visit [to the Troad], the King of Troy declared that his race was descended in a direct line from Æneas."<ref>{{cite book |last1Schliemann |first1Heinrich |titleTroy and Its Remains: A Narrative of Researches and Discoveries Made on the Site of Ilium, and in the Trojan Plain |date1875 |publisherJohn Murray |locationLondon |page19 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTZhAAAAAYAAJ |access-date21 March 2025 |languageen}}</ref>
Other sources
The Roman mythographer Gaius Julius Hyginus ({{circa|64 BCE}} – CE 17) in his Fabulae<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae 115.</ref> credits Aeneas with killing 28 enemies in the Trojan War. Aeneas also appears in the Trojan narratives attributed to Dares Phrygius and Dictys of Crete.
Roman myth and literature
The history of Aeneas was continued by Roman authors. One influential source was the account of Rome's founding in Cato the Elder's Origines.<ref>{{cite journal|lastStout|firstS.E.|year1924|titleHow Vergil Established for Aeneas a Legal Claim to a Home and a Throne in Italy|journalThe Classical Journal|volume20|issue3|pages152–60|jstor3288552}}</ref> The Aeneas legend was well known in Virgil's day and appeared in various historical works, including the Roman Antiquities of the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (relying on Marcus Terentius Varro), Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (probably dependent on Quintus Fabius Pictor, fl. 200 BCE), and Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (now extant only in an epitome by Justin).Virgil's Aeneid
]]
The Aeneid which is 12 books of the legendary foundation of Lavinium which explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of the Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas's trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to Italy.
Several attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island's western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully.
]]
After a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno's request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno, who was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans' descendants. Aeneas's mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury (the adaptation of Hermes) was sent by Jupiter (who was Zeus in this version) and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met.
After the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome.
, by Luca Giordano, 1634–1705. The genius of Aeneas is shown ascendant, looking into the light of the future, while that of Turnus is setting, shrouded in darkness]]
Latinus, king of the Latins, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled Trojans and let them reorganize their lives in Latium. His daughter Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land – namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of Juno, who was aligned with King Mezentius of the Etruscans and Queen Amata of the Latins. Aeneas's forces prevailed. Turnus was killed, and Virgil's account ends abruptly.
Other sources
The rest of Aeneas's biography is gleaned from other ancient sources, including Livy and Ovid's Metamorphoses. According to Livy, Aeneas was victorious, but Latinus died in the war. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, Anna Perenna, who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After Aeneas's death, Venus asked Jupiter to make her son immortal. Jupiter agreed. The river god Numicus cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and Venus anointed him with ambrosia and nectar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god Jupiter Indiges.<ref>Titus Livius. [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy01.html The History of Rome] (Rev. Canon Roberts, trans.), Vol. I, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London, 1905</ref> It's also been stated that Prince Aeneas is the ancestor to the founders of Rome, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus; the two orphan boys who are seen suckling from a she-wolf.[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Romulus-and-Remus]
English mythology
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2023}}
{{Essay-like|date=October 2024}}
The Brut Chronicle tells the story of Britain's settling by Brutus of Troy, son of Aeneas. Belief in this story was once widespread, but by the time of the Renaissance had begun to fade.<ref nameRastell>{{cite book |lastRastell |firstJohannes |date1529 |titleThe pastyme of people |publisherin chepesyde at the sygne of the mearemayd next to pollys gate |urlhttps://archive.org/details/pastymeofpeoplec00rast/page/n9/mode/1up }}</ref> Further reading * One surviving version of the Brut Chronicle is a late Middle Ages manuscript, known as the St Albans Chronicle.<ref namestalbc>{{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/lewis_e_238/page/n9/mode/2up |titleThe St Albans Chronicle |date1400 }}</ref>Medieval accountsSnorri Sturlason, in the Prologue of the Prose Edda, tells of the world as parted in three continents: Africa, Asia and the third part called Europe or Enea.<ref name"ReferenceA"/><ref>Edda Snorra Sturlusonar GUÐNI JÓNSSON bjó til prentunar. [http://heimskringla.no/wiki/Prologus Prologus 2]</ref> Snorri also tells of a Trojan named Munon (or Mennon), who marries the daughter of the High King (Yfirkonungr) Priam called Troan and travels to distant lands, marries the Sybil and got a son, Tror, who, as Snorri tells, is identical to Thor. This tale resembles some episodes of the Aeneid.<ref>The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur [1916] Prologue III at Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Accessed November 14, 2017</ref>
Continuations of Trojan matter in the Middle Ages had their effects on the character of Aeneas as well. The 12th-century French ''Roman d'Enéas'' addresses Aeneas's sexuality. Though Virgil appears to deflect all homoeroticism onto Nisus and Euryalus, making his Aeneas a purely heterosexual character, in the Middle Ages there was at least a suspicion of homoeroticism in Aeneas. The ''Roman d'Enéas'' addresses that charge, when Queen Amata opposes Aeneas's marrying Lavinia.<ref>{{cite journal|lastEldevik|firstRandi|year1991|titleNegotiations of Homoerotic Tradition|journalPMLA|volume106|issue5|pages1177–78|jstor462692|doi10.2307/462692|s2cid=251026783 }}</ref>
Medieval interpretations of Aeneas were greatly influenced by both Virgil and other Latin sources. Specifically, the accounts by Dares and Dictys, which were reworked by the 13th-century Italian writer Guido delle Colonne (in Historia destructionis Troiae), colored many later readings. From Guido, for instance, the Pearl Poet and other English writers get the suggestion<ref nametolkien/> that Aeneas's safe departure from Troy with his possessions and family was a reward for treason, for which he was chastised by Hecuba.<ref>{{cite book|lastColonne|firstGuido delle|author-linkGuido delle Colonne|editorGriffin, N. E.|titleHistoria destructionis Troiae|urlhttp://www.medievalacademy.org/resource/resmgr/maa_books_online/griffin_0026.htm|seriesMedieval Academy Books|volume26|year1936|publisherMedieval Academy of America|locationCambridge|pages218, 234}}</ref> In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century) the Pearl Poet, like many other English writers, employed Aeneas to establish a genealogy for the foundation of Britain,<ref nametolkien>{{cite book|editorTolkien, J. R. R.|editor2E. V. Gordon|editor3Norman Davis|titleSir Gawain and the Green Knight|edition2|year1967|publisherOxford UP|locationOxford|isbn9780198114864|page70}}</ref> and explains that Aeneas was "impeached for his perfidy, proven most true" (line 4).<ref>{{cite book|editorLaura Howes|translatorMarie Boroff|titleSir Gawain and the Green Knight|year2010|publisherNorton|locationNew York|isbn9780393930252|page3}} In Marie Boroff's translation, edited by Laura Howes, the treacherous knight of line 3 is identified as Antenor, incorrectly, as Tolkien argues.</ref>
Family and legendary descendants
, by Bartolomeo Pinelli]]
Aeneas had an extensive family tree. His wet-nurse was Caieta,<ref>Vergil Aeneid 7.1–4</ref> and he is the father of Ascanius with Creusa, and of Silvius with Lavinia. Ascanius, also known as Iulus (or Julius),<ref>Vergil, Aeneid 1983 1.267</ref> founded Alba Longa and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology used by Virgil in the Aeneid, Romulus and Remus were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother Rhea Silvia, making Aeneas the progenitor of the Roman people.<ref>C.F. L'Homond [https://archive.org/details/selectionsfromv02lhogoog/page/n44 <!-- pg1 quotekings alba longa fill the gap. --> Selections from Viri Romae] p.1</ref> Some early sources call him their father or grandfather,<ref>[http://www.4literature.net/Plutarch/Romulus/ Romulus by Plutarch<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> but once the dates of the fall of Troy (1184 BCE) and the founding of Rome (753 BCE) became accepted, authors added generations between them. The Julian family of Rome, most notably Julius Cæsar and Augustus, traced their lineage to Ascanius and Aeneas,<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities I.70.4</ref> thus to the goddess Venus. Through the Julians, the Palemonids make this claim. The legendary kings of Britain – including King Arthur – trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, Brutus.<ref>Charles Selby [https://books.google.com/books?idLSFXAAAAcAAJ&dqhouse%20of%20brutus%20sylvius&pgPA1 Events to be Remembered in the History of Britain] pp. 1–2</ref>Character and appearance
and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeian Third Style (10 BCE – 45 CE), Pompeii, Italy]]
Aeneas's consistent epithet in Virgil and other Latin authors is pius, a term that connotes reverence toward the gods and familial dutifulness. There is significant scholarly debate, however, over the degree to which this epithet is genuine within the poem, and to what extent its deployment by Virgil is sarcastic.
In the Aeneid, Aeneas is described as strong and handsome, but neither his hair colour nor complexion are described.<ref>Mark Griffith, "What Does Aeneas Look like?", Classical Philology, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Oct., 1985), p. 309. {{doi|10.1086/366939}}. {{JSTOR|269615}}.</ref> In late antiquity however sources add further physical descriptions. The De excidio Troiae of Dares Phrygius describes Aeneas as "auburn-haired, stocky, eloquent, courteous, prudent, pious, and charming. His eyes were black and twinkling".<ref>Dares Phrygius, History of the Fall of Troy [https://www.theoi.com/Text/DaresPhrygius.html 12]</ref> There is also a brief physical description found in the 6th-century John Malalas' Chronographia: "Aeneas: short, fat, with a good chest, powerful, with a ruddy complexion, a broad face, a good nose, fair skin, bald on the forehead, a good beard, grey eyes."<ref>Lowden, John. Illuminated prophet books: a study of Byzantine manuscripts of the major and minor prophets Penn State Press, 1988, p. 62</ref><ref>Malalas, Chronography [https://topostext.org/work/793#5.106 5.106]</ref>
Modern portrayals
Literature
Aeneas appears as a character in William Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida, set during the Trojan War.
Aeneas is a major character in Christopher Marlowe's play Dido, Queen of Carthage.
Aeneas and Dido are the main characters of a 17th-century broadside ballad called "The Wandering Prince of Troy". The ballad ultimately alters Aeneas's fate from traveling on years after Dido's death to joining her as a spirit soon after her suicide.<ref>[http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu/search_combined/?ss=the+wandering+prince+of+troy English Broadside Ballad Archive], ballad facsimile and full text</ref>
In modern literature, Aeneas is the speaker in two poems by Allen Tate, "Aeneas at Washington" and "Aeneas at New York". He is a main character in Ursula K. Le Guin's Lavinia, a re-telling of the last six books of the Aeneid told from the point of view of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus of Latium.
Aeneas appears in David Gemmell's Troy series as a main heroic character who goes by the name Helikaon.
In Rick Riordan's book series The Heroes of Olympus, Aeneas is regarded as the first Roman demigod, son of Venus rather than Aphrodite.
Will Adams' novel City of the Lost assumes that much of the information provided by Virgil is mistaken, and that the true Aeneas and Dido did not meet and love in Carthage but in a Phoenician colony at Cyprus, on the site of the modern Famagusta. Their tale is interspersed with that of modern activists who, while striving to stop an ambitious Turkish Army general trying to stage a coup, accidentally discover the hidden ruins of Dido's palace.
Opera, film and other media
performs an aria from Purcell's Dido and Aeneas with Les Arts Florissants in 2020]]
Aeneas is a title character in Henry Purcell's opera Dido and Aeneas ({{circa|1688}}), and Jakob Greber's {{lang|it|Enea in Cartagine}} (Aeneas in Carthage) (1711), and one of the principal roles in Hector Berlioz' opera Les Troyens ({{circa|1857}}), as well as in Metastasio's immensely popular<ref>William Fitzgerald "Vergil in Music" in
"A Companion to Vergil's Aeneid and its Tradition" Joseph Farrell, Michael C. J. Putnam eds, p.344 : "[https://books.google.com/books?idnVWUluw8X8wC&dqMetastasio++%22between+1724+and+1824%22&pg=PA344 Metastasio's Didone Abbandonata was set over eighty times in the period between 1724 and 1824]"</ref> opera libretto Didone abbandonata. Canadian composer James Rolfe composed his opera Aeneas and Dido (2007; to a libretto by André Alexis) as a companion piece to Purcell's opera.
Despite its many dramatic elements, Aeneas's story has generated little interest from the film industry. Ronald Lewis portrayed Aeneas in Helen of Troy, directed by Robert Wise, as a supporting character, who is a member of the Trojan Royal family, and a close and loyal friend to Paris, and escapes at the end of the film. Portrayed by Steve Reeves, he was the main character in the 1961 sword and sandal film Guerra di Troia (The Trojan War). Reeves reprised the role the following year in the film The Avenger, about Aeneas's arrival in Latium and his conflicts with local tribes as he tries to settle his fellow Trojan refugees there.
Giulio Brogi, portrayed as Aeneas in the 1971 Italian TV miniseries series called Eneide, which gives the whole story of the Aeneid, from Aeneas escape from to Troy, to his meeting of Dido, his arrival in Italy, and his duel with Turnus.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-09-23 |titleEneide |urlhttps://www.repubblica.it/serietv/schede/eneide/8257/ |access-date2025-03-27 |websiteLa Repubblica |languageit}}</ref>
The most recent cinematic portrayal of Aeneas was in the film Troy, in which he appears as a youth charged by Paris to protect the Trojan refugees, and to continue the ideals of the city and its people. Paris gives Aeneas Priam's sword, in order to give legitimacy and continuity to the royal line of Troy – and lay the foundations of Roman culture. In this film, he is not a member of the royal family and does not appear to fight in the war.
In the role-playing game Vampire: The Requiem by White Wolf Game Studios, Aeneas figures as one of the mythical founders of the Ventrue Clan.
in the action game Warriors: Legends of Troy, Aeneas is a playable character. The game ends with him and the Aeneans fleeing Troy's destruction and, spurned by the words of a prophetess thought crazed, goes to a new country (Italy) where he will start an empire greater than Greece and Troy combined that shall rule the world for 1000 years, never to be outdone in the tale of men (the Roman Empire).
In the 2018 TV miniseries Troy: Fall of a City, Aeneas is portrayed by Alfred Enoch.<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://deadline.com/2017/03/troy-fall-of-a-city-cast-bella-dayne-louis-hunter-joseph-mawle-frances-oconnor-david-threlfall-bbc-netflix-1202055633/|title'Troy: Fall Of A City': Bella Dayne, Louis Hunter & More Join BBC/Netflix Epic|dateMarch 30, 2017|magazineDeadline|languageen-US|access-dateApril 1, 2017}}</ref> He also featured as an Epic Fighter of the Dardania faction in the Total War Saga: Troy in 2020.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://guides.gamepressure.com/total-war-saga-troy/guide.asp?ID55281 |titleTotal War Troy: Aeneas guide – bonuses, faction units, builds |websiteGame Guides – Game Pressure }}</ref>
Depictions in art
Scenes depicting Aeneas, especially from the Aeneid, have been the focus of study for centuries. They have been the frequent subject of art and literature since their debut in the 1st century.
Villa Valmarana
The artist Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was commissioned by Gaetano Valmarana in 1757 to fresco several rooms in the Villa Valmarana, the family villa situated outside Vicenza. Tiepolo decorated the palazzina with scenes from epics such as Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid.<ref>Michael Collins, Elise K. Kirk ed. Opera and Vivaldi p. 150</ref>
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Aeneas flees Troy
{|style="margin: 0 auto;"
| (between 1507 and 1510).]]
| (c. 1635).]]
| (c. 1697).]]
| (c. 1750).]]
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Aeneas with Dido
{|style="margin: 0 auto;"
| (c. 1630)]]
|, by Nathaniel Dance-Holland (1766)]]
| (1769)]]
| (3 January 1780)]]
|}
Family tree
{{Trojan race|aligncenter|titleFamily tree of Aeneas}}
See also
* Cumaean Sibyl
* Lacrimae rerum
* The Golden Bough
* Latin kings of Alba Longa
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* Homer, Iliad II. 819–21; V. 217–575; XIII. 455–544; XX. 75–352.
* Apollodorus, Bibliotheca III. xii. 2; Epitome III. 32–IV. 2; V. 21.
* Virgil, Aeneid.
* Ovid, Metamorphoses XIII. 623–715; XIV. 75–153; 581–608.
* Ovid, Heroides, VII.
* Livy, Book 1.1–2.
* Dictys Cretensis.
* Dares Phrygius.
Further reading
* Cramer, D. "The Wrath of Aeneas: Iliad'' 13.455–67 and 20.75–352." Syllecta Classica, vol. 11, 2000, pp.&nbsp;16–33. {{doi|10.1353/syl.2000.0002}}.
* de Vasconcellos, P.S. "A Sound Play on Aeneas' Name in the Aeneid: A Brief Note on VII.69." Vergilius (1959–), vol. 61, 2015, pp.&nbsp;125–29. {{JSTOR|vergilius1959.61.125}}.
* Farron, S. "The Aeneas–Dido Episode as an Attack on Aeneas' Mission and Rome." Greece & Rome, vol. 27, no. 1, 1980, pp.&nbsp;34–47. {{doi|10.1017/S0017383500027327}}. {{JSTOR|642775}}.
* Gowers, E. "Trees and Family Trees in the Aeneid." Classical Antiquity, vol. 30, no. 1, 2011, pp.&nbsp;87–118. {{doi|10.1525/ca.2011.30.1.87}}. {{JSTOR|10.1525/ca.2011.30.1.87}}.
* Grillo, L. "Leaving Troy and Creusa: Reflections on Aeneas' Flight." The Classical Journal, vol. 106, no. 1, 2010, pp.&nbsp;43–68. {{doi|10.5184/classicalj.106.1.0043}}. {{JSTOR|10.5184/classicalj.106.1.0043}}.
* Noonan, J. "Sum Pius Aeneas: Aeneas and the Leader as Conservator/Σωτήρ" The Classical Bulletin. vol. 83, no. 1, 2007, pp.&nbsp;65–91.
* Putnam, M.C.J. ''The Humanness of Heroes: Studies in the Conclusion of Virgil's Aeneid''. The Amsterdam Vergil lectures, 1. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011.
* Starr, R.J. "Aeneas the Rhetorician: 'Aeneid IV', 279–95." Latomus, vol. 62, no. 1, 2003, pp.&nbsp;36–46. {{JSTOR|41540042}}.
* Scafoglio, G. "The Betrayal of Aeneas." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, vol. 53 no. 1, 2013, pp.&nbsp;1–14.
* Schauer, M. Aeneas dux in Vergils Aeneis. Eine literarische Fiktion in augusteischer Zeit. Zetemata vol. 128. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2007.
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Aeneas}}
{{Library resources box |byno |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |label=Aeneas
|viaf|lccn |lcheading|wikititle }}
* [http://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/vpc/VPC_search/subcats.php?cat_18&cat_215&cat_3626&cat_4970 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (about 900 images related to the Aeneid)]
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{{s-bef | before = Latinus }}
{{s-ttl | title = Latin king }}
{{s-aft | after = Ascanius }}
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{{Roman myth (mortal)}}
{{Roman religion}}
{{Characters in the Iliad}}
{{Aeneid}}
{{Dido and Aeneas}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aeneas}}
Category:Trojan Leaders
Category:Characters in the Aeneid
Category:Greek mythological heroes
Category:Children of Aphrodite
Category:Characters in Roman mythology
Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy
Category:Katabasis in classical mythology
Category:Demigods in classical mythology
Category:Legendary progenitors
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Deified men | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneas | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.671059 |
1541 | April 13 | {{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*1111 &ndash; Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.<ref>{{cite book|authorChrysogonus Waddell|titleNarrative and Legislative Texts from Early Cîteaux: Latin Text in Dual Edition with English Translation and Notes|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX2nZAAAAMAAJ|year1999|publisherAbbaye de Cîteaux|page429|isbn9789080543911}}</ref>
*1204 &ndash; Constantinople falls to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade, temporarily ending the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{cite book|authorUniversity Lecturer in History David Abulafia|titleThe New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 5, C.1198-c.1300|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbclfdU_2lesC&pgPA525|year1995|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-36289-4|pages=525}}</ref>
*1455 &ndash; Thirteen Years' War: the beginning of the Battle for Kneiphof.<ref>{{Cite book |lastRogalski |firstLeon |titleDzieje Krzyżaków oraz ich stosunki z Polską, Litwą i Prusami |publisherS. Orgelbrand |year1846 |volumeII |locationWarsaw}}</ref>1601–1900*1612 &ndash; Samurai Miyamoto Musashi defeats Sasaki Kojirō in a duel at Funajima island.<ref>{{cite book|lastTokitsu|firstKenji|titleMiyamoto Musashi: His Life and Writings|locationBoston|publisherShambhala|date2004|isbn9781590300459|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIZMIiyYmIVcC|page=74}}</ref>
*1613 &ndash; Samuel Argall, having captured Pocahontas in Passapatanzy, Virginia, sets off with her to Jamestown with the intention of exchanging her for English prisoners held by her father.<ref>{{cite book|author1John Ward Dean|author2George Folsom|author3John Gilmary Shea|titleHistorical Magazine: And Notes and Queries Concerning the Antiquities, History, and Biography of America|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historicalmagaz04stilgoog|year1860|publisherHenry B. Dawson|pages[https://archive.org/details/historicalmagaz04stilgoog/page/n295 289]}}</ref>
*1699 &ndash; The Sikh religion is formalised as the Khalsa &ndash; the brotherhood of Warrior-Saints{{snd}}by Guru Gobind Singh in northern India, in accordance with the Nanakshahi calendar.<ref>{{cite book|lastMahmood |firstCynthia Keppley |titleFighting for faith and nation dialogues with Sikh militants |urlhttps://archive.org/details/fightingforfaith00cynt |url-accesslimited |year1996 |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |locationPhiladelphia |isbn978-0812215922 |oclc44966032 |pages=43–45}}</ref>
*1742 &ndash; George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah makes its world premiere in Dublin, Ireland.<ref>{{cite book|lastLang|firstPaul Henry|titleGeorge Frideric Handel|locationNew York|publisherDover Publications|date1996|isbn9780486292274|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9aK8AQAAQBAJ|page340}}</ref>
*1777 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: American forces are ambushed and defeated in the Battle of Bound Brook, New Jersey.<ref>{{cite book|lastBrandus|firstPaul|titleThis Day in U.S. Military History|locationLanham, Md.|publisherBernan Press|date2020|isbn9781641433853|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idt8vADwAAQBAJ|page100}}</ref>
*1829 &ndash; The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 gives Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom the right to vote and to sit in Parliament.<ref>{{cite book|lastMcCarthy|firstMichael F.J.|titleChurch and State in England and Wales, 1829-1906|locationDublin|publisherHodges, Figgis & Co.|date1906|oclc806201062|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNN4-AAAAIAAJ|page23}}</ref>
*1849 &ndash; Lajos Kossuth presents the Hungarian Declaration of Independence in a closed session of the National Assembly.<ref>{{cite book|lastTroubetzkoy|firstAlexis S.|titleThe Road to Balaklava: Stumbling Into War With Russia|locationToronto|publisherTrafalgar Press|date1986|isbn9780969241706|page59}}</ref>
*1861 &ndash; American Civil War: Union forces surrender Fort Sumter to Confederate forces.<ref>{{cite book|lastHearn|firstChester G.|titleLincoln and McClellan at War|locationBaton Rouge|publisherLouisiana State University Press|date2013|isbn9780807145524|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK47TC2-690UC|page14}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: Raleigh, North Carolina is occupied by Union forces.<ref>{{cite book|lastPierpaoli| firstPaul G. Jr. |chapterRaleigh, North Carolina|titleAmerican Civil War: A State-By-State Encyclopedia. Volume 2: New Jersey-Wisconsin|editor-last1Tucker|editor-first1Spencer C.|editor-last2Pierpaoli|editor-first2Paul G. Jr. |locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2015|isbn9781598845280|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHhjYBgAAQBAJ|page=561}}</ref>
*1870 &ndash; The New York City Metropolitan Museum of Art is founded.<ref>{{cite book|last1Baetjer|first1Katharine|last2Mertens|first2Joan R.|chapterThe Founding Decades|titleMaking the Met, 1870-2020|editor-last1Bayer|editor-first1Andrea|editor-last2Corey|editor-first2Laura D.|locationNew York|publisherThe Metropolitan Museum of Art|date2020|isbn9781588397096|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddJ7YDwAAQBAJ|page=35}}</ref>
*1873 &ndash; The Colfax massacre: More than 60 to 150 black men are murdered in Colfax, Louisiana, while surrendering to a mob of former Confederate soldiers and members of the Ku Klux Klan.<ref>{{cite book|lastLane|firstCharles|titleThe Day Freedom Died: The Colfax Massacre, the Supreme Court, and the Betrayal of Reconstruction|locationNew York|publisherHenry Holt and Co.|date2008|isbn9780805083422|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idulexrXOMTsgC|pages23–24}}</ref>
1901–present
*1909 &ndash; The 31 March Incident leads to the overthrow of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.
*1919 &ndash; Jallianwala Bagh massacre: British Indian Army troops led by Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer kill approximately 379–1,000 unarmed demonstrators including men and women in Amritsar, India; and approximately 1,500 injured.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Unnithan |first1Sandeep |title100 years of Jallianwala Bagh massacre: Where's the grace to say sorry? |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/up-front/story/20190422-100-years-of-jallianwala-bagh-massacre-where-s-the-grace-to-say-sorry-1500895-2019-04-13 |access-date3 February 2023 |magazineIndia Today |issue16 |date13 April 2019 |pages4–5 |languageen |volume=44}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; A pact of neutrality between the USSR and Japan is signed.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: The discovery of mass graves of Polish prisoners of war killed by Soviet forces in the Katyń Forest Massacre is announced, causing a diplomatic rift between the Polish government-in-exile in London and the Soviet Union, which denies responsibility.
* 1943 &ndash; The Jefferson Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C., on the 200th anniversary of President Thomas Jefferson's birth.
*1945 &ndash; World War II: German troops kill more than 1,000 political and military prisoners in Gardelegen, Germany.
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: Soviet and Bulgarian forces capture Vienna.
*1948 &ndash; In an ambush, 78 Jewish doctors, nurses and medical students from Hadassah Hospital, and a British soldier, are massacred by Arabs in Sheikh Jarrah. This event came to be known as the Hadassah medical convoy massacre.
*1953 &ndash; CIA director Allen Dulles launches the mind-control program Project MKUltra.
*1960 &ndash; The United States launches Transit 1-B, the world's first satellite navigation system.
*1964 &ndash; At the Academy Awards, Sidney Poitier becomes the first African-American man to win the Best Actor award for the 1963 film Lilies of the Field.
*1970 &ndash; An oxygen tank aboard the Apollo 13 Service Module explodes, putting the crew in great danger and causing major damage to the Apollo command and service module (codenamed "Odyssey") while en route to the Moon.
*1972 &ndash; The Universal Postal Union decides to recognize the People's Republic of China as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the Republic of China administering Taiwan.
* 1972 &ndash; Vietnam War: The Battle of An Lộc begins.
*1975 &ndash; An attack by the Phalangist resistance kills 26 militia members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, marking the start of the 15-year Lebanese Civil War.
*1976 &ndash; The United States Treasury Department reintroduces the two-dollar bill as a Federal Reserve Note on Thomas Jefferson's 233rd birthday as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration.
* 1976 &ndash; Forty workers die in the Lapua Cartridge Factory explosion, the deadliest industrial accident in modern Finnish history.
*1996 &ndash; Two women and four children are killed after Israeli helicopter fired rockets at an ambulance in Mansouri, Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite web|date2015-09-21|titleLebanon flies the flags of mourning|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/lebanon-flies-the-flags-of-mourning-1307361.html|access-date2021-04-17|websiteThe Independent|languageen}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Tiger Woods becomes the youngest golfer to win the Masters Tournament.
*2023 &ndash; The house of Jack Teixeira is raided in an investigation into leaked Pentagon documents; he is arrested on the same day.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Chamberlain|first1Samuel|last2Crane|first2Emily|date2023-04-13|titleLaw enforcement search home of Jack Teixeira, Mass. Air National Guardsman at center of 'digileaks' scandal |urlhttps://nypost.com/2023/04/13/person-who-leaked-classified-us-intelligence-documents-works-on-a-military-base-report/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230613141636/https://nypost.com/2023/04/13/person-who-leaked-classified-us-intelligence-documents-works-on-a-military-base-report/|archive-date13 June 2023 |accessdate10 September 2023 |websitenewyorkpost.com |publisherNew York Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1Chamberlain |first1Samuel|last2Kesslen|first2Ben|last3Crane|first3Emily|date 2023-04-13|titleAir National Guardsman Jack Teixeira, 21, arrested in US intel leaks |urlhttps://nypost.com/2023/04/13/national-guardsman-jack-teixeira-arrested-in-us-intel-leaks/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230421210211/https://nypost.com/2023/04/13/national-guardsman-jack-teixeira-arrested-in-us-intel-leaks/|archive-date21 April 2023 |accessdate10 September 2023 |websitenewyorkpost.com |publisherNew York Post}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Six people and the perpetrator are killed and twelve others injured in a mass stabbing at Westfield Bondi Junction shopping centre in Sydney, Australia.<ref>{{cite web |title'Run, run, run': Chaos at a Sydney mall as 6 people stabbed to death, and the suspect fatally shot |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/sydney-shopping-center-stabbing-shot-bondi-52318d684ebbab17dcac33a833ba0d51 |websiteAP News |date13 April 2024 |access-date16 April 2024}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600*1229 &ndash; Louis II, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1294)<ref>{{cite book|authorSteven Mueller|titleThe Wittelsbach Dynasty|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideVcjAQAAIAAJ|year2007|publisherWaldmann Press|isbn978-0-9702576-3-5|page=10}}</ref>
*1350 &ndash; Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (d. 1405)
*1506 &ndash; Peter Faber, French priest and theologian, co-founded the Society of Jesus (d. 1546)<ref>{{cite book|authorJoseph N. Tylenda|titleSaints and Feasts of the Liturgical Year|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id61MmDwAAQBAJ&pgPA150|year2003|publisherGeorgetown University Press|isbn0-87840-399-X|pages=150}}</ref>
*1519 &ndash; Catherine de' Medici, Italian-French wife of Henry II of France (d. 1589)<ref>{{cite book|authorThomas Adolphus Trollope|titleThe Girlhood of Catherine De' Medici|urlhttps://archive.org/details/girlhoodofcather00troluoft|year1856|publisherChapman and Hall|pages[https://archive.org/details/girlhoodofcather00troluoft/page/5 5]}}</ref>
*1570 &ndash; Guy Fawkes, English soldier, member of the Gunpowder Plot (probable;<ref>{{cite book|authorAntonia Fraser|titleFaith and Treason: the Gunpowder Plot|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKRqAc1w3UAMC|date1 October 1996|publisherDoubleday Canada|isbn978-0-385-25620-9|page70}}</ref> d. 1606)
*1573 &ndash; Christina of Holstein-Gottorp (d. 1625)
*1593 &ndash; Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1641)
1601–1900
*1618 &ndash; Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French author (d. 1693)
*1636 &ndash; Hendrik van Rheede, Dutch botanist (d. 1691)
*1648 &ndash; Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon, French mystic (d. 1717)<ref>{{Cite book |lastGuyon |firstJeanne Marie Bouvier de La Motte |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0glD9zZ8H2UC&dq%22la+veille+de+P%C3%A2ques%2C+le+13.+d%27Avril%22&pgPA8 |titleLa vie de Madame J. M. B. de la Mothe Guion. Écrite par elle-même |date1720 |publisherJean de la Pierre |languagefr}}</ref>
*1713 &ndash; Pierre Jélyotte, French tenor (d. 1797)
*1729 &ndash; Thomas Percy, Irish bishop and poet (d. 1811)
*1732 &ndash; Frederick North, Lord North, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1792)<ref>{{cite web |titleHistory of Lord Frederick North - GOV.UK |urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/history/past-prime-ministers/frederick-north |websitewww.gov.uk |access-date1 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
*1735 &ndash; Isaac Low, American merchant and politician, founded the New York Chamber of Commerce (d. 1791)
*1743 &ndash; Thomas Jefferson, American lawyer and politician, 3rd President of the United States (d. 1826)
*1747 &ndash; Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (d. 1793)<ref>{{cite web |titleLouis-Philippe-Joseph, duc d'Orléans {{!}} French prince |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Philippe-Joseph-duc-dOrleans |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date4 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1764 &ndash; Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1830)
*1769 &ndash; Thomas Lawrence, English painter and educator (d. 1830)
*1771 &ndash; Richard Trevithick, Cornish-English engineer and explorer (d. 1833)
*1780 &ndash; Alexander Mitchell, Irish engineer, invented the Screw-pile lighthouse (d. 1868)
*1784 &ndash; Friedrich Graf von Wrangel, Prussian field marshal (d. 1877)
*1787 &ndash; John Robertson, American lawyer and politician (d. 1873)
*1794 &ndash; Jean Pierre Flourens, French physiologist and academic (d. 1867)
*1802 &ndash; Leopold Fitzinger, Austrian zoologist and herpetologist (d. 1884)
*1808 &ndash; Antonio Meucci, Italian-American engineer (d. 1889)
*1810 &ndash; Félicien David, French composer (d. 1876)
*1824 &ndash; William Alexander, Irish archbishop, poet, and theologian (d. 1911)
*1825 &ndash; Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish-Canadian journalist and politician (d. 1868)
*1828 &ndash; Josephine Butler, English feminist and social reformer (d. 1906)<ref>{{Cite ODNB |titleButler [née Grey], Josephine Elizabeth (1828–1906), social reformer and women's activist |urlhttps://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-32214 |access-date2024-11-08 |date2004 |languageen |doi10.1093/ref:odnb/32214 |last1Walkowitz |first1Judith R. }}</ref>
* 1828 &ndash; Joseph Lightfoot, English bishop and theologian (d. 1889)
*1832 &ndash; Juan Montalvo, Ecuadorian author and diplomat (d. 1889)
*1841 &ndash; Louis-Ernest Barrias, French sculptor and academic (d. 1905)
*1850 &ndash; Arthur Matthew Weld Downing, Irish astronomer (d. 1917)
*1851 &ndash; Robert Abbe, American surgeon and radiologist (d. 1928)
* 1851 &ndash; William Quan Judge, Irish occultist and theosophist (d. 1896)
*1852 &ndash; Frank Winfield Woolworth, American businessman, founded the F. W. Woolworth Company (d. 1919)
*1854 &ndash; Lucy Craft Laney, American founder of the Haines Normal and Industrial School, Augusta, Georgia (d. 1933)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/lucy-craft-laney-1854-1933/|titleLucy Craft Laney}}</ref>
*1860 &ndash; James Ensor, English-Belgian painter, an important influence on expressionism and surrealism (d. 1949)
*1866 &ndash; Butch Cassidy, American criminal (d. 1908)
*1872 &ndash; John Cameron, Scottish international footballer and manager (d. 1935)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://archive.mehstg.com/fact_cameron.htm|titleJohn Cameron|websitearchive.mehstg.com|access-date2 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1872 &ndash; Alexander Roda Roda, Austrian-Croatian journalist and author (d. 1945)
*1873 &ndash; John W. Davis, American lawyer and politician, 14th United States Solicitor General (d. 1955)
*1875 &ndash; Ray Lyman Wilbur, American physician, academic, and politician, 31st United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 1949)
*1879 &ndash; Edward Bruce, American lawyer and painter (d. 1943)
* 1879 &ndash; Oswald Bruce Cooper, American type designer, lettering artist, graphic designer, and educator (d. 1940)
*1880 &ndash; Charles Christie, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded the Christie Film Company (d. 1955)
*1885 &ndash; Vean Gregg, American baseball player (d. 1964)<ref>{{cite web |titleVean Gregg |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/vean-gregg/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date12 April 2021}}</ref>
* 1885 &ndash; Juhan Kukk, Estonian politician, Head of State of Estonia (d. 1942)
* 1885 &ndash; György Lukács, Hungarian philosopher and critic (d. 1971)
* 1885 &ndash; Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy, Dutch politician (d. 1961)
*1887 &ndash; Gordon S. Fahrni, Canadian physician and golfer (d. 1995)
*1889 &ndash; Herbert Yardley, American cryptologist and author (d. 1958)
*1890 &ndash; Frank Murphy, American jurist and politician, 56th United States Attorney General (d. 1949)
* 1890 &ndash; Dadasaheb Torne, Indian director and producer (d. 1960)
*1891 &ndash; Maurice Buckley, Australian sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1921)
* 1891 &ndash; Nella Larsen, Danish/African-American nurse, librarian, and author (d. 1964)<ref>{{cite thesis |lastStephens |firstBria Stephens |date2017 |titleNella Larsen: An Untold Story of Race through Literature |urlhttps://egrove.olemiss.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1139&contexthon_thesis |page16 |publisherSally McDonnell Barksdale Honors College |access-date8 November 2024}}</ref>
* 1891 &ndash; Robert Scholl, German accountant and politician (d. 1973)
*1892 &ndash; Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet, English air marshal (d. 1984)
* 1892 &ndash; Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented Radar (d. 1973)
*1894 &ndash; Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1973)
* 1894 &ndash; May Brodney, Australian labour activist (d. 1973)<ref>{{Citation |lastFrances |firstRaelene |titleMaria May Brodney (1894–1973) |workAustralian Dictionary of Biography |urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/brodney-maria-may-9587 |access-date2024-11-08 |placeCanberra |publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University |language=en}}</ref>
*1896 &ndash; Fred Barnett, English footballer (d. 1982)
*1897 &ndash; Werner Voss, German lieutenant and pilot (d. 1917)
*1899 &ndash; Alfred Mosher Butts, American architect and game designer, created Scrabble (d. 1993)
* 1899 &ndash; Harold Osborn, American high jumper and decathlete (d. 1975)
*1900 &ndash; Sorcha Boru, American potter and ceramic sculptor (d. 2006)
* 1900 &ndash; Pierre Molinier, French painter and photographer (d. 1976)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Jacques Lacan, French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst (d. 1981)<ref>{{cite book | last Clark | first Michael | title Jacques Lacan : an annotated bibliography | publisher Routledge | location London New York | year 2014 | isbn 9781317909088 | pagexviii}}</ref>
* 1901 &ndash; Alan Watt, Australian public servant and diplomat, Australian Ambassador to Japan (d. 1988)
*1902 &ndash; Philippe de Rothschild, French Grand Prix driver, playwright, and producer (d. 1988)<ref>{{cite book | last Coates | first Clive | title Grands vins : the finest châteaux of Bordeaux and their wines | publisher University of California Press | location Berkeley | year 1995 | isbn 9780520202207 |page64}}</ref>
* 1902 &ndash; Marguerite Henry, American author (d. 1997)
*1904 &ndash; David Robinson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1987)
*1905 &ndash; Rae Johnstone, Australian jockey (d. 1964)
*1906 &ndash; Samuel Beckett, Irish novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
* 1906 &ndash; Bud Freeman, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1991)
*1907 &ndash; Harold Stassen, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Minnesota (d. 2001)
*1909 &ndash; Eudora Welty, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2001)
*1911 &ndash; Ico Hitrec, Croatian footballer and manager (d. 1946)
* 1911 &ndash; Jean-Louis Lévesque, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1994)
* 1911 &ndash; Nino Sanzogno, Italian conductor and composer (d. 1983)
*1913 &ndash; Dave Albritton, American high jumper and coach (d. 1994)
* 1913 &ndash; Kermit Tyler, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 2010)
*1914 &ndash; Orhan Veli Kanık, Turkish poet and author (d. 1950)
*1916 &ndash; Phyllis Fraser, Welsh-American actress, journalist, and publisher, co-founded Beginner Books (d. 2006)<ref>as per [http://ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/ssdi.cgi Social Security Death Index under the name Phyllis C Wagner]</ref>
*1917 &ndash; Robert Orville Anderson, American businessman, founded Atlantic Richfield Oil Co. (d. 2007)
* 1917 &ndash; Bill Clements, American soldier, engineer, and politician, 15th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense (d. 2011)
*1919 &ndash; Roland Gaucher, French journalist and politician (d. 2007)
* 1919 &ndash; Howard Keel, American actor and singer (d. 2004)
* 1919 &ndash; Madalyn Murray O'Hair, American activist, founded American Atheists (d. 1995)
*1920 &ndash; Roberto Calvi, Italian banker (d. 1982)
* 1920 &ndash; Claude Cheysson, French lieutenant and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2012)
* 1920 &ndash; Liam Cosgrave, Irish lawyer and politician, 6th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 2017)
* 1920 &ndash; Theodore L. Thomas, American chemical engineer, Patent attorney and writer (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite book | editor1-lastReginald |editor1-firstRobert |editor2-lastMenville |editor2-firstDouglas |editor3-lastBurgess |editor3-firstMary A. |titleScience Fiction and Fantasy Literature - Volume II |year2010 |publisherWildside Press |isbn9780941028776 |page=1099}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Heinz Baas, German footballer and manager (d. 1994)
* 1922 &ndash; John Braine, English librarian and author (d. 1986)
* 1922 &ndash; Julius Nyerere, Tanzanian politician and teacher, 1st President of Tanzania (d. 1999)<ref>{{cite book | last Molony | first Tom | title Nyerere : the early years | publisher James Currey | location Woodbridge, Suffolk, GB Rochester, NY | year 2014 | isbn 9781847010902 | pages37–38}}</ref>
* 1922 &ndash; Valve Pormeister, Estonian architect (d. 2002)<ref>[http://www.sirp.ee/archive/2002/01.11.02/Kunst/kunst1-6.html "Valve Pormeister 13. IV 1922 – 27. X 2002"], Sirp.ee. {{in lang|et}} Retrieved 14 February 2012.</ref>
*1923 &ndash; Don Adams, American actor and director (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite news| firstDouglas| lastMartin| titleDon Adams, Television's Maxwell Smart, Dies at 82| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/27/arts/television/27adams.html?ex1285473600&en4148e6056f84aece&ei5090| workThe New York Times| date=September 27, 2005}}</ref>
* 1923 &ndash; A. H. Halsey, English sociologist and academic (d. 2014)
*1924 &ndash; John T. Biggers, American painter (d. 2001)
* 1924 &ndash; Jack T. Chick, American author, illustrator, and publisher (d. 2016)
* 1924 &ndash; Stanley Donen, American film director and choreographer (d. 2019)
*1926 &ndash; Ellie Lambeti, Greek actress (d. 1983)
* 1926 &ndash; John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough, English businessman (d. 2014)
*1927 &ndash; Rosemary Haughton, English philosopher, theologian, and author
* 1927 &ndash; Maurice Ronet, French actor and director (d. 1983)
*1928 &ndash; Alan Clark, English historian and politician, Minister of State for Trade (d. 1999)
* 1928 &ndash; Gianni Marzotto, Italian racing driver and businessman (d. 2012)
*1929 &ndash; Marilynn Smith, American golfer (d. 2019)
*1931 &ndash; Anita Cerquetti, Italian soprano (d. 2014)<ref>{{Cite web |titleAnita Cerquetti - Classical Music Daily |urlhttps://www.classicalmusicdaily.com/articles/c/a/anita-cerquetti.htm |access-date2024-11-08 |websitewww.classicalmusicdaily.com}}</ref>
* 1931 &ndash; Robert Enrico, French director and screenwriter (d. 2001)
* 1931 &ndash; Dan Gurney, American race car driver and engineer (d. 2018)
* 1931 &ndash; Jon Stone, American composer, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite news |author1Lawrence Van Gelder |authorlink1Lawrence Van Gelder |titleJon Stone, Who Helped Create 'Sesame Street,' Is Dead at 64|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/01/arts/jon-stone-who-helped-create-sesame-street-is-dead-at-65.html |url-accesssubscription |access-date20 September 2024 |workThe New York Times |date1 April 1997|page=B 10}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Orlando Letelier, Chilean-American economist and politician, Chilean Minister of National Defense (d. 1976)
*1934 &ndash; John Muckler, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nhl.com/oilers/news/release-oilers-mourn-the-passing-of-john-muckler/c-319986102|titleRELEASE: Oilers mourn the passing of John Muckler|date4 January 2021|workEdmonton Oilers|access-date4 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://edmontonsun.com/sports/hockey/nhl/edmonton-oilers/former-edmonton-oilers-coach-john-muckler-dies|titleFormer Edmonton Oilers coach John Muckler dies|date5 January 2021|workEdmonton Sun|access-date5 January 2021}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; Col Joye, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1937 &ndash; Edward Fox, English actor
* 1937 &ndash; Lanford Wilson, American playwright, co-founded the Circle Repertory Company (d. 2011)<ref>Fox, Margalit. [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/25/theater/lanford-wilson-pulitzer-prize-winning-playwright-dies-at-73.html "Lanford Wilson, Pulitzer Prize-Winning Playwright, Dies at 73"] The New York Times, March 24, 2011.</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Klaus Lehnertz, German pole vaulter
*1939 &ndash; Seamus Heaney, Irish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)
* 1939 &ndash; Paul Sorvino, American actor and singer (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/25/obituaries/paul-sorvino-dead.html|titlePaul Sorvino, Master of the Mild-Mannered Mobster, Dies at 83|lastGates|firstAnita|newspaperThe New York Times|dateJuly 25, 2022|accessdate=July 25, 2022}}</ref>
*1940 &ndash; Mike Beuttler, Egyptian-English racing driver (d. 1988)
* 1940 &ndash; J. M. G. Le Clézio, Breton French-Mauritian author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1940 &ndash; Vladimir Cosma, French composer, conductor and violinist
* 1940 &ndash; Jim McNab, Scottish footballer (d. 2006)
* 1940 &ndash; Max Mosley, English racing driver and engineer, co-founded March Engineering, former president of the FIA (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news|titleMax Mosley dead: Former F1 supremo dies aged 81|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor-racing/formula1/max-mosley-death-age-f1-b1852874.html|firstLawrence|lastOstlere|date24 May 2021|access-date24 May 2021|newspaperThe Independent|locationLondon}}</ref>
* 1940 &ndash; Ruby Puryear Hearn, African-American biophysicist
*1941 &ndash; Michael Stuart Brown, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate<ref name"Henderson">{{cite web|last1Kovacs Henderson|first1Andrea|titleAmerican Men & Women of Science: A Biographical Directory of Today's Leaders in Physical, Biological, and Related Sciences|urlhttp://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?pGVRL&sww&v2.1&itr&idGALE%7CCX4049151645&asid6ac8f5960e73c1f387049b2e2617473c|websiteGale Virtual Reference Library|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Jean-Marc Reiser, French author and illustrator (d. 1983)
*1942 &ndash; Bill Conti, American composer and conductor<ref name"Chase2019">{{cite book | last LastName | first FirstName | title Chase's calendar of events. the ultimate go-to guide for special days, weeks and months | publisher Rowman & Littlefield | location Lanham | year 2019 | isbn 9781641433167 | page=222}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Alan Jones, Australian rugby coach and radio host<ref>{{cite book | urlhttp://www.grenfell.org.au/walkoffame/downloads/profile.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.grenfell.org.au/walkoffame/downloads/profile.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | year2007 | titleWalk of Fame Guest Profiles | page8 | publisherThe Henry Lawson Festival of Arts | locationGrenfell | access-date19 February 2011}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Tim Krabbé, Dutch journalist and author
*1944 &ndash; Susan Davis, Russian-American social worker and politician
*1945 &ndash; Judy Nunn, Australian actress and author
*1946 &ndash; Al Green, American singer-songwriter, producer, and pastor<ref name="Chase2019"/>
*1947 &ndash; Rae Armantrout, American poet and academic
* 1947 &ndash; Mike Chapman, Australian-English songwriter and producer
* 1947 &ndash; Jean-Jacques Laffont, French economist and academic (d. 2004)
* 1947 &ndash; Thanos Mikroutsikos, Greek composer and politician (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite news |last1Kokkinidis |first1Tasos |titleGreek Composer Thanos Mikroutsikos Dies at 72 |urlhttps://greekreporter.com/2019/12/28/greek-composer-thanos-mikroutsikos-dies-at-72/ |access-date27 June 2022 |publisherGreekReporter}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Nam Hae-il, South Korean admiral
* 1948 &ndash; Drago Jančar, Slovenian author and playwright
* 1948 &ndash; Mikhail Shufutinsky, Soviet and Russian singer, actor, TV presenter
*1949 &ndash; Len Cook, New Zealand-English mathematician and statistician
* 1949 &ndash; Frank Doran, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2017)
* 1949 &ndash; Christopher Hitchens, English-American essayist, literary critic, and journalist (d. 2011)
*1950 &ndash; Ron Perlman, American actor
* 1950 &ndash; Tommy Raudonikis, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2021)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/tom-raudonikis/summary.html|titleTom Raudonikis - Career Stats & Summary|publisherRugby League Project|access-date7 April 2021}}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; William Sadler, American actor<ref>{{cite web |titleWilliam Sadler |urlhttps://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/168251%7C201523/William-Sadler/#overview |publisherTurner Classic Movies |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Leszek Borysiewicz, Welsh immunologist and academic
* 1951 &ndash; Peabo Bryson, American singer<ref>{{cite web |titlePeabo Bryson hospitalized following heart attack |urlhttps://www.ebony.com/peabo-bryson-hospitalized-following-heart-attack/ |publisherEbony |access-date1 April 2023 |date=29 April 2019}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; Peter Davison, English actor
* 1951 &ndash; Max Weinberg, American musician and bandleader<ref>{{cite web |last1Jordan |first1Chris |titleMax Weinberg of E Street Band gets touching birthday tribute from son Jay of Slipknot |urlhttps://www.app.com/story/entertainment/music/2021/04/13/max-weinberg-e-street-band-birthday-tribute-son-jay-weinberg-slipknot/7208326002/ |publisherAsbury Park Press |access-date1 April 2023 |date=13 April 2021}}</ref>
*1952 &ndash; Gabrielle Gourdeau, Canadian writer (d. 2006)
* 1952 &ndash; Jonjo O'Neill, Irish jockey and trainer
*1955 &ndash; Steve Camp, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1955 &ndash; Muwenda Mutebi II, current King of Buganda Kingdom
*1956 &ndash; César, Brazilian footballer (d. 2024)<ref>[https://grupoahora.net.br/conteudos/2024/09/17/cesar-autor-do-gol-do-titulo-da-libertadores-de-1983-morre-aos-68-anos/ César, autor do gol do título da Libertadores de 1983, morre aos 68 anos] {{in lang|pt}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; John Middendorf, American mountain climber (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://gripped.com/profiles/big-wall-climber-john-middendorf-has-died/ |titleBig Wall Climber John Middendorf has Died |websiteGripped |dateJune 23, 2024 |access-dateJune 24, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleInstagram |urlhttps://www.instagram.com/p/C8ibh6YOkkN/?igshMWoxb3BhOGd6OXowYQ|access-date2024-06-24 |website=www.instagram.com}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; Rudi Völler, German footballer and manager
*1963 &ndash; Garry Kasparov, Russian chess player and author<ref name="Chase2019"/>
*1964 &ndash; Davis Love III, American golfer and sportscaster
*1965 &ndash; Patricio Pouchulu, Argentinian architect and educator
*1967 &ndash; Dana Barros, American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleDana Barros |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/344/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1967 &ndash; Michael Eisen, American biologist and academic
* 1967 &ndash; Olga Tañón, Puerto Rican singer-songwriter
*1970 &ndash; Ricky Schroder, American actor<ref>{{cite web |titleHappy Birthday To Greenwich's Rick Schroder |urlhttps://dailyvoice.com/connecticut/greenwich/neighbors/happy-birthday-to-greenwichs-rick-schroder/443484/ |publisherThe Daily Voice |access-date1 April 2023 |date=13 April 2015}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Franck Esposito, French swimmer<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20130810041527/http://www.lequipe.fr/Natation/AussiFicheAthlete233.html La fiche de Franck Esposto], from ''L'Équipe''; retrieved 23 June 2013.</ref>
* 1971 &ndash; Danie Mellor, Australian painter and sculptor
* 1971 &ndash; Bo Outlaw, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleBo Outlaw |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/448/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Aaron Lewis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1973 &ndash; Bokeem Woodbine, American actor<ref name"AP">{{cite web |titleToday in History: April 13, Apollo 13 damaged by explosion |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/sidney-poitier-kobe-bryant-covid-today-in-history-health-4aafd48fb812aa790006c4bd6fbfd13a |publisherAssociated Press |access-date1 April 2023 |date13 April 2022}}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Lou Bega, German singer<ref name="AP"/>
*1976 &ndash; Jonathan Brandis, American actor (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite web |titleJonathan Brandis |urlhttps://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/21193%7C0/wp#overview |publisherTurner Classic Movies |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Dan Campbell, American football player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleDan Campbell |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/1832/dan-campbell |publisherESPN |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Glenn Howerton, American actor<ref>{{cite web |titleGlenn Howerton |urlhttps://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/1044212%7C0/Glenn-Howerton/#overview |publisherTurner Classic Movies |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Margus Tsahkna, Estonian lawyer and politician
*1978 &ndash; Carles Puyol, Spanish footballer
*1979 &ndash; Baron Davis, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleBaron Davis |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/1884/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Kelli Giddish, American actress<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttp://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/kelli-giddish/bio/283343 |titleKelli Giddish Biography |magazineTV Guide |access-dateJuly 13, 2013|archive-dateJune 29, 2016|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160629231216/https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/kelli-giddish/bio/283343/| url-status= dead}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Quentin Richardson, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleQuentin Richardson |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/2047/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; Nellie McKay, British-American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress
* 1982 &ndash; Ty Dolla Sign, American singer, songwriter, and musician<ref>{{cite web |last1Madden |first1Sidney |titleHappy Birthday, Ty Dolla Sign! |urlhttps://www.xxlmag.com/happy-birthday-ty-dolla-sign/ |publisherXXL |access-date1 April 2023 |date=13 April 2015}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Hunter Pence, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleHunter Pence |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/hunter-pence-452254 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Lorenzo Cain, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleLorenzo Cain |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/lorenzo-cain-456715 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Steven De Vuyst, Belgian politician<ref>{{cite web |titleDe Kamerleden: Steven De Vuyst |urlhttps://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/showpage.cfm?section/depute&languagenl&cfmcvview54.cfm?key07399&lactivity55 |publisherChamber of Representatives |access-date8 September 2024 |locationBrussels, Belgium |language=nl}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; John-Allison Weiss, American singer-songwriter
*1988 &ndash; Allison Williams, American actress and singer
*1989 &ndash; Josh Reynolds, Australian rugby league player<ref nameyahoo>{{cite web|titleJosh Reynolds|urlhttps://nz.sports.yahoo.com/league/player/3389/4/josh-reynolds/|websiteyahoo.com|publisherYahoo! Sport|access-date26 August 2014|archive-date26 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140826212206/https://nz.sports.yahoo.com/league/player/3389/4/josh-reynolds/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Josh Gordon, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleJosh Gordon |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/15705/josh-gordon |publisherESPN |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Jordan Silk, Australian cricketer<ref>https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/jordan-silk-437669 ESPNcricinfo</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Melvin Gordon, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleMelvin Gordon III |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/2576434/melvin-gordon-iii |publisherESPN |access-date1 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Darrun Hilliard, American basketball player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.basketball-reference.com/players/h/hillida01.html|titleDarrun Hilliard Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft Status and more|website=Basketball-Reference.com}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Kahraba, Egyptian footballer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://tournament.fifadata.com/documents/FWC/2018/pdf/FWC_2018_SQUADLISTS.PDF |title2018 FIFA World Cup Russia – List of Players
|websiteFIFA.com |publisherFédération Internationale de Football Association |date4 June 2018 |access-date4 June 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190611000407/https://www.fifadata.com/documents/FWC/2018/pdf/FWC_2018_SQUADLISTS.PDF |archive-date11 June 2019}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Rasmus Dahlin, Swedish ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleRasmus Dahlin |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/sabres/player/rasmus-dahlin-8480839 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date23 September 2024}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 548 &ndash; Lý Nam Đế, Vietnamese emperor (b. 503)
* 585 &ndash; Hermenegild, Visigothic prince and saint<ref>{{Cite web |date25 November 2024 |titleHermenegild (święty ; 564-585) |urlhttps://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810677289605606 |access-date28 February 2025 |websiteDeskryptory Biblioteki Narodowej |languagepl}}</ref>
* 799 &ndash; Paul the Deacon, Italian monk and historian (b. 720)
* 814 &ndash; Krum, khan of the Bulgarian Khanate
* 862 &ndash; Donald I, king of the Picts (b. 812)
* 989 &ndash; Bardas Phokas, Byzantine general<ref name"Psellos">{{cite book | titleFourteen Byzantine Rulers: The Chronographia of Michael Psellus | publisherPenguin Classics | authorPsellus, Michael | year1966 | locationNew York | pages[https://archive.org/details/fourteenbyzantin00psel/page/400 400] | isbn978-0-14-0441697 | url-accessregistration | urlhttps://archive.org/details/fourteenbyzantin00psel/page/400 }}</ref>
*1035 &ndash; Herbert I, Count of Maine
*1093 &ndash; Vsevolod I of Kiev (b. 1030)
*1113 &ndash; Ida of Lorraine, saint and noblewoman (b. c. 1040)
*1138 &ndash; Simon I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1076)
*1213 &ndash; Guy of Thouars, regent of Brittany
*1275 &ndash; Eleanor of England (b. 1215)
*1367 &ndash; John Tiptoft, 2nd Baron Tibetot (b. 1313)
*1592 &ndash; Bartolomeo Ammannati, Italian architect and sculptor (b. 1511)
1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; Boris Godunov, Tsar of Russia (b. 1551)
*1612 &ndash; Sasaki Kojirō, Japanese samurai (b. 1585)
*1635 &ndash; Fakhr-al-Din II, Ottoman prince (b. 1572)
*1638 &ndash; Henri, Duke of Rohan (b. 1579)
*1641 &ndash; Richard Montagu, English bishop (b. 1577)
*1695 &ndash; Jean de La Fontaine, French author and poet (b. 1621)<ref>{{cite book |first1Alison |last1Aves |first2Frank |last2Northen Magill |first3Christina J. |last3Moose|titleDictionary of World Biography, Volume 4: The 17th and 18th Centuries |locationChicago, London |publisherFitzroy Dearborn Publishers |year1999 |isbn978-0-89356-316-5 |page783}}</ref>
*1716 &ndash; Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington, English admiral and politician (b. 1648)
*1722 &ndash; Charles Leslie, Irish priest and theologian (b. 1650)
*1793 &ndash; Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, French botanist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1763)
*1794 &ndash; Nicolas Chamfort, French playwright and poet (b. 1741)
*1826 &ndash; Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (b. 1763)<ref>{{cite book |firstMelvin |lastBerger |titleGuide to Chamber Music |locationMineola, NY |publisherDover Publications |year2001 |isbn978-0-48641-879-7 |page143}}</ref>
*1853 &ndash; Leopold Gmelin, German chemist and academic (b. 1788)
* 1853 &ndash; James Iredell, Jr., American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of North Carolina (b. 1788)
*1855 &ndash; Henry De la Beche, English geologist and palaeontologist (b. 1796)
*1868 &ndash; Tewodros II of Ethiopia (b. 1818)
*1880 &ndash; Robert Fortune, Scottish botanist and author (b. 1813)
*1882 &ndash; Bruno Bauer, German historian and philosopher (b. 1809)
*1886 &ndash; John Humphrey Noyes, American religious leader, founded the Oneida Community (b. 1811)
*1890 &ndash; Samuel J. Randall, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 33rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1828)
1901–present
*1909 &ndash; Whitley Stokes, Anglo-Irish lawyer and scholar (b. 1830)
*1910 &ndash; William Quiller Orchardson, Scottish-English painter and educator (b. 1835)
*1911 &ndash; John McLane, Scottish-American politician, 50th Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1852)
* 1911 &ndash; George Washington Glick, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of Kansas (b. 1827)
*1912 &ndash; Takuboku Ishikawa, Japanese poet and author (b. 1886)
*1917 &ndash; Diamond Jim Brady, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1856)
*1918 &ndash; Lavr Kornilov, Russian general (b. 1870)
*1927 &ndash; Georg Voigt, German politician, Mayor of Frankfurt (b. 1866)
*1936 &ndash; Konstantinos Demertzis, Greek politician 129th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1876)
*1938 &ndash; Grey Owl, English-Canadian environmentalist and author (b. 1888)
*1941 &ndash; Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (b. 1863)
* 1941 &ndash; William Twaits, Canadian soccer player (b. 1879)
*1942 &ndash; Henk Sneevliet, Dutch politician (b. 1883)
* 1942 &ndash; Anton Uesson, Estonian engineer and politician, 17th Mayor of Tallinn (b. 1879)
*1944 &ndash; Cécile Chaminade, French pianist and composer (b. 1857)
*1945 &ndash; Ernst Cassirer, Polish-American philosopher and academic (b. 1874)
*1954 &ndash; Samuel Jones, American high jumper (b. 1880)
* 1954 &ndash; Angus Lewis Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1890)
*1956 &ndash; Emil Nolde, Danish-German painter and educator (b. 1867)
*1959 &ndash; Eduard van Beinum, Dutch pianist, violinist, and conductor (b. 1901)
*1961 &ndash; John A. Bennett, American soldier (b. 1936)
*1962 &ndash; Culbert Olson, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of California (b. 1876)
*1964 &ndash; Kristian Krefting, Norwegian footballer and chemical engineer (b. 1891)<ref>{{Cite web |titleKristian Krefting |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/26834 |websiteolympedia.org |access-date14 March 2024 }}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Abdul Salam Arif, Iraqi colonel and politician, 2nd President of Iraq (b. 1921)
* 1966 &ndash; Carlo Carrà, Italian painter (b. 1881)
* 1966 &ndash; Georges Duhamel, French soldier and author (b. 1884)
*1967 &ndash; Nicole Berger, French actress (b. 1934)
*1969 &ndash; Ambrogio Gianotti, Italian partigiano and priest (b. 1901)<ref>https://www.museopartigiano.it/upload/documenti/G/G-17.PDF</ref>
* 1969 &ndash; Alfred Karindi, Estonian pianist and composer (b. 1901)
*1971 &ndash; Michel Brière, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1949)
* 1971 &ndash; Juhan Smuul, Estonian author, poet, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
*1975 &ndash; Larry Parks, American actor and singer (b. 1914)
* 1975 &ndash; François Tombalbaye, Chadian soldier, academic, and politician, 1st President of Chad (b. 1918)
*1978 &ndash; Jack Chambers, Canadian painter and director (b. 1931)
* 1978 &ndash; Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti, Nigerian educator and women's rights activist (b. 1900)<ref>{{Cite book|titleFor Women and the Nation : Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti of Nigeria|last1Johnson-Odim|first1Cheryl|last2Mba|first2Nina Emma|date1997|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press|isbn0-252-02313-7|locationUrbana|pages27 & 170|oclc=35269874}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Markus Höttinger, Austrian racing driver (b. 1956)
*1983 &ndash; Gerry Hitchens, English footballer (b. 1934)
* 1983 &ndash; Theodore Stephanides, Greek physician, author, and poet (b. 1896)
*1984 &ndash; Ralph Kirkpatrick, American harpsichordist and musicologist (b. 1911)
*1988 &ndash; Jean Gascon, Canadian actor and director (b. 1920)
*1992 &ndash; Maurice Sauvé, Canadian economist and politician (b. 1923)
* 1992 &ndash; Feza Gürsey, Turkish mathematician and physicist (b. 1921)
* 1992 &ndash; Daniel Pollock, Australian actor (b. 1968)
*1993 &ndash; Wallace Stegner, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1909)
*1996 &ndash; Leila Mackinlay, English author and educator (b. 1910)
*1997 &ndash; Bryant Bowles, American soldier and white supremacist, founded the National Association for the Advancement of White People (b. 1920)
* 1997 &ndash; Alan Cooley, Australian public servant (b. 1920)
* 1997 &ndash; Dorothy Frooks, American author and actress (b. 1896)
* 1997 &ndash; Voldemar Väli, Estonian wrestler (b. 1903)
*1998 &ndash; Patrick de Gayardon, French skydiver and base jumper (b. 1960)
*1999 &ndash; Ortvin Sarapu, Estonian-New Zealand chess player and author (b. 1924)
* 1999 &ndash; Willi Stoph, German engineer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of East Germany (b. 1914)
*2000 &ndash; Giorgio Bassani, Italian author and poet (b. 1916)
* 2000 &ndash; Frenchy Bordagaray, American baseball player and manager (b. 1910)
*2004 &ndash; Caron Keating, Northern Irish television host (b. 1962)
*2005 &ndash; Johnnie Johnson, American pianist and songwriter (b. 1924)
* 2005 &ndash; Phillip Pavia, American painter and sculptor (b. 1912)
*2006 &ndash; Muriel Spark, Scottish novelist, poet, and critic (b. 1918)
*2008 &ndash; John Archibald Wheeler, American physicist and academic (b. 1911)
*2012 &ndash; Cecil Chaudhry, Pakistani pilot, academic, and activist (b. 1941)
* 2012 &ndash; Shūichi Higurashi, Japanese illustrator (b. 1936)
*2013 &ndash; Stephen Dodgson, English composer and educator (b. 1924)
*2014 &ndash; Ernesto Laclau, Argentinian-Spanish philosopher and theorist (b. 1935)
* 2014 &ndash; Michael Ruppert, American journalist and author (b. 1951)<ref>{{cite news |lastTodorov |firstKerana |titleSheriff: Author Michael Ruppert dies of self-inflicted gunshot wound |workNapa Valley Register |dateApril 16, 2014 |urlhttp://napavalleyregister.com/news/local/sheriff-author-michael-ruppert-dies-of-self-inflicted-gunshot-wound/article_89508d82-c5ca-11e3-b327-001a4bcf887a.html |access-date=2015-05-01 }}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Eduardo Galeano, Uruguayan journalist and author (b. 1940)
* 2015 &ndash; Günter Grass, German novelist, poet, playwright, and illustrator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/apr/13/gunter-grass-german-nobel-laureate-dies-aged-87|titleGünter Grass, Nobel-winning German novelist, dies aged 87|authorRichard Lea|workThe Guardian|date=13 April 2015 }}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Herb Trimpe, American author and illustrator (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://www.bleedingcool.com/2015/04/14/herb-trimpe-passes-away-aged-75/ | title Herb Trimpe Passes Away, Aged 75| firstRich |lastJohnston|author-linkRich Johnston | publisher Bleeding Cool | dateApril 14, 2015| access-date April 14, 2015| archive-dateApril 14, 2015| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150414225115/http://www.bleedingcool.com/2015/04/14/herb-trimpe-passes-away-aged-75/|url-statuslive|dfmdy-all}}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; Dan Rooney, American football executive and former United States Ambassador to Ireland (b. 1932)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.espn.com/nfl/story/_/id/19152186/pittsburgh-steelers-chairman-dan-rooney-dies-age-84 |titleSteelers chairman Dan Rooney dies at 84 |websiteESPN.com |dateApril 13, 2017 |access-date=April 13, 2017}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Michel Bouquet, French stage and film actor (b. 1925)<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-22 |titleMichel Bouquet obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/apr/22/michel-bouquet |access-date2022-05-02 |websitethe Guardian |languageen}}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Gloria Parker, American musician and bandleader (b. 1921)<ref>{{Cite news |lastSandomir |firstRichard |date2022-05-11 |titleGloria Parker, Maestra of the Musical Glasses, Dies at 100 |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/11/arts/music/gloria-parker-dead.html |access-date2022-05-12 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
* 2024 &ndash; Faith Ringgold, American artist and author (b. 1930)<ref>{{Cite news |lastLimbong |firstAndrew |dateApril 13, 2024 |titleFaith Ringgold, quilt and visual artist, dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2024/04/13/685930840/faith-ringgold-quilt-and-visual-artist-dies-at-93 |access-dateApril 14, 2024 |work=NPR}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Ida of Louvain
** Margaret of Castello<ref>{{cite web|titleSaint Margaret of Castello|urlhttps://www.dynamiccatholic.com/saint-today-0413.html|access-date26 May 2024|publisherDynamic Catholic}}</ref>
* April 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Songkran
** Songkran (Thailand)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.euronews.com/travel/2023/04/14/what-is-songkran-everything-you-need-to-know-about-thailands-wet-and-wild-new-year-celebra|workEuronews|titleWhat is Songkran? Everything you need to know about Thailand's wet and wild New Year celebrations|lastSymons|firstAngela|date2023-03-14}}</ref>
** Water-Sprinkling Festival<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.xinhuanet.com/travel/2009-04/13/content_11176713.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090416071013/http://news.xinhuanet.com/travel/2009-04/13/content_11176713.htm |url-statusdead |archive-date2009-04-16 |title泼水节_旅游频道_新华网|publisherNews.xinhuanet.com |date=2009-04-13}}</ref>
* Vaisakhi (between 1902 and 2011)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/baisakhi-stories/myth-behind-baisakhi-baisakhi-not-always-on-april-13/articleshow/7884380.cms|workThe Times of India|titleMyth behind Baisakhi: Baisakhi not always on April 13|lastBhatia|firstRamaninder|date2011-04-07}}</ref>
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/13 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day13}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/13 Historical Events on April 13]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_13 | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.712928 |
1542 | Amaranth | {{short description|Genus of plants}}
{{distinguish|Amaranthe}}
{{About|the plant genus Amaranthus||}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|name |image Amaranthus tricolor0.jpg
|image_caption = Amaranthus tricolor
|taxon = Amaranthus
|authority = L.
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = See text
}}
Amaranthus is a cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some of the better known names include "prostrate pigweed" and "love lies bleeding".<ref>{{cite book |last1St. Clair |first1Kassia |titleThe Secret Lives of Color |date24 October 2017 |publisherPenguin Group |isbn978-0143131144 |pages130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |titleAmaranthaceae {{!}} plant family |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/18481/Amaranthaceae#ref230955 |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date2015-06-02 }}</ref> Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants.<ref name"Bensch">{{cite journal |authorBensch |display-authorsetal |year2003 |titleInterference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean |journalWeed Science |volume51 |pages37–43 |doi10.1614/0043-1745(2003)051[0037:IORPAR]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86018188 }}</ref>
Catkin-like cymes of densely-packed flowers grow in summer or fall.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/azencyclopediaof0000unse |titleRHS A–Z encyclopedia of garden plants |publisherDorling Kindersley |year2008 |isbn978-1405332965 |pages1136 |url-accessregistration}}</ref> Amaranth varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of striking pigments from the spectrum of maroon to crimson and can grow longitudinally from {{convert|3|to|8|ft|m|round0.5|abbroff|orderflip}} tall with a cylindrical, succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves and bracteoles when mature.<ref name="schmid" />
There are approximately 75 species in the genus, 10 of which are dioecious and native to North America, and the remaining 65 are monoecious species that are endemic to every continent (except Antarctica) from tropical lowlands to the Himalayas.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSteckel |firstLawrence E. |dateApril 2007 |titleThe Dioecious Amaranthus spp.: Here to Stay |journalWeed Technology |languageen |volume21 |issue2 |pages567–570 |doi10.1614/WT-06-045.1 |s2cid84733087}}</ref> Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia. Amaranth grain is collected from the genus. The leaves of some species are also eaten.<ref>{{cite news |last1Wong |first1James |date9 February 2020 |titleAmaranth tastes as good as it looks |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/feb/09/james-wong-on-gardens-amaranth-indonesian-spinach}}</ref> Names and etymology Amaranthus comes from the name of this plant in Ancient Greek, {{langx|grc|ἀμάραντος|amárantos}}, "amaranth, immortal", noun formed from the privative prefix {{langx|grc|ἀ-|a-}}, "without", and the verb {{langx|grc|μαραίνω|maraínō}}, "to consume, to exhaust".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |firstAnatole |lastBailly |editor-first1Hugo |editor-last1Chávez |editor-first2Gérard |editor-last2Gréco |editor-first3André |editor-last3Charbonnet |editor-first4Mark |editor-last4De Wilde |editor-first5Bernard |editor-last5Maréchal |display-authorset al|dictionaryLe Bailly |year2020 |urlhttps://bailly.app/marain%C3%B4 |access-date29 December 2023 |titleμαραίνω}}</ref><ref>Dioscorides, 3, 9; 4, 55 and 57.</ref> Indeed, the amaranth has a reputation for not withering, with in particular its calice which remains persistent, and for this reason, represents a symbol of immortality.<ref>{{cite web|titleHistoire Amarante|urlhttp://www.amaranto.cl/noticia/historia-del-amaranto.html|websitewww.amaranto.cl |date|languagees}}</ref> Some species are used in dry bouquets.
The form {{lang|la|amaranthus}} (with H), comes from an erroneous association with the Greek etymon {{transl|grc|anthos}} (lat. {{lang|la|-anthus}}) meaning {{gloss|flower}}, found in the name of many plants (agapanthus, for example).
Its denominations in the languages of the peoples cultivating it since ancient times in America are {{lang|nah|huauhtli}} in Nahuatl,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |firstFrances |lastKarttunen |year1992 |titleAn Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl |publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press |page82}}</ref> {{lang|qu|kiwicha}}, {{lang|qu|ataĉo}} in Quechua,<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttps://www.persee.fr/doc/caoum_0373-5834_1992_num_45_179_3461 |journalCahiers d'Outre-Mer |languagefr |volume45 |issue179–180 |dateJuly–December 1992 |firstEmmanuelle |lastGen |titleLa re-découverte des Amériques |pages495–514|doi10.3406/caoum.1992.3461 }}</ref> {{lang|myn|tez}} or {{lang|myn|xtes}} in Maya, ahparie in Purépecha, {{lang|hch|wa've}} in Huichol, and guegui in Tarahumara.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2024}}
Description
(right)]]
Amaranth is a herbaceous plant or shrub that is either annual or perennial across the genus.<ref name"schmid">{{cite journal|display-authors3 |last1Schmid |first1Rudolf |last2Judd |first2Walter S. |last3Campbell |first3Christopher S. |last4Kellogg |first4Elizabeth A. |last5Stevens |first5Peter F. |last6Donoghue |first6Michael J. |last7Judd |first7Walter S. |last8Nickrent |first8Daniel L. |last9Robertson |first9Kenneth R. | last10Abbott | first10J. Richard |last11Campbell |first11Christopher S. |last12Carlsward |first12Barbara S. |last13Donoghue |first13Michael J. |last14Kellogg |first14Elizabeth A. |titlePlant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach |journalTaxon |volume56 |issue4 |date1 October 2007 |issn0040-0262 |doi10.2307/25065934 |page1316 |jstor25065934}}</ref> Flowers vary interspecifically from the presence of 3 or 5 tepals and stamens, whereas a 7-porate pollen grain structure remains consistent across the family.<ref nameschmid/> Species across the genus contain concentric rings of vascular bundles, and fix carbon efficiently with a C4 photosynthetic pathway.<ref nameschmid/> Leaves are approximately {{convert|6.5|-|15|cm|in|frac4|abbroff}} and of oval or elliptical shape that are either opposite or alternate across species, although most leaves are whole and simple with entire margins.<ref nameschmid/>
Amaranth has a primary root with deeper spreading secondary fibrous root structures.<ref name"Arrequez etal">{{Cite journal |last1Arreguez |first1Guillermo A. |last2Martínez |first2Jorge G. |last3Ponessa |first3Graciela |dateSeptember 2013 |titleAmaranthus hybridus L. ssp. hybridus in an archaeological site from the initial mid-Holocene in the Southern Argentinian Puna |journalQuaternary International |volume307 |pages81–85 |doi10.1016/j.quaint.2013.02.035 |bibcode2013QuInt.307...81A|hdl11336/21990 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Inflorescences are in the form a large panicle that varies from terminal to axial, color, and sex. The tassel of fluorescence is either erect or bent and varies in width and length between species. Flowers are radially symmetric and either bisexual or unisexual with very small, bristly perianth and pointy bracts.<ref name"Arrequez etal" /> Species in this genus are either monecious (e.g. A.&nbsp;hybridus,) or dioecious (e.g. A.&nbsp;palmeri).<ref name"Arrequez etal" /> Fruits are in the form of capsules referred to as a unilocular pixdio that opens at maturity.<ref name"Arrequez etal" /> The top (operculum) of the unilocular pixdio releases the urn that contains the seed.<ref name"Arrequez etal" /> Seeds are circular form from 1 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter and range in color with a shiny, smooth seed coat.<ref name"Arrequez etal" /> The panicle is harvested 200 days after cultivation with approximately 1,000 to 3,000 seeds harvested per gram.<ref name"Tucker 1986">{{Cite journal |lastTucker |firstJonathan B. |dateJanuary 1986 |titleAmaranth: The Once and Future Crop |journalBioScience |volume36 |issue1 |pages9–13 |doi10.2307/1309789 |issn0006-3568 |jstor1309789}}</ref>ChemistryAmaranth grain contains phytochemicals that are not defined as nutrients and may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins, tannins, and oxalates. These compounds are reduced in content and antinutrient effect by cooking.<ref>{{cite web |year1992 |titleLegacy: The Official Newsletter of Amaranth Institute |urlhttp://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/MidWest/Ames/repository/oldsitearchive/Reports_New/Special_Reports/Amaranth/Legacy92.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121012191437/http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/MidWest/Ames/repository/oldsitearchive/Reports_New/Special_Reports/Amaranth/Legacy92.pdf |archive-date2012-10-12 |access-date2011-09-19 |publisherAmaranth Institute |pages6–9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsHotz C, Gibson RS |year2007 |titleTraditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets |journalJ Nutr |volume137 |issue4 |pages1097–100 |doi10.1093/jn/137.4.1097 |pmid17374686 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Taxonomy
Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Amaranthus is part of the Amaranthaceae that is part of the larger grouping of the Carophyllales.<ref nameschmid/> Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 75 species present across six continents.<ref namestetter1/> This complicates taxonomy and Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus and to hybridize often.<ref name"Costea">{{cite journal |last1Costea |first1Mihai |last2DeMason |first2Darleen A. |s2cid84211686 |titleStem Morphology and Anatomy in Amaranthus L. (Amaranthaceae), Taxonomic Significance |journalJournal of the Torrey Botanical Society |volume128 |issue3 |year2001 |issn1095-5674 |doi10.2307/3088717 |page254 |jstor=3088717}}</ref>
In 1955, Sauer classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus.<ref name"Costea" /> Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group. Mosyakin and Robertson 1996 later divided into three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Mosyakin |first1Sergei L. |last2Clemants |first2Steven E. |date1996 |titleNew Infrageneric Taxa and Combinations in Chenopodium L. (Chenopodiaceae) |journalNovon |volume6 |issue4 |pages398 |doi10.2307/3392049 |issn1055-3177 |jstor3392049 |urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/28372}}</ref> The support for the addition of the subdivision Albersia because of its indehiscent fruits coupled with three elliptic to linear tepals to be exclusive characters to members of this subgenus. The classification of these groups are further supported with a combination of floral characters, reproductive strategies, geographic distribution, and molecular evidence.<ref name"stetter1">{{Cite journal|journalMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume109|pages80–92|dateApril 2017|titleAnalysis of phylogenetic relationships and genome size evolution of the Amaranthus genus using GBS indicates the ancestors of an ancient crop |last1Stetter |first1Markus G. |last2Schmid |first2Karl J|doi10.1016/j.ympev.2016.12.029|pmid28057554 |doi-accessfree|bibcode2017MolPE.109...80S }}</ref><ref name"wasel">{{Cite journal |last1Waselkov |first1Katherine E. |last2Boleda |first2Alexis S. |last3Olsen |first3Kenneth M. |date2018-06-21 |titleA Phylogeny of the Genus Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) Based on Several Low-Copy Nuclear Loci and Chloroplast Regions |journalSystematic Botany |volume43 |issue2 |pages439–458 |doi10.1600/036364418x697193 |s2cid49568120 |issn0363-6445}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Clouse |first1J. W. |last2Adhikary |first2D. |last3Page |first3J. T. |last4Ramaraj |first4T.|last5Deyholos |first5M. K. |last6Udall |first6J. A. |last7Fairbanks |first7D. J. |last8Jellen |first8E. N. |last9Maughan |first9P. J. |date2016 |titleThe Amaranth Genome: Genome, Transcriptome, and Physical Map Assembly |journalThe Plant Genome |volume9 |issue1 |pages0 |doi10.3835/plantgenome2015.07.0062 |pmid27898770 |issn1940-3372 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
The phylogenies of Amaranthus using maximum parsimony and Bayesian analysis of nuclear and chloroplast genes suggest five clades within the genus: Diecious / Pumilus, Hybris, Galapagos, Eurasian/ South African, Australian (ESA), ESA + South American.<ref name=wasel/>
Amaranthus includes three recognised subgenera and 75 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridisation and species concepts.<ref nameschmid/> Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.<ref namestetter1/> Bracteole morphology present on the stem is used for taxonomic classification of Amaranth. Wild species have longer bracteoles compared to cultivated species.<ref name "Costea" /> A modified infrageneric classification of Amaranthus includes three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia, with the taxonomy further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Sergei L. Mosyakin |author2Kenneth R. Robertson |year1996 |titleNew infrageneric taxa and combinations in Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) |journalAnn. Bot. Fennici |volume33 |issue4 |pages275–281 |jstor23726306}}</ref>
There is near certainty that A. hypochondriacus is the common ancestor to the cultivated grain species, however the later series of domestication to follow remains unclear. There has been opposing hypotheses of a single as opposed to multiple domestication events of the three grain species.<ref namestetter1/><ref name"joshi">{{Cite journal |last1Joshi |first1Dinesh C. |last2Sood |first2Salej |last3Hosahatti |first3Rajashekara |last4Kant |first4Lakshmi |last5Pattanayak |first5A. |last6Kumar |first6Anil |last7Yadav |first7Dinesh |last8Stetter |first8Markus G. |date2018-07-10 |titleFrom zero to hero: the past, present and future of grain amaranth breeding |journalTheoretical and Applied Genetics |volume131 |issue9 |pages1807–1823 |doi10.1007/s00122-018-3138-y |pmid29992369 |s2cid49669284 |issn0040-5752}}</ref> There is evidence of phylogenetic and geographical support for clear groupings that indicate separate domestication events in South America and Central America.<ref namestetter1/> A.&nbsp;hybridus may derive from South America, whereas A.&nbsp;caudatus, A.&nbsp;hypochondriacus, and A.&nbsp;quentiensis are native to Central and North America.<ref namestetter1/><ref namejoshi/> Species {{Main|List of Amaranthus species|l1 List of Amaranthus species}}
Species include:<ref name"TPL">{{cite web |titleSearch results—The Plant List |urlhttp://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?qamaranthus |worktheplantlist.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Kumar |first1Thaliyangal Rajesh |last2Vishnu |first2Walsan Kalarikkal |last3Kumar |first3Venugopalan Nair Saradamma Anil |last4Arya |first4Sindu |date2019-05-13 |titleAmaranthus saradhiana (Amaranthaceae)—a new species from southern Western Ghats of Kerala, India |journalPhytotaxa |languageen |volume403 |issue3 |pages230–238 |doi10.11646/phytotaxa.403.3.7 |issn1179-3163 |s2cid=181814195}}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Amaranthus acanthochiton – greenstripe
* Amaranthus acutilobus – a synonym of Amaranthus viridis<ref name=TPL/>
* Amaranthus albus – white pigweed, tumble pigweed
* Amaranthus anderssonii
* Amaranthus arenicola – sandhill amaranth
* Amaranthus australis – southern amaranth
* Amaranthus bigelovii – Bigelow's amaranth
* Amaranthus blitoides – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed
* Amaranthus blitum – purple amaranth
* Amaranthus brownii – Brown's amaranth
* Amaranthus californicus – California amaranth, California pigweed
* Amaranthus cannabinus – tidal-marsh amaranth
* Amaranthus caudatus – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, quilete
* Amaranthus chihuahuensis – Chihuahuan amaranth
* Amaranthus crassipes – spreading amaranth
* Amaranthus crispus – crispleaf amaranth
* Amaranthus cruentus – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth
* Amaranthus deflexus – large-fruit amaranth
* Amaranthus dubius – spleen amaranth, khada sag
* Amaranthus fimbriatus – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed
* Amaranthus floridanus – Florida amaranth
* Amaranthus furcatus
* Amaranthus graecizans
* Amaranthus grandiflorus
* Amaranthus greggii – Gregg's amaranth
* Amaranthus hybridus – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth
* Amaranthus hypochondriacus – Prince-of-Wales feather, prince's feather
* Amaranthus interruptus – Australian amaranth<ref>{{Cite web |titleType of Amaranthus interruptus R.Br. [family AMARANTHACEAE] on JSTOR |urlhttps://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.specimen.bm000847082 |access-date2020-10-08 |websiteplants.jstor.org}}</ref>
* Amaranthus minimus
* Amaranthus mitchellii
* Amaranthus muricatus – African amaranth<ref>{{Cite web |titleAmaranthus muricatus (Moquin-Tandon) Hieronymus [family AMARANTHACEAE] on JSTOR |urlhttps://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.flora.fna004000844?searchUrifiltername&sops_group_by_genus_species+asc&QueryAmaranthus+muricatus+ |access-date2020-10-08 |websiteplants.jstor.org}}</ref>
* Amaranthus obcordatus – Trans-Pecos amaranth
* Amaranthus palmeri – Palmer's amaranth, Palmer pigweed, careless weed
* Amaranthus polygonoides – tropical amaranth
* Amaranthus powellii – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed
* Amaranthus pringlei – Pringle's amaranth
* Amaranthus pumilus – seaside amaranth
* Amaranthus quitensis - Mucronate Amaranth
* Amaranthus retroflexus – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth
* Amaranthus saradhiana - purpal stem amaranth, green leaf amaranth
* Amaranthus scleranthoides – variously Amaranthus sclerantoides
* Amaranthus scleropoides – bone-bract amaranth
* Amaranthus spinosus – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth
* Amaranthus standleyanus
* Amaranthus thunbergii – Thunberg's amaranth
* Amaranthus torreyi – Torrey's amaranth
* Amaranthus tricolor – Joseph's-coat
* Amaranthus tuberculatus – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp
* Amaranthus viridis – slender amaranth, green amaranth
* Amaranthus watsonii – Watson's amaranth
* Amaranthus wrightii – Wright's amaranth
{{div col end}}
Etymology
"Amaranth" derives from Greek {{lang|grc|ἀμάραντος}}<ref>{{LSJ|a)ma/rantos|ἀμάραντος|ref}}</ref> ({{lang|grc-Latn|amárantos}}), "unfading", with the Greek word for "flower", {{lang|grc|ἄνθος}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|ánthos}}), factoring into the word's development as amaranth, the unfading flower. Amarant is an archaic variant. The name was first applied to the related Celosia (Amaranthus and Celosia share long-lasting dried flowers), as Amaranthus plants were not yet known in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Costea |first1Mihai |last2Tardif |first2François J. |date2003 |titleThe Name of the Amaranth: Histories of Meaning |journalSIDA, Contributions to Botany |volume20 |issue3 |pages1073–1083 |issn0036-1488 |jstor41968150}}</ref>
Ecology
Amaranth weed species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production,<ref name"Bensch" /> and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often.<ref>Wetzel et al. (1999). Use of PCR-based molecular markers to identify weedy Amaranthus species. Weed Science 47: 518–523.</ref> The following 9 species of Amaranthus are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S. and Canada: A.&nbsp;albus, A.&nbsp;blitoides, A.&nbsp;hybridus, A.&nbsp;palmeri, A.&nbsp;powellii, A.&nbsp;retroflexus, A.&nbsp;spinosus, A.&nbsp;tuberculatus, and A.&nbsp;viridis.<ref>[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbolAMARA USDA Plant Database. Plants Profile- Amaranthus L]</ref><ref>[Assad, R., Reshi, Z. A., Jan, S., & Rashid, I. (2017). "Biology of amaranths". The Botanical Review, 83(4), 382–436.]</ref>
A new herbicide-resistant strain of A.&nbsp;palmeri has appeared; it is glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by herbicides using the chemical. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. The species Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments.<ref name="Bensch" /> Palmer amaranth is among the "top five most troublesome weeds" in the southeast of the United States and has already evolved resistances to dinitroaniline herbicides and acetolactate synthase inhibitors.<ref>Culpepper et al. (2006). Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Science 54: 620–626.</ref> This makes the proper identification of Amaranthus species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.
An evolutionary lineage of around 90 species within the genus has acquired the {{C4}} carbon fixation pathway, which increases their photosynthetic efficiency. This probably occurred in the Miocene.<ref name"Sage2016">{{cite journal |lastSage |firstR.F. |year2016 |titleA portrait of the {{C4}} photosynthetic family on the 50th anniversary of its discovery: species number, evolutionary lineages, and Hall of Fame |journalJournal of Experimental Botany |volume67 |issue14 |pages4039–4056 |doi10.1093/jxb/erw156 |issn0022-0957 |pmid27053721 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"SageSage2007">{{cite journal |last1Sage |first1R.F. |last2Sage |first2T.L. |last3Pearcy |first3R.W. |last4Borsch |first4T. |year2007 |titleThe taxonomic distribution of {{C4}} photosynthesis in Amaranthaceae sensu stricto |journalAmerican Journal of Botany |volume94 |issue12 |pages1992–2003 |doi10.3732/ajb.94.12.1992 |issn0002-9122 |pmid21636394}}</ref> Uses {{more citations needed|section|dateApril 2019}}
All parts of the plant are considered edible,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/20/ancient-crops-climate-crisis-amaranth-fonio-cowpeas-taro-kernza |titleDiet for a hotter climate: five plants that could help feed the world |lastNowell |firstCecelia |websiteThe Guardian |date20 August 2022 |access-date5 September 2023 |quoteFrom leaf to seed, the entirety of the amaranth plant is edible.}}</ref> though some may have sharp spines that need to be removed before consumption.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364 |titleThe Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisherSkyhorse Publishing|author United States Department of the Army |year2009 |isbn978-1-60239-692-0 |locationNew York |pages19 |oclc277203364}}</ref> Amaranth is high in oxalates, but this may be partially offset by its high calcium content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Radek |first1M. |last2Savage |first2G. P. |date2008 |titleOxalates in some Indian green leafy vegetables |urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18335334/#:~:textSpinach,%20purple%20and%20green%20amaranth,mg/100%20g%20dry%20matter. |journalInternational Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition |volume59 |issue3 |pages246–260 |doi10.1080/09637480701791176 |issn0963-7486 |pmid18335334}}</ref>
{{gallery|mode=packed
|Tostando amaranto en comal de barro.jpg|Amaranth being roasted in a comal
|Amaranth muesli.jpg|Amaranth muesli mix
|Día de muertos.jpg|Skull shapes made of amaranth and honey for Day of the Dead in Mexico
|Dulce de amaranto..JPG|Alegría, traditional Mexican candy made with amaranth
}}
Nutrition
Uncooked amaranth grain by weight is 12% water, 65% carbohydrates (including 7% dietary fiber), 14% protein, and 7% fat (table). A {{convert|100|g|oz|abbroff|adjon|frac2}} reference serving of uncooked amaranth grain provides {{convert|371|kcal|kJ|orderflip|abbr=off}} of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate, and several dietary minerals (table). Uncooked amaranth is particularly rich in manganese (159% DV), phosphorus (80% DV), magnesium (70% DV), iron (59% DV), and selenium (34% DV). Amaranth has a high oxalate content.
{{nutritional value | name=Amaranth grain, uncooked
| kJ=1554
| protein=13.56 g
| fat=7.02 g
| satfat=1.459 g
| monofat=1.685 g
| polyfat=2.778 g
| carbs=65.25 g
| fiber=6.7 g
| sugars=1.69 g
| starch=57.27 g
| calcium_mg=159
| iron_mg=7.61
| magnesium_mg=248
| phosphorus_mg=557
| potassium_mg=508
| sodium_mg=4
| zinc_mg=2.87
| manganese_mg=3.333
| vitC_mg=4.2
| thiamin_mg=0.116
| riboflavin_mg=0.2
| niacin_mg=0.923
| pantothenic_mg=1.457
| vitB6_mg=0.591
| folate_ug=82
| vitE_mg=1.19
| tryptophan=0.181 g
| threonine=0.558 g
| isoleucine=0.582 g
| leucine=0.879 g
| lysine=0.747 g
| methionine=0.226 g
| cystine=0.191 g
| phenylalanine=0.542 g
| tyrosine=0.329 g
| valine=0.679 g
| arginine=1.060 g
| histidine=0.389 g
| alanine=0.799 g
| aspartic acid=1.261 g
| glutamic acid=2.259 g
| glycine=1.636 g
| proline=0.698 g
| serine=1.148 g
| opt1n=Selenium
| opt1v=18.7 µg
| water=11.3 g
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170682/nutrients Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
{{nutritional value | name=Amaranth grain, Cooked
| kJ=429
| protein=3.8 g
| fat=1.58 g
| carbs=18.7 g
| fiber=2.1 g
| starch=16.2 g
| calcium_mg=47
| iron_mg=2.1
| magnesium_mg=65
| phosphorus_mg=148
| potassium_mg=135
| sodium_mg=6
| zinc_mg=0.86
| manganese_mg=0.854
| thiamin_mg=0.015
| riboflavin_mg=0.022
| niacin_mg=0.235
| pantothenic_mg=1.457
| vitB6_mg=0.113
| folate_ug=22
| vitE_mg=0.88
| opt1n=Selenium
| opt1v=5.5 µg
| water=75.2 g
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170683/nutrients]
}}
Cooking decreases its nutritional value substantially across all nutrients, with only dietary minerals remaining at moderate levels.<ref name"nd">{{cite web |titleAmaranth grain, cooked, per 100 g |urlhttps://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/cereal-grains-and-pasta/10640/2 |publisherNutritiondata.com, Conde Nast; from the USDA National Nutrient Database, SR-21 |access-date20 April 2019 |date2018}}</ref> Cooked amaranth leaves are a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and manganese, with moderate levels of folate, iron, magnesium, and potassium.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2304/2 |titleAmaranth leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt, per 100 g |publisherNutritiondata.com, Conde Nast; from the USDA National Nutrient Database, SR-21 |date2018 |access-date20 April 2019}}</ref> Amaranth does not contain gluten.<ref name"LamacchiaCamarca2014">{{cite journal |vauthorsLamacchia C, Camarca A, Picascia S, Di Luccia A, Gianfrani C |titleCereal-based gluten-free food: how to reconcile nutritional and technological properties of wheat proteins with safety for celiac disease patients |journalNutrients |volume6 |issue2 |pages575–90 |dateJan 29, 2014 |pmid24481131 |pmc3942718 |doi10.3390/nu6020575 |typeReview| doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"PenaginiDilillo2013">{{cite journal |vauthorsPenagini F, Dilillo D, Meneghin F, Mameli C, Fabiano V, Zuccotti GV |titleGluten-free diet in children: an approach to a nutritionally adequate and balanced diet |journalNutrients |volume5 |issue11 |pages4553–65 |dateNov 18, 2013 |pmid24253052 |pmc3847748 |doi10.3390/nu5114553 |typeReview |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |titleRecent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products |journalTrends in Food Science & Technology |firstE. |lastGallagher |author2T. R. Gormley |author3E. K. Arendt |volume15 |issue3–4 |pages143–152 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/228866803 |doi10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012 |typeReview |year2004}}</ref>
History
The native range of the genus is cosmopolitan.<ref name"Tucker 1986" /> In pre-Hispanic times, amaranth was cultivated by the Aztec and their tributary communities in a quantity very similar to maize.<ref>Mapes, Cristina, Eduardo Espitia, and Scott Sessions. "Amaranth." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. : Oxford University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0195108159}}</ref> Known to the Aztecs as {{lang|nci|huāuhtli}},<ref>{{cite book |authorCoe, S.D. |year1994 |titleAmerica's First Cuisines |publisherUniversity of Texas Press |isbn9780292711594 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/americasfirstcui00coes |url-accessregistration}}</ref> amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before the Spanish conquest.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} Another important use of amaranth throughout Mesoamerica was in ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses, or chocolate to make a treat called {{lang|es|alegría}}, meaning "joy" in Spanish.
While all species are believed to be native to the Americas, several have been cultivated and introduced to warm regions worldwide. Amaranth's cosmopolitan distribution makes it one of many plants providing evidence of pre-Columbian oceanic contact.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSingh Anurudh K (2017) Early History of Crop Introductions into India: II. Amaranthus (L.) spp. Asian Agri-History 21(4): 319-324 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/322329859 |access-date2020-08-27 |websiteResearchGate |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Sorenson |first1John L. |last2Johannessen |first2Carl L. |dateApril 2004 |titleScientific Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages |urlhttp://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp133_precolumbian_voyages.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp133_precolumbian_voyages.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |journalSino-Platonic Papers |volume133}}</ref> The earliest archeological evidence for amaranth in the Old World was found in an excavation in Narhan, India, dated to 1000–800&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1Saraswat |first1K.S. |last2Sharma |first2N.K. |last3Saini |first3D.C. |titlePlant Economy at Ancient Narhan (ca. 1300 B.C.-300/400 A.D.) in Excavations at Narhan (1984-1989), Appendix IV |date1994 |publisherDepartment of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University |locationVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India |pages225–337}}</ref>
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its palatability, ease of cooking, and a protein that is particularly well-suited to human nutritional needs, interest in amaranth seeds (especially A.&nbsp;cruentus and A.&nbsp;hypochondriacus) revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties<ref>{{Cite web|titleAmaranth - May Grain of the Month {{!}} The Whole Grains Council|urlhttps://wholegrainscouncil.org/whole-grains-101/grain-month-calendar/amaranth-may-grain-month|access-date2021-12-28|websitewholegrainscouncil.org}}</ref> and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and other parts of North America.
Seed
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. Amaranth and its relative quinoa are considered pseudocereals because of their similarities to cereals in flavor and cooking. The spread of Amaranthus is of a joint effort of human expansion, adaptation, and fertilization strategies. Grain amaranth has been used for food by humans in several ways. The grain can be ground into a flour for use like other grain flours. It can be popped like popcorn, or flaked like oatmeal.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/crops/amaranth.aspx |titleAmaranth |websiteUniversity of Wisconsin - Corn Agronomy |author1D. H. Putnam |author2E. S. Oplinger |author3J. D. Doll |author4E. M. Schulte |dateNovember 1989}}</ref>
Seeds of Amaranth grain have been found in Antofagasta de la Sierra Department, Catamarca, Argentina in the southern Puna desert of the north of Argentina dating from 4,500 years ago, with evidence suggesting earlier use.<ref name"Arrequez etal" /> Archeological evidence of seeds from A.&nbsp;hypochondriacus and A.&nbsp;cruentus{{Verify source|dateMay 2022}} found in a cave in Tehuacán, Mexico, suggests amaranth was part of Aztec civilization in the 1400s.<ref>{{Citation |last1Brenner |first1D. M. |titleGenetic Resources and Breeding of Amaranthus |date2010-07-23 |workPlant Breeding Reviews |pages227–285 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn978-0-470-65017-2 |last2Baltensperger |first2D. D. |last3Kulakow |first3P. A. |last4Lehmann |first4J. W. |last5Myers |first5R. L. |last6Slabbert |first6M. M. |last7Sleugh |first7B. B. |doi=10.1002/9780470650172.ch7}}</ref>
Ancient amaranth grains still used include the three species Amaranthus caudatus, A.&nbsp;cruentus, and A.&nbsp;hypochondriacus.<ref name"Costea06">{{cite journal |last1Costea |first1M. |last2Brenner |first2D. M. |last3Tardif |first3F. J. |last4Tan |first4Y. F. |last5Sun |first5M. |titleDelimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification |journalGenetic Resources and Crop Evolution |date6 October 2006 |volume53 |issue8 |pages1625–1633 |issn0925-9864 |doi10.1007/s10722-005-0036-3}}</ref> Evidence from single-nucleotide polymorphisms and chromosome structure supports A.&nbsp;hypochondriacus as the common ancestor of the three grain species.<ref name"stetter2">{{Cite journal |last1Stetter |first1Markus G. |last2Zeitler |first2Leo |last3Steinhaus |first3Adrian |last4Kroener |first4Karoline |last5Biljecki |first5Michelle |last6Schmid |first6Karl J. |date2016-06-07 |titleCrossing Methods and Cultivation Conditions for Rapid Production of Segregating Populations in Three Grain Amaranth Species |journalFrontiers in Plant Science |volume7 |pages816 |doi10.3389/fpls.2016.00816 |pmid27375666 |pmc4894896 |issn1664-462X |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
* A small amount of seed plants a large area (seeding rate 1&nbsp;kg/ha).
* Yields are high compared to the seeding rate: 1,000&nbsp;kg or more per hectare.
* It is easily harvested and easily processed, post harvest, as there are no hulls to remove.
* Its seeds are a source of protein.<ref name"Tucker 1986" /><ref namempoll>De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.</ref>
* It has rich content of the dietary minerals, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.<ref name=usdamrth/>
* In cooked and edible forms, amaranth retains adequate content of several dietary minerals.<ref nameusdamrth>{{cite web |titleUSDA National Nutrient Database: cooked amaranth grain per 100 grams; Full report |urlhttps://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170683/nutrients |date2014 |access-date=7 October 2019}}</ref>
* It is easy to cook. Boil in water with twice the amount of water as grain by volume (or 2.4 times as much water by weight). Amaranth seed can also be popped one tablespoon at a time in a hot pan without oil, shaken every few seconds to avoid burning.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?veOwOZxHmwCU |titleHow to puff amaranth | archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/eOwOZxHmwCU| archive-date2021-11-22 | url-statuslive |websiteYouTube |date28 November 2017 |publisherGreen Healthy Cooking |access-dateSeptember 20, 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* It grows fast and, in three cultivated species, the large seedheads can weigh up to 1&nbsp;kg and contain a half-million small seeds.<ref name="Tucker 1986" />
In the United States, the amaranth crop is mostly used for seed production. Most amaranth in American food products starts as a ground flour, blended with wheat or other flours to create cereals, crackers, cookies, bread or other baked products. Despite utilization studies showing that amaranth can be blended with other flours at levels above 50% without affecting functional properties or taste, most commercial products use amaranth only as a minor portion of their ingredients despite them being marketed as "amaranth" products.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.extension.iastate.edu/alternativeag/cropproduction/amaranth.html |titleAmaranth: Alternative Agriculture |lastDelate |firstKathleen |publisherIowa State University |date2013}}</ref>
<!--original research Seed flour
Amaranth seed flour has been evaluated as an additive to wheat flour by food specialists. To determine palatability, different levels of amaranth grain flour were mixed with the wheat flour and baking ingredients (1% salt, 2.5% fat, 1.5% yeast, 10% sugar, and 52–74% water), fermented, molded, pan-proofed, and baked. The baked products were evaluated for loaf volume, moisture content, color, odor, taste, and texture. The amaranth-containing products were then compared with bread made from 100% wheat flour. The loaf volume decreased by 40% and the moisture content increased from 22 to 42% with increase in amaranth grain flour. The study found that the sensory scores of the taste, odor, color, and texture decreased with increasing amounts of amaranth. Generally, above 15% amaranth grain flour, significant differences occurred in the evaluated sensory qualities and the high amaranth-containing product was found to be of unacceptable palatability to the population sample that evaluated the baked products.<ref>{{cite journal |titleThe effect of amaranth grain flour on the quality of bread |authorJerome Ayo |doi10.1081/JFP-100105198 |journalInternational Journal of Food Properties |year2001 |volume4 |issue2 |pages341 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/JFP-100105198}}</ref>
-->
Leaves, roots, and stems
made with Cheera (amaranth) leaves]]
Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. Four species of Amaranthus are documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius, and Amaranthus tricolor.<ref>Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649</ref>
Asia
In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called {{lang|ms|bayam}} (although the word has since been loaned to refer to spinach, in a different genus<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://prpm.dbp.gov.my/Search.aspx?kspinach |dictionaryKamus Inggeris-Melayu Dewan |titlespinach |year2017 |publisherDewan Bahasa dan Pustaka}}</ref>). In the Philippines, the Ilocano word for the plant is {{lang|ilo|kalunay}}; the Tagalog word for the plant is {{lang|tg|kilitis}} or {{lang|tg|kulitis}}.
In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, it is called {{lang|hi-Latn|chaulai}} and is a popular red leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called {{lang|hi-Latn|laal saag}}). It is called chua in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka in India, it is called {{lang|kn-Latn|harive soppu}} ({{lang|kn|ಹರಿವೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು}}). It is used to prepare curries such as hulee, palya, majjigay-hulee, and so on. In Kerala, it is called cheera and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chili peppers to make a dish called cheera thoran. In Tamil Nadu, it is called {{lang|ta-Latn|mulaikkira}} and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed and mashed with light seasoning of salt, red chili pepper, and cumin. It is called {{lang|ta-Latn|keerai masial}}. In the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and other Telugu speaking regions of the country, this leaf is called as "Thotakura" and is cooked as a standalone curry, added as a part of mix leafy vegetable curry or added in preparation of a popular dal called {{lang|te-Latn|thotakura pappu}} ({{lang|te|తోటకూర పప్పు}}) in (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is called {{lang|mr-Latn|shravani maath}} and is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called {{lang|or-Latn|khada saga}}, it is used to prepare {{lang|or-Latn|saga bhaja}}, in which the leaf is fried with chili and onions. In West Bengal, the green variant is called {{lang|bn-Latn|Notey Shaak}} ({{lang|bn|নটে শাক}}) and the red variant is called {{lang|bn-Latn|Laal Shaak}} ({{lang|bn|লাল শাক }}).
In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups. In Vietnam, it is called {{lang|vi|rau dền}} and is used to make soup. Two species are popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: {{lang|vi|dền đỏ}} (Amaranthus tricolor) and {{lang|vi|dền cơm}} or {{lang|vi|dền trắng}} (Amaranthus viridis).
Africa
A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.<ref>{{cite book |authorNational Research Council |titleLost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables |urlhttp://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11763 |access-date2008-07-15 |volume2 |date2006-10-27 |publisherNational Academies Press |isbn978-0-309-10333-6 |oclc34344933 |doi10.17226/11763 |chapterAmaranth |chapter-urlhttp://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11763&page=35}}</ref>
In Bantu regions of Uganda and western Kenya, it is known as doodo or litoto.<ref>{{cite book |authorGoode, P. M. |titleEdible plants of Uganda |publisherFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year1989 |isbn9789251027134 |pages25–6}}</ref> It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (chepkerta). In Lingala (spoken in the Congo), it is known as {{lang|ln|lɛngalɛnga}} or {{lang|ln|bítɛkutɛku}}.<ref>{{cite journal |authorEnama, M. |year1994 |titleCulture: The missing nexus in ecological economics perspective |journalEcological Economics |issue2 |pages93–95 |doi10.1016/0921-8009(94)00010-7 |volume10|bibcode1994EcoEc..10...93E }}</ref> In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba as {{lang|yo|shoko}}, a short form of {{lang|yo|shokoyokoto}} (meaning "make the husband fat"), or {{lang|yo|arowo jeja}} (meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In Botswana, it is referred to as morug and cooked as a staple green vegetable. Europe In Greece, purple amaranth (Amaranthus blitum) is a popular dish called {{lang|el|βλήτα}}, {{lang|el-Latn|vlita}} or {{lang|el-Latn|vleeta}}. It is boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon juice like a salad, sometimes alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which also grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August. Americas
In Brazil, green amaranth was, and to a degree still is, often considered an invasive species as all other species of amaranth (except the generally imported A. caudatus cultivar), though some have traditionally appreciated it as a leaf vegetable, under the names of {{lang|pt|caruru}} or {{lang|pt|bredo}}, which is consumed cooked, generally accompanying the staple food, rice and beans.
In the Caribbean, the leaves are called bhaji in Trinidad and callaloo in Jamaica, and are sautéed with onions, garlic, and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.
Oil
Making up about 5% of the total fatty acids of amaranth, squalene<ref name"HeCai2002">{{cite journal |last1He |first1Han-Ping |last2Cai |first2Yizhong |last3Sun |first3Mei |last4Corke |first4Harold |titleExtraction and Purification of Squalene from Amaranthus Grain |journalJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume50 |issue2 |year2002 |pages368–372 |issn0021-8561 |doi10.1021/jf010918p |pmid11782209}}</ref> is extracted as a vegetable-based alternative to the more expensive shark oil for use in dietary supplements and cosmetics.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/squalene-market-size-to-exceed-usd-240-million-by-2022-global-market-insights-inc-577232031.html |titleSqualene Market Size to Exceed USD 240 Million by 2022 |publisherGlobal Market Insights Inc. |date27 April 2016 |access-date14 December 2016}}</ref> Dyes The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red dye. Also a synthetic dye was named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.<ref>"The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/cp03803.html FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929110929/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/cp03803.html |date2007-09-29 }}</ref> Ornamentals
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, A.&nbsp;hypochondriacus (prince's feather), has deeply veined, lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus Coleophora: C.&nbsp;amaranthella, C.&nbsp;enchorda (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C.&nbsp;immortalis (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C.&nbsp;lineapulvella, and C.&nbsp;versurella (recorded on A.&nbsp;spinosus).
Culture
Diego Durán described the festivities for the Aztec god {{lang|nci|Huitzilopochtli|italicno}}. The Aztec month of {{lang|nci|Panquetzaliztli|italicno}} (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to {{lang|nci|Huitzilopochtli|italic=no}}. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices were held. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.
Amaranth is associated with longevity and, poetically, with death and immortality.<ref name"guilherme2022">{{Cite journal |lastNabais Freitas |firstGuilherme |date2022-02-25 |titleAnti-Spenserian Amaranth In Milton's Lycidas |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/nq/article/69/1/28/6517961 |journalNotes and Queries |languageen |volume69 |issue1 |pages28–31 |doi10.1093/notesj/gjac007 |issn0029-3970}}</ref> Amaranth garlands were used in the mourning of Achilles.<ref name"guilherme2022" /><ref>{{Cite journal |lastAllen |firstD. C. |date1957 |titleMilton's Amarant |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3043098 |journalModern Language Notes |volume72 |issue4 |pages256–258 |doi10.2307/3043098 |jstor3043098 |issn0149-6611 |quote=The amaranthus was known to antiquity as an unfading flower, and it was used as a garland in the veneration of the wraith of Achilles}}</ref>
John Milton's Paradise Lost portrays a showy amaranth in the Garden of Eden, "remov'd from Heav'n" when it blossoms because the flowers "shade the fountain of life".<ref>{{Cite book |lastMilton |firstJohn |titleParadise Lost |date2000 |publisherPenguin Books |oclc647024119}}</ref> He describes amaranth as "immortal" in reference to the flowers that generally do not wither and retain bright reddish tones of color, even when deceased; referred to in one species as "love-lies-bleeding."
Gallery
<gallery widths=180>
Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg|Love-lies-bleeding (A.&nbsp;caudatus)
Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg|Green amaranth (A. hybridus)
Amaranth2.jpg|Seabeach amaranth (A.&nbsp;pumilus), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species List
Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg|Red-root amaranth (A. retroflexus)—from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885
Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg|Spiny amaranth (A.&nbsp;spinosus)
Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg|Green amaranth (A.&nbsp;viridis)
Amaranth sp 2.jpg| Popping amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)
Fepm (8).jpg|Amaranth from Chilpancingo
</gallery>
See also
* Ancient grains
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Howard, Brian Clark. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140808071935/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/08/130812-amaranth-oaxaca-mexico-obesity-puente-food/?google_editors_picks=true Amaranth: Another Ancient Wonder Food, But Who Will Eat It?]". National Geographic Online, August 12, 2013.
* Fanton M., Fanton J. Amaranth The Seed Savers' Handbook. (1993)
* Assad, R., Reshi, Z. A., Jan, S., & Rashid, I. (2017). Biology of amaranths. The Botanical Review, 83(4), 382–436.
External links
{{Commons category|Amaranthus}}
{{unimelb|Amaranthus.html}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131104004544/http://www.cropsforthefuture.org/crop-of-the-week-archive/grain-amaranth-amaranthus-spp-amaranthaceae/ Grain amaranth, Crops For A Future]
{{Cereals}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q156344}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Leaf vegetables
Category:Tropical agriculture
Category:Asian vegetables
Category:Pseudocereals
Category:E-number additives | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.746933 |
1543 | Agapanthus africanus | {{Short description|Species of flowering plant native to South Africa}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = African lily
|image = Agapanthus africanus in habitat photo Nick Helme CC by SA.jpg
|image_caption = In habitat
|taxon = Agapanthus africanus
|authority = (L.) Hoffmanns.
|synonyms {{Plainlist | style margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*Abumon africanum <small>(L.) Britton</small>
*Agapanthus minor <small>Lodd.</small>
*Agapanthus tuberosus <small>L. ex DC.</small> nom. inval.
*Agapanthus umbellatus <small>L'Hér.</small>
*Crinum africanum <small>L.</small>
*Crinum floridum <small>Salisb.</small> nom. illeg.
*Mauhlia africana <small>(L.) Dahl</small>
*Mauhlia linearis <small>Thunb.</small>
*Mauhlia umbellata <small>(L'Hér.) Thunb. ex Schult. & Schult.f.</small>
*Tulbaghia africana <small>(L.) Kuntze</small>
*Tulbaghia heisteri <small>Fabr.</small>
*Tulbaghia minor <small>(Lodd.) Kuntze</small>
}}
|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-293521
|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species
|access-date=April 3, 2014}}</ref>
}}
Agapanthus africanus, or the African lily, is a flowering plant from the genus Agapanthus found only on rocky sandstone slopes of the winter rainfall fynbos from the Cape Peninsula to Swellendam.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|lastManning|firstJohn|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/852384288|titlePlants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region : 1: the core Cape flora|date2012|publisherSouth African National Biodiversity Institute, SANBI|othersPeter Goldblatt, G. D. Duncan|isbn978-1-919976-74-7|locationPretoria|oclc852384288}}</ref> It is also known as the lily-of-the-Nile in spite of only occurring in South Africa. Description The plant is a rhizomatous evergreen geophyte from {{cvt|25 to 70|cm|ftin|0}} in height. The leathery leaves are suberect and long and strap shaped.<ref name":0" /> Flowers are broadly funnel-shaped, pale to deep blue, and thick-textured with a dark blue stripe running down the center of each petal. Paler flowers are more common in Agapanthus africanus walshii while Agapanthus africanus africanus flowers tend to be darker.<ref name":0" /><ref name":1">{{Cite web|titleAgapanthus africanus {{!}} PlantZAfrica|urlhttp://pza.sanbi.org/agapanthus-africanus|access-date2021-02-22|websitepza.sanbi.org}}</ref> The flowers grow in large clusters, with each flower being {{cvt|25–40|mm|frac32}} long. This species flowers from November to April, particularly after fire.<ref name":0" /> Peak flowering occurs from December to February.<ref name":1" /> Ecology Pollination is by wind, bees and sunbirds and seed dispersal by the wind. Chacma baboons and buck{{explain|dateMarch 2023}} sometimes eat the flower heads just as the first flowers begin to open. These plants are adapted to survive fire in the fynbos and resprout from thick, fleshy roots after fire has passed through the area.<ref name":1" />Cultivation and useUnlike the more common Agapanthus praecox, this species is less suitable as a garden plant as it is far more difficult to grow. A.&nbsp;africanus subsp. africanus may be grown in rockeries in a well drained, slightly acid sandy mix. They seem to be best when grown in shallow pots and will flower regularly if fed with a slow release fertiliser.<ref name":1" /> A.&nbsp;africanus subsp. walshii is by far the most difficult Agapanthus to grow. It can only be grown as a container plant and will not survive if planted out. They require a very well-drained, sandy, acid mix with minimal watering in summer.<ref name":1" /> Both subspecies require hot, dry summers, and winter rainfall climate. It will not tolerate extended freezing temperatures.<ref name"plantzafrica">{{cite web| url http://pza.sanbi.org/agapanthus-praecox| title PlantZAfrica: Agapanthus praecox}}</ref>
The name A.&nbsp;africanus has long been misapplied to A.&nbsp;praecox in horticultural use and publications across the world, and horticultural plants sold as A.&nbsp;africanus are actually hybrids or cultivars of A.&nbsp;praecox.<ref name=":1" />
Extracts of A. africanus have been shown to have antifungal properties. Application of these extracts to the seeds of other plant species, including economically important species, has shown that it significantly reduces the severity of the impacts of certain pathogens. In the case of sorghum, this application was even found to perform better than Thiram, a commonly used fungicide when exposed to Sporisorium sorghi and S. cruentum.<ref name="Agapanthus-africanus-extracts">
{{Unbulleted list citebundle
|{{cite book | pagesx+136 | volume6 | year2014| publication-placeDordrecht | last1Gullino | first1Maria Lodovica | last2Munkvold | first2Gary P. | titleGlobal Perspectives on the Health of Seeds and Plant Propagation Material | publisherInternational Congress of Plant Pathology (Springer Netherlands) | isbn978-94-017-9388-9 | id{{isbn|978-94-017-9389-6}} | doi10.1007/978-94-017-9389-6 | seriesPlant Pathology in the 21st Century | s2cid=28648931}}
|{{cite journal | issue7 | year2008 | volume27 | last2Pretorius | titleAntifungal properties of Agapanthus africanus L. extracts against plant pathogens | last1Tegegne | first1G. | first2J.C. | last3Swart | first3W.J. | journalCrop Protection | issn0261-2194 | publisherInternational Association for the Plant Protection Sciences (Elsevier) | doi10.1016/j.cropro.2007.12.007 | pages1052–1060 | s2cid44930816}}
}}
</ref> Similarly, it has found to induce resistance to rust leaf in wheat through increasing the activity of pathogenesis related proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastSingh|firstR. P.|date1992|titleExpression of Wheat Leaf Rust Resistance Gene Lr34 in Seedlings and Adult Plants|journalPlant Disease|volume76|issue5|pages489|doi10.1094/pd-76-0489|issn0191-2917}}</ref>
Conservation
While the species as a whole has not yet been assessed,<ref>{{Cite web|titleThreatened Species Programme {{!}} SANBI Red List of South African Plants|urlhttp://redlist.sanbi.org/species.php?species481-4001|access-date2021-07-17|websiteredlist.sanbi.org}}</ref> A.&nbsp;africanus subsp. walshii is considered to be endangered by the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). It is known only from a small area in the Elgin valley (less than five locations) and the population continues to decline. The largest subpopulation is threatened by unregulated informal settlement expansion. A proportion of the population is protected within the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve and is not threatened.<ref>{{Cite web|titleThreatened Species Programme {{!}} SANBI Red List of South African Plants|urlhttp://redlist.sanbi.org/species.php?species481-21|access-date2021-07-17|websiteredlist.sanbi.org}}</ref>
See also
* List of plants known as lily
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
*[http://www.plantweb.co.za/Plant_Pictures/Agapanthus/Agapanthus_africanus/ Plantweb: Agapanthus africanus]
* {{AfricanPlants|Agapanthus africanus}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q161256}}
africanus
Category:Endemic flora of the Cape Provinces
Category:Plants described in 1824
Category:Plants described in 1753
Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agapanthus_africanus | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.753533 |
1544 | Agamemnon | In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (; Agamémnōn) was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Achaeans during the Trojan War. He was the son (or grandson) of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the husband of Clytemnestra, and the father of Iphigenia, Iphianassa, Electra, Laodike, Orestes and Chrysothemis. Legends make him the king of Mycenae or Argos, thought to be different names for the same area. Agamemnon was killed upon his return from Troy by Clytemnestra, or in an older version of the story, by Clytemnestra's lover Aegisthus.
Etymology
Different etymologies have been proposed for the name Agamemnon (). According to one view, the name means 'very steadfast', 'unbowed' or 'resolute'. This is based on the interpretation of the name as a compound word comprising the elements 'very much' and 'to stay, wait; stand fast'. According to another view, the name developed from the unattested form * (*), a compound word composed of the elements 'very much' and 'to think on, provide for', with the overall meaning of 'very mindful'. Yet another proposal derives the second part of the compound word from 'to be inclined, to wish eagerly, to strive' for the overall meaning of 'very eagerly wishing'.
Ancestry and early life
Agamemnon was a descendant of Pelops, son of Tantalus. According to the common story (as told in the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer), Agamemnon and his younger brother Menelaus were the sons of Atreus, king of Mycenae, and Aerope, daughter of the Cretan king Catreus. However, according to another tradition, Agamemnon and Menelaus were the sons of Atreus' son Pleisthenes, with their mother being Aerope, Cleolla, or Eriphyle. In this tradition, Pleisthenes dies young, with Agamemnon and Menelaus being raised by Atreus. Agamemnon had a sister Anaxibia (or Astyoche) who married Strophius, the son of Crisus.thumb|Fourth century BC depiction of Chryses attempting to ransom his daughter Chryseis from Agamemnon.Agamemnon's father, Atreus, murdered the sons of his twin brother Thyestes and fed them to Thyestes after discovering Thyestes' adultery with his wife Aerope. Thyestes fathered Aegisthus with his own daughter, Pelopia, and this son vowed gruesome revenge on Atreus' children. Aegisthus murdered Atreus, restored Thyestes to the throne, and took possession of the throne of Mycenae and jointly ruled with his father. During this period, Agamemnon and his brother Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, King of Sparta.
In Sparta, Agamemnon and Menelaus respectively married Tyndareus' daughters Clytemnestra and Helen. In some stories (such as Iphigenia at Aulis by Euripides) Clytemnestra was already married to Tantalus, and Agamemnon murders him and the couple's infant son before marrying Clytemnestra.
Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece.
Agamemnon's family history had been tarnished by murder, incest, and treachery, consequences of the heinous crime perpetrated by his ancestor, Tantalus, and then of a curse placed upon Pelops, son of Tantalus, by Myrtilus, whom he had murdered. Thus misfortune hounded successive generations of the House of Atreus, until atoned by Orestes in a court of justice held jointly by humans and gods.
Trojan War
Sailing for Troy
thumb|The Sacrifice of Iphigenia by Charles de La Fosse
Agamemnon gathers the reluctant Greek forces to sail for Troy. In order to recruit Odysseus, who is feigning madness so as to not have to go to war, Agamemnon sends Palamedes, who threatens to kill Odysseus' infant son Telemachus. Odysseus is forced to stop acting mad in order to save his son and joined the assembled Greek forces. Preparing to depart from Aulis, a port in Boeotia, Agamemnon's army incurs the wrath of the goddess Artemis, although the myths give various reasons for this. In Aeschylus' play Agamemnon, Artemis is angry for she predicts that so many young men will die at Troy, whereas in Sophocles' Electra, Agamemnon has slain an animal sacred to Artemis, and subsequently boasts that he is her equal in hunting. Misfortunes, including a plague and a lack of wind, prevent the army from sailing. Finally, the prophet Calchas announces that the wrath of the goddess can only be propitiated by the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia.
Classical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter are to this fate; some include such trickery as claiming she was to be married to Achilles, but Agamemnon does eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeases Artemis and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources, such as Iphigenia at Aulis, say that Agamemnon is prepared to kill his daughter but that Artemis accepts a deer in her place and whisks her away to Tauris in the Crimean Peninsula. However, this version is widely considered to be the work of an interpolator, and not Euripides himself. Hesiod says she became the goddess Hecate.
During the war, but before the events of the Iliad, Odysseus contrives a plan to get revenge on Palamedes for threatening his son's life. By forging a letter from Priam, king of the Trojans, and caching some gold in Palamedes tent, Odysseus has Palamedes accused of treason and Agamemnon orders him to be stoned to death.
The Iliad
thumb|Achilles' surrender of Briseis to Agamemnon, from the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii, fresco, 1st century AD, now in the Naples National Archaeological Museum
The Iliad tells the story of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the final year of the war. In Book One, following one of the Achaean army's raids, Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, one of Apollo's priests, is taken as a war prize by Agamemnon. Chryses pleads with Agamemnon to free his daughter but meets with little success. Chryses then prays to Apollo for the safe return of his daughter. Apollo responds by unleashing a plague over the Achaean army. The prophet Calchas tells that the plague may be dispelled by returning Chryseis to her father. After bitterly berating Calchas for his painful prophecies, which first forced him to sacrifice his daughter and now to return his concubine, Agamemnon reluctantly agrees. However, Agamemnon demands a new prize from the army as compensation and seizes Achilles' prize, the beautiful captive Briseis. This creates deadly resentment between Achilles and Agamemnon, causing Achilles to withdraw from battle and refuse to fight.
Agamemnon is then visited in a dream by Zeus who tells him to rally his forces and attack the Trojans (in Book Two). After several days of fighting, including duels between Menelaus and Paris, and between Ajax and Hector, the Achaeans are pushed back to the fortifications around their ships. In Book Nine, Agamemnon, having realized Achilles's importance in winning the war, sends ambassadors begging for Achilles to return, offering him riches and the hand of his daughter in marriage. Achilles refuses, only being spurred back into action when his companion Patroclus is killed in battle by Hector, eldest son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba. In Book Nineteen, Agamemnon, reconciled with Achilles, gives him the offered rewards for returning to the war. Achilles sets out to turn back the Trojans and to duel with Hector. After Hector's death, Agamemnon assists Achilles in performing Patroclus' funeral in Book Twenty-three. Agamemnon volunteers for the javelin throwing contest, one of the games being held in Patroclus' honor, but his skill with the javelin is so well known that Achilles awards him the prize without contest.
Although not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon was a representative of "kingly authority". As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. His chief fault was his overwhelming haughtiness; an over-exalted opinion of his position that led him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks.
Agamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the Trojan War. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed Antiphus and fifteen other Trojan soldiers, according to one source. In the Iliad itself, he is shown to slaughter hundreds more in Book Eleven during his aristeia, loosely translated to "day of glory", which is the most similar to Achilles' aristeia in Book Twenty-one. Even before his aristeia, Agamemnon is considered to be one of the three best warriors on the Greek side, as proven when Hector challenges any champion of the Greek side to fight him in Book Seven, and Agamemnon (along with Diomedes and Ajax the Greater) is one of the three Hector most wishes to fight out of the nine strongest Greek warriors who volunteer.
End of the war
thumb|The suicide of Ajax depicted on Greek pottery by Exekias, now on display at the Château-musée de Boulogne-sur-Mer
According to Sophocles's Ajax, after Achilles had fallen in battle, Agamemnon and Menelaus award Achilles' armor to Odysseus. This angers Ajax, who feels he is now the strongest among the Achaean warriors and so deserves the armor. Ajax considers killing them, but is driven to madness by Athena and instead slaughters the herdsmen and cattle that had not yet been divided as spoils of war. He then commits suicide in shame for his actions. As Ajax dies he curses the sons of Atreus (Agamemnon and Menelaus), along with the entire Achaean army. Agamemnon and Menelaus consider leaving Ajax's body to rot, denying him a proper burial, but are convinced otherwise by Odysseus and Ajax's half-brother Teucer. After the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the doomed prophetess and daughter of Priam, fell to Agamemnon's lot in the distribution of the prizes of war.
Return to Greece and death
thumb|The assassination of Agamemnon, an illustration from Stories from the Greek Tragedians by Alfred Church, 1897.
After a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra land in Argolis, or, in another version, are blown off course and land in Aegisthus's country. Clytemnestra, Agamemnon's wife, has taken Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, as a lover. When Agamemnon comes home he is slain by Aegisthus (in the oldest versions of the story) or by Clytemnestra. According to the accounts given by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon is slain in a bath by his wife alone, after being ensnared by a blanket or a net thrown over him to prevent resistance. This is the case in Aeschylus's Oresteia.
thumb|Orestes slaying Clytemnestra
In Homer's version of the story in the Odyssey, Aegisthus ambushes and kills Agamemnon in a feasting hall under the pretense of holding a feast in honor of Agamemnon's return home from Troy. Clytemnestra also kills Cassandra. Her motivations are her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia (as in the Oresteia and Iphigenia at Aulis) and her jealousy of Cassandra and other war prizes taken by Agamemnon (as in the Odyssey and works by Ovid).
Aegisthus and Clytemnestra then rule Agamemnon's kingdom for a time, Aegisthus claiming his right of revenge for Atreus's crimes against Thyestes (Thyestes then crying out "thus perish all the race of Pleisthenes!", thus explaining Aegisthus' action as justified by his father's curse). Agamemnon's son Orestes later avenges his father's murder, with the help or encouragement of his sister Electra, by murdering Aegisthus and Clytemnestra (his own mother), thereby inciting the wrath of the Erinyes (English: the Furies), winged goddesses who track down wrongdoers with their hounds' noses and drive them to insanity.
The Curse of the House of Atreus
Agamemnon's family history is rife with misfortune, born from several curses contributing to the miasma around the family. The curse begins with Agamemnon's great-grandfather Tantalus, who is in Zeus's favor until he tries to feed his son Pelops to the gods in order to test their omniscience, as well as stealing some ambrosia and nectar. Tantalus is then banished to the underworld, where he stands in a pool of water that evaporates every time he reaches down to drink, and above him is a fruit tree whose branches are blown just out of reach by the wind whenever he reaches for the fruit. This begins the cursed house of Atreus, and his descendants would face similar or worse fates.
thumb|Family Tree of the House of Atreus
Later, using his relationship with Poseidon, Pelops convinces the god to grant him a chariot so he may beat Oenomaus, king of Pisa, in a race, and win the hand of his daughter Hippodamia. Myrtilus, who in some accounts helps Pelops win his chariot race, attempts to lie with Pelops's new bride Hippodamia. In anger, Pelops throws Myrtilus off a cliff, but not before Myrtilus curses Pelops and his entire line.
Atreus and Aerope have three children, Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Anaxibia. The continued miasma surrounding the house of Atreus expresses itself in several events throughout their lives. Agamemnon is forced to sacrifice his own daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the gods and allow the Greek forces to sail for Troy. When Agamemnon refuses to return Chryseis to her father Chryses, he brings plague upon the Greek camp. He is also later killed by his wife, Clytemnestra, who conspires with her new lover Aegisthus in revenge for the death of Iphigenia. Menelaus's wife, Helen of Troy, runs away with Paris, ultimately leading to the Trojan War. According to book 4 of the Odyssey, after the war his fleet is scattered by the gods to Egypt and Crete. When Menelaus finally returns home, his marriage with Helen is now strained and they produce no sons. He buries him, honored with a tomb and a shrine to Aphrodite Argynnis. This episode is also found in Clement of Alexandria, in Stephen of Byzantium (Kopai and Argunnos), and in Propertius, III with minor variations.
The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of the Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae.
In works of art, there is considerable resemblance between the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally depicted with a sceptre and diadem, conventional attributes of kings.
Agamemnon's mare is named Aetha. She is also one of two horses driven by Menelaus at the funeral games of Patroclus.
In Homer's Odyssey Agamemnon makes an appearance in the kingdom of Hades after his death. There, the former king meets Odysseus and explains just how he was murdered before he offers Odysseus a warning about the dangers of trusting a woman.
Agamemnon is a character in William Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida, set during the Trojan War.
In Frank Herbert's Dune, the House of Atreides trace themselves back to the House of Atreus. At a key point in Children of Dune, Alia Atreides, in a struggle with her ancestral memories, hears Agamemnon shouting "I, your ancestor Agamemnon, demand audience!"
In media and art
Visual arts
General works
thumb|Clytemnestra and Agamemnon by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin
The Mask of Agamemnon, discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876, on display at National Archeological Museum of Athens, Athens
The Tomb of Agamemnon, by Louis Desprez, 1787, on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin, 1817, on display at the Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans, Orléans
Electra at the Tomb of Agamemnon, by Frederic Leighton, 1868, on display at Ferens Art Gallery, Kingston upon Hull
Agamemnon Killing Odios, anonymous, 1545, on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
With Iphigenia
thumb|The Sacrifice of Iphigenia by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo
Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Arnold Houbraken, 1690–1700, on display at the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Charles de la Fosse, 1680, on display at the Palace of Versailles, Versailles
The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Gaetano Gandolfi, 1789, on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Sacrificio di Ifigenia, by Pietro Testa, 1640
The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, 1757, on display at the Villa Varmarana, Vicenza
Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Jan Steen, 1671, on display at the Leiden Collection, New York
The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, by Sebastian Bourdon, 1653, on display at the Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans, Orléans
With Achilles
thumb|The Anger of Achilles by Jacques-Louis David
The Quarrel Between Agamemnon and Achilles, by Giovanni Battista Gaulli, 1695, on display at the Museé de l’Oise, Beauvais
The Anger of Achilles, by Jacques-Louis David, 1819, on display at Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth
The Wrath of Achilles, by Michel-Martin Drolling, 1810, on display at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris
Quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon, by William Page, on display at the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington DC
See also
HMS Agamemnon
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Citations
General references
Secondary sources
Aeschylus, Agamemnon in Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes, Vol 2, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1926, Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Athenaeus, The Learned Banqueters, Volume VI: Books 12-13.594b, edited and translated by S. Douglas Olson, Loeb Classical Library No. 345, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2011. . Online version at Harvard University Press.
Collard, Christopher and Martin Cropp (2008a), Euripides Fragments: Aegeus–Meleanger, Loeb Classical Library No. 504, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2008. . Online version at Harvard University Press.
Collard, Christopher and Martin Cropp (2008b), Euripides Fragments: Oedipus-Chrysippus: Other Fragments, Loeb Classical Library No. 506, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2008. . Online version at Harvard University Press.
Dictys Cretensis, The Trojan War. The Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian, translated by R. M. Frazer (Jr.). Indiana University Press. 1966.
Euripides, Helen, translated by E. P. Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill Jr. Volume 2. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, translated by Robert Potter in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill Jr. Volume 2. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Euripides, Orestes, translated by E. P. Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill Jr. Volume 1. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).
Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. .
Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText.
Most, G.W., Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue of Women, Other Fragments, Loeb Classical Library, No. 503, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007, 2018. . Online version at Harvard University Press.
Parada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. .
Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Sophocles, The Ajax of Sophocles. Edited with introduction and notes by Sir Richard Jebb, Sir Richard Jebb. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1893 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Primary sources
Homer, Iliad
Euripides, Electra
Sophocles, Electra
Seneca, Agamemnon
Aeschylus, The Libation Bearers
Homer, Odyssey I, 28–31; XI, 385–464
Aeschylus, Agamemnon
Apollodorus, Epitome, II, 15 – III, 22; VI, 23
External links
Agamemnon – World History Encyclopedia
Category:Achaean Leaders
Category:Deeds of Artemis
Category:Filicide in mythology
Category:Greek mythological heroes
Category:Kings of Mycenae
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Atreidai
Category:Characters in the Iliad
Category:Characters in the Odyssey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamemnon | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.817225 |
1545 | Aga Khan I | {{short description|Politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| honorific_prefix | name Prince Hasan Ali Shah Aga Khan I
| image = Aga Khan I.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Ismaili Imam Aga Khan I (1817-81)
| honorific_suxfix | native_name {{lang|ur|{{nq|آغا خان اوّل}}}}
| religion = Isma'ilism
| denomination = Isma'ilism
| school = Nizari
| title = Aga Khan I
| office1 = 46th hereditary Imam of the Nizari Isma'ilism Muslim
| term_start1 = 1817
| term_end1 = 12 April 1881
| predecessor1 = Shah Khalil Allah III
| successor1 = Aga Khan II
| lineage = Fatimid (direct descendant of Muhammad)
| birth_name = Prince Hasan Ali Shah
| birth_date = 1804
| birth_place = Kahak, Sublime State of Iran
| death_date = 12 April {{Death year and age|1881|1804}}
| death_place = Bombay, British India
| resting_place = Hasanabad, Bombay
| resting_place_coordinates <!-- {{coord|latitude|longitude|type:landmark|displayinline,title}} -->
| spouse = Sarv-i Jahan Khanum
| children = Aqa Ali Shah (successor)
| parents = {{Plainlist|
* Shah Khalil Allah (father)
* Bibi Sarkara (mother)
}}
| post | honorific prefix His Highness
}}
Prince Hasan Ali Shah ({{langx|fa|حسن علی شاه|translitḤasan ʿAlī Shāh}}; 1804 – 12 April 1881), known as Aga Khan I ({{langx|fa|آقا خان اوّل|translitĀqā Khān Awwal}}), was the 46th hereditary imam of the Nizari Isma'ilis. He served as the governor of Kerman and a prominent leader in Iran and later in the Indian subcontinent. He was the first Nizari imam to hold the title Aga Khan.
Early life and family
The Imam Hasan Ali Shah was born in 1804 in Kahak, Iran to Shah Khalil Allah III, the 45th Ismaili Imam, and Bibi Sarkara, the daughter of Muhammad Sadiq Mahallati (d. 1815), a poet and a Ni‘mat Allahi Sufi.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis">{{cite book | titleThe Ismā'īlīs: Their History and Doctrines| lastDaftary| firstFarhad| year1990| pages503–516| publisherCambridge University Press| locationCambridge |isbn0-521-42974-9}}</ref> Shah Khalil Allah moved to Yazd in 1815, probably out of concern for his Indian followers, who used to travel to Persia to see their Imam and for whom Yazd was a much closer and safer destination than Kahak. Meanwhile, his wife and children (Including Hasan Ali) continued to live in Kahak off the revenues obtained from the family holdings in the Mahallat ({{lang|fa-Latn|Maḥallāt}}) region. Two years later, in 1817, Shah Khalil Allah was killed in Yazd during a brawl between some of his followers and local shopkeepers. He was succeeded by his eldest son Hasan Ali Shah, also known as Muhammad Hasan, who became the 46th Imam.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/>
While Khalil Allah resided in Yazd, his land holdings in Kahak were being managed by his son-in-law, Imani Khan Farahani, husband of his daughter Shah Bibi. After Khalil Allah's death, a conflict ensued between Imani Khan Farahani and the local Nizaris (followers of Imam Khalil Allah), as a result of which Khalil Allah's widow and children found themselves left unprovided for.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idcSO9zh61AGEC&dqImani+Khan+Farahani%2C&pgPA464 The Ismailis & their history]</ref><ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/> The young Imam and his mother moved to Qumm, but their financial situation worsened. The dowager decided to go to the Qajar court in Tehran to obtain justice for her husband's death and was eventually successful. Those who had been involved in the Shah Khalil Allah's murder were punished. Not only that, but the Persian king Fath Ali Shah gave his own daughter, princess Sarv-i-Jahan Khanum, in marriage to the young Imam Hasan Ali Shah and provided a princely dowry in land holdings in the Mahallat region. King Fath Ali Shah also appointed Hasan Ali Shah as governor of Qumm and bestowed upon him the honorific of "Aga Khan". Thus did the title of "Aga Khan" enter the family. Hasan Ali Shah become known as Aga Khan Mahallati, and the title of Aga Khan was inherited by his successors. Aga Khan I's mother later moved to India where she died in 1851. Until Fath Ali Shah's death in 1834, the Imam Hasan Ali Shah enjoyed a quiet life and was held in high esteem at the Qajar court.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/>Governorship of Kerman{{Ismailism|collapsed1}}
Soon after the accession of Muhammad Shah Qajar to the throne of his grandfather, Fath Ali Shah, the Imam Hasan Ali Shah was appointed governor of Kerman in 1835.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/> At the time, Kerman was held by the rebellious sons of Shuja al-Saltana, a pretender to the Qajar throne. The area was also frequently raided by the Afghans. Hasan Ali Shah managed to restore order in Kerman, as well as in Bam and Narmashir, which were also held by rebellious groups. Hasan Ali Shah sent a report of his success to Tehran, but did not receive any material appreciation for his achievements. Despite the service he rendered to the Qajar government, Hasan Ali Shah was dismissed from the governorship of Kerman in 1837, less than two years after his arrival there, and was replaced by Firuz Mirza Nusrat al-Dawla, a younger brother of Muhammad Shah Qajar.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/> Refusing to accept his dismissal, Hasan Ali Shah withdrew with his forces to the citadel at Bam. Along with his two brothers, he made preparations to resist the government forces that were sent against him. He was besieged at Bam for some fourteen months. When it was clear that continuing the resistance was of little use, Hasan Ali Shah sent one of his brothers to Shiraz in order to speak to the governor of Fars to intervene on his behalf and arrange for safe passage out of Kerman. With the governor having interceded, Hasan Ali Shah surrendered and emerged from the citadel of Bam only to be double-crossed. He was seized and his possessions were plundered by the government troops. Hasan Ali Shah and his dependents were sent to Kerman and remained as prisoners there for eight months. He was eventually allowed to go to Tehran near the end of 1838-39 where he was able to present his case before the Shah. The Shah pardoned him on the condition that he return peacefully to Mahallat. Hasan Ali Shah remained in Mahallat for about two years. He managed to gather an army in Mahallat which alarmed Muhammad Shah, who travelled to Delijan near Mahallat to determine the truth of the reports about Hasan Ali Shah. Hasan Ali Shah was on a hunting trip at the time, but he sent a messenger to request permission of the monarch to go to Mecca for the hajj pilgrimage. Permission was given, and Hasan Ali Shah's mother and a few relatives were sent to Najaf and other holy cities in Iraq in which the shrines of his ancestors, the Shiite Imams are found.<ref name="Daftary-Ismailis"/>
Prior to leaving Mahallat, Hasan Ali Shah equipped himself with letters appointing him to the governorship of Kerman. Accompanied by his brothers, nephews and other relatives, as well as many followers, he left for Yazd, where he intended to meet some of his local followers. Hasan Ali Shah sent the documents reinstating him to the position of governor of Kerman to Bahman Mirza Baha al-Dawla, the governor of Yazd. Bahman Mirza offered Hasan Ali Shah lodging in the city, but Hasan Ali Shah declined, indicating that he wished to visit his followers living around Yazd. Hajji Mirza Aqasi sent a messenger to Bahman Mirza to inform him of the spuriousness of Hasan Ali Shah's documents and a battle between Bahman Mīrzā and Hasan Ali Shah broke out in which Bahman Mirza was defeated. Other minor battles were won by Hasan Ali Shah before he arrived in Shahr-e Babak, which he intended to use as his base for capturing Kerman. At the time of his arrival in Shahr-e Babak, a formal local governor was engaged in a campaign to drive out the Afghans from the city's citadel, and Hasan Ali Shah joined him in forcing the Afghans to surrender.<ref name="Daftary-Ismailis"/>
Soon after March 1841, Hasan Ali Shah set out for Kerman. He managed to defeat a government force consisting of 4,000 men near Dashtab, and continued to win a number of victories before stopping at Bam for a time. Soon, a government force of 24,000 men forced Hasan Ali Shah to flee from Bam to Rigan on the border of Baluchistan, where he suffered a decisive defeat. Hasan Ali Shah decided to escape to Afghanistan, accompanied by his brothers and many soldiers and servants.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/>AfghanistanFleeing Iran, Hasan Ali Shah arrived in Kandahar, Afghanistan in 1841 – a town that had been occupied by an Anglo-Indian army in 1839 in the First Anglo-Afghan War. A close relationship developed between Hasan Ali Shah and the British, which coincided with the final years of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–1842). After his arrival, Hasan Ali Shah wrote to Sir William Macnaghten, discussing his plans to seize and govern Herat on behalf of the British. Although the proposal seemed to have been approved, the plans of the British were thwarted by the uprising of Dost Muhammad's son Muhammad Akbar Khan, who defeated and annihilated the British-Indian garrison at Gandamak on its retreat from Kabul in January 1842.SindhHasan Ali Shah soon proceeded to Sindh, where he rendered further services to the British. The British were able to annex Sindh and for his services, Hasan Ali Shah received an annual pension of £2,000 from General Charles James Napier, the British conqueror of Sindh with whom he had a good relationship.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/>
Bombay
In October 1844, Hasan Ali Shah left Sindh for the city of Bombay in the Bombay Presidency, British India passing through Cutch and Kathiawar where he spent some time visiting the communities of his followers in the area. After arriving in Bombay in February 1846, the Persian government demanded his extradition from India. The British refused and only agreed to transfer Hasan Ali Shah's residence to Calcutta, where it would be harder for him to launch new attacks against the Persian government. The British also negotiated the safe return of Hasan Ali Shah to Persia, which was in accordance with his own wish. The government agreed to Hasan Ali Shah's return provided that he would avoid passing through Baluchistan and Kirman and that he was to settle peacefully in Mahallat. Hasan Ali Shah was eventually forced to leave for Calcutta in April 1847, where he remained until he received news of the death of Muhammad Shah Qajar. Hasan Ali Shah left for Bombay and the British attempted to obtain permission for his return to Persia. Although some of his lands were restored to the control of his relatives, his safe return could not be arranged, and Hasan Ali Shah was forced to remain a permanent resident of India. While in India, Hasan Ali Shah continued his close relationship with the British, and was even visited by the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) when he was on a state visit to India. The British came to address Hasan Ali Shah as His Highness. Hasan Ali Shah received protection from the British government in British India as the spiritual head of an important Muslim community.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/>Khoja reassumption and dispute
{{main|Aga Khan Case}}
The vast majority of his Khoja Ismaili followers in India welcomed him warmly, but some dissident members, sensing their loss of prestige with the arrival of the Imam, wished to maintain control over communal properties. Because of this, Hasan Ali Shah decided to secure a pledge of loyalty from the members of the community to himself and to the Ismaili form of Islam. Although most of the members of the community signed a document issued by Hasan Ali Shah summarizing the practices of the Ismailis, a group of dissenting Khojas surprisingly asserted that the community had always been Sunni. This group was outcast by the unanimous vote of all the Khojas assembled in Bombay. In 1866, these dissenters filed a suit in the Bombay High Court against Hasan Ali Shah, claiming that the Khojas had been Sunni Muslims from the very beginning. The case, commonly referred to as the Aga Khan Case, was heard by Sir Joseph Arnould. The hearing lasted several weeks, and included testimony from Hasan Ali Shah himself. After reviewing the history of the community, Justice Arnould gave a definitive and detailed judgement against the plaintiffs and in favour of Hasan Ali Shah and other defendants. The judgement was significant in that it legally established the status of the Khojas as a community referred to as Shia Nizari Ismailis, and of Hasan Ali Shah as the spiritual head of that community. Hasan Ali Shah's authority thereafter was not seriously challenged again.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis"/>Final years
{{See also|Aga Khan's Maqbara}}
Hasan Ali Shah spent his final years in Bombay with occasional visits to Pune. Maintaining the traditions of the Iranian nobility to which he belonged, he kept excellent stables and became a well-known figure at the Bombay racecourse. Hasan Ali Shah died after an imamate of sixty-four years in April 1881. He was buried in a specially built shrine at Hasanabad in the Mazagaon area of Bombay. He was survived by three sons and five daughters. Hasan Ali Shah was succeeded as Imam by his eldest son Aqa Ali Shah, who became Aga Khan II.<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis" /> Titles and honours The titles Prince and Princess are used by the Aga Khans and their children by virtue of their descent from Shah Fath Ali Shah of the Persian Qajar dynasty. The title was officially recognised by the British government in 1938.<ref name"throne">Edwards, Anne (1996). Throne of Gold: The Lives of the Aga Khans, New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|0-00-215196-0}}</ref>
The title of 'His Highness' was initially granted by the British Monarch to the Ismaili Imams dating back in mid 1800s, to the first Aga Khan, in recognition as a religious leader of global importance and his role as spiritual head of the Ismaili community resides in Commonwealth countries.<ref name":02">{{Cite web |date10 February 2025 |titleThe King is pleased to grant the new Aga Khan the title “His Highness” |urlhttps://www.royal.uk/news-and-activity/2025-02-10/the-king-is-pleased-to-grant-the-new-aga-khan-the-title-his-highness#:~:textThe%20title%20'His%20Highness'%20has,being%20reconfirmed%20after%20each%20succession. |access-date10 February 2025 |websiteRoyal.UK |languageen}}</ref>
Notes
{{reflist}}
Further reading
*{{Cite EB1911 |firstMancherjee Merwanjee |lastBhownagree|authorlinkMancherjee Bhownagree|wstitleAga Khan I.|volume1 |pages362–363}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|branchClan|nameAga Khan I<br>of the Ahl al-Bayt|Banu Hashim|1804|C.E|1881|C.E.|Banu Quraish}}
{{s-rel|sh}}
{{s-bef|before = Shah Khalil Allah}}
{{s-ttl|title 46th Imam of Nizari Ismailism|years 1817–1881}}
{{s-aft|after = Aqa Ali Shah}}
{{s-end}}
{{Nizārī}}
{{Aga Khans}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aga Khan 01}}
Category:People of Qajar Iran
Category:1804 births
Category:1881 deaths
Category:Aga Khans
Category:Iranian Ismailis
Category:Indian Ismailis
Category:Indian imams
Category:People from Qom province
Category:Iranian emigrants to India
Category:19th-century Iranian people
Category:19th-century Ismailis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aga_Khan_I | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.823411 |
1546 | Aga Khan III | {{short description|48th imam of the Nizari Isma'ili community}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| honorific prefix = His Highness
| name = Aga Khan III
| honorific suffix {{postnominals|countryGBR|GCSI|GCMG|GCIE|GCVO|GCMG|GCIH|PC}}
| native_name_lang | image HH the AGA KHAN 1936.jpg
| caption = Aga Khan III in 1936
| office1 = 48th Imam of the Nizari Isma'ilism Muslim
| term_start1 = 17 August 1885
| term_end1 = 11 July 1957
| predecessor1 = Aga Khan II
| successor1 = Aga Khan IV
| office3 = Member of the Assembly of The League of Nations
| term_start3 = 1934
| term_end3 = 1937
| office2 = Permanent President of the All-India Muslim League
| term_start2 = 1906
| term_end2 = 1957
| office4 = President of the Assembly of The League of Nations
| term_start4 = 1937
| term_end4 = 1938
| predecessor4 = Tevfik Rüştü Aras
| successor4 = Éamon de Valera
| religion = Shia Islam
| denomination = Isma'ilism
| school = Nizari Ismaili
| lineage = Fatimid
| other_name = Sultan Mohammad Shah
| dharma_names = <!-- or:
| dharma_name = -->
| monastic_name | pen_name
| posthumous_name | nationality
| home_town | birth_name
| birth_date {{birth date|1877|11|02|dfy}}<ref name=Britannica>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aga-Khan-III, Biography of Aga Khan III on Encyclopedia Britannica, Updated 18 September 2003, Retrieved 31 March 2017</ref>
| birth_place = Karachi, Bombay Presidency, British India
| death_date {{death date and age|1957|07|11| 1877|11|02|dfy}}<ref name=Britannica />
| death_place = Versoix, near Geneva, Switzerland
| resting_place = Mausoleum of Aga Khan, Aswan, Egypt
| resting_place_coordinates <!-- {{coord|latitude|longitude|type:landmark|displayinline,title}} -->
| alma_mater | spouse {{Plainlist|
* Shahzadi Begum
* Cleope Teresa Magliano
* Andrée Joséphine Carron
* Begum Om Habibeh Aga Khan (birth name: Yvonne Blanche Labrousse)
}}
| children = {{Plainlist|
* Giuseppe Mahdi Khan
* Aly Salman Aga Khan
* Sadruddin Aga Khan
}}
| parents = {{Plainlist|
* Aqa Ali Shah (father)
* Nawab A'lia Shams al-Muluk (mother)
}}
| profession | initiation
| post =
}}
Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah{{efn|({{Langx|ar|سلطان محمد شاه|translitSulṭān Muḥammad Shāh}}}} (2 November 1877{{snd}}11 July 1957), known as Aga Khan III,{{efn|({{Langx|fa|آقا خان سوم|translitĀqā Khān Suwwūm}})}} was the 48th imam of the Nizari Ism'aili branch of Shia Islam. He was one of the founders and the first permanent president of the All-India Muslim League (AIML).
His goal was the advancement of Muslim agendas and the protection of Muslim rights in British India. The League, until the late 1930s, was not a large organisation but represented landed and commercial Muslim interests as well as advocating for British education during the British Raj.<ref>{{cite book |authorJohn Keay |titleIndia: A History |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3aeQqmcXBhoC&pgPA468 |year2001 |publisherGrove Press |page468 |isbn978-0-8021-3797-5}}</ref> Aga Khan called on the British Raj to consider Muslims to be a separate nation within India, the famous 'Two Nation Theory'. Even after he resigned as president of the AIML in 1912, he still exerted a major influence on its policies and agendas. He was nominated to represent India at the League of Nations in 1932 and served as President of the 18th Assembly of The League of Nations (1937–1938).<ref>{{Cite web |languageen |urlhttps://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/groups/conferencing-the-international/delegates/people.aspx?id0631f215-31b5-48fb-a4be-31c9df759400 |titleConferencing the International.}}</ref> Early life He was born in Karachi, Sindh (now in Pakistan), in 1877 under the British Raj, to Aga Khan II (who had emigrated from Persia) and his third wife,<ref name"Daftary-Ismailis">{{cite book |titleThe Ismā'īlīs: Their History and Doctrines |lastDaftary |firstFarhad |year1990 |page518 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge |isbn0-521-42974-9}}</ref> Nawab A'lia Shamsul-Muluk, a granddaughter of Fath Ali Shah of Persia. After attending Eton College, he studied at the University of Cambridge.<ref>"Aga Khan, Fashionable Londoner, Holds Enormous Power in Islam", The New York Times,8 July 1923, p. XX5.</ref>
Career
In 1885, at the age of seven, he succeeded his father as Imam of the Shi'a Isma'ili Muslims.<ref nameBritannica /><ref namefindpk />
The Aga Khan travelled to distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, with the objective either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare through financial help and personal advice and guidance. The distinction of Knight Commander of the Indian Empire (KCIE) was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he was promoted to Knight Grand Commander (GCIE) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |titleThe Coronation Honours |date26 June 1902 |page5 |issue36804}}</ref><ref name"LG27448" /> and invested as such by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on October 24, 1902.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |titleCourt Circular |date25 October 1902 |page8 |issue=36908}}</ref> He was made a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) by George V (1912) and appointed a GCMG in 1923. He received recognition for his public services from the German Emperor, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Persia, and other potentates.{{sfn|Bhownagree|1911}}
In 1906, Aga Khan was a founding member and first president of the All India Muslim League, a political party that pushed for the creation of an independent Muslim nation in the north-west regions of India, then under British colonial rule, and later established the country of Pakistan in 1947.
During the three Round Table Conferences (India) in London from 1930 to 1932, he played an important role in bringing about Indian constitutional reforms.<ref name=Britannica /> In 1934, he was made a member of the Privy Council.
There were similarities in Aga Khan's views on education with those of other Muslim social reformers, but the scholar Shenila Khoja-Moolji argues that he also expressed a distinct interest in advancing women's education for women themselves.
Imamat
Under the leadership of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, the first half of the 20th century was a period of significant development for the Ismā'īlī community. Numerous institutions for social and economic development were established in the Indian Subcontinent and in East Africa.<ref name"DaftaryShort1998p199">{{cite book |lastDaftary |firstFarhad |titleA Short History of the Ismailis |year1998 |publisherEdinburgh University Press |locationEdinburgh, UK |isbn0-7486-0687-4 |pages199–206}}</ref> Ismailis have marked the jubilees of their Imāms with public celebrations, which are symbolic affirmations of the ties that link the Ismāʿīlī Imām and its followers. Although the Jubilees have no religious significance, they serve to reaffirm the Imamat's worldwide commitment to the improvement of the quality of human life, especially in developing countries.<ref name"DaftaryShort1998p199" />
The Jubilees of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah, Aga Khan III, are well remembered. During his 72 years of Imamat (1885–1957), the community celebrated his Golden (1937), Diamond (1946), and Platinum (1954) Jubilees. To show their appreciation and affection, the Ismā'īliyya weighed their Imam in gold, diamonds, and, symbolically, platinum, respectively, the proceeds of which were used to further develop major social welfare and development institutions in Asia and Africa.
In India and later in Pakistan, social development institutions were established, in the words of Aga Khan III, "for the relief of humanity". They included institutions such as the Diamond Jubilee Trust and Platinum Jubilee Investments Limited, which in turn assisted the growth of various types of cooperative societies. Diamond Jubilee High School for Girls was established throughout the remote northern areas of what is now Pakistan. In addition, scholarship programmes, established at the time of the Golden Jubilee to give assistance to needy students, were progressively expanded. In East Africa, major social welfare and economic development institutions were established. Those involved in social welfare included the accelerated development of schools and community centres and a modern, fully equipped hospital in Nairobi. Among the economic development institutions established in East Africa were companies such as the Diamond Jubilee Investment Trust (now Diamond Trust of Kenya) and the Jubilee Insurance Company, which are quoted on the Nairobi Stock Exchange and have become major players in national development.
Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah also introduced organisational reforms that gave Ismāʿīlī communities the means to structure and regulate their own affairs.<ref name"DaftaryShort1998p199" /> These were built on the Muslim tradition of a communitarian ethic on the one hand and a responsible individual conscience with the freedom to negotiate one's own moral commitment and destiny on the other. In 1905, he ordained the first Ismā'īlī Constitution for the social governance of the community in East Africa. The new administration for the community's affairs was organised into a hierarchy of councils at the local, national, and regional levels. The constitution also set out rules in such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance, guidelines for mutual cooperation and support among Ismā'īlīs, and their interface with other communities. Similar constitutions were promulgated in India, and all were periodically revised to address emerging needs and circumstances in diverse settings.<ref name"DaftaryShort1998p199" />
In 1905, the Aga Khan was involved in the Haji Bibi case, where he was questioned about the origin of his followers. In his response, in addition to enumerating his followers in Iran, Russia, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Syria and other places, he also noted that “In Hindustan and Africa there are many Guptis who believe in me… I consider them Shi’i Imami Ismailis; by caste they are Hindus”.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastVirani |firstShafique N. |dateFebruary 2011 |titleTaqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/36996009 |journalThe Journal of Asian Studies |languageen |volume70 |issue1 |pages99–139 |doi10.1017/S0021911810002974 |s2cid143431047 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>
Following the Second World War, far-reaching social, economic and political changes profoundly affected a number of areas where Ismāʿīlīs resided. In 1947, British rule in the Indian Subcontinent was replaced by the sovereign, independent nations of India, Pakistan and later Bangladesh, resulting in the migration of millions people and significant loss of life and property. In the Middle East, the Suez crisis of 1956 as well as the preceding crisis in Iran, demonstrated the sharp upsurge of nationalism, which was as indicative of the region's social and economic aspirations as of its political independence. Africa was also set on its course to decolonisation, swept by what Harold Macmillan, the then British prime minister, termed the "wind of change". By the early 1960s, most of East and Central Africa, where the majority of the Ismāʿīlī population on the continent resided, including Tanganyika, Kenya, Uganda, Madagascar, Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire, had attained their political independence.
Religious and social views
{{Aligarh Movement}}
The Aga Khan was deeply influenced by the views of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan.<ref>{{Cite book |titleThe Aga Khan Case: Religion and Identity in Colonial India |lastPurohit |firstTeena |publisherHarvard University Press |year2012 |isbn978-0-674-06639-7 |locationCambridge, MA |pages111}}</ref> Along with Sir Sayyid, the Aga Khan was one of the backers and founders of the Aligarh University, for which he tirelessly raised funds and to which he donated large sums of his own money.<ref>{{Cite book |titleIsmailism and Islam in Modern South Asia: Community and Identity in the Age of Religious Internationals |lastMukherjee |firstSoumen |publisherCambridge University Press |year2017 |isbn978-1-107-15408-7 |locationCambridge, UK |pages131}}</ref> The Aga Khan himself can be considered an Islamic modernist and an intellectual of the Aligarh movement.<ref name":2">{{Cite book |titleThe Shi'a in modern South Asia : religion, history and politics |othersJones, Justin, 1980-, Qasmi, Ali Usman |date5 May 2015 |isbn978-1-316-25879-8 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationDelhi, India |pages53 |oclc=927147288}}</ref>
From a religious standpoint, the Aga Khan followed a modernist approach to Islam.<ref name":2" /> He believed there to be no contradiction between religion and modernity, and urged Muslims to embrace modernity.<ref>{{Cite book |titleShi'i Islam : an introduction |lastHaider |firstNajam Iftikhar |isbn978-1-107-03143-2 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationNew York, NY |pages193 |oclc874557726 |date11 August 2014}}</ref> Although he opposed a wholesale replication of Western society by Muslims, the Aga Khan did believe increased contact with the West would be overall beneficial to Muslim society.<ref name":3" /> He was intellectually open to Western philosophy and ideas, and believed engagement with them could lead to a revival and renaissance within Islamic thought.<ref name":3">{{Cite book |titleAga Khan III : selected speeches and writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah |author((Aga Khan III)) |date1998 |publisherKegan Paul International |othersAziz, Khursheed Kamal. |isbn0-7103-0427-7 |locationLondon |pages1067 |oclc=39678354}}</ref>
Like many other Islamic modernists, the Aga Khan held a low opinion of the traditional religious establishment (the ʿUlamāʾ) as well as what he saw as their rigid formalism, legalism, and literalism.<ref>{{Cite thesis |lastRattansi |firstDiamond |dateAugust 1981 |titleThe Nizari Isma'ilis of Pakistan: Isma'ilism, Islam and Westernism Viewed Through the Firmans: 1936–1980 |urlhttp://ismaili.net/heritage/node/29247 |journalMcGill University |pages65}}</ref> Instead, he advocated for renewed ijtihād (independent reasoning) and ijmāʿ (consensus), the latter of which he understood in a modernist way to mean consensus-building.<ref name":4" /> According to him, Muslims should go back to the original sources, especially the Qurʾān, in order to discover the true essence and spirit of Islam.<ref name=":4">Aga Khan III 1998, p. 1183</ref> Once the principles of the faith were discovered, they would be seen to be universal and modern.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, pp. 1345–1346</ref> Islam, in his view, had an underlying liberal and democratic spirit.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 211</ref> He also called for full civil and religious liberties,<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 876</ref> peace and disarmament, and an end to all wars.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 1415</ref>
The Aga Khan opposed sectarianism, which he believed to sap the strength and unity of the Muslim community.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, pp. 210, 803</ref> In specific, he called for a rapprochement between Sunnism and Shīʿism.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 1184</ref> This did not mean that he thought religious differences would go away, and he himself instructed his Ismāʿīlī followers to be dedicated to their own teachings.<ref name":5">Aga Khan III 1998, p. 1407</ref> However, he believed in unity through accepting diversity, and by respecting differences of opinion.<ref name":5" /><ref>Aga Khan III 1998, pp. 842 & 1063</ref> On his view, there was strength to be found in the diversity of Muslim traditions.<ref>Rattansi 1981, p. 207</ref>
The Aga Khan called for social reform in Muslim society, and he was able to implement them within his own Ismāʿīlī community.<ref>{{Cite book |titleVoices of Islam |date2007 |publisherPraeger Publishers |othersCornell, Vincent J. |isbn978-0-313-05116-6 |locationWestport, Conn. |pages235 |oclc230345942}}</ref> As he believed Islam to essentially be a humanitarian religion, the Aga Khan called for the reduction and eradication of poverty.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 216</ref> Like Sir Sayyid, the Aga Khan was concerned that Muslims had fallen behind the Hindu community in terms of education.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 235</ref> According to him, education was the path to progress.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 208</ref> He was a tireless advocate for compulsory and universal primary education,<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 217</ref> and also for the creation of higher institutions of learning.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, pp. 212-213</ref>
In terms of women's rights, the Aga Khan was more progressive in his views than Sir Sayyid and many other Islamic modernists of his time.<ref>{{Cite book |titleForging the ideal educated girl : the production of desirable subjects in Muslim South Asia |lastKhoja-Moolji, Shenila, 1982- |isbn978-0-520-97053-3 |locationOakland, California |pages27 |oclc1022084628 |dateJune 2018}}</ref> The Aga Khan framed his pursuit of women's rights not simply in the context of women being better mothers or wives, but rather, for women's own benefit.<ref>Khoja-Moolji 2018, p. 31</ref> He endorsed the spiritual equality of men and women in Islam, and he also called for full political equality.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |titleCulture, transnationalism, and civil society : Aga Khan social service initiatives in Tanzania |lastKaiser, Paul J. |date1996 |publisherPraeger |isbn0-275-95528-1 |locationWestport, Conn. |pages51 |oclc34545670}}</ref> This included the right to vote<ref name":0" /><ref>Aga Khan III 1998, pp. 593 & 645</ref> and the right to an education.<ref name"Aga Khan III 1998, p. 586">Aga Khan III 1998, p. 586</ref> In regards to the latter issue, he endorsed compulsory primary education for girls.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 1117</ref> He also encouraged women to pursue higher university-level education,<ref name="Aga Khan III 1998, p. 586" /> and saw nothing wrong with co-educational institutions.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 587</ref> Whereas Sir Sayyid prioritized the education of boys over girls, the Aga Khan instructed his followers that if they had a son and daughter, and if they could only afford to send one of them to school, they should send the daughter over the boy.<ref>Aga Khan III 1998, p. 1211–1212</ref>
The Aga Khan campaigned against the institution of purda and zenāna, which he felt were oppressive and un-Islamic institutions.<ref name":1" /> He completely banned the purda and the face veil for his Ismāʿīlī followers.<ref>Khoja-Moolji 2018, p. 32</ref> The Aga Khan also restricted polygamy, encouraged marriage to widows, and banned child marriage.<ref name":1">{{Cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/muslimsinuniteds0000leon/page/68 |titleMuslims in the United States : the state of research |lastLeonard, Karen Isaksen, 1939- |date2003 |publisherRussell Sage Foundation |isbn978-1-61044-348-7 |locationNew York |pages[https://archive.org/details/muslimsinuniteds0000leon/page/68 68] |oclc794701243 |url-accessregistration}}</ref> He also made marriage and divorce laws more equitable to women.<ref name":1" /> Overall, he encouraged women to take part in all national activities and to agitate for their full religious, social, and political rights.<ref name":0" />
Today, in large part due to the Aga Khan's reforms, the Ismāʿīlī community is one of the most progressive, peaceful, and prosperous branches of Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastTwaddle |firstMichael |dateJuly 1995 |titleAsians in East Africa Quest for Equality: Asian Politics in East Africa, 1900–1967. By Robert G. Gregory. Hyderabad and London: Orient Longman and Sangam Books (57 London Fruit Exchange, London E1 6EP, UK), 1993. Pp. xvi + 231. £14.95 (ISBN 0-86311-208-0). |journalThe Journal of African History |volume36 |issue2 |pages335–336 |doi10.1017/s0021853700034289 |s2cid142953052 |issn0021-8537}}</ref> Racehorse ownership and equestrianism
He was an owner of Thoroughbred racing horses, including a record equaling five winners of The Derby (Blenheim, Bahram, Mahmoud, My Love, Tulyar) and a total of sixteen winners of British Classic Races. He was a British flat racing Champion Owner thirteen times. According to Ben Pimlott, biographer of Queen Elizabeth II, the Aga Khan presented Her Majesty with a filly called Astrakhan, who won at Hurst Park Racecourse in 1950.
In 1926, the Aga Khan gave a cup (the Aga Khan Trophy) to be awarded to the winners of an international team show jumping competition held at the annual horse show of the Royal Dublin Society in Dublin, Ireland, every first week in August.<ref>[http://www.dublinhorseshow.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id22&Itemid34 The Aga Khan Trophy], Dublin Horse Show, accessed 9 July 2007</ref> It attracts competitors from all of the main show jumping nations and is carried live on Irish national television.
Marriages and children
* He married, on November 2, 1896, in Pune, India, Shahzadi Begum, his first cousin and a granddaughter of Aga Khan I.
* He married in 1908,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ismaili.net/histoire/history08/history833.html |titleMarriages of the Aga Khan III |publisherIsmaili.net |access-date26 August 2014}}</ref> Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888–1926). They had two sons: Prince Giuseppe Mahdi Khan (d. February 1911) and Prince Aly Khan (1911–1960). She died in 1926, following an operation on December 1, 1926.<ref>"Aga Khan's Wife Dies As He Buys Big Gem", The New York Times, 2 December 1926, p.&nbsp;2</ref>
* He married, on 7 December 1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and 13 December 1929 (religious), in Bombay, India, Andrée Joséphine Carron (1898–1976). A co-owner of a dressmaking shop in Paris, she became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan (1933–2003).<ref>"Aga Khan Again a Father", The New York Times, 18 January 1933, p. 9.</ref> The couple was divorced in 1943.<ref>"Princess Andrée", The New York Times, 30 December 1976, p. 19.</ref>
* He married, on October 9, 1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, Begum Om Habibeh Aga Khan (Yvonne Blanche Labrousse) (15 February 1906{{snd}}1 July 2000). According to an interview she gave to an Egyptian journalist, her first name was Yvonne, though she is referred to as Yvette in most published references. The daughter of a tram conductor and a dressmaker, she was working as Aga Khan's social secretary at the time of their marriage. She converted to Islam and became known as Om Habibeh (Little Mother of the Beloved). In 1954, her husband bestowed upon her the title "Mata Salamat".<ref>"The Begum Aga Khan III", The Daily Telegraph, Issue 45115, 3 July 2000.</ref>
Publications
He wrote a number of books and papers two of which are of immense importance, namely (1) India in Transition, about the prepartition politics of India and (2) The Memoirs of Aga Khan: World Enough and Time, his autobiography. The Aga Khan III proposed "the South Asiatic Federation<ref>The Aga Khan; India in Transition, Bombay,1918, pp.45-46.</ref>" in India in Transition that India might be re-organized into some states, and those states should have their own autonomies. He was the first person to design a detailed plan of such a federation of India.
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Death and succession
Aga Khan III was succeeded as Aga Khan by his grandson Karim Aga Khan, who succeeded him as Imam of the Ismaili Muslims. At the time of his death on 11 July 1957, he was surrounded by his family members in Versoix. His last words were repeating the verses of the Quran.<ref>https://www.ismaili.net/histoire/history08/history835.html</ref>
On July 12, a solicitor brought the will of the Aga Khan III from London to Geneva and read it before the family:
<blockquote>"Ever since the time of my ancestor Ali, the first Imam, that is to say over a period of thirteen hundred years, it has always been the tradition of our family that each Imam chooses his successor at his absolute and unfettered discretion from amongst any of his descendants, whether they be sons or remote male issue and in these circumstances and in view of the fundamentally altered conditions in the world in very recent years due to the great changes which have taken place including the discoveries of atomic science, I am convinced that it is in the best interest of the Shia Muslim Ismailia Community that I should be succeeded by a young man who has been brought up and developed during recent years and in the midst of the new age and who brings a new outlook on life to his office as Imam.<br>For these reasons, I appoint my grandson Karim, the son of my own son, Aly Salomone Khan to succeed to the title of Aga Khan and to the Imam and Pir of all Shia Ismailian followers.<br>I desire that my successor shall, during the first seven years of his Imamat, be guided on questions of general Imamat Policy, by my said wife, Yvette called Yve Blanche Labrousse Om Habibeh, the Begum Aga Khan, who has been familiar for many years with the problems facing my followers, and in whose wise judgment, I place the greatest confidence. I warn my successor to the Imamat, never to do anything during his Imamat that would reduce the responsibility of the Imam for the maintenance of the true Shia Imami Ismaili faith, as developed historically from the time of my ancestor Ali, the founder until my own."</blockquote>
He is buried in the Mausoleum of Aga Khan, on the Nile in Aswan, Egypt (at {{coord|24.088254|32.878722}}).
Legacy
Pakistan Post issued a special 'Birth Centenary of Agha Khan III' postage stamp in his honor in 1977.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://pakistanphilately.com/1977.htm |titlePakistan Philately |websitepakistanphilately.com |access-date19 September 2019}}</ref> Pakistan Post again issued a postage stamp in his honor in its 'Pioneers of Freedom' series in 1990.<ref name"findpk">{{Cite web |urlhttps://findpk.com/pof/agha_khan_iii.html |titleAgha Khan III |websitefindpk.com |access-date19 September 2019}}</ref> Honours * 21 May 1898 Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire, KCIE<ref>{{London Gazette |issue26969 |date21 May 1898 |page3230 }}</ref>
* 1901 First Class of the Royal Prussian Order of the Crown – in recognition of the valuable services rendered by His Highness to the Imperial German Government in the settlement of various matters with the Mohammedan population of German East Africa<ref>{{London Gazette |issue27291 |date5 March 1901 |page=1576 }}</ref>
* 26 June 1902 Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire, GCIE<ref nameLG27448>{{London Gazette |issue27448 |date26 June 1902 |page4197 }}</ref>
* 12 December 1911 Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India, GCSI<ref>{{London Gazette |issue28559 |date12 December 1911 |page=9357 }}</ref>
* 30 May 1923 Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, GCVO – ''on the occasion of the King's birthday''<ref>{{London Gazette |issue32830 |date2 June 1923 |page=3947 }}</ref>
* 1 January 1934 Appointed a member of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council by King George V<ref>{{London Gazette |issue34010 |date1 January 1934 |page=1 }}</ref>
* 1 January 1955 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George, GCMG –<ref>{{London Gazette |issue40366 |date1 January 1955 |page=4 }}</ref>
* 14 November 1960 Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry the Navigator, GCIH.<ref>{{Cite web |titleENTIDADES ESTRANGEIRAS AGRACIADAS COM ORDENS PORTUGUESAS - Página Oficial das Ordens Honoríficas Portuguesas |urlhttps://www.ordens.presidencia.pt/?idc154&list1 |access-date2025-02-13 |websitewww.ordens.presidencia.pt}}</ref>
Notes
{{reflist|grouplower-alpha}} References {{Reflist|33em}} Sources * {{EB1911 |lastBhownagree |firstMancherjee Merwanjee |author-linkMancherjee Bhownagree|wstitleAga Khan I. |displayAga Khan I. s.v. Aga Khan III.|volume1|page363}}
* {{cite EB1922|wstitleAga Khan III|lastBrown |first=Frank Herbert}}
* Daftary, F., "The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines", Cambridge University Press, 1990.
* Khoja-Moolji, Shenila. “Redefining Muslim women: Aga Khan III’s reforms for women’s education.” South Asia Graduate Research Journal 20, no. 1, 2011, 69-94.
* Khoja-Moolji, Shenila. Forging the Ideal Educated Girl. The Production of Desirable Subjects in Muslim South Asia. Oakland: University of California Press, 2018.
* Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan (1903).
* Aga Khan III, "The Memoirs of Aga Khan: World Enough and Time", London: Cassel & Company, 1954; published the same year in the United States by Simon & Schuster.
* Edwards, Anne (1996). "Throne of Gold: The Lives of the Aga Khans", New York: William Morrow, 1996
* Naoroji M. Dumasia, "The Aga Khan and his ancestors", New Delhi: Readworthy Publications (P) Ltd., 2008
* Valliani, Amin; "Aga Khan's Role in the Founding and Consolidation of the All India Muslim League", Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society (2007) 55# 1/2, pp 85–95.
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons and category|Aga Khan III}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071025075211/http://www.history.com/media.do?actionclip&idtdih_0712 Video Clip] from the History Channel website
* [http://www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID104628 Institute of Ismaili Studies: Selected speeches of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan III] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101007112917/http://iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID104628 |date7 October 2010 }}
* [http://www.theismaili.org] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170710093655/http://www.theismaili.org/ |date10 July 2017 }} The Official Ismaili Website
* [http://www.akdn.org] Official Website of Aga Khan Development Network
* [http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/search/aga%20khan Aga Khan materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/012379}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|branchClan|nameAga Khan III<br />of the Ahl al-Bayt | Banu Hashim | 1877|CE|1957|CE|Banu Quraish}}
{{s-rel|sh}}
{{s-bef|before = Aqa Ali Shah}}
{{s-ttl|title 48th Imam of Nizari Ismailism | years 1885–1957}}
{{s-aft|after = Karim al-Hussayni}}
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{{Pakistan Movement}}
{{LoNPresidents}}
{{Nizārī}}
{{Agha Khans}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aga Khan 03}}
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Category:20th-century Ismailis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aga_Khan_III | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.838173 |
1547 | Agasias | Agasias was the name of several people in classical history, including two Greek sculptors.
Agasias of Arcadia, a warrior mentioned by Xenophon
Agasias, son of Dositheus, Ephesian sculptor of the Borghese Gladiator
Agasias, son of Menophilus (), Ephesian sculptor
Category:Greek masculine given names
Category:Masculine given names | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agasias | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.839375 |
1548 | Alexander Agassiz | {{Short description|American scientist and engineer (1835–1910)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Alexander Agassiz
| image = Portrait of Alexander Emanuel Agassiz.jpg
| birth_name = Alexander Emmanuel Rodolphe Agassiz
| birth_date {{birth date|1835|12|17|mfyes}}
| birth_place = Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| death_date {{death date and age|1910|03|27|1835|12|17|mfyes}}
| death_place = North Atlantic Ocean (aboard the RMS Adriatic)
| nationality = Swiss, American
| alma_mater = Harvard University (AB, BS)
| known_for | awards American Philosophical Society (1862)<br />Pour le Mérite (German order)
| father = Louis Agassiz
| children = 3, including Rodolphe Louis Agassiz
| signature = Appletons' Agassiz Alexander signature.jpg
| author_abbrev_zoo = A. Agassiz, A. Ag.
}}
Alexander Emmanuel Rodolphe Agassiz (December 17, 1835{{snd}}March 27, 1910), son of Louis Agassiz and stepson of Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, was an American scientist and engineer.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Guide to Nature |year1910 |quoteAlexander Emmanuel Rudolph Agassiz, better known to the world as Alexander Agassiz, simply, was for nearly half a century, in portions of the 19th and 20th, one of the most remarkable scientists of his time, but, unlike nearly all others who have devoted their lives to original research, he was a man of wealth which counted among the millions. | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7c4eAQAAIAAJ&q%22Rudolph+Agassiz%22+polo&pgPA35 }}</ref>BiographyAgassiz was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and immigrated to the United States with his parents, Louis and Cecile (Braun) Agassiz, in 1846.<ref name"BDA1906" /> He graduated from Harvard University in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and taking the degree of Bachelor of Science at the Lawrence Scientific School of the same institution in 1857; in 1859 became an assistant in the United States Coast Survey.<ref name="LeonardMarquis1908"/>
Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine ichthyology.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAgassiz, Alexander Emanuel|volume1|pages366–367}}</ref> Agassiz was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1862.<ref nameAAAS>{{cite web|titleBook of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A|urlhttp://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf|publisherAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-dateApril 6, 2011| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110510021801/http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf| archive-date May 10, 2011 | url-statuslive}}</ref> Up until the summer of 1866, Agassiz worked as assistant curator in the museum of natural history that his father founded at Harvard.<ref name"BDA1906" />
E. J. Hulbert, a friend of Agassiz's brother-in-law, Quincy Adams Shaw, had discovered a rich copper lode known as the Calumet conglomerate on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan. Hulbert persuaded them, along with a group of friends, to purchase a controlling interest in the mines, which later became known as the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company based in Calumet, Michigan. That summer, he took a trip to see the mines for himself and he afterwards became treasurer of the enterprise.
Over the winter of 1866 and early 1867, mining operations began to falter, due to the difficulty of extracting copper from the conglomerate. Hulbert had sold his interests in the mines and had moved on to other ventures. But Agassiz refused to give up hope for the mines. He returned to the mines in March 1867, with his wife and young son. At that time, Calumet was a remote settlement, virtually inaccessible during the winter and very far removed from civilization even during the summer. With insufficient supplies at the mines, Agassiz struggled to maintain order, while back in Boston, Shaw was saddled with debt and the collapse of their interests. Shaw obtained financial assistance from John Simpkins, the selling agent for the enterprise to continue operations.
Agassiz continued to live at Calumet, making gradual progress in stabilizing the mining operations, such that he was able to leave the mines under the control of a general manager and return to Boston in 1868 before winter closed navigation. The mines continued to prosper and in May 1871, several mines were consolidated to form the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company with Shaw as its first president. In August 1871, Shaw "retired" to the board of directors and Agassiz became president, a position he held until his death. Until the turn of the century, this company was by far the largest copper producer in the United States, many years producing over half of the total.
Agassiz was a major factor in the mine's continued success and visited the mines twice a year. He innovated by installing a giant engine, known as the Superior, which was able to lift 24 tons of rock from a depth of {{convert|1,200|m|ft|abbr=off}}. He also built a railroad and dredged a channel to navigable waters. However, after a time the mines did not require his full-time, year-round, attention and he returned to his interests in natural history at Harvard. Out of his copper fortune, he gave some US$500,000 to Harvard for the museum of comparative zoology and other purposes.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Shortly after the death of his father in 1873, Agassiz acquired a small peninsula in Newport, Rhode Island, which features views of Narragansett Bay. Here he built a substantial house and a laboratory for use as his summer residence. The house was completed in 1875 and today is known as the Inn at Castle Hill.
He was a member of the scientific-expedition to South America in 1875, where he inspected the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made extended surveys of Lake Titicaca, besides collecting invaluable Peruvian antiquities,<ref name"BDA1906" /> which he gave to the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ), of which he was first curator from 1874 to 1885 and then director until his death in 1910, his personal secretary Elizabeth Hodges Clark running the day-to-day management of the MCZ when his work took him abroad.<ref>About MCZ (History) – http://www.mcz.harvard.edu/about/history.html {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180518055636/http://www.mcz.harvard.edu/about/history.html |dateMay 18, 2018 }}</ref><ref>Museum of Comparative Zoology Harvard University Annual Report 2017-2018 - https://mcz.harvard.edu/files/mcz/files/mcz_ar_2017-2018_final_web.pdf</ref><ref>Fossil Histories: Behind the Scenes in Harvard's Paleontology Collections - https://library.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/styles/carousel_1200_x_900/public/IMG_5923sm.jpg?itokruNtCTcz</ref> He assisted Charles Wyville Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections of the 1872 Challenger Expedition, and wrote the Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872–1874) in the reports. Between 1877 and 1880, he took part in the three dredging expeditions of the steamer Blake of the Coast Survey (renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878), and presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888).<ref name"EB1911"/> Also in 1875, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAPS Member History|urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year1875&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced|access-date2021-05-05|website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>
In 1896, Agassiz visited Fiji and Queensland and inspected the Great Barrier Reef, publishing a paper on the subject in 1898.
Of Agassiz's other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology. However, in 1865, he published with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, his stepmother, Seaside Studies in Natural History, a work at once exact and stimulating. They also published, in 1871, Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay.<ref name="EB1911"/>
He received the German Order Pour le Mérite for Science and Arts in August 1902.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |titleCourt Circular|dateAugust 19, 1902 |page8 |issue36850}}</ref>
Agassiz served as a president of the National Academy of Sciences, which since 1913 has awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal in his memory. He died in 1910 on board the RMS Adriatic en route to New York from Southampton.<ref>{{cite news | authorStaff writers | titleProf. Agassiz Dies on Liner at Sea | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/30/archives/prof-agassiz-dies-on-liner-at-sea-wireless-from-his-son-on-the.html| newspaperThe New York Times | date=March 30, 1910}}</ref>
He and his wife Anna Russell (1840–1873) were the parents of three sons – George Russell Agassiz (1861–1951), Maximilian Agassiz (1866–1943) and Rodolphe Louis Agassiz (1871–1933).
Legacy
Alexander Agassiz is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of lizard, Anolis agassizi, and a fish, Leptochilichthys agassizii.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Agassiz, A.E.", p. 2).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/27494|titleReports on an exploration off the west coasts of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos Islands, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross, during 1891, Lieut. Commander Z.L. Tanner, U.S.N., commanding. 26. The fishes|firstS.|lastGarman|dateSeptember 6, 1899|journalMemoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.|volume24|pages1–431|doi10.5962/bhl.part.27494|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
A statue of Alexander Agassiz erected in 1923 is located in Calumet, Michigan, next to his summer home where he stayed while fulfilling his duties as the President of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company. The Company Headquarters, Agassiz' statue, and many other buildings and landmarks from the now defunct company are today administered and maintained by the Keweenaw National Historical Park, whose headquarters overlook the statue of Agassiz.<ref>{{cite web |titleAlexander Agassiz Statue |urlhttps://www.nps.gov/places/alexander-agassiz-statue.htm |websiteThe Alexander Agassiz Statue |publisherKeweenaw National Historical Park |access-dateFebruary 25, 2021}}</ref> A major building of the Hopkins Marine Station is named after him.Publications
*Agassiz, Alexander (1863). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30465#page/25/mode/1up "List of the echinoderms sent to different institutions in exchange for other specimens, with annotations".] Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 1 (2): 17–28.
*Agassiz, Elizabeth C., and Alexander Agassiz (1865). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/16902#page/7/mode/1up Seaside Studies in Natural History.] Boston: Ticknor and Fields.
*Agassiz, Alexander (1872–1874). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4327273#page/7/mode/1up "Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Harvard College. No. VII. Revision of the Echini. Parts 1–4".] Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 3: 1–762. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/24338#page/6/mode/1up Plates]
*Agassiz, Alexander (1877). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4304836#page/9/mode/1up "North American starfishes".] Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 5 (1): 1–136.
*Agassiz, Alexander (1881). [https://web.archive.org/web/20161118100508/http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/HMSC-Reports/Zool-09/htm/doc.html "Report on the Echinoidea dredged by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873–1876".] Report of the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873–76. Zoology. 9: 1–321.
*Agassiz, Alexander (1903). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/95214#page/7/mode/1up "Three cruises of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer 'Blake' in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880. Vol I".] Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 14: 1–314.
*Agassiz, Alexander (1903). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28876145#page/1/mode/1up "Three cruises of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer 'Blake' in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880. Vol II".] Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 15: 1–220.
*Agassiz, Alexander (1903). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32751#page/13/mode/1up "The coral reefs of the tropical Pacific".] Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 28: 1–410. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32464#page/3/mode/1up Plates I.] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/25357#page/3/mode/1up Plates II.] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/91611#page/1/mode/1up Plates III.]
*Agassiz, Alexander (1903). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/96343#page/11/mode/1up "The coral reefs of the Maldives".] Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 29: 1–168.
*Agassiz, Alexander (1904). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/25650#page/11/mode/1up "The Panamic deep sea Echini".] Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 31: 1–243. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/91621#page/11/mode/1up Plates.]
See also
*Agassiz family
References
{{Reflist |refs<ref name"LeonardMarquis1908">{{Citation|modecs1 |editor1-firstJohn William |editor1-lastLeonard |editor2-firstAlbert Nelson |editor2-lastMarquis |titleWho's who in America |publisherMarquis Who's Who, Incorporated |volume5 |page=14}}</ref>
<ref name"BDA1906">{{BDA1906 |inliney |wstitleAgassiz, Alexander Emmanuel Rudolph |volume1 |pages=59–60}}</ref>
}}
External links
{{Commons category|position=right|Alexander Emanuel Agassiz}}
{{Wikisource author|Alexander Agassiz}}
{{Wikispecies|Alexander Emanuel Agassiz}}
* Agassiz, George (1913). [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/113452#page/11/mode/1up Letters and Recollections of Alexander Agassiz with a sketch of his life and work]. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
* {{cite encyclopedia | lastDupree | firstA. Hunter | title Alexander Agassiz | encyclopediaDictionary of Scientific Biography | volume1 | pages71–72 | publisherCharles Scribner's Sons | locationNew York | year1970 | isbn978-0-684-10114-9}}
* Murray, John (1911). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=NLsWAAAAYAAJ Alexander Agassiz: His Life and Scientific Work]". [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2803#/summary Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology] 54 (3). pp 139–158.
* {{BHL author}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Alexander Emanuel Agassiz}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id37709| nameAlexander Emanuel Agassiz}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050608/http://libraries.admin.ch/cgi-bin/gw/chameleon?skinhelveticat&instconsortium&submittheformSearch&usersrch1&beginsrch1&elementcount3&functionINITREQ&searchKEYWORD&rootsearchKEYWORD&lngen&pos1&conf.%2Fchameleon.conf&t1alexander%2A%20agassiz%2A&u11003&op1OR&t2alexander%2A%20agassiz%2A&u221&op2AND&t3&u31035&hostbiblio.admin.ch%2B3601%2BDEFAULT&patronhostbiblio.admin.ch%203601%20DEFAULT Publications by and about Alexander Agassiz] in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library
* [http://www.mininghalloffame.org/inductee.asp?i26&binductees%2Easp&tn&pA&sNational Mining Hall of Fame: Alexander Agassiz] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120716181253/http://www.mininghalloffame.org/inductee.asp?i26&binductees%2Easp&tn&pA&s|dateJuly 16, 2012 }}
*[http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/agassiz-alexander.pdf National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir]
* [https://www.nps.gov/kewe/index.htm Keweenaw National Historical Park] Preserving many significant buildings and an archives of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company and Alexander Agassiz.
{{NAS presidents}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agassiz, Alexander}}
Category:1835 births
Category:1910 deaths
Category:19th-century American zoologists
Category:20th-century American zoologists
Category:American curators
Category:American ichthyologists
Category:Agassiz family
Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society
Category:Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Category:Victoria Medal recipients
Category:Calumet and Hecla Mining Company personnel
Category:United States Coast Survey personnel
Category:Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni
Category:Swiss emigrants to the United States
Category:People from Neuchâtel
Category:People who died at sea
Category:Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Category:Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Agassiz | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.846860 |
1549 | Agathon | {{Short description|Athenian tragic poet (c.448–c.400 BC)}}
{{Other uses}}
re-imagines a scene from Plato's Symposium, in which the tragedian Agathon welcomes the drunken Alcibiades into his home. 1869.]]
Agathon ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|g|ə|θ|ɒ|n}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀγάθων}}; {{circa|448|400 BC}}) was an Athenian tragic poet whose works have been lost. He is best known for his appearance in Plato's Symposium, which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy at the Lenaia in 416.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAgathon|volume1|page371}}</ref> He is also a prominent character in Aristophanes' comedy the Thesmophoriazusae.Life and careerAgathon was the son of Tisamenus,<ref nameOCD>{{cite book|titleOxford Classical Dictionary|page25|edition=2}}</ref> and the lover of Pausanias, with whom he appears in both the Symposium and Plato's Protagoras.<ref>Pierre Lévêque, Agathon (Paris: Societe d'Edition Les Belles Lettres, 1955), pp. 163-4.</ref> Together with Pausanias, around 407 BC he moved to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, who was recruiting playwrights; it is here that he probably died around 401 BC. Agathon introduced certain innovations into the Greek theater: Aristotle tells us in the Poetics (1451<sup>b</sup>21) that the characters and plot of his Anthos were original and not, following Athenian dramatic orthodoxy, borrowed from mythological or historical subjects.<ref>Aristotle, Poetics 9.</ref> Agathon was also the first playwright to write choral parts which were apparently independent from the main plot of his plays.
Agathon is portrayed by Plato as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth, and wisdom of Athens, and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The epideictic speech in praise of love which Agathon recites in the Symposium is full of beautiful but artificial rhetorical expressions, and has led some scholars to believe he may have been a student of Gorgias. In the Symposium, Agathon is presented as the friend of the comic poet Aristophanes, but this alleged friendship did not prevent Aristophanes from harshly criticizing Agathon in at least two of his comic plays: the Thesmophoriazousae and the (now lost) Gerytades. In the later play Frogs, Aristophanes softens his criticisms, but even so, it may be only for the sake of punning on Agathon's name (ἁγαθός "good") that he makes Dionysus call him a "good poet".
Agathon was also a friend of Euripides, another recruit to the court of Archelaus of Macedon.
Physical appearance
Agathon's extraordinary physical beauty is brought up repeatedly in the sources; the historian W. Rhys Roberts observes that "ὁ καλός Ἀγάθων (ho kalos Agathon) has become almost a stereotyped phrase."<ref>{{cite journal |firstW. Rhys |lastRoberts |titleAristophanes and Agathon |journalThe Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume20 |year1900 |pages50 |doi10.2307/623742 |jstor623742 |s2cid163986386 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2314442 }}</ref> The most detailed surviving description of Agathon is in the Thesmophoriazousae, in which Agathon appears as a pale, clean-shaven young man dressed in women's clothes. Scholars are unsure how much of Aristophanes' portrayal is fact and how much mere comic invention.
After a close reading of the Thesmophoriazousae, the historian Jane McIntosh Snyder observed that Agathon's costume was almost identical to that of the famous lyric poet Anacreon, as he is portrayed in early 5th-century vase-paintings. Snyder theorizes that Agathon might have made a deliberate effort to mimic the sumptuous attire of his famous fellow poet, although by Agathon's time, such clothing, especially the κεκρύφαλος (kekryphalos, an elaborate covering for the hair) had long fallen out of fashion for men. According to this interpretation, Agathon is mocked in the Thesmophoriazousae not only for his notorious effeminacy, but also for the pretentiousness of his dress: "he seems to think of himself, in all his elegant finery, as a rival to the old Ionian poets, perhaps even to Anacreon himself."<ref>{{cite journal |firstJane McIntosh |lastSnyder |titleAristophanes' Agathon as Anacreon |journalHermes |volume102 |year1974 |issue2 |pages246 |jstor4475842 }}</ref>Plato's epigram
Agathon is the subject of an epigram attributed to Plato:
<blockquote>τὴν ψυχὴν Ἀγάθωνα φιλῶν ἐπὶ χείλεσιν εἶχον·
ἦλθε γὰρ ἡ τλήμων ὡς διαβησομένη.</blockquote>
One translation reads:
<blockquote>My soul was on my lips as I was kissing Agathon. Poor soul! she came hoping to cross over to him.<ref name="Paton">Greek Anthology'', translated by W. R. Paton, [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.103638 Volume 1].</ref></blockquote>
The epigram was probably not composed by Plato. Stylistic evidence suggests that the poem (with most of Plato's other alleged epigrams) was actually written sometime after Plato had died: its form is that of the Hellenistic erotic epigram, which did not become popular until after 300 BC. According to 20th-century scholar Walther Ludwig, the poems were spuriously inserted into an early biography of Plato sometime between 250 BC and 100 BC and adopted by later writers from this source.<ref>{{cite journal |firstWalther |lastLudwig |titlePlato's Love Epigrams |journalGreek, Roman and Byzantine Studies |volume4 |issue2 |year1963 |pages59–82 }}</ref> It is unlikely Plato would write a love epigram about Agathon, who was approximately twenty years older than him.
Known plays
Of Agathon's plays, only six titles and thirty-one fragments have survived:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*Aerope
*Alcmeon
*Anthos or Antheus ("The Flower")
*Mysoi ("Mysians")
*Telephos ("Telephus")
*Thyestes
{{div col end}}
Fragments in A Nauck, Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta (1887).
Fragments in Greek with English translations in Matthew Wright's "The Lost Plays of Greek Tragedy (Volume 1)
Neglected Authors" (2016)
Quotations
{{blockquote|textμόνου γὰρ αὐτοῦ καὶ θεὸς στερίσκεται,<br>ἀγένητα ποιεῖν ἅσσ᾽ ἂν ᾖ πεπραγμένα. <br /> (This only is denied even to God, <br>The power to make what has been done undone.) |sourceQuoted in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, 6.2, 1139b1<ref>{{Cite book |lastAristotle |url |titleAristotle, XIX: The Nicomachean Ethics |publisherHarvard Univ. Press |year1934 |isbn978-0-674-99081-4 |seriesAristotle: in Twenty-Three Volumes (Loeb Classical Library) |locationCambridge, Mass. |pages1139b |translator-lastRackham |translator-firstHarris |chapterBook VI, Chapter II |chapter-urlhttp://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg010.perseus-eng1:1139b }}</ref>}}{{blockquote|textLook not round at the depraved morals of others, but run straight along the line without deviating from it.|sourceMarcus Aurelius, Meditations, IV.18 <ref>{{cite book |titleThe Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus|translatorGeorge Long|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6920/pg6920.html |access-date19 January 2022 |chapterBook IV, 18}}</ref>}}
See also
*List of speakers in Plato's dialogues
*Symposium (Feuerbach)
References
Notes
{{reflist}}
Sources
*The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, volume 1, by Alfred Bates. (London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906)
*Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100 (Aristophanes)
*''Lovers' Lips by Plato in the Project Gutenberg eText Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology'' by J. W. Mackail. [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext00/8efgm10.txt]
External links
*{{commons category-inline}}
*{{wikiquote-inline}}
*[http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=text:agathon_poems Agathon Poems]
{{Authority control}}
Category:440s BC births
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:400s BC deaths
Category:Year of death unknown
Category:5th-century BC Athenians
Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights
Category:Ancient Greek poets
Category:Ancient Greek LGBTQ people
Category:Courtiers of Archelaus of Macedon
Category:Tragic poets
Category:5th-century BC poets | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathon | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.853667 |
1550 | Agesilaus II | {{short description|4th-century BC Spartan king, Eurypontid dynasty}}
{{Redirect|Agesilaus}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Agesilaus II
| image | image_size
| alt | caption
| succession = King of Sparta
| reign = {{circa}} 400 – 360 BC
| predecessor = Agis II
| successor = Archidamus III
| birth_date = 445/4 BC
| birth_place = Sparta
| death_date = 360/59 BC (aged {{circa}} 84)
| death_place = Cyrenaica
| spouse = Cleora
| issue = Archidamus III
| native_lang1 = Greek
| native_lang1_name1 = {{lang|grc|Ἀγησίλαος}} {{transliteration|grc|Agesilaos}}
| dynasty = Eurypontid
| father = Archidamus II
| mother = Eupoleia
| module {{Infobox officeholder|embedyes
| battles = Corinthian War<br>{{Bulleted list|Battle of Coroneia}}Boeotian War
}}
}}
Agesilaus II ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|dʒ|ɛ|s|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|ə|s}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀγησίλαος}} {{transliteration|grc|Agēsílāos}}; 445/4 – 360/59 BC) was king of Sparta from {{circa}} 400 to {{circa}} 360 BC. Generally considered the most important king in the history of Sparta, Agesilaus was the main actor during the period of Spartan hegemony that followed the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). Although brave in combat, Agesilaus lacked the diplomatic skills to preserve Sparta's position, especially against the rising power of Thebes, which reduced Sparta to a secondary power after its victory at Leuctra in 371 BC.
Despite the traditional secrecy fostered by the Spartiates, the reign of Agesilaus is particularly well-known thanks to the works of his friend Xenophon, who wrote a large history of Greece (the Hellenica) covering the years 411 to 362 BC, therefore extensively dealing with Agesilaus' rule. Xenophon furthermore composed a panegyric biography of his friend, perhaps to clean his memory from the criticisms voiced against him. Another historical tradition—much more hostile to Agesilaus than Xenophon's writings—has been preserved in the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, and later continued by Diodorus of Sicily. Moreover, Plutarch wrote a biography of Agesilaus in his Parallel Lives, which contains many elements deliberately omitted by Xenophon.
Early life
Youth
Agesilaus' father was King Archidamos II (r. 469–427), who belonged to the Eurypontid dynasty, one of the two royal families of Sparta. Archidamos already had a son from a first marriage with Lampito (his own step-aunt) named Agis.<ref>Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 58, spells her Lampido.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 12, 13.</ref> After the death of Lampito, Archidamos remarried in the early 440s with Eupolia, daughter of Melesippidas, whose name indicates an aristocratic status.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 21, 22. Lampito was probably 40 years younger than Archidamos.</ref><ref>Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 58, translates the name of Eupolia as "well-foaled".</ref> The dates of Agesilaus' birth, death, and reign are disputed. The only secured information is that he was 84 at his death. The majority opinion is to date his birth to 445/4,<ref>Cawkwell, "Agesilaus and Sparta", p. 63 (note 8).</ref><ref>Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 58.</ref><ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 8.</ref><ref>Powell et al., A Companion to Sparta, pp. 16, 375, 382, 430, 454, 457, 465, 559; although François Ruzé uses the later date p. 326.</ref> but a minority of scholars move it a bit later, c.442.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. xvii.</ref><ref>Pascual, "La datación de la ascensión", p. 43.</ref> Most of the other dates of Agesilaus are similarly disputed, with the minority moving them about two years later than the majority.{{efn-lr|The article follows the majority view, but mentions the dates favoured by the minority view.}} Agesilaus also had a sister named Kyniska (the first woman in ancient history to achieve an Olympic victory).<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 145, is unsure whether Kyniska was Agesilaos' full sister.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 13.</ref> The name Agesilaus was rare and harks back to Agesilaus I, one of the earliest kings of Sparta.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 22, 23.</ref>
Agesilaus was born lame, a fact that should have cost him his life, since in Sparta deformed babies were thrown into a chasm.<ref name"Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 14"/> As he was not heir-apparent, he might have received some leniency from the tribal elders who examined male infants,<ref name"Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 14"/> or perhaps the first effects of the demographic decline of Sparta were already felt at the time, and only the most severely impaired babies were killed.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 22.</ref><ref>Sneed, "Disability and Infanticide in Ancient Greece", pp. 749–751, suggests that Spartans did not kill deformed infants.</ref>
Starting at the age of 7, Agesilaus had to go through the rigorous education system of Sparta, called the agoge.<ref>Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 3.</ref><ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 23.</ref> Despite his disability, he brilliantly completed the training,<ref name"Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 14">Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 14.</ref> which massively enhanced his prestige, especially after he became king.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 24-27.</ref> Indeed, as heirs-apparent were exempted of the agoge, few Spartan kings had gone through the same training as the citizens;<ref>Shipley, Commentary on Agesilaos, p. 62.</ref> another notable exception was Leonidas, the embodiment of the "hero-king".<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 24.</ref> Between 433 and 428, Agesilaus also became the younger lover of Lysander, an aristocrat from the circle of Archidamos, whose family had some influence in Libya.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 28, 29.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 19.</ref> Spartan prince
Little is known of Agesilaus' adult life before his reign, principally because Xenophon—his friend and main biographer—only wrote about his reign.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 10.</ref> Due to his special status, Agesilaus likely became a member of the Krypteia, an elite corps of young Spartans going undercover in Spartan territory to kill some helots deemed dangerous.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 30–32.</ref> Once he turned 20 and became a full citizen, Agesilaus was elected to a common mess, presumably that of his elder half-brother Agis II, who had become king in 427, of which Lysander was perhaps a member.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 32, 33.</ref>
Agesilaus probably served during the Peloponnesian War (431–404) against Athens, likely at the Battle of Mantinea in 418.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 21.</ref> Agesilaus married Kleora at some point between 408 and 400.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 147.</ref> Despite the influence she apparently had on her husband, she is mostly unknown. Her father was Aristomenidas, an influential noble with connections in Thebes.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 146, 147.</ref>
Thanks to three treaties signed with Persia in 412–411, Sparta received funding from the Persians, which it used to build a fleet that ultimately defeated Athens.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 186–189.</ref> This fleet was essentially led by Lysander, whose success gave him an enormous influence in the Greek cities of Asia as well as in Sparta, where he even schemed to become king.<ref>Hamilton, ''Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 27, 76, 88–98.</ref><ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 94–99.</ref> In 403 the two kings, Agis and Pausanias, acted together to relieve him from his command.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus'', p. 23–25.</ref>
Reign
Accession to the throne (400–398 BC)
Agis II died while returning from Delphi between 400 and 398.{{efn-lr|The precise date of Agesilaus's accession depends on the chronology of the Elean War and of his own date of death, which are uncertain. Cartledge{{sfn|Cartledge, Agesilaos|pp99, 110}} dates it to the late summer of 400, Hamilton{{sfn|Hamilton, Agesilaus|pxvii}} to 398. }} After his funeral, Agesilaus contested the claim of Leotychidas, the son of Agis II, using the widespread belief in Sparta that Leotychidas was an illegitimate son of Alcibiades—a famous Athenian statesman and nephew of Pericles, who had gone into exile in Sparta during the Peloponnesian War, and then seduced the queen. The rumours were strengthened by the fact that even Agis only recognised Leotychidas as his son on his deathbed.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 110.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 26.</ref>
Diopeithes, a supporter of Leotychidas, however quoted an old oracle telling that a Spartan king could not be lame, thus refuting Agesilaus' claim, but Lysander cunningly returned the objection by saying that the oracle had to be understood figuratively. The lameness warned against by the oracle would therefore refer to the doubt on Leotychidas' paternity, and this reasoning won the argument.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 110–113.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 26, 27.</ref> The role of Lysander in the accession of Agesilaus has been debated among historians, principally because Plutarch makes him the main instigator of the plot, while Xenophon downplays Lysander's influence.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 112, gives more credence to Plutarch.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 28, favours Plutarch's version.</ref> Lysander doubtless supported Agesilaus' accession because he hoped that the new king would in return help him to regain the importance that he lost in 403.<ref>Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, p. 233.</ref>
Conspiracy of Cinadon (399 BC)
The Conspiracy of Cinadon took place during the first year of Agesilaus' reign, in the summer of 399.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 164.</ref> Cinadon was a hypomeion, a Spartan who had lost his citizen status, presumably because he could not afford the price of the collective mess—one of the main reasons for the dwindling number of Spartan citizens in the Classical Era, called oliganthropia.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 165.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 70.</ref><ref>Gish, "Spartan Justice", pp. 353, 354.</ref> It is probable that the vast influx of wealth coming to the city after its victory against Athens in 404 triggered inflation in Sparta, which impoverished many citizens with a fixed income, like Cinadon, and caused their downgrade.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 83.</ref> Therefore, the purpose of the plot was likely to restore the status of these disfranchised citizens.<ref>Gish, "Spartan Justice", p. 356.</ref> However, the plot was uncovered and Cinadon and its leaders executed—probably with the active participation of Agesilaus,<ref>Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, p. 235.</ref> but no further action was taken to solve the social crisis at the origin of the conspiracy. The failure of Agesilaus to acknowledge the critical problem suffered by Sparta at the time has been criticised by modern historians.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 84, 85.</ref><ref>Gish, "Spartan Justice", p. 357 (note 40).</ref>
Invasion of Asia Minor (396–394 BC)
According to the treaties signed in 412 and 411 between Sparta and the Persian Empire, the latter became the overlord of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor.<ref name":1">Hamilton, ''Sparta's Bitter Victories, p. 27.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus'', p. 87.</ref> In 401, these cities and Sparta supported the bid of Cyrus the Younger (the Persian Emperor's younger son and a good friend of Lysander) against his elder brother, the new emperor Artaxerxes II, who nevertheless defeated Cyrus at Cunaxa.<ref>Hamilton, ''Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 104–107.</ref> As a result, Sparta remained at war with Artaxerxes, and supported the Greek cities of Asia, which fought against Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 88.</ref> In 397 Lysander engineered a large expedition in Asia headed by Agesilaus, likely to recover the influence he had over the Asian cities at the end of the Peloponnesian War.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 191.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 90, 91. Lysander had placed partisans in the cities taken from the Athenian Empire, but was forced to abandon them in order to respect the treaties with Persia, which were enforced in 404.</ref> In order to win the approval of the Spartan assembly, Lysander built an army with only 30 Spartiates (full Spartan citizens), so the risk would be limited; the bulk of the army consisted of 2,000 neodamodes (freed helots) and 6,000 Greek allies.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 213.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 92, 93.</ref> In addition, Agesilaus obtained the support of the oracles of Zeus at Olympia and Apollo at Delphi.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 93.</ref> The sacrifice at Aulis (396 BC) Lysander and Agesilaus had intended the expedition to be a Panhellenic enterprise,<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 192.</ref> but Athens, Corinth, and especially Thebes, refused to participate.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 212.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 94.</ref> In Spring 396, Agesilaus came to Aulis (in Boeotian territory) to sacrifice on the place where Agamemnon had done so just before his departure to Troy at the head of the Greek army in the Iliad, thus giving a grandiose aspect to the expedition. However he did not inform the Boeotians and brought his own seer to perform the sacrifice, instead of the local one. Learning this, the Boeotians prevented him from sacrificing and further humiliated him by casting away the victim; they perhaps intended to provoke a confrontation, as the relations between Sparta and Thebes had become execrable. Agesilaus then left to Asia, but Thebes remained hateful to him for the rest of his life.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus'', p. 95.</ref> (right) in 395 BC, when Agesilaus agreed to remove himself from Hellespontine Phrygia.]] Campaign in Asia (396–394 BC)
Once Agesilaus landed in Ephesus, the Spartan main base, he concluded a three months' truce with Tissaphernes, likely to settle the affairs among the Greek allies.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 32, 33.</ref> He integrated some of the Greek mercenaries formerly hired by Cyrus the Younger (the Ten Thousand) in his army. They had returned from Persia under the leadership of Xenophon, who also remained in Agesilaus' staff.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 59.</ref> In Ephesus, Agesilaus' authority was nevertheless overshadowed by Lysander, who was reacquainted with many of his supporters, men he had placed in control of the Greek cities at the end of the Peloponnesian War. Angered by his local aura, Agesilaus humiliated Lysander several times to force him to leave the army, despite his former relationship and Lysander's role in his accession to the throne.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 213, Lysander was sent away in a diplomatic mission.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 32–37.</ref> Plutarch adds that after Agesilaus' emancipation from him, Lysander returned to his undercover scheme to make the monarchy elective.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 36.</ref>
After Lysander's departure, Agesilaus raided Phrygia, the satrapy of Pharnabazus, until his advance guard was defeated not far from Daskyleion by the superior Persian cavalry.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 213, 214.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 96, 97.</ref> He then wintered at Ephesus, where he trained a cavalry force, perhaps on the advice of Xenophon, who had commanded the cavalry of the Ten Thousand.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 214.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 97.</ref> In 395, the Spartan king managed to trick Tissaphernes into thinking that he would attack Caria, in the south of Asia Minor, forcing the satrap to hold a defence line on the Meander river. Instead, Agesilaus moved north to the important city of Sardis. Tissaphernes hastened to meet the king there, but his cavalry sent in advance was defeated by Agesilaus' army.<ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 215, 216.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 97–99.</ref> After his victory at the Battle of Sardis, Agesilaus became the first king to be given the command of both land and sea.<ref name":2">Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, p. 237.</ref> He delegated the naval command to his brother-in-law Peisander, whom he appointed navarch despite his inexperience; perhaps Agesilaus wanted to avoid the rise of a new Lysander, who owed his prominence to his time as navarch. After his defeat, Tissaphernes was executed and replaced as satrap by Tithraustes, who gave Agesilaus 30 talents to move north to the satrapy of Pharnabazus (Persian satraps were often bitter rivals).<ref>Hamilton, ''Sparta's Bitter Victories, p. 101.</ref><ref>Cartledge, Agesilaos, pp. 216, 217.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus'', p. 100.</ref> Augesilaus' Phrygian campaign of 394 was fruitless, as he lacked the siege equipment required to take the fortresses of Leonton Kephalai, Gordion, and Miletou Teichos.<ref name":0">Cartledge, Agesilaos, p. 217.</ref> (popularly called "archers"), the main currency in Persia, were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta, so that Agesilaus would have to be recalled from Asia.<ref name"CC">{{cite book |last1Snodgrass |first1Mary Ellen |titleCoins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia |date2015 |publisherMcFarland |isbn9781476611204 |pages125 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8xSBCgAAQBAJ&pgPA125 |languageen}}</ref>]]Xenophon tells that Agesilaus then wanted to campaign further east in Asia and sow discontent among the subjects of the Achaemenid empire, or even to conquer Asia.<ref name":0" /> Plutarch went further and wrote that Agesilaus had prepared an expedition to the heart of Persia, up to her capital of Susa, thus making him a forerunner of Alexander the Great. It is very unlikely that Agesilaus really had such a grand campaign in mind; regardless, he was soon forced to return to Europe in 394.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 100–103.</ref> Corinthian War (395–387 BC) Although Thebes and Corinth had been allies of Sparta throughout the Peloponnesian War, they were dissatisfied by the settlement of the war in 404, with Sparta as leader of the Greek world. Sparta's imperialist expansion in the Aegean greatly upset its former allies, notably by establishing friendly regimes and garrisons in smaller cities.<ref>Hamilton, ''Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 41–48, 54 (note 117), 65.</ref><ref>Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History'', vol. VI, p. 97.</ref> Through large gifts, Tithraustes also encouraged Sparta's former allies to start a war in order to force the recall of Agesilaus from Asia—even though the influence of Persian gold has been exaggerated.<ref name":2" /><ref>Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 98.</ref> The initiative came from Thebes, which provoked a war between their ally Ozolian Locris and Phocis in order to bring Sparta to the latter's defence.<ref>Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 99. Thebes wanted to avoid being seen as having broken the peace.</ref> Lysander and the other king Pausanias entered Boeotia, which enabled the Thebans to bring Athens in the war. Lysander then besieged Haliartus without waiting for Pausanias and was killed in a Boeotian counter-attack. In Sparta, Pausanias was condemned to death by Lysander's friends and went into exile.<ref name="ReferenceA">Xenophon, Hell. iii. 3, to the end, Agesilaus</ref><ref>Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 100.</ref> After its success at Haliartus, Thebes was able to build a coalition against Sparta, with notably Argos and Corinth, where a war council was established, and securing the defection of most of the cities of northern and central Greece.<ref>Hamilton, ''Sparta's Bitter Victories, pp. 211–215.</ref><ref>Françoise Ruzé, "The Empire of the Spartans (404–371)", p. 335.</ref> Unable to wage war on two fronts and with the loss of Lysander and Pausanias, Sparta had no choice but to recall Agesilaus from Asia.<ref>Robin Seager, "The Corinthian War", in Lewis et al., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, p. 101.</ref> The Asian Greeks fighting for him said they wanted to continue serving with him, while Agesilaus promised he would return to Asia as soon as he could.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 104, 105.</ref>
Agesilaus returned to Greece by land, crossing the Hellespont and from there along the coast of the Aegean Sea. In Thessaly he won a cavalry battle near Narthacium against the Pharsalians who had made an alliance with Thebes.<ref>Stamatopoulou, "Thessalians Abroad", p. 221.</ref><ref>Richard Bouchon and Bruno Helly, "The Thessalian League", in Beck (ed.), Federalism, p. 236.</ref><ref>Françoise Ruzé, "The Empire of the Spartans (404–371)", p. 333.</ref> He then entered Boeotia by the Thermopylae, where he received reinforcements from Sparta.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 105.</ref> Meanwhile, Aristodamos—the regent of the young Agiad king Agesipolis—won a major victory at Nemea near Argos, which was offset by the disaster of the Spartan navy at Cnidus against the Persian fleet led by Conon, an exiled Athenian general. Agesilaus lied to his men about the outcome of the battle of Knidos to avoid demoralising them as they were about to fight a large engagement against the combined armies of Thebes, Athens, Argos and Corinth. The following Battle of Coronea was a classic clash between two lines of hoplites.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus'', p. 106.</ref> The anti-Spartan allies were rapidly defeated, but the Thebans managed to retreat in good order, despite Agesilaus' activity on the front line, which caused him several injuries. The next day the Thebans requested a truce to recover their dead, therefore conceding defeat, although they had not been bested on the battlefield.<ref name"Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 108">Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 108.</ref> Agesilaus appears to have tried to win an honourable victory, by risking his life and being merciful with some Thebans who had sought shelter in the nearby Temple of Athena Itonia.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 108, 109.</ref> He then moved to Delphi, where he offered one tenth of the booty he had amassed since his landing at Ephesus, and returned to Sparta.<ref name"Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 108"/>
No pitched battle took place in Greece in 393. Perhaps Agesilaus was still recovering from his wounds, or he was deprived of command because of the opposition of Lysander's and Pausanias' friends, who were disappointed by his lack of decisive victory and his appointment of Peisander as navarch before the disaster of Knidos.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 109, 110.</ref> The loss of the Spartan fleet besides allowed Konon to capture the island of Kythera, in the south of the Peloponnese, from where he could raid Spartan territory.<ref name=":3">Françoise Ruzé, "The Empire of the Spartans (404–371)", p. 336.</ref> In 392, Sparta sent Antalcidas to Asia in order to negotiate a general peace with Tiribazus, the satrap of Lydia, while Sparta would recognise Persia's sovereignty over the Asian Greek cities. However, the Greek allies also sent emissaries to Sardis to refuse Antalcidas' plan, and Artaxerxes likewise rejected it. A second peace conference in Sparta failed the following year because of Athens.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 111, 112.</ref> A personal enemy of Antalcidas, Agesilaus likely disapproved these talks, which show that his influence at home had waned.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, pp. 112, 113.</ref> Plutarch says that he befriended the young Agiad king Agesipolis, possibly to prevent his opponents from coalescing behind him.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 110.</ref>
By 391 Agesilaus had apparently recovered his influence as he was appointed at the head of the army, while his half-brother Teleutias became navarch.<ref>Hamilton, Agesilaus, p. 114.</ref> The target was Argos, which had absorbed Corinth into a political union the previous year.<ref name":3" /> In 390 BC he made several successful expeditions into Corinthian territory, capturing Lechaeum and Peiraion. The loss, however, of a battalion (mora), destroyed by Iphicrates, neutralised these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta. In 389 BC he conducted a campaign in Acarnania,<ref name"ancient">{{cite web|lastCartwright|firstMark|dateMay 24, 2016|titleAgesilaus II|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Agesilaus_II/|access-dateMarch 16, 2021|websiteWorld History Encyclopedia}}</ref> but two years later the Peace of Antalcidas, warmly supported by Agesilaus, put an end to the war, maintaining Spartan hegemony over Greece and returning the Greek cities of Asia Minor to the Achaemenid Empire. In this interval, Agesilaus declined command over Sparta's aggression on Mantineia, and justified Phoebidas' seizure of the Theban Cadmea so long as the outcome provided glory to Sparta.<ref name"DGRBM">{{Citation|lastClough|firstArthur Hugh|titleDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology|volume1|pages69–70|year1867|editor-lastSmith|editor-firstWilliam|contributionAgesilaus II|placeBoston|publisherLittle, Brown and Company|author-linkArthur Hugh Clough}}</ref><ref name"ReferenceA" />Decline
in 385 BC]]
When war broke out afresh with Thebes, Agesilaus twice invaded Boeotia (in 378 and 377 BC), although he spent the next five years largely out of action due to an unspecified but apparently grave illness. In the congress of 371 an altercation is recorded between him and the Theban general Epaminondas, and due to his influence, Thebes was peremptorily excluded from the peace, and orders given for Agesilaus's royal colleague Cleombrotus to march against Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was defeated and killed at the Battle of Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown.<ref name"livius">[https://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agesilaus/agesilaus.htm Agesilaus] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120830124122/http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agesilaus/agesilaus.htm |date2012-08-30 }} from [http://www.livius.org Livius.Org] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010331184348/https://www.livius.org/ |date=2001-03-31 }}</ref>
In 370 Agesilaus was engaged in an embassy to Mantineia, and reassured the Spartans with an invasion of Arcadia. He preserved an unwalled Sparta against the revolts and conspiracies of helots, perioeci and even other Spartans; and against external enemies, with four different armies led by Epaminondas penetrating Laconia that same year.
Asia Minor expedition (366 BC)
In 366 BC, Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes following the embassy of Philiscus of Abydos, decided to provide careful military support to the opponents of the Achaemenid king. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolting satraps in the Revolt of the Satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes: Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king.<ref name"PS">{{cite book |last1Souza |first1Philip de |last2France |first2John |titleWar and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History |date2008 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn9781139469487 |page41 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9j7zoDeWTdwC&pgPA41 |languageen}}</ref><ref name"JH">{{cite book |last1Heskel |first1Julia |titleThe North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C |date1997 |publisherFranz Steiner Verlag |isbn9783515069175 |page96 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddjGmzkjbyGUC&pgPA96 |languageen}}</ref> An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king.<ref name"PS"/><ref>{{cite book |last1Fine |first1John Van Antwerp |titleThe Ancient Greeks: A Critical History |date1983 |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn9780674033146 |page[https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john/page/585 585] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john |url-accessregistration |language=en}}</ref> According to Xenophon,<ref>Xenophon, Agesilaus, ii. 26, 27</ref> Agesilaus, in order to gain money for prosecuting the war, supported the satrap Ariobarzanes of Phrygia in his revolt against Artaxerxes II in 364 (Revolt of the Satraps).
Again, in 362, Epaminondas almost succeeded in seizing the city of Sparta with a rapid and unexpected march. The Battle of Mantinea, in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy.
Expedition to Egypt
, Egypt.]]
Sometime after the Battle of Mantineia, Agesilaus went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid the king Nectanebo I and his regent Teos against Persia. In the summer of 358, he transferred his services to Teos's cousin and rival, Nectanebo II, who, in return for his help, gave him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died in Cyrenaica, around the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years.{{efn-lr|Cartledge (1987){{sfn|Cartledge, Agesilaos|p21}} and Hamilton (1991){{sfn|Hamilton, Agesilaus|pxix}} disagreed on Agesilaus's date of death, with the former preferring the winter of 360–59 and the latter that of 359–8. One more recent study, using Egyptian regnal dates, concludes that Nectanebo II seized power in the summer of 358 BC, and that Agesilaus died later that same year, right after the campaigning and sailing season.{{sfn|Pascual|2013|pp42–43}} }} His body was embalmed in wax, and buried at Sparta.<ref name"DGRBM"/>
He was succeeded by his son Archidamus III.
Legacy
Agesilaus was of small stature and unimpressive appearance, and was lame from birth. These facts were used as an argument against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against a "lame reign." Most ancient writers considered him a highly successful leader in guerrilla warfare, alert and quick, yet cautious—a man, moreover, whose personal bravery was rarely questioned in his own time. Of his courage, temperance, and hardiness, many instances are cited, and to these were added the less Spartan qualities of kindliness and tenderness as a father and a friend. As examples, there was the story of his riding a stick-horse with his children and upon being discovered by a friend desiring that the friend not mention what he had seen until he was the father of children; and because of the affection of his son Archidamus for Cleonymus, he saved Sphodrias, Cleonymus' father, from execution for his incursion into Piraeus and dishonourable retreat in 378.<ref name"DGRBM"/> Modern writers tend to be slightly more critical of Agesilaus' reputation and achievements, reckoning him an excellent soldier, but one who had a poor understanding of sea power and siege-craft.<ref name"OCD">{{Citation|lastCartledge|firstPaul Anthony|titleOxford Classical Dictionary|year1996|editor-lastHornblower|editor-firstSimon|contributionAgesilaus II|placeOxford|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
As a statesman he won himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies. Agesilaus was most successful in the opening and closing periods of his reign: commencing but then surrendering a glorious career in Asia; and in extreme age, maintaining his prostrate country. Other writers acknowledge his extremely high popularity at home, but suggest his occasionally rigid and arguably irrational political loyalties and convictions contributed greatly to Spartan decline, notably his unremitting hatred of Thebes, which led to Sparta's humiliation at the Battle of Leuctra and thus the end of Spartan hegemony.<ref name"OCD"/> Historian J. B. Bury remarks that "there is something melancholy about his career:" born into a Sparta that was the unquestioned continental power of Hellas, the Sparta which mourned him eighty four years later had suffered a series of military defeats which would have been unthinkable to his forebears, had seen its population severely decline, and had run so short of money that its soldiers were increasingly sent on campaigns fought more for money than for defense or glory.<ref>{{Cite book|titleA history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great|last1Bury|first1J. B.|last2Meiggs|first2Russell|publisherMacmillan|year1956|locationLondon|pages627–628}}</ref>
Plutarch also describes how often, to remove the threat of instigators of internal dissension, Agesilaus would send his enemies abroad with governorships, where they often were corrupt and procured themselves enemies. Agesilaus would then protect them against these new enemies of theirs, so as to make them his friends. As a result, he no longer had to face internal opposition, as his enemies had henceforth become allies.
As for his personal life, though he had two daughters, Eupolia and Prolyta, and a wife, Cleora, he nonetheless had the habit of forming homosexual "attachments for young men".
's Agesilaus.]]
Other historical accounts paint Agesilaus as a prototype for the ideal leader. His awareness, thoughtfulness, and wisdom were all traits to be emulated diplomatically, while his bravery and shrewdness in battle epitomised the heroic Greek commander. These historians point towards the unstable oligarchies established by Lysander in the former Athenian Empire and the failures of Spartan leaders (such as Pausanias and Kleombrotos) for the eventual suppression of Spartan power. The ancient historian Xenophon was a huge admirer and served under Agesilaus during the campaigns into Asia Minor.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Plutarch includes among Agesilaus' 78 essays and speeches comprising the apophthegmata Agesilaus' letter to the ephors on his recall:
{{blockquote|We have reduced most of Asia, driven back the barbarians, made arms abundant in Ionia. But since you bid me, according to the decree, come home, I shall follow my letter, may perhaps be even before it. For my command is not mine, but my country's and her allies'. And a commander then commands truly according to right when he sees his own commander in the laws and ephors, or others holding office in the state.}}
And when asked whether Agesilaus wanted a memorial erected in his honour:
{{blockquote|If I have done any noble action, that is a sufficient memorial; if I have done nothing noble, all the statues in the world will not preserve my memory.{{efn-lr|In Greek: {{lang|grc|Εἰ γάρ τι καλὸν ἔργον πεποίηκα, τοῦτό μου μνημεῖον ἔσται; εἰ δὲ μή, οὐδ' οἱ πάντες ἀνδριάντες}} }} }}
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As he was dying on the voyage back from Egypt, he gave instructions to those close to him that they should not be responsible for making any image of his person, be it modeled or painted or copied, "For if I have accomplished any glorious feat, that will be my memorial. But if I have not, not even all the statues in the world—the products of vulgar, worthless men—would make any difference."<ref name="plutarch">Plutarch: "Sayings of Spartans," Penguin Classics, 2005 Revised Edition</ref>
-->
Agesilaus lived in the most frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had set forth.<ref name"ReferenceA"/><ref>Diodorus Siculus, xiv. xv</ref><ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece iii. 97 10</ref><ref>Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, in vita</ref><ref>Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica</ref>Notes{{notelist-lr}}References{{Reflist}}Sources Ancient sources
*Plutarch, Parallel Lives.
*Xenophon, Hellenica.
Modern sources
* Hans Beck & Peter Funke, Federalism in Greek Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2015. {{ISBN|9780521192262}}
* Paul Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, A Regional History 1300–362 BC, London, Routledge, 1979 (originally published in 1979). {{ISBN|0-415-26276-3}}
* {{wikicite|reference——, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.|ref{{sfnref|Cartledge, Agesilaos}} }}
*George L. Cawkwell, "Agesilaus and Sparta", The Classical Quarterly 26 (1976): 62–84.
*David, Ephraim. Sparta Between Empire and Revolution (404-243 BC): Internal Problems and Their Impact on Contemporary Greek Consciousness. New York: Arno Press, 1981.
*Forrest, W.G. A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C. 2d ed. London: Duckworth, 1980.
*Dustin A. Gish, "Spartan Justice: The Conspiracy of Kinadon in Xenophon's Hellenika", in Polis, vol. 26, no. 2, 2009, pp.&nbsp;339–369.
* {{wikicite|referenceHamilton, Charles D. Agesilaus and the Failure of Spartan Hegemony. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.|ref{{sfnref|Hamilton, Agesilaus}} }}
*Hamilton, Charles D. ''Sparta's Bitter Victories: Politics and Diplomacy in the Corinthian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979.
*D. M. Lewis, John Boardman, Simon Hornblower, M. Ostwald (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VI, The Fourth Century B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1994.
* {{cite magazine |lastPascual |year2013 |firstJosé |titleLa datación de la ascensión al trono de Esparta de Agesilao II y la cronología de la dinastía XXX egipcia |magazineGerión |publisherComplutense University of Madrid |volume30 |pages29–49 |doi10.5209/rev_GERI.2012.v30.41802 |issn0213-0181 }}
*Anton Powell (editor), A Companion to Sparta, Volume I, Hoboken/Chichester, Wiley Blackwell, 2018. {{ISBN|9781405188692}}
*D. R. Shipley, A Commentary on Plutarch's Life of Agesilaos: Response to Sources in the Presentation of Character, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997. {{ISBN|9780198150732}}
*Debby Sneed, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2972/hesperia.90.4.0747 Disability and Infanticide in Ancient Greece]", Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Vol. 90, No. 4, 2021, pp.&nbsp;747–772.
*Maria Stamatopoulou, "[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09518960802005760 Thessalians Abroad, the Case of Pharsalos]", in Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 22.2 (2007), pp.&nbsp;211–236.
*Graham Wylie, "Agesilaus and the Battle of Sardis", in Klio'', n°74 (1992), pp.&nbsp;118–130.
{{s-start}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=Agis II}}
{{s-ttl|titleKing of Sparta|years400/398–358 BC}}
{{s-aft|after=Archidamus III}}
{{s-end}}
{{Kings of Sparta}}
{{Plutarch}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agesilaus 02}}
Category:440s BC births
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:358 BC deaths
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:4th-century BC Spartans
Category:Eurypontid kings of Sparta
Category:Ancient Greek generals
Category:Ancient Greek LGBTQ people
Category:Spartan hegemony | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agesilaus_II | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.870912 |
1551 | Agis | Agis or AGIS may refer to:
People
Agis I (died 900 BC), Spartan king
Agis II (died 401 BC), Spartan king
Agis III (died 331 BC), Spartan king
Agis IV (265–241 BC), Spartan king
Agis (Paeonian) (died 358 BC), King of the Paeonians
Agis of Argos, ancient Greek poet
Maurice Agis (1931–2009), British sculptor and artist
Other uses
Agis (play), by John Home
Agis, several fictional emperors of Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire
Apex Global Internet Services
Atomic gravitational wave interferometric sensor
Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study, conducted by the National Eye Institute
See also
Agide (disambiguation), modern Italian given name related to Agis
Category:Greek masculine given names
Category:Masculine given names | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agis | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.872564 |
1552 | Antonio Agliardi | {{Short description|Italian Roman Catholic Cardinal (1832–1915)}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
|type = Cardinal
|image = Antonio Agliardi.jpg
|caption = The then-archbishop pictured sometime in the 1880s.
|honorific_prefix = His Eminence
|name = Antonio Agliardi
|title = Chancellor of the Apostolic Chancery
|church = Roman Catholic Church
|appointed = 29 June 1908
|term_end = 19 March 1915
|predecessor = Jean-Allarmet de Brogny
|successor = Ottavio Cagiano de Azevedo
|other_post = {{unbulleted list|Cardinal-Bishop of Albano (1899–1915)|Cardinal-Priest of San Lorenzo in Damaso in commendum (1903–15)}}
|ordination = 22 December 1855
|consecration = 12 October 1884
|consecrated_by = Giovanni Simeoni
|cardinal = 22 June 1896
|created_cardinal_by = Pope Leo XIII
|rank = Cardinal-Priest (1896–99)
|birth_date = 4 September 1832
|birth_place = Cologno al Serio, Bergamo, Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia
|death_date {{Death date and age|dfy|1915|03|19|1832|09|04}}
|death_place = Rome, Kingdom of Italy
|parents = Domenico Agliardi<br/>Lidia Vimercati
|previous_post = {{unbulleted list|Apostolic Delegate to East India (1884–87)|Titular Archbishop of Caesarea Maritima (1884–96)|Pro-Secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs (1887–88)|Secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs (1888–89)|Apostolic Nuncio to Bavaria (1889–93)|Apostolic Nuncio to Austria-Hungary (1893–96)|Cardinal-Priest of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo (1896–99)|Camerlengo of the College of Cardinals (1898–99)|Vice-Chancellor of the Apostolic Chancery (1903–08)}}
|alma_mater = Roman Seminary<br/>Pontifical Roman Athenaeum Saint Apollinare
|coat_of_arms = Coat of arms of Antonio Agliardi.svg }}
Antonio Agliardi (4 September 1832 – 19 March 1915) was an Italian Roman Catholic Cardinal, archbishop, and papal diplomat.
Biography
Agliardi was born at Cologno al Serio, in what is now the Province of Bergamo.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=377}}
He studied theology and canon law, and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the pope to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was appointed secretary to the Congregation of the Propaganda.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=377}}
In 1884, he was created by Pope Leo XIII Archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and sent to India as an Apostolic Delegate to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=377}}
In 1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the concordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed secretary of the Congregation super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis. In 1889 he became papal Apostolic Nuncio to Bavaria at Munich and in 1892 at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes that divided Hungary in 1895, he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in 1896 was recalled.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=377}}
In the consistory of 1896 he was elevated to Cardinal-Priest of Santi Nereo e Achilleo. In 1899 he was made Cardinal Bishop of Albano.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bagliardi.html|titleAntonio Cardinal Agliardi [Catholic-Hierarchy]|lastCheney|firstDavid M.|websitewww.catholic-hierarchy.org|access-date2018-05-16}}</ref> In 1903, he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=377}} and became the Chancellor of the Apostolic Chancery in the Secretariat of State in 1908.
He died in Rome and was buried in Bergamo.{{sfn|Chisholm|1922|p71}}Episcopal lineageAgliardi's episcopal lineage, or apostolic succession was:<ref>{{citation |urlhttp://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bcantoni.html |access-date2019-08-09 |workCatholic Hierarchy |titleBishop Oscar Cantoni |authorDavid M. Cheney}}</ref>
{{cols|colwidth30em|rulesyes}}
* Cardinal Scipione Rebiba
* Cardinal Giulio Antonio Santorio
* Cardinal Girolamo Bernerio
* Archbishop Galeazzo Sanvitale
* Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi
* Cardinal Luigi Caetani
* Cardinal Ulderico Carpegna
* Cardinal Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni
* Pope Benedict XIII
* Pope Benedict XIV
* Cardinal Enrico Enríquez
* Archbishop Manuel Quintano Bonifaz
* Cardinal Buenaventura Fernández de Córdoba Spínola
* Cardinal Giuseppe Doria Pamphili
* Pope Pius VIII
* Pope Pius IX
* Cardinal Alessandro Franchi
* Cardinal Giovanni Simeoni
* Cardinal Antonio Agliardi
{{colend}}
Notes
{{reflist|30em}}
References
*{{EB1911|wstitleAgliardi, Antonio|volume1 |page=377}}
*{{EB1922|wstitleAgliardi, Antonio|volume30|page=71}}
*
External links
*[http://catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bagliardi.html Catholic-Hierarchy.org] [[Wikipedia:Verifiability#Reliable sources|{{sup|{{small|[self-published]}}}}]]
{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef|before = himself as Vice Chancellor}}
{{s-ttl|title Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church|years 1908–1915}}
{{s-aft|after = Ottavio Cagiano de Azevedo}}
{{s-bef|before = None}}
{{s-ttl|title Apostolic Delegate to the East Indies|years 23 Sep 1884{{snd}}9 May 1887}}
{{s-aft|after = Andrea Aiuti}}
{{s-end}}
{{Subject bar |portal1Biography |portal2 Catholicism |portal3= Italy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agliardi, Antonio}}
Category:1832 births
Category:1915 deaths
Category:Clergy from the Province of Bergamo
Category:Apostolic nuncios to Austria
Category:20th-century Italian cardinals
Category:Cardinal-bishops of Albano
Category:Cartellverband members
Category:19th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Category:20th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Category:Apostolic Nuncios to Bavaria
Category:Cardinals created by Pope Leo XIII
Category:Roman Catholic titular archbishops of Caesarea | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Agliardi | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.878621 |
1553 | Agnes of Merania | {{Infobox royalty
| consort = yes
| succession = Queen consort of the Franks
| image = Agnes of Merania (Hedwig Codex).jpg
| caption | reign 1196–1200
| coronation | spouse Philip II of France
| issue = Marie, Duchess of Brabant<br>Philip I, Count of Boulogne
| house = Andechs
| titles | father Berthold, Duke of Merania
| mother = Agnes of Rochlitz
| birth_date = 1175
| birth_place | death_date {{death-date|July 1201}}
| death_place | burial_place |
}}
Agnes of Merania (1175 – July 1201) was Queen of France by marriage to King Philip II.
{{Short description|Queen of France from 1196 to 1201}}
She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers.{{sfn|McAuliffe|2012|p197}}BiographyAgnes Maria was the daughter of Berthold, Duke of Merania{{sfn|Powell|2004|p66}} and Agnes of Rochlitz.{{sfn|Peters|1971|p=52}}
In June 1196, Agnes married Philip II of France, who had repudiated his second wife Ingeborg of Denmark in 1193.{{sfn|Bradbury|1997|p183}} Pope Innocent III espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, nine months after interdict had been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation from Agnes.{{sfn|McDougall|2017|p223}}
Agnes died, possibly in childbirth, in July of the next year, at the castle of Poissy, and was buried in the Convent of St. Corentin, near Nantes.{{sfn|McDougall|2017|p223}}Family
Agnes and Philip had two children:
*Mary, b. 1198{{sfn|McDougall|2017|p=223}}
*Philip I, Count of Boulogne, b 1200{{sfn|McDougall|2017|p=223}}
Both were legitimized by the Pope in 1201.{{sfn|Hallam|1980|p196}}References{{reflist}}Sources*{{cite book |lastBradbury |year1997 |firstJim |author-linkJim Bradbury |titlePhilip Augustus: King of France 1180–1223 |seriesThe Medieval World |edition1st |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-582-06059-3 }}
*{{cite book |titleCapetian France, 987-1328 |firstElizabeth |lastHallam |publisherLongman |year=1980 }}
*{{cite book |titleClash of Crowns: William the Conqueror, Richard Lionheart, and Eleanor of Aquitaine|firstMary |lastMcAuliffe |publisherRowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. |year=2012 }}
*{{cite book |titleRoyal Bastards: The Birth of Illegitimacy, 800-1230 |firstSara |lastMcDougall |author-linkSara McDougall |publisherOxford University Press |year2017 }}
*{{cite book |titleChristian Society and the Crusades, 1198-1229 |editor-firstEdward |editor-lastPeters |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |year=1971 }}
*{{cite book |titleThe Deeds of Pope Innocent III |editor-firstJames M. |editor-lastPowell |publisherThe Catholic University of America Press |year2004 }}External links
{{Commons category-inline}}
{{s-start}}
{{S-roy|fr}}
{{s-bef|before=Ingeborg of Denmark}}
{{s-ttl|titleQueen consort of France|years1196–1201}}
{{s-aft|after=Ingeborg of Denmark}}
{{s-end}}
{{French consorts}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agnes of Merania}}
Category:1175 births
Category:1201 deaths
Category:Queens consort of France
Category:Repudiated queens
Category:House of Andechs
Category:House of Capet
Category:12th-century French people
Category:12th-century French women
Category:13th-century French people
Category:13th-century French women
Category:Wives of Philip II of France
Category:Deaths in childbirth | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes_of_Merania | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.881733 |
1556 | Agrippina the Elder | {{Short description|Mother of Caligula, Julio-Claudian dynasty}}
{{distinguish|text = her half-sister Vipsania Agrippina}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs2}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image = (Venice) Portrait of Agrippine Major in National archeologic museum.jpg
| alt |caption
| birth_name | birth_date {{Circa|14 BC}}
| birth_place = Athens, Greece
| death_date = AD 33 (aged 46)
| death_place = Pandataria
| burial_date | burial_place AD 33<br />Pandataria<br />relocated in March AD 37 to the <br />Mausoleum of Augustus
| spouse = Germanicus
| issue = {{ubl|Nero Caesar|Drusus Caesar|Gaius Caesar (Caligula)|Agrippina the Younger|Julia Livilla|Julia Drusilla}}
| dynasty = Julio-Claudian
| father = Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
| mother = Julia the Elder
}}
(Vipsania) Agrippina the Elder<ref name"PIR">{{harvnb|Dessau|Rohden|Klebs|1898|p434}}</ref> (also, in Latin, {{lang|la|Agrippina Germanici}},<ref name="PIR"/> "Germanicus's Agrippina"; {{Circa|14 BC}} – AD 33) was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (a close supporter of the first Roman emperor, Augustus) and Augustus' daughter, Julia the Elder. Her brothers Lucius and Gaius Caesar were the adoptive sons of Augustus, and were his heirs until their deaths in AD 2 and 4, respectively. Following their deaths, her second cousin Germanicus was made the adoptive son of Tiberius, Augustus' stepson, as part of the succession scheme in the adoptions of AD 4 (in which Tiberius was adopted by Augustus). As a result of the adoption, Agrippina was wed to Germanicus in order to bring him closer to the Julian family.
Agrippina the Elder is known to have traveled with Germanicus throughout his career, taking her children wherever they went. In AD 14, Germanicus was deployed in Gaul as a governor and general, and, while there, the late Augustus sent her son Gaius to stay with her. Agrippina liked to dress him in a little soldiers' outfit for which Gaius earned the nickname "Caligula" ("little soldier's boots"). After three years in Gaul, they returned to Rome, and her husband was awarded a triumph on 26 May AD 17 to commemorate his victories. The following year, Germanicus was sent to govern over the eastern provinces. While Germanicus was active in his administration, the governor of Syria Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso began feuding with him. During the feud, her husband died of illness on 10 October AD 19.
Germanicus was cremated in Antioch, and she transported his ashes to Rome where they were interred at the Mausoleum of Augustus. Agrippina was vocal in claims of her husband being murdered in order to promote Tiberius' son, Drusus Julius Caesar ("Drusus the Younger"), as heir. Following the model of her stepgrandmother Livia, she spent the time following Germanicus' death supporting the cause of her sons Nero and Drusus Caesar. This put her and her sons at odds with the powerful Praetorian prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus, who began eliminating their supporters with accusations of treason and sexual misconduct in AD 26. Her family's rivalry with Sejanus would culminate with her and Nero's exile in AD 29. Nero was exiled to Pontia and she was exiled to the island of Pandateria, where she would remain until her death by starvation in AD 33.
Name
{{see also|Roman naming conventions}}
Following the Roman custom of parents and children sharing the same nomen and cognomen, women in the same family would often share the same name. Accordingly, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa first daughter with Attica was named Vipsania Agrippina.{{efn|This is the name given in CIL [https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD002169 VI 40321], although the text is almost entirely a reconstruction. Tacitus does indeed call her "Vipsania" in his Annals.<ref>Annals (Tacitus), 1, 12</ref>}} To distinguish Agrippa and Julia's daughter from their granddaughter Julia Agrippina, historians refer to this daughter as "Agrippina the Elder" (Latin: Agrippina Maior). Likewise, Agrippina's daughter is referred to as
"Agrippina the Younger" (Minor).<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|2015|pxiv}}</ref> Like her father, Agrippina the Elder avoided her nomen and has not been found to have used "Vipsania" in inscription.<ref nameLott301>{{harvnb|Lott|2012|p301}}</ref> An inscription in Rhodiapolis records her with the nomen "Julia", although this appears to be a mistake.{{sfn|Nuorluoto|2021|p207}}
Background
depicting Agrippa wearing a combination of the corona muralis and the corona rostalis''.{{sfn|Hill|1903|p=242}} ]]
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was an early supporter of Augustus (then "Octavius"). He was a key general in Augustus' armies, commanding troops during the wars against Sextus Pompey and Mark Antony. From early in the emperor's reign, Agrippa was trusted to handle affairs in the eastern provinces and was even given the signet ring of Augustus, who appeared to be on his deathbed in 23{{nbsp}}BC, a sign that he would become princeps were Augustus to die. It is probable that he was to rule until the emperor's nephew, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, came of age. However, Marcellus died that year of an illness that became an epidemic in Rome.{{sfn|Bunson|2014|p10}}{{sfn|Southern|2013|p203}}<ref nameDunston274>{{harvnb|Dunstan|2010|p274}}.</ref>
Now, with Marcellus dead, Augustus arranged for the marriage of Agrippa to his daughter Julia the Elder, who was previously the wife of Marcellus. Agrippa was given tribunicia potestas ("the tribunician power") in 18 BC, a power that only the emperor and his immediate heir could hope to attain. The tribunician power allowed him to control the Senate, and it was first given to Julius Caesar. Agrippa acted as tribune in the Senate to pass important legislation and, though he lacked some of the emperor's power and authority, he was approaching the position of co-regent.<ref nameDunston274/>{{sfn|Rowe|2002|pp52–54}}{{sfn|Scullard|2013|p=216}}
After the birth of Agrippa's second son, Lucius, in 17 BC, Lucius and his brother Gaius were adopted together by Augustus. Around the time of their adoption in the summer, Augustus held the fifth ever Ludi Saeculares ("Secular Games"). Cassius Dio says the adoption of the boys coupled with the games served to introduce a new era of peace – the Pax Augusta. It is not known what Agrippa thought of their adoption; however, following their adoption, Agrippa was dispatched to govern the eastern provinces, bringing his family with him.{{sfn|Powell|2015|pp159–160}}{{sfn|Davies|Swain|2010|p284}}<ref namePowellxxviii>{{harvnb|Powell|2015|pxxviii}}.</ref>
Early life and family
{{see also|Julio-Claudian family tree}}
Agrippina was born in 14 BC to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, before their return to Rome in 13 BC. She had several siblings, including half-sisters Vipsania Agrippina, Vipsania Attica, Vipsania Marcella and Vipsania Marcellina (from her father's marriages to Pomponia Caecilia Attica and Claudia Marcella Major); and four full siblings, with three brothers; Gaius, Lucius, and Postumus Agrippa (all were adopted by Augustus; Gaius and Lucius were adopted together following Lucius' birth in 17 BC; Postumus in AD 4),<ref>{{harvnb|Pettinger|2012|p47}}</ref> and a sister Julia the Younger.<ref namePowellxxxiv>{{harvnb|Powell|2015|p=xxxiv}}</ref>
She was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. On her mother's side, she was the younger granddaughter of Augustus. She was the Stepdaughter of Tiberius by her mother's marriage to him, and sister in law of Claudius, the brother of her husband Germanicus. Her son Gaius, better known as "Caligula", would be the third emperor, and her grandson Nero would be the last emperor of the dynasty.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1999|p=321}}</ref>
In 13 BC, her father returned to Rome and was promptly sent to Pannonia to suppress a rebellion. Agrippa arrived there that winter (in 12 BC), but the Pannonians gave up that same year. Agrippa returned to Campania in Italy, where he fell ill and died soon after. After her father's death, she spent the rest of her childhood in Augustus' household where access to her was strictly controlled.<ref namePowell194>{{harvnb|Powell|2015|p194}}</ref><ref nameWood65>{{harvnb|Wood|1999|p65}}</ref>
Some of the currency issued in 13–12 BC, the aurei and denarii, make it clear that her brothers Gaius and Lucius were Augustus' intended heirs. Their father was no longer available to assume the reins of power if the Emperor were to die, and Augustus had to make it clear who his intended heirs were in case anything should happen. Lucius' and Gaius' military and political careers would steadily advance until their deaths in AD 2 and 4, respectively.<ref nameWood65/><ref namePettinger235>{{harvnb|Pettinger|2012|p=235}}</ref>
The death of her brothers meant that Augustus had to find other heirs. Although he initially considered Agrippina's second cousin Germanicus a potential heir for a time, Livia convinced Augustus to adopt Tiberius, Livia's son from her first marriage with Tiberius Claudius Nero. Although Augustus adopted Tiberius, it was on condition that Tiberius first adopt Germanicus so that Germanicus would become second in the line of succession. It was a corollary to the adoption, probably in the next year, that Agrippina was married to Germanicus.<ref namePettinger235/><ref nameSalisbury3>{{harvnb|Salisbury|2001|p3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Levick|1999|p33}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Swan|2004|p=142}}</ref>
By her husband Germanicus, she had nine children: Nero Julius Caesar, Drusus Julius Caesar, Tiberius Julius Caesar, a child of unknown name (normally referenced as Ignotus), Gaius the Elder, the Emperor Caligula (Gaius the Younger), the Empress Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla. Only six of her children came of age; Tiberius and Ignotus died as infants, and Gaius the Elder in his early childhood.<ref namePowellxxxiv/><ref nameSalisbury3/>
Marriage
Her husband's career in the military began in AD 6, with the Batonian War in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Throughout Germanicus' military career, Agrippina is known to have traveled with her husband and their children.<ref nameLott301/> Germanicus' career advanced steadily as he advanced in ranks following the cursus honorum until, in AD 12, he was made consul. The following year, he was given command over Gaul and the forces on the Rhine, totaling eight legions.<ref>{{harvnb|Wells|2003|pp202–4}}</ref>
On 18 May AD 14, her one-year-old son Gaius was sent by Augustus from Rome to join her in Gaul. She was pregnant at the time and, while Germanicus was collecting taxes across Gaul, she remained at an unspecified separate location, presumably for her safety. Augustus sent her a letter with her son's party, which read:<ref name="Barrett41"/>
{{Blockquote|Yesterday I arranged with Talarius and Asillinus to bring your boy Gaius on the fifteen day before the Kalends of June, if it be the will of the gods. I send with him besides one of my slaves who is a physician, and I have written to Germanicus to keep him if he wishes. Farewell, my Agrippina, and take care to come in good health to your Germanicus.<ref nameMellor369>{{harvnb|Mellor|1998|p369}}</ref>}}
Later that year, on 19 August, Augustus died while away in Campania. As a result, Tiberius was made princeps. While Germanicus was administering the oath of fealty to Tiberius, a mutiny began among the forces on the Rhine. During the mutiny, Agrippina brought out their sixth child, Gaius, and made preparations to take him away to a safer town nearby. He was in a full army outfit including the legionary hobnailed boots (caligae). These military-booties earned Gaius the nickname "Caligula" (lit. "little boots"), and garnered sympathy for Agrippina and the child among the soldiery. Tacitus attributes her actions as having quelled the mutiny (Tacitus, Annals 1.40–4).<ref nameMellor369/><ref name"MacLachlan 2013 135">{{harvnb|MacLachlan|2013|p=135}}</ref>
Once the mutiny was put to an end, Germanicus allowed the soldiers to deal with the ringleaders, which they did with brutal severity. He then led them against the Germanic tribes, perhaps in an effort to prevent future mutiny. Germanicus would remain in Gaul fighting against the Germanic tribes until AD 16, at which time he was recalled to Rome by Tiberius. His campaigns won him much renown among the Roman people, and he was awarded a triumph on 26 May AD 17.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2015|pp45–6}}</ref>Widowhood, Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768), oil on canvas. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven.<ref nameFacos29>{{harvnb|Facos|2011|p=29}}</ref>]]
In AD 18, Agrippina left for the eastern provinces with her family. Germanicus was sent the east to govern the provinces, the same assignment her father was given years earlier.<ref nameWood203>{{harvnb|Wood|1999|p203}}</ref> Agrippina was pregnant on their journey east and, on the way to Syria, she gave birth to her youngest daughter Julia Livilla on the island of Lesbos. Inscriptions celebrating her fertility have been found on the island.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1999|p=206}}</ref>
Tiberius sent Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso to assist her husband, naming him governor of Syria. During their time there, Germanicus was active in his administration of the eastern regions.<ref nameWood203/> Piso did not get along well with Germanicus and their relationship only got worse. In AD 19, Germanicus ordered Piso to leave the province, which Piso began to do. On his way back to Rome, Piso stopped at the island of Kos off the coast of Syria. Around that time Germanicus fell ill and he died on 10 October AD 19 at Antioch.<ref nameAlston26>{{harvnb|Alston|1998|p26}}</ref> Rumours spread of Piso poisoning her husband on the emperor's orders.<ref namePowell194/>
After Germanicus' cremation in the forum of Antioch, Agrippina personally carried the ashes of her husband to Rome. The transportation of the ashes witnessed national mourning. She landed at the port of Brundisium in southern Italy where she was met with huge crowds of sympathizers; a praetorian escort was provided by the emperor in light of her rank as the wife of a governor-general. As she passed each town, the people and local magistrates came out to show their respect. Drusus the Younger (son of Tiberius), Claudius, and the consuls journeyed to join the procession as well. Once she made it to Rome, her husband's ashes were interred at the Mausoleum of Augustus. Tiberius and Livia did not make an appearance.<ref nameAlston26/><ref namePowell194/>
Life after Germanicus
detail depicting Livia (left), Drusus (center), and Agrippina the Elder (right).<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|2016|p=45}}</ref>]]
Her marriage to Germanicus had served to unite the imperial family. Agrippina may have suspected Tiberius' involvement in the death of her husband and, with Germanicus dead, she no longer had any familial ties to the emperor. Historian Richard Alston says it is likely that either Tiberius or Livia were behind the exile of Agrippina's sister Julia the Younger and the death of Postumus. He notes the death of Agrippina's mother, who starved herself to death amidst her exile in AD 14, linking her death to Tiberius' disdain for her.<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|1998|p=39}}</ref>
Agrippina was vocal about her feelings claiming that Germanicus was murdered to promote Drusus the Younger as Tiberius' heir, and worried that the birth of the Younger Drusus' twin sons would displace her own sons in the line of succession.
At about this time, Tiberius' Praetorian Prefect Sejanus was becoming powerful in Rome and began feuding with Drusus the Younger. While the exact causes of the feud are unknown, it ended when the Younger Drusus died of seemingly natural causes on 14 September AD 23. After the death of Tiberius' son, Agrippina wanted to advance the careers of her sons, who were all potential heirs for Tiberius. It has been suggested that to achieve this, Agrippina commissioned the Great Cameo of France and presented it to Tiberius as a personalized gift that positioned the family of Germanicus around the emperor. The work was designed to convince Tiberius to choose her children as his heirs.<ref nameFischer46>{{harvnb|Fischer|2016|p46}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Levick|1999|p=127}}</ref>
Ultimately, the death of Tiberius' son elevated her own children to the position of heirs. Her sons were the logical choice, because they were the sons of Germanicus and Tiberius' grandsons were too young. Nero was becoming popular in the Senate due in part, Tacitus says, to his resemblance with his father. The rise of her children was threatening to Sejanus' position. Resultantly, Sejanus began spreading rumors about Agrippina in the imperial court. The coming years were marked with increasing hostility between Sejanus and Agrippina and her sons. This effectively caused factions to rise in the aristocracy between her family and Sejanus.<ref nameFischer46/><ref nameAlston31>{{harvnb|Alston|1998|p31}}</ref>Political rivalryof Caligula with Agrippina on the obverse, minted circa AD 37.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferrero|1911|p219}}</ref>]]
On New Year's Day, AD 24, Sejanus had the priests and magistrates add prayers for the health of Nero and Drusus in addition to those normally offered to the emperor on that day. Tiberius was not happy with this and he voiced his displeasure in the Senate. In addition, he questioned the priests of the Palatine. Some of the priests who offered the prayers were relatives of Agrippina and Germanicus. This made Tiberius suspicious of her and marked a change in his attitude toward her and her older sons, but not Caligula.<ref>{{harvnb|Dando-Collins|2008|pp94–5}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2007|p107}}</ref>
In AD 25, Sejanus requested Livilla's hand in marriage. Livilla was a niece of the emperor, which would have made him a member of the imperial family. While this did make his ambitions clear, his request was denied. The loss may have been huge for Sejanus had the dissensions in the imperial household not been deteriorating. Relations were so bad that Agrippina refused to eat at Tiberius' dinner parties for fear of being poisoned. She also asked Tiberius if she could be allowed to remarry, which he also refused.<ref name=Alston31/>
If either of them were allowed to remarry it would have threatened the line of succession that Tiberius was comfortable with. By refusing Sejanus' request, Tiberius made it clear he was content with the children of Germanicus and his own grandchildren being his successors. Had Sejanus married Livilla, their children would have provided another line of possible successors. The implication of Agrippina's request was that she needed a man from outside the imperial family to serve as protector and step-father of possible imperial heirs, a powerful position. It was also an implied reprimand: Tiberius was meant to be the guardian of the imperial family.<ref name=Alston31/>
Tiberius was in a tough position. He was faced with a conflict between his family and his friend. His solution was surprising. In AD 26, he left Rome altogether and retired to the island of Capri in the Bay of Naples. He cut himself off from the factions altogether and abandoned politics. He left Rome in the care of Sejanus. This allowed Sejanus to freely attack his rivals.<ref nameAdams108>{{harvnb|Adams|2007|p108}}</ref><ref nameAlston32>{{harvnb|Alston|1998|p32}}</ref>
Downfall
With Tiberius away from Rome, the city would see a rise of politically motivated trials on the part of Sejanus and his supporters against Agrippina and her associates. Many of her friends and associates were subsequently accused of maiestas ("treason") by the growing number of accusers. It was also common to see charges of sexual misconduct and corruption. In AD 27, Agrippina found herself placed under house arrest in her suburban villa outside Herculaneum.<ref nameAdams108/><ref namePhang688>{{harvnb|Phang|Spence|Kelley|Londey|2016|p688}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Alston|1998|p35}}</ref>
In AD 28, the Senate voted that altars to Clementia (mercy) and Amicitia (friendship) be raised. At that time, Clementia was considered a virtue of the ruling class, for only the powerful could give clemency. The altar of Amicitia was flanked by statues of Sejanus and Tiberius. By this time, his association with Tiberius was such that there were those in Roman society who erected statues in his honor and gave prayers and sacrifices in his honor. Sejanus' birthday was honored as if he were a member of the imperial family. According to Richard Alston, "Sejanus' association with Tiberius must have at least indicated to the people that he would be further elevated."<ref name=Alston32/>
Sejanus did not begin his final attack on Agrippina until after the death of Livia in AD 29. Tacitus reports a letter being sent to the Senate from Tiberius denouncing Agrippina for her arrogance and prideful attitude, and Nero for engaging in shameful sexual activities. The Senate would not begin these highly unpopular prosecutions against her or her son until it received clear instructions from Tiberius to do so. Despite public outcry, Agrippina and Nero were declared public enemies (hostes) following a repeat of the accusations by the emperor. They were both exiled; Nero to Pontia where he was killed or encouraged to commit suicide in AD 31, and Agrippina to the island of Pandateria (the same place her daughter was exiled to).<ref nameAlston32/><ref namePhang688/>
Suetonius says that while on the island of Pandateria, she lost an eye when she was beaten by a centurion. She would remain on the island until her death in AD 33. Accounts of her death vary. She is said to have died from starvation, but it is not certain whether or not it was self-imposed. Tacitus says food was withheld from her in an effort to make her death seem like a suicide.<ref namePhang688/>Post mortem(1647)<ref>{{harvnb|Zirpolo|2010|p322}}</ref>]]
near the Tabularium.]]
Her son Drusus was later also exiled on charges of sexual misdemeanors. Sejanus remained powerful until his sudden downfall and summary execution in October AD 31, just after the death of Nero, the exact cause for which remains unclear. Alston suggests that Sejanus may have been acting in Tiberius' favor to remove Germanicus' family from power, noting that Agrippina and Nero's brother Drusus were left in exile even after Sejanus' death.<ref>{{harvnb|Bingham|1999|p66}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bunson|2014|p388}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Alston|1998|p=34}}</ref>
The deaths of Agrippina's older sons elevated her youngest son Caligula to the position of successor and he became princeps when Tiberius died in AD 37. Drusus the Younger's son Tiberius Gemellus was summoned to Capri by his grandfather Tiberius, where he and Caligula were made joint-heirs. When Caligula assumed power he made Gemellus his adopted son, but Caligula soon had Gemellus killed for plotting against him.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2007|p=109}}</ref> According to Philo, Caligula's pretended reason was a conspiracy.<ref>Philo, Against Flaccus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Philo/in_Flaccum*.html#III 3.11]</ref>
After he became emperor, Caligula took on the role of a dutiful son and brother in a public show of pietas ("piety"). He went out to the islands of Pontia and Pandateria in order to recover the remains of Agrippina and Nero. It was not easy to recover Nero's bones as they were scattered and buried. Moreover, he had a stormy passage; however, the difficulty in his task made his devotion seem even greater. The ashes were brought to Ostia, from where they were carried up the Tiber and brought to the Campus Martius, from where equestrians placed them on briers to join the ashes of Germanicus in the mausoleum of Augustus. The move was reminiscent of when Agrippina carried the ashes of her husband just over 17 years earlier. Agrippina's funerary urn still survives ({{CIL|06|886}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2015|p=84}}</ref>
The tablet made of marble reads:
"OSSA
AGRIPPINAE M AGRIPPAE F
DIVI AVG NEPTIS VXORIS
GERMANICI CAESARIS
MATRIS C CAESARIS AVG
GERMANICI PRINCIPIS"
which translates as "Bones of Agrippina; daughter of Marcus Agrippa, granddaughter of Divus Augustus, wife of Germanicus Caesar, mother of Princeps Gaius Caesar Germanicus".
Personality
Agrippina was fiercely independent, a trait she shared with her mother. Dio described her as having ambitions to match her pedigree. However, Anthony A. Barrett notes that Agrippina was fully aware that a woman in ancient Rome could not hold power in her own right. Instead, Agrippina followed the model of Livia in promoting the careers of her children.<ref name=Barrett41/>
She and her daughter, Agrippina the Younger, are both described as being equally ambitious for their sons. Whereas the elder Agrippina's son failed to become emperor, the younger Agrippina's son, also named Nero, succeeds. In a contrast, Tacitus has Agrippina the Elder merely standing on a bridge waving the soldiers passing by, whereas her daughter eclipses her by presiding over a military tribunal and accepting gifts from foreign ambassadors.<ref name"L'Hoir131">{{harvnb|L'Hoir|2006|p131}}</ref>
Tacitus also records serious tension between Agrippina and Livia. He describes Livia as having visited "stepmotherly provocations" on Agrippina. He says of Agrippina: "were it not that through her moral integrity and love for her husband she converted an otherwise ungovernable temper to the good" (Tacitus, Annals 1.33).<ref name"MacLachlan 2013 135"/> Despite being sympathetic to her as a victim of imperial oppression, he uses expressions like "excitable", "arrogant", "proud", "fierce", "obstinate", and "ambitious" to describe Agrippina. His comments are echoed by other sources.<ref nameBarrett41/>
Historiography
Historian Lindsay Powell says Agrippina enjoyed a normal marriage and continued to show her devotion to Germanicus after his death. He says she was regarded by the Roman people as, quoting Tacitus, "the glory of the country, the sole surviving offspring of Augustus, the solitary example of the good old times."<ref name=Powell194/>
Alston cautions against accepting the stories of Agrippina's feud with Sejanus at face value, as these accounts reflect a tradition hostile to Tiberius and Sejanus. They may have been circulated by Agrippina's supporters or they may have emerged after Sejanus' fall in AD 31. He adds: "These stories are plausible, though not certain to be true."<ref nameAlston31/>Suetonius
{{main|The Twelve Caesars}}
Augustus was proud of Agrippina. Suetonius claims that Augustus wrote her a letter praising her intellect and directing her education. Suetonius also records that Augustus, who held strict views on self-restraint and respectable speech, cautioned Agrippina not to speak "offensively". When she next appears, she is being chastised by Tiberius in Greek for making irritating remarks, and the tone of the Greek verse quoted by Tiberius suggests that she should have heeded the advice of her grandfather not to speak offensively.<ref nameSalisbury3/><ref nameBarrett41>{{harvnb|Barrett|2015|p41}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Power|Gibson|2014|pp55–56}}</ref>
Tacitus
{{main|Annals (Tacitus)}}
The Annals of Tacitus is a history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty beginning with the death of Augustus. In it, he portrays women as having a profound influence on politics. The women of the imperial family in particular are depicted by Tacitus as having a notable prominence in the public sphere as well as possessing a ferocity and ambition with which they pursue it. Tacitus presents them as living longer than the imperial men and thus being more wise as they advance in age. Among the most broad of his portrayals is that of Agrippina. He emphasizes their role in connecting genetically back to Augustus, a significant factor in the marriages of the emperors and princes of the dynasty. The Annals repeatedly has Agrippina competing for influence with Tiberius simply because she is related to Augustus biologically.<ref>{{harvnb|Feldherr|2009|pp=285–6}}</ref>
Tacitus presents Agrippina as being kindred to aristocratic males,<ref name"L'Hoir131"/> and has her reversing gender roles, which showcases her assumption of male auctoritas ("authority") with metaphors of her dressing and undressing. In an example of Agrippina assuming auctoritas, he says:<ref>{{harvnb|L'Hoir|2006|pp136–7}}</ref> {{Verse translation|langla|Sed femina ingens animi munia ducis per eos dies induit militibusque, ut quis inops aut saucius, vestem et fomenta dilargita est. tradit C. Plinius, Germanicorum bellorum scriptorum, stetisse apud principium po[n]ti[s], laudes et grates reversis legionibus habentum|But throughout those days, a femina, mighty of spirit, donned the apparel of a dux, and she distributed clothing or bandages to the soldiers, whoever might be needy or suffering. Gaius Plinius, the chronicler of the German wars, relates that she stood at the head of the bridge, offering congratulatory praises to the legions as they returned.|attr1Tacitus, 1.69.1|attr2{{harvnb|L'Hoir|2006|pp136–7}}}}
Using the above epithet, "(femina) ingens animi" ("..[a woman], great for her courage"),<ref>{{harvnb|Pagán|2012|p447}}</ref> he assigns a haughty attitude to Agrippina that compels her to explore the affairs of men. He records her as having reversed the natural order of things when she quelled the mutiny of the Rhine in AD 14. In so doing, he describes her as having usurped her husband's power, a power rightfully belonging only to a general.<ref>{{harvnb|L'Hoir|2006|p130}}</ref>
Portraiture
(AD 50) depicting Claudius (front left), Agrippina the Younger (back left), Germanicus (front right), and Agrippina the Elder (back right).{{efn|It has also been proposed that the two on the right are Tiberius and Livia;<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|2016|p54}}</ref> however historian Kleiner notes that Claudius and Agrippina the Younger would probably be paired with another married couple, i.e., pairing them with a mother and son would be an unusual juxtaposition. In addition, if the man on the right were Tiberius, it is unlikely he would be depicted as being so young.<ref name"Kleiner 2016 143">{{harvnb|Kleiner|2016|p143}}</ref>}}<ref name"Kleiner 2016 143">{{harvnb|Kleiner|2016|p=143}}</ref>]]
]]
Portraits of Roman women from the Julio-Claudian dynasty display a freer hair treatment than those of traditional Roman men and are more keen on the sensitivity of recording on different textures. These changes in style served to make reproducing them more popular in the mid-first-century AD. Reproductions of her image would continue to be made into that period. In the portrait, she is given a youthful face despite the fact that she lived to middle age. Agrippina's hair is a mass of curls that covers both sides of her head and is long going down to her shoulders. Her portraiture can be contrasted with that of Livia who had a more austere Augustan hairstyle.<ref>{{harvnb|Kleiner|2016|p=139}}</ref>
There are three different periods during the first-century AD when portraits were created for Agrippina: at the time of her marriage to Germanicus (which made her the mother of a potential emperor); when her son Caligula came into power in AD 37, and collected her ashes from the island of Pandateria for relocation to the Mausoleum of Augustus; and at the time of Claudius' marriage to Agrippina the Younger, who wanted to connect himself to the lineage of Augustus by evoking Agrippina's image. Coins and inscriptions cannot act as a method of discerning her age, because her hairstyle remains unchanged in all the representations.<ref nameGiroire73>{{harvnb|Giroire|Roger|2007|p73}}</ref>
The easiest phase of portraits to identify are those dating to the time of Caligula, when a fair abundance of coins were minted with an image of his mother on them. It is a posthumous portrait of her with idealized features. In the phase following Claudius' marriage, her features are made to more closely resemble those of her daughter. The goal was to strengthen Agrippina the Younger's connection with her mother. Finally, the portraits of her dating to the time of Tiberius are still idealized, but not as much as those from the period of Caligula's reign. Images of Agrippina from this period are the most lifelike.<ref nameGiroire73/>Cultural depictionsAgrippina is one of the few women from the Roman imperial period whose story was recounted in later centuries as an example of moral character. Her journey to deposit the ashes of her husband was popular with eighteenth century painters, including William Turner, Gavin Hamilton, and Benjamin West whose painting Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768) began the trend.<ref>{{harvnb|Freisenbruch|2011|p96}}</ref>
She is also remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 1361{{endash}}62. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.<ref name"Brown_xi">{{harvnb|Boccaccio|2003|pxi}}</ref> Other notable works of which include:
*Agrippina Mourning over the ashes of Germanicus (1775), an etching by Scottish painter Alexander Runciman.<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|Rossington|1994|p=89}}</ref>
*The Caesars (1968), a television series by Philip Mackie for Granada TV. She was played by Caroline Blakiston.
*I, Claudius (1976), a television series by Jack Pulman for the BBC. She was played by Fiona Walker.<ref>{{harvnb|Newcomb|1997|p1157}}</ref>See also
*Julio-Claudian family tree
*Gaius Silius
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|20em}}
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* {{citation|firstGreg|lastRowe|titlePrinces and Political Cultures: The New Tiberian Senatorial Decress|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press|year2002|isbn0472112309}}
* {{citation|firstJoyce E.|lastSalisbury|author-linkJoyce E. Salisbury |titleWomen in the ancient world|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHF0m3spOebcC&pgPA3|year2001|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-1-57607-092-5}}
* {{citation|firstH. H.|lastScullard|titleFrom the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68|publisherRoutledge|year2013|isbn9781136783869}}
* {{citation|firstPatricia|lastSouthern|titleAugustus|publisherRoutledge|year2013|isbn9781134589562}}
* {{citation|firstMichael Peter|lastSwan|titleThe Augustan Succession: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History|publisherOxford University Press|year2004|isbn0-19-516774-0}}
* {{citation|firstPeter S.|lastWells|titleThe Battle That Stopped Rome|year2003|publisherNorton|isbn978-0-393-32643-7}}
* {{citation|firstSusan E.|lastWood|titleImperial Women: A Study in Public Images, 40 B.C. – A.D. 68|urlhttps://archive.org/details/imperialwomenstu0000wood|publisherBrill Academic Publishers|year1999|isbn=9789004119505}}
* {{citation|firstLilian H.|lastZirpolo|titleHistorical Dictionary of Baroque Art and Architecture|publisherRowman & Littlefield|year2010|isbn9780810861558|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000zirp}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Agrippina the Elder}}
Category:10s BC births
Category:33 deaths
Category:1st-century BC Roman women
Category:1st-century Roman women
Category:1st-century Romans
Category:Ancient Roman women in warfare
Category:Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus
Category:Children of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Category:Deaths by starvation
Category:Germanicus
Category:Julio-Claudian dynasty
Category:Vipsanii Agrippae
Category:Women in 1st-century warfare
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:Mothers of Roman emperors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrippina_the_Elder | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.902087 |
1557 | Agrippina the Younger | Julia Agrippina (6 November AD 15 – 23 March AD 59), also referred to as Agrippina the Younger, was Roman empress from AD 49 to 54, the fourth wife and niece of emperor Claudius, and the mother of Nero.
Agrippina was one of the most prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was the great-granddaughter of Augustus (the first Roman emperor) and the daughter of the Roman general Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Her father, Germanicus, was the nephew and heir apparent of the second emperor, Tiberius. Agrippina's brother Caligula became emperor in AD 37. After Caligula was assassinated in AD 41, Germanicus' brother Claudius took the throne. Agrippina married Claudius in AD 49.
Agrippina has been described by modern and ancient sources as ruthless, ambitious, domineering and using her powerful political ties to influence the affairs of the Roman state, even managing to successfully maneuver her son Nero into the line of succession. Claudius eventually became aware of her plotting, but died in AD 54 under suspicious circumstances, potentially poisoned by Agrippina herself. She exerted significant political influence in the early years of her son's reign, but eventually fell out of favor with him and was killed in AD 59. Physically, Agrippina was described as a beautiful and reputable woman; and, according to Pliny the Elder, had a double canine in her upper right jaw, which was regarded as a sign of good fortune in Ancient Rome.
Family
Agrippina was the first daughter and fourth living child of Agrippina the Elder and Germanicus.
She had three elder brothers, Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar, and the future emperor Caligula, and two younger sisters, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Agrippina's two eldest brothers and her mother were victims of the intrigues of the Praetorian Prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus.
She was the namesake of her mother. Agrippina the Elder was remembered as a modest and heroic matron, who was the second daughter and fourth child of Julia the Elder and the statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. The father of Julia the Elder was the emperor Augustus, and Julia was his only natural child from his second marriage to Scribonia, who had close blood relations with Pompey the Great and Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
Germanicus, Agrippina's father, was a very popular general and politician. His mother was Antonia Minor and his father was the general Nero Claudius Drusus. He was Antonia Minor's first child. Germanicus had two younger siblings: Livilla and Claudius, making the pair Agrippina's aunt and uncle, respectively. Not only would Claudius later serve as Roman emperor, he would also go on to take Agrippina, his own niece, as his wife.
Antonia Minor was a daughter to Octavia the Younger by her second marriage to triumvir Mark Antony, and Octavia was the second eldest sister and full-blooded sister of Augustus. Germanicus' father, Drusus the Elder, was the second son of the Empress Livia Drusilla by her first marriage to praetor Tiberius Nero, and was the emperor Tiberius's younger brother and Augustus's stepson.
In the year AD 9, Augustus ordered Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, who happened to be Tiberius's nephew, as his son and heir. Germanicus was a favourite of Augustus, who hoped that he would succeed Tiberius, who was Augustus's adopted son and heir and then emperor following Augustus' death in AD 14. This in turn meant that Tiberius was also Agrippina's adoptive grandfather in addition to her paternal great-uncle.
Birth and early life
Agrippina was born on 6 November in AD 15, or possibly AD 14, at Oppidum Ubiorum, a Roman outpost on the Rhine River located in present-day Cologne, Germany. A second sister Julia Drusilla was born on 16 September AD 16, also in Germany.
Agrippina's place of birth is disputed, with Cologne being seen as a likely place considering how Agrippina would favor the city and the Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium being established at her prompting there.
Suetonius however claims that both of Germanicus's eldest daughters were born in Trier in Gaul.
As a small child, Agrippina travelled with her parents throughout Germany until she and her siblings (apart from Caligula) returned to Rome to live with and be raised by their paternal grandmother Antonia. Her parents departed for Syria in AD 18 to conduct official duties, and, according to Tacitus, the third and youngest sister was born en route on the island of Lesbos, namely Julia Livilla, probably on 18 March. In October of AD 19, Germanicus died suddenly in Antioch (present-day Antakya, Turkey).
Germanicus' death caused much public grief in Rome, and gave rise to rumours that he had been murdered by Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso and Munatia Plancina on the orders of Tiberius, as his widow Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with his ashes. Agrippina the Younger was thereafter supervised by her mother, her paternal grandmother Antonia Minor, and her great-grandmother, Livia. She lived on the Palatine Hill in Rome.
Marriage to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
thumb|left|Bust of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus|290x290px
After her thirteenth birthday in AD 28, Tiberius arranged for Agrippina to marry her paternal first cousin once removed Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and ordered the marriage to be celebrated in Rome. Domitius came from a distinguished family of consular rank. Through his mother Antonia Major, Domitius was a great nephew of Augustus, first cousin to Claudius, and first cousin once removed to Agrippina and Caligula. He had two sisters; Domitia Lepida the Elder and Domitia Lepida the Younger. Domitia Lepida the Younger was the mother of the Empress Valeria Messalina.
Antonia Major was the elder sister to Antonia Minor, and the first daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Domitius, who was, according to Suetonius, "in every aspect of his life detestable," served as consul in AD 32. Agrippina and Domitius lived between Antium and Rome. Not much is known about the relationship between them.
Reign of Caligula
thumb|right|upright=1.4|During the reign of Caligula, coins like the one pictured here were issued depicting his three sisters, Drusilla, Livilla, and Agrippina the Younger.
Public role and political intrigues
Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, and Agrippina's only surviving brother, Caligula, became the new emperor. Being the emperor's sister gave Agrippina some influence.
Agrippina and her younger sisters Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla received various honours from their brother, which included but were not limited to
receiving the rights of the Vestal Virgins, such as the freedom to view public games from the upper seats in the stadium;
being honoured with a new type of coinage, depicting images of Caligula and his sisters on opposite faces;
having their names added to motions, including loyalty oaths (e.g., "I will not value my life or that of my children less highly than I do the safety of the Emperor and his sisters") and consular motions (e.g., "Good fortune attend to the Emperor and his sisters)".
Around the time that Tiberius died, Agrippina had become pregnant. Domitius had acknowledged the paternity of the child. On 15 December AD 37, in the early morning, in Antium, Agrippina gave birth to a son. Agrippina and Domitius named their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, after Domitius' recently deceased father. This child would grow up to become the emperor Nero. Nero was Agrippina's only natural child. Suetonius states that Domitius was congratulated by friends on the birth of his son, whereupon he replied "I don't think anything produced by me and Agrippina could possibly be good for the state or the people".
Caligula and his sisters were accused of having incestuous relationships. On 10 June AD 38, Drusilla died, possibly of a fever, rampant in Rome at the time. Caligula was particularly fond of Drusilla, claiming to treat her as he would his own wife, even though Drusilla had a husband. Following her death, Caligula showed no special love or respect toward the surviving sisters and was said to have gone insane.
In AD 39, Agrippina and Livilla, with their maternal cousin, Drusilla's widower Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, were involved in a failed plot to murder Caligula, a plot known as the Plot of the Three Daggers, which was to make Lepidus the new emperor. Lepidus, Agrippina and Livilla were accused of being lovers. Not much is known concerning this plot and the reasons behind it. At the trial of Lepidus, Caligula felt no compunction about denouncing them as adulteresses, producing handwritten letters discussing how they were going to kill him. The three were found guilty as accessories to the crime.
Exile
Lepidus was executed. According to the fragmentary inscriptions of the Arval Brethren, Agrippina was forced to carry the urn of Lepidus' ashes back to Rome.
Claudius had Lucius' inheritance reinstated. Lucius became more wealthy despite his youth shortly after Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus divorced Lucius' aunt, Domitia Lepida the Elder (Lucius' first paternal aunt) so that Crispus could marry Agrippina. They married, and Crispus became a step-father to Lucius. Crispus was an influential, wealthy and powerful man who served twice as consul. He was the adopted grandson and biological great-great-nephew of the historian Sallust. Little is known about their relationship, but Crispus soon died and left his estate to Nero.
During the first years his reign, Claudius was married to the Empress Valeria Messalina. Messalina was Agrippina's paternal second cousin. Among the victims of Messalina's intrigues were Agrippina's surviving sister Livilla, who was charged with adultery with Seneca the Younger. Although Agrippina was very influential at this time, she kept a low profile and stayed away from the imperial palace and the court of the emperor.
Messalina considered Agrippina's son a threat to her son's position and sent assassins to strangle Lucius during his siesta. The assassins left after they saw a snake beneath Lucius' pillow, considering it a bad omen. It was, however, only a sloughed-off snake-skin. By Agrippina's order, the serpent's skin was enclosed in a bracelet that the young Lucius wore on his right arm.
In AD 47, Crispus died. At his funeral, a rumour spread that Agrippina had poisoned Crispus to gain his estate. After being widowed a second time, Agrippina was left very wealthy. Later that year, Messalina and Britannicus attended the performance of the Troy Pageant at the Secular Games, where Agrippina was also present with Lucius. Agrippina and Lucius received greater applause from the audience than Messalina and Britannicus did. Many people began to show pity and sympathy to Agrippina, due to the unfortunate circumstances of her life.
Marriage to Claudius
Messalina was executed in AD 48 for conspiring with Gaius Silius to overthrow her husband. Around this time, Agrippina became the mistress to one of Claudius' advisers, the Greek freedman Marcus Antonius Pallas. After ending his marriage, Claudius considered remarrying for the fourth time and his advisers began discussing which noblewoman he should marry. Claudius had a reputation that he was easily persuaded; but it has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage between Agrippina and Claudius to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches. This feud dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of Germanicus. Another reason was to bring in Agrippina's son, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, as a candidate for the succession. His prestige as the descendent of Augustus and Germanicus would have helped the survival of Claudius' regime.
Claudius was said to have made references to her in his speeches: "my daughter and foster child, born and bred, in my lap, so to speak". When Claudius decided to marry her, he persuaded a group of senators that the marriage should be arranged in the public interest. In Roman society, an uncle (Claudius) marrying his niece (Agrippina) was considered incestuous and immoral.
Agrippina and Claudius married on New Year's Day in AD 49 and the marriage was met with widespread disapproval. Agrippina's marriage to Claudius was not based on love, but powerpossibly being a part of her plan to make her son Lucius the new emperor. Shortly after marrying Claudius, Agrippina eliminated her rival Lollia Paulina by persuading Claudius to charge Paulina with allegations of black magic use. Claudius stipulated that Paulina did not receive a hearing and her property was confiscated. She left Italy, but Agrippina was unsatisfied. Allegedly on Agrippina's orders, a tribune forced Lollia Paulina to commit suicide.
In the months leading up to her marriage to Claudius, Agrippina's maternal second cousin, the praetor Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus, was betrothed to Claudius' daughter Claudia Octavia. This betrothal was broken off in AD 48, when Agrippina, scheming with the consul Lucius Vitellius the Elder, the father of the future emperor Aulus Vitellius, falsely accused Silanus of incest with his sister Junia Calvina. Agrippina did this hoping to secure a marriage between Octavia and her son. Consequently, Claudius broke off the engagement and forced Silanus to resign from public office.
Silanus committed suicide on the day that Agrippina married her uncle, and Calvina was exiled from Italy in early AD 49. Calvina was called back from exile after the death of Agrippina. Towards the end of AD 54, Agrippina would order the murder of Silanus' eldest brother Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus without Nero's knowledge, so that he would not seek revenge against her over his brother's death.
Empress
thumb|upright=1.4|Denarius of Agrippina and Claudius, minted in AD 50–54. She was the first Roman empress to be depicted on official Roman coins in an unambiguous manner
Agrippina became empress in AD 49 upon marrying her uncle Claudius. She also became stepmother to Claudia Antonia, Claudius' daughter and only child from his second marriage to Aelia Paetina; and to the young Claudia Octavia and Britannicus, Claudius' children with Valeria Messalina. Agrippina removed or eliminated anyone from the palace or the imperial court whom she thought was loyal and dedicated to the memory of the late Messalina. She also eliminated or removed anyone whom she considered was a potential threat to her position and the future of her son, one of her victims being Lucius' second paternal aunt and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida the Younger.
Griffin describes how Agrippina "had achieved this dominant position for her son and herself by a web of political alliances," which included Claudius chief secretary and bookkeeper Pallas, his doctor Xenophon, and Afranius Burrus: the head of the Praetorian Guard (the imperial bodyguard), who owed his promotion to Agrippina. Neither ancient nor modern historians of Rome have doubted that Agrippina had her eye on securing the throne for Nero from the very day of the marriageif not earlier. Dio Cassius observation seems to bear that out: "As soon as Agrippina had come to live in the palace she gained complete control over Claudius."
In AD 49, Agrippina was seated on a dais at a parade of captives when their leader the Celtic King Caratacus bowed before her with the same homage and gratitude as he accorded the emperor. In AD 50, Agrippina was granted the honorific title of Augusta. She was third Roman woman (after Livia Drusilla and Antonia Minor) and only the second living Roman woman (the first being Livia) to receive this title.
In her capacity as Augusta, Agrippina quickly became a trusted advisor to Claudius, and by AD 54, she exerted a considerable influence over the decisions of the emperor. Statues of her were erected in many cities across the Empire and her face appeared on official Roman coins unambiguously, a first for a living empress. In the Senate, her followers were advanced with public offices and governorships. She listened to the Senate from behind the scenes. According to Cassius Dio, Agrippina was often present with Claudius in public, seated on her own platform, when he was transacting government businesses or receiving foreign ambassadors. Pliny the Elder writes that he saw her seated beside the emperor during mock naval combats, wearing a golden cloak. Tacitus claims that she boasted being a "partner in the empire". However, this privileged position caused resentment among the senatorial class and the imperial family.
Also that year, Claudius founded a Roman colony and called the colony Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensis or Agrippinensium, today known as Cologne, after Agrippina who was born there. This was the only Roman colony to be named after a Roman woman. In AD 51, she was given a carpentum: a ceremonial carriage usually reserved for priests such as the Vestal Virgins and sacred statues. That same year she secured the appointment of Sextus Afranius Burrus as the head of the Praetorian Guard, replacing the previous head of the Praetorian Guard, Rufrius Crispinus.
She assisted Claudius in administering the empire and became very wealthy and powerful. Ancient sources claim that Agrippina successfully influenced Claudius into adopting her son and making him his successor. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was adopted by his great maternal uncle and stepfather in AD 50. Lucius' name was changed to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus and he became Claudius's adopted son, heir and recognized successor. Agrippina and Claudius betrothed Nero to his step sister Claudia Octavia, and Agrippina arranged to have Seneca the Younger return from exile to tutor the future emperor. Claudius chose to adopt Nero because of his Julian and Claudian lineage.
Agrippina deprived Britannicus of his heritage and further isolated him from his father and succession for the throne in every way possible. For instance, in AD 51, Agrippina ordered the execution of Britannicus' tutor Sosibius. Sosibus had confronted her, outraged by Claudius' adoption of Nero and his choice of Nero as successor over his own son Britannicus.
Nero and Octavia were married on 9 June AD 53. Claudius later regretted marrying Agrippina and adopting Nero and began to favor Britannicus, preparing him for the throne. These actions gave Agrippina a motive to allegedly eliminate Claudius. Ancient sources say she poisoned Claudius on 13 October AD 54 with a plate of deadly mushrooms at a banquet, thus enabling Nero to quickly take the throne as emperor. Accounts vary wildly with regard to this private incident, and according to more modern sources, it is possible that Claudius died of natural causes, being 63 years old. In the aftermath of Claudius's death, Agrippina, who initially kept the death secret, tried to consolidate power by immediately ordering that the palace and the capital be sealed. After all the gates were blockaded and exit of the capital forbidden, she introduced Nero first to the soldiers and then to the senators as emperor.
thumb|upright=0.8|Sculpture of Agrippina crowning her young son Nero ( AD 54–59)
In year one of Nero's reign, Agrippina began losing influence over Nero when he began to have an affair with the freed woman Claudia Acte, which Agrippina strongly disapproved of and violently scolded him for. Agrippina began to support Britannicus in her possible attempt to make him emperor, or to threaten Nero. The panicking emperor decided on whether to eliminate his mother or his step-brother. Soon, Nero had Britannicus secretly poisoned during his own banquet in February AD 55. The power struggle between Agrippina and her son had begun.
Between AD 56 and 58, Agrippina became very watchful and critical of her son. In AD 56, Agrippina was forced out of the palace by her son to live in the imperial residence. However, Agrippina retained some degree of influence over her son for several more years, and they are considered the best years of Nero's reign. But, as their relationship grew more hostile, Nero gradually began to deprive his mother of honours and power, and even removed her Roman and German bodyguards. Nero even threatened his mother that he would abdicate the throne and would go to live on the Greek Island of Rhodes, a place where Tiberius had lived after divorcing Julia the Elder. Pallas also was dismissed from the court. The fall of Pallas and the opposition of Burrus and Seneca to Agrippina contributed to her scaling down of authority. In mid AD 56, she was forced out of everyday and active participation in the governance of Rome.
While Agrippina lived in her residence or when she went on short visits to Rome, Nero sent people to annoy her. Although living in Misenum, she was always hailed as "Augusta", and Agrippina and Nero would see each other on short visits. In late AD 58, Agrippina and a group of soldiers and senators were accused of attempting to overthrow Nero, and it was said they planned to move with Gaius Rubellius Plautus. In addition, she revealed Nero's relationship with Poppaea Sabina.
Death and aftermath
The circumstances that surround Agrippina's death are uncertain due to historical contradictions and anti-Nero bias. However, ancient accounts agree that Nero had her murdered following an unsuccessful attempt on her life on a boat.
Tacitus's account
According to Tacitus, in AD 58, Nero became involved with the noble woman Poppaea Sabina. She taunted him for being a "mummy's boy". She also convinced him of the autonomy of any other emperor. With the reasoning that a divorce from Octavia and a marriage to Poppaea was not politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero decided to kill Agrippina. Yet, Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62, calling into question this motive. Additionally, Suetonius reveals that Poppaea's husband, Otho, was not sent away by Nero until after Agrippina's death in AD 59, making it highly unlikely that already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero. Some modern historians theorise that Nero's decision to kill Agrippina was prompted by her plot to replace him with either Gaius Rubellius Plautus (Nero's maternal second cousin) or Britannicus (Claudius' biological son).
Tacitus claims that Nero considered poisoning or stabbing her, but felt these methods were too difficult and suspicious, so he settled on – after the advice of his former tutor and freedman Anicetus – building a self-sinking boat. Though aware of the plot, Agrippina embarked on this boat and was nearly crushed by a collapsing lead ceiling only to be saved by the side of a couch breaking the ceiling's fall. Though the collapsing ceiling missed Agrippina, it crushed her attendant who was outside by the helm. News of Agrippina's survival reached Nero so he asked Seneca and Burrus for the advice. After a moment of silence, they recommended Anicetus to carry out the act, since the Praetorians were loyal to the children of Germanicus. So Nero sent Anicetus, the trierach Herculeius, and the marine centurion Obaritus, as well as an "armed and menacing column" to kill her.
Cassius Dio's account
The tale of Cassius Dio is also somewhat different. It starts again with Poppaea and Seneca as the motive behind the murder. Nero designed a ship that would open at the bottom while at sea. Then he pretended to reconcile with Agrippina and put her aboard on the vessel. Once the bottom of the ship opened up, she fell into the water. Pretending to ignore the conspiracy, she sent Nero a letter informing of her well-being, so Nero sent Anicetus to kill her. Her reputed last words, uttered as the assassin was about to strike, were "Strike here, Anicetus, strike here, for this bore Nero".
Nero then told the Senate that Agrippina had plotted to kill him and committed suicide.
Burial
After Agrippina's death, Nero viewed her corpse and, according to some, commented how beautiful she was. Her body was cremated that night on a dining couch. At his mother's funeral, Nero was witless, speechless and rather scared. When the news spread that Agrippina had died, the Roman army, senate, and various people sent him letters of congratulations that he had been saved from his mother's plots.
Aftermath
During the remainder of Nero's reign, Agrippina's grave was not covered or enclosed. Her household later on gave her a modest tomb in Misenum.
In music and literature
She is remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in western literature.Octavia, a Roman tragedy written during the Flavian periodAgrippina: Trauerspiel (1665), a German baroque tragedy by Daniel Casper von Lohenstein
G.F. Handel's 1709 opera Agrippina with a libretto by Vincenzo GrimaniEmpress of Rome (1978), a novel by Robert DeMaria (Vineyard Press edition, 2001, )
Agrippina is considered to be the founder of Cologne and is still symbolised there today by the robe of the virgin of the Cologne triumvirate. In the sculpture programme of the Cologne town hall tower, a figure by Heribert Calleen was dedicated to Agrippina on the ground floor.
In film, television, and radio
The 1911 Italian film AgrippinaMio Figlio Nerone (1956) played by Gloria Swanson I, Claudius (1976) played by Barbara Young (here called Agrippinilla).Caligula (1979) and also Messalina, Messalina (1977) played by Lori Wagner.Caligula and Messalina (1981) played by Françoise Blanchard.A.D. (1985 miniseries) played by Ava Gardner.Boudica (2003) played by Frances Barber.Imperium: Nero (2005) played by Laura Morante.Ancients Behaving Badly (2009), History Channel documentary. Episode Nero.Roman Empire (2016), Netflix, played by Teressa Liane.
Agrippina the Younger was portrayed by Betty Lou Gerson in the August 31, 1953, episode of the CBS radio program Crime Classics that was entitled "Your Loving Son, Nero." The episode chronicles the killing of Agrippina by her son Nero who was portrayed by William Conrad.
Horrible Histories – The Movie (2019) Agrippina is portrayed by Kim Catrall
Historiography
Ancient
Most ancient Roman sources are quite critical of Agrippina the Younger. Tacitus considered her vicious and had a strong disposition against her. Other sources are Suetonius and Cassius Dio.
Modern
Girod, Virginie, Agrippine, sexe, crimes et pouvoir dans la Rome impériale , Paris, Tallandier, 2015, 300 p.
Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 3, La vie d'Agrippine, femme de Claude, pp. 65–96.
E. Groag, A. Stein, L. Petersen, Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III, Berlin, 1933
H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68, London, 19825
Guglielmo Ferrero, The Women of the Caesars (1911)
Barrett, Anthony A., Agrippina: Sex, Power and Politics in the Early Roman Empire, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1996.
Annelise Freisenbruch, The first ladies of Rome
McDaniel, W. B. "Bauli the Scene of the Murder of Agrippina". The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 2 (April 1910)
Salmonson, Jessica Amanda. (1991) The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. pp. 4–5.
Donna Hurley, Agrippina the Younger (Wife of Claudius).
L. Foubert, Agrippina. Keizerin van Rome, Leuven, 2006.
Opera by G. F. Handel: AgrippinaSee also
List of unsolved murders
Notes
Tacitus, Annales xii.1–10, 64–69, xiv.1–9Suetonius, De vita Caesarum – Claudius v.44 and Nero vi.5.3, 28.2, 34.1–4''
References
Category:15 births
Category:59 deaths
Category:1st-century executions
Category:1st-century Roman empresses
Category:Augustae
Category:Children of Germanicus
Category:Family of Nero
Category:Female murder victims
Category:Incest
Category:Julii Caesares
Category:Murdered ancient Roman empresses
Category:People from Cologne
Category:Unsolved murders in Italy
Category:Wives of Claudius
Category:Mothers of Roman emperors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrippina_the_Younger | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.940466 |
1558 | American Chinese cuisine | {{short description|Chinese cuisine developed by Chinese Americans}}
{{use mdy dates|date=September 2021}}
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{{use American English|date=February 2019}}{{Cuisine of China}}
{{American cuisine}}
American Chinese cuisine is a cuisine developed by Chinese Americans based on the wide variety of Chinese food. Most of the dishes served in many North American Chinese restaurants are modified to suit American peoples' tastes and are often quite different from Chinese cuisine.
History
, 1884, Chinese Restaurant, oil on canvas, 83 x 56 cm, Crocker Art Museum, Sacramento]]
The history of American Chinese cuisine can be chased back to the California Gold Rush (1848-1855). Chinese immigrants came to the United States to search for work as gold miners and railroad workers. As many Chinese immigrants arrived, the United States introduced laws that prohibited them from owning land.<ref>{{Cite web |lastTerrell |firstEllen |date2021-01-28 |titleChinese Americans and the Gold Rush {{!}} Inside Adams |urlhttps://blogs.loc.gov/inside_adams/2021/01/chinese-americans-gold-rush/ |access-date2025-04-02 |websiteThe Library of Congress}}</ref> Chinese immigrants started small businesses in the west coast, including restaurants and laundry services, also known in society as “Chinese workers” back in that time period. Early American Chinese food tended to be homogenized, requiring adaptation of local ingredients and catering to Americanized tastes. By the 19th century, Chinese Americans in San Francisco operated luxurious restaurants patronized mainly by Chinese. These restaurants are in smaller towns (mostly owned by Chinese immigrants) , serving food based on what their customers requested, anything ranging from pork chop sandwiches and apple pie, to beans and eggs. Many of these small-town restaurant owners were self-taught family cooks who improvised on different cooking methods using whatever ingredients were available.<ref name"Wu-2002">{{cite book |title The Globalization of Chinese Food|last1 Wu|first1 David Y. H.|last2 Cheung|first2 Sidney C. H.|publisher Curzon Press|year 2002|isbn 978-0-8248-2582-9|location Great Britain|page 57}}</ref>
These smaller restaurants were responsible for the development of American Chinese food, adapting the food to suit tastes of Americans. They began by serving miners and railroad workers, and then opened new Chinese restaurants in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown, using local ingredients and cooking procedures to adapt their customers' tastes.
California Gold Rush (1848–1855) brought 20,000–30,000 immigrants to the US from Canton (Guangdong province) , China. The first Chinese restaurant in America raises many debates. Some say it was Macau and Woosung, while others cite Canton Restaurant.<ref name"Smith">{{cite web |last1Smith |first1Peter |titleWas Chop Suey the Greatest Culinary Joke Ever Played? |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/was-chop-suey-the-greatest-culinary-joke-ever-played-122173708/ |websiteSmithsonian Magazine |access-date12 September 2021}}</ref><ref name"Liu-2015">{{cite book |last1Liu |first1Haiming |titleFrom Canton Restaurant to Panda Express: A History of Chinese Food in the United States |date2015 |publisherRutgers University Press |locationNew Jersey |isbn978-0-8135-7477-6 |page8 |jstorj.ctt16nzfbd |editionFirst |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16nzfbd |access-date12 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastSmith |firstPeter |titleWas Chop Suey the Greatest Culinary Joke Ever Played? |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/was-chop-suey-the-greatest-culinary-joke-ever-played-122173708/ |access-date2025-04-02 |websiteSmithsonian Magazine |languageen}}</ref> Both of these restaurant didn't have any photos exist today, the only information that we can get is these two restaurants were founded in 1849 in San Francisco. Either way, these and other such restaurants were central features in the daily lives of immigrants. They provided a connection to home, particularly for the many bachelors who did not have the resources or knowledge to cook for themselves. In 1852, the ratio of male to female Chinese immigrants was a 18:1.<ref name"Chen-2017">{{cite book |last1Chen |first1Yong |titleOxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |chapterThe Rise of Chinese Food in the United States |chapter-urlhttps://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-273 |year2017 |publisherOxford Research Encyclopedia |doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.273 |isbn978-0-19-932917-5 |access-date12 September 2021}}</ref> These restaurants served as gathering places and cultural centers for the Chinese community. By 1850, there were five Chinese restaurants in San Francisco. Soon after, significant amounts of food were being imported from China to America's west coast.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSpier |firstRobert F. G. |date1958 |titleFood Habits of Nineteenth-Century California Chinese |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25155169?seq1 |journalCalifornia Historical Society Quarterly |volume37 |issue1 |pages79–84 |doi10.2307/25155169 |issn0008-1175}}</ref>
The trend spread steadily eastward with the development of the American railways<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Beginnings of American Railroads and Mapping {{!}} History of Railroads and Maps {{!}} Articles and Essays {{!}} Railroad Maps, 1828-1900 {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress |urlhttps://www.loc.gov/collections/railroad-maps-1828-to-1900/articles-and-essays/history-of-railroads-and-maps/the-beginnings-of-american-railroads-and-mapping/ |access-date2025-04-01 |websiteLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>, particularly to New York City.<ref name"Smith2009">{{cite book|lastSmith|firstAndrew F.|titleEating history: 30 turning points in the making of American cuisine|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1514y0UnSdQC&pgPA47|access-date22 June 2011|date1 October 2009|publisherColumbia University Press|isbn978-0-231-14092-8|page47}}</ref> The Chinese Exclusion Act allowed merchants to enter the country, and in 1915, restaurant owners became eligible for merchant visas, these visas fueled the opening of Chinese restaurants as an immigration vehicle.<ref name"Godoy-2016">{{cite news |last1Godoy |first1Maria |titleLo Mein Loophole: How U.S. Immigration Law Fueled A Chinese Restaurant Boom |urlhttps://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/22/467113401/lo-mein-loophole-how-u-s-immigration-law-fueled-a-chinese-restaurant-boom |access-date23 February 2016 |workNPR |date23 February 2016}}</ref> The merchant status was based on the use of rotating managers. Restaurants would operate as a partnership among many people, rotating different partners through the management responsibilities and establishing them as merchants to earn the exemption.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://scholars.org/brief/untold-story-chinese-restaurants-america |titleThe Untold Story of Chinese Restaurants in America |first1Heather R |last1Lee |date2015-05-20 |websitescholars.org}}</ref>
portrays a Chinese American restaurant in New York City]]
By the early decades of the 20th century, Chinese restaurants had brought new culinary ingredients to towns and cities across the United States, including soy sauce, sesame oil, bean sprouts, water chestnuts, dried mushrooms, fried noodles, Oolong tea and almond cookies. Bok choi, then called "Pak choi", was sometimes called "Chinese Romaine". Similarly, Napa cabbage was called "Chinese cabbage".<ref nameVos>{{cite journal |last1Vos |first1Jane |dateNovember 1920 |titleChinese Cookery and Customs|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrRzOAAAAMAAJ&dqoolong+chinese-american+restaurants&pgPA253 |journalAmerican Cookery |volumeXXIV |issue4 |pages251–257 |doi |access-dateDecember 16, 2024 }}</ref> In those years, it was commonplace for prosperous American families, especially on the West Coast, to employ Chinese cooks as domestic servants.<ref nameVos/> For example, cookbook author and TV personality James Beard grew up in Portland, Oregon where his parents employed a Chinese cook, Jue-Let, who Beard credited as a major culinary influence, and spoke of with great affection. <ref nameSaveur>{{cite news | lastDao | first Dan Q. | titleWho Was Jue-Let, the Unknown Chinese Chef Who Raised James Beard?: The family private chef and Beard's surrogate father was a fiery, influential personality in the kitchen. So why do we know so little about him? | newspaper Saveur| locationNew York City | pages | language | publisher | dateMay 19, 2017 | url http://www.saveur.com/james-beard-chinese-jue-let/ | accessdateDecember 16, 2024 }}</ref> In 1915, a manual was published in San Francisco, instructing Chinese immigrants how to cook for American families.<ref name=Saveur/>
Pekin Noodle Parlor, established in 1911, is the oldest operating Chinese restaurant in the country.<ref name"Grant-2022">{{cite journal |titleThe First Chinese Restaurant in America Has a Savory—and Unsavory—History |journalSmithsonian Magazine |url https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/history-first-chinese-restaurant-in-america-180980552/| dateSeptember 2022 |access-date20 February 2023 |first1Richard |last1Grant}}</ref> As for 2023, the United States had around 37,000 Chinese restaurants.<ref name"passy20150826">{{cite news |authorShah, Widjaya |firstSono, Regina |dateMay 23, 2023 |title71% of Asian restaurants in the U.S. serve Chinese, Japanese or Thai food |urlhttps://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/05/23/71-of-asian-restaurants-in-the-u-s-serve-chinese-japanese-or-thai-food/ |access-date1 April 2025 |workPew Research Center |pages=A1}}</ref>
Along the way, cooks adapted southern Chinese dishes and developed a style of Chinese food not found in China, such as chop suey. Restaurants (along with Chinese laundries) provided an ethnic niche for small businesses at a time when Chinese people were excluded from most jobs in the wage economy by ethnic discrimination or lack of language fluency.<ref name"Coe Chop Suey">Andrew Coe Chop Suey: A Cultural History of Chinese Food in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).</ref> By the 1920s, this cuisine, particularly chop suey, became popular among middle-class Americans. However, after World War II it began to be dismissed for not being "authentic", though it continued to be popular.<ref>{{Cite web |lastZanke |firstMormei |date2023-11-17 |titleChasing Chop Suey: Tracing Chinese Immigration Through Food |urlhttps://sundaylongread.com/2023/11/17/chasing-chop-suey-tracing-chinese-immigration-through-food/ |access-date2025-04-02 |websiteThe Sunday Long Read |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 1955, the Republic of China (having itself retreated to Taiwan) evacuated the Dachen Islands. Many who escaped to Taiwan later moved to the United States as they lacked strong social networks and access to opportunities in Taiwan. Chefs from the Dachen Islands had a strong influence on American Chinese food.<ref name="Pio Kuo"/>
At the beginning in the 1950s, immigrants from Taiwan replaced Cantonese immigrants as the primary labor force in American Chinese restaurants. Taiwanese immigrants expanded American-Chinese cuisine beyond Cantonese cuisine to encompass dishes from many different regions of China as well as Japanese-inspired dishes.<ref name"Pio Kuo">{{cite web |last1Pio Kuo |first1Chunghao |titleTaiwanese Immigrants Spark a Golden Age for Chinese Food |urlhttps://www.nyfoodstory.com/articles/taiwanese-immigrants-spark-a-golden-age-for-chinese-food/ |websitewww.nyfoodstory.com |publisherNY Food Story |access-date29 April 2020}}</ref>
Chinese-American restaurants played a key role in ushering in the era of take-out and delivery food in the United States. In New York City, delivery was pioneered in the 1970s by Empire Szechuan Gourmet Franchise, which hired Taiwanese students studying at Columbia University to do the work. Chinese American restaurants were among the first restaurants to use picture menus in the US.<ref name="Pio Kuo"/>
Taiwanese immigration largely ended in the 1990s due to an economic boom and democratization in Taiwan. From the 1990s onward, immigrants from China once again made up the majority of cooks in American Chinese restaurants.<ref name"Pio Kuo"/> There has been a consequential component of Chinese emigration of illegal origin, most notably Fuzhou people from Fujian<ref name"NPR Morning Edition-2007">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId16356755|titleChinese Immigrants Chase Opportunity in America|dateNovember 19, 2007|publisherNPR Morning Edition|access-date2011-07-09}}</ref> and Wenzhounese from Zhejiang in mainland China, specifically destined to work in Chinese restaurants in New York City, beginning in the 1980s.
Adapting Chinese cooking techniques to local produce and tastes has led to the development of American Chinese cuisine. Many of the Chinese restaurant menus in the US are printed in Chinatown, Manhattan, which has a strong Chinese-American demographic.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/12/nyregion/thecity/the-kings-of-sweet-and-sour.html|titleThe Kings of Sweet and Sour|workThe New York Times|dateDecember 12, 2004|access-dateJanuary 2, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170928181102/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/12/nyregion/thecity/the-kings-of-sweet-and-sour.html?_r1|archive-dateSeptember 28, 2017|url-statuslive|last1Mindlin|first1=Alex}}</ref>
Late 20th-century tastes have been more accommodating to the local residents.{{sfnb|Hayford|2011| p 11-12}} By this time, it had become evident that Chinese restaurants no longer catered mainly to Chinese customers.<ref>{{cite book|title China to Chinatown|url http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/C/bo3536662.html |first1JAG |last1Roberts |seriesGlobalities | publisherReaktion Books |access-date 2015-12-10}}</ref>
In 2011, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History displayed some of the historical background and cultural artifacts of American Chinese cuisine in its exhibit entitled, Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States.<ref name"SNMAH">{{cite web |titleSweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States |urlhttp://apanews.si.edu/2011/03/04/sweet-and-sour-showcase/ |workSmithsonian Asian Pacific American Center |publisherSmithsonian National Museum of American History |access-dateMarch 20, 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130414162829/http://apanews.si.edu/2011/03/04/sweet-and-sour-showcase/ |archive-dateApril 14, 2013 }}</ref>Differences from other regional cuisines in China
Many of the dishes that commonly recognized as "Chinese food" were actually developed in America and bear little resemblance to traditional Chinese cuisine, some examples include fortune cookies, crab rangoon, and General Tso's chicken, non of which originated in China. Instead, these dishes were crafted to suit American palates, often showing sweetness, deep-frying, and bold sauces.
American Chinese cuisine has its roots in the culinary traditions of Chinese immigrants from Guangdong province, particularly the Toisan (Taishan) district, the origin of most Chinese immigration before the closure of immigration from China in 1924. These Chinese immagrants developed new styles and used readily available ingredients, especially in California.<ref>{{cite web |last1Kohnhorst |first1Adam |titleThe Legend of American Chinese Food: 8 Dishes and Their Authentic Counterparts |urlhttps://radiichina.com/american-chinese-food/ |websiteRADII {{!}} Stories from the center of China's youth culture |access-date29 January 2022 |date25 June 2020}}</ref> The type of Chinese-American cooking served in restaurants was different from the foods eaten in Chinese-American homes. {{sfnb|Hom|1997}}{{sfnb|Hayford|2011|p11-12}} Among various regional cuisines in China, Cantonese cuisine has been the most influential in the development of American Chinese food.<ref name"Chapius">{{cite book |titleThe Complete Asian Cookbook|firstCharmaine|lastSolomon|page281 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMdfacqx2UaQC&pgPA368 |isbn9780804837576 |dateApril 15, 2006|publisherTuttle }}</ref><ref name"RParkinson">{{cite news|last1Parkinson|first1Rhonda|titleRegional Chinese Cuisine|urlhttp://chinesefood.about.com/od/regionalchinesecuisine/ss/cookingstyles.htm|access-dateJuly 8, 2014|publisherAbout.com|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070217160414/http://chinesefood.about.com/od/regionalchinesecuisine/ss/cookingstyles.htm|archive-date2007-02-17|url-status=dead}}</ref>
American Chinese food typically features greater quantities of meat than traditional Chinese cuisine.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSmith |firstAndrew F. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGZVweuXhZlkC&qchinese&pgPT145 |titleThe Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink |date2007-05-01 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-988576-3 |pages119 |languageen}}</ref> An increasing number of American Chinese restaurants—including some upscale establishments—have begun to incorporate more authentic dishes in response to growing customer demand for traditional flavors<ref>{{cite web |last1Ashe |first1Stephanie |titleThe 9 biggest differences between Chinese and American Diets |urlhttps://www.insider.com/biggest-differences-chinese-and-american-diets-2018-5#raw-vegetables-arent-as-big-of-a-thing-in-china-6 |websiteInsider}}</ref>. While Chinese cuisine makes frequent use of Asian leaf vegetables, like bok choy and gai-lan, American Chinese food makes use of some ingredients that are rarely used in China. For example, Western broccoli ({{zh|t西蘭|pxīlán}}) instead of Chinese broccoli (gai-lan, {{zh|t芥蘭|pjièlán|labelsno}}).<ref>{{Cite web |titleFrom Canton Restaurant to Panda Express |urlhttps://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/from-canton-restaurant-to-panda-express/9780813574745/ |access-date2025-04-02 |websiteRutgers University Press |language=en-US}}</ref>
Chinese ingredients considered "exotic" in North America have become more available over time, including fresh fruits and vegetables which previously had been rare. For example, edible snow pea pods have become widely available, while the less-known dau miu (also called "pea sprouts", "pea pod stems", or "pea shoots") are also appearing on menus, and even in supermarkets in North America.
buffet restaurant in the United States]]
American-Chinese food also has had a reputation for high levels of MSG to enhance flavor. Around the early to mid-2000s through the 2010s and into the 2020s, market forces and customer demand have encouraged many restaurants to offer "MSG Free" or "No MSG" menus, or to omit this ingredient on request.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMosby |firstI. |date2008-10-04 |title'That Won-Ton Soup Headache': The Chinese Restaurant Syndrome, MSG and the Making of American Food, 1968-1980 |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/shm/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/shm/hkn098 |journalSocial History of Medicine |languageen |volume22 |issue1 |pages133–151 |doi10.1093/shm/hkn098 |issn0951-631X}}</ref> But some discussion appeared in 2020 discussed how MSG's reputation has evolved in recent years, suggesting this shift has been ongoing for at least the past decade or more.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAubrey |firstAllison |date2022-12-11 |titleThe unsavory stigma surrounding MSG - CBS News |urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/no-msg-the-stigma-surrounding-monosodium-glutamate/ |access-date2025-04-02 |websitewww.cbsnews.com |languageen-US}}</ref>
.]]
An typical example to show how American Chinese cuisine differs from traditional Chinese food is Egg fried rice. In American Chinese cuisine it's prepared with more soy sauce added for more flavor whereas the traditional egg fried rice uses less soy sauce. Some food styles, such as dim sum, were also modified to fit American palates, such as added batter for fried dishes and extra soy sauce.<ref>{{cite book |last1Chen |first1Yong |titleOxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |chapterThe Rise of Chinese Food in the United States|year2017 |publisherOxford Research Encyclopedia|isbn=978-0-19-932917-5}}</ref>
Both Chinese and American-Chinese cooking utilize similar methods of preparation, such as stir frying, pan frying, and deep frying, which are all easily done using a wok.
Ming Tsai, chef and former owner of the Blue Ginger restaurant in Wellesley, Massachusetts, and host of PBS culinary show Simply Ming, has commented on the traits of American Chinese restaurants. He highlighted that these establishments often contains dishes representing three to five regions of China simultaneously and normally include items such as chop suey, diverse sweet and sour dishes, and an array of chow mein or fried rice. Tsai said "Chinese-American cuisine as an adaptation of traditional Chinese food, modified to attract American customers by making it blander, thicker, and sweeter.<ref>"[https://cnneatocracy.wordpress.com/2011/01/19/chef-ming-tsai-wants-you-to-have-a-chinese-friend/ Chef Ming Tsai wants you to have a Chinese friend]". CNN. January 19, 2011. Retrieved on January 19, 2011.</ref>
Most American Chinese primarily cater to non-Chinese customers, offering menus written in English accompanied descriptive pictures. In some cases, separate Chinese-written menus are available, typically including traditional dishes such items as liver, chicken feet, or other meat dishes that might scare American customers (such as offal). In Chinatown, Manhattan, certain restaurants are known to offer a so-called "phantom" menu, which features items preferred by ethnic Chinese diners but often excluded from the standard menu due to the perception that they would not attract non-Chinese customers.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMaurer |firstDaniel |date2009-02-23 |titleChris Cheung Reveals More About the 'Phantom Menus' of Chinatown |urlhttps://www.grubstreet.com/2009/02/chris_cheung_reveals_more_abou.html |access-date2024-12-13 |websiteGrub Street |languageen}}</ref>
Dishes
Menu items not found in China
Dishes that often appear on American Chinese restaurant menus include:
* Almond chicken — Chicken breaded in batter containing ground almonds, fried and served with almonds and onions.{{sfnb|Jung|2010| p [https://books.google.com/books?idP99LCAAAQBAJ&q=almond+chicken 197 etc.]}}
* Chicken and broccoli — Similar to beef and broccoli, but with chicken instead of beef.
* Chinese chicken salad — Usually contains sliced or shredded chicken, uncooked leafy greens, carrots, cucumbers, crispy noodles (or fried wonton skins) and sesame dressing. Some version include mandarin oranges.
* Chop suey — Derived from a term meaning "assorted pieces" in Chinese. It typically consists of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce but can also be served in a white sauce.
* Crab rangoon — Fried wonton skins stuffed with (usually) artificial crab meat (surimi) and cream cheese.
* Fortune cookie — Invented in California as a Westernized version of the Japanese omikuji senbei,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/16/dining/16fort.html?_r1 |workThe New York Times |titleSolving a Riddle Wrapped in a Mystery Inside a Cookie |date=January 16, 2008 }}</ref> fortune cookies have become sweetened and found their way to many American Chinese restaurants.
* Fried wontons — Somewhat similar to crab rangoon, a filling, (most often pork), is wrapped in a wonton skin and deep fried.<ref>[http://chinesefood.about.com/od/dimsumwonton/r/friedwonton.htm Fried Wonton] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121112193734/http://chinesefood.about.com/od/dimsumwonton/r/friedwonton.htm |dateNovember 12, 2012 }}, About.com</ref><ref>[http://blogchef.net/fried-wontons-recipe/ Fried Wontons Recipe], BlogChef.net</ref><ref>[http://www.thaitable.com/thai/recipe/fried-wontons Fried Wontons Recipe], ThaiTable.com</ref><ref>[http://www.chow.com/recipes/28056-fried-wontons-zha-yuntun Fried Wontons (Zhá Yúntūn)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906010954/http://www.chow.com/recipes/28056-fried-wontons-zha-yuntun |dateSeptember 6, 2015 }}, Chow.com</ref><ref>[http://www.fromaway.com/cooking/chinese-new-year-fried-wontons Chinese New Year: Fried Wontons] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180228014808/http://www.fromaway.com/cooking/chinese-new-year-fried-wontons |dateFebruary 28, 2018 }}, FromAway.com</ref><ref>[http://rasamalaysia.com/chinese-recipe-fried-wontons/ Fried Wontons Recipe], RasaMalaysia.com</ref>
* General Tso's chicken — Chunks of chicken that are dipped in batter, deep fried, and seasoned with ginger, garlic, sesame oil, scallions, and hot chili peppers. This dish was named after Qing dynasty statesman and military leader Zuo Zongtang, often referred to as General Tso.
* Mongolian beef — Fried beef with scallions or white onions in a spicy and often sweet brown sauce.
* Pepper steak — Sliced steak, green bell peppers, tomatoes, and white or green onions stir fried with salt, sugar, and soy sauce. Bean sprouts are a less common addition.
* Royal beef—Deep-fried sliced beef, doused in a wine sauce and often served with steamed broccoli.
* Sesame chicken — Boned, marinated, battered, and deep-fried chicken which is then dressed with a translucent red or orange, sweet and mildly spicy sauce, made from soy sauce, corn starch, vinegar, chicken broth, and sugar, and topped with sesame seeds.
strips are commonly served as complimentary appetizers along with duck sauce and hot mustard]]
* Sushi — despite being served in the Japanese and American styles, some American Chinese restaurants serve various types of sushi, usually on buffets.
* Sweet roll — yeast rolls, typically fried, covered in granulated sugar or powdered sugar. Some variants are stuffed with cream cheese or icing.
* Wonton strips — these deep-fried strips of dough are commonly offered as complimentary appetizers, along with duck sauce and hot mustard, or with soup when ordering take-out.
Other American Chinese dishes
[https://omnivorescookbook.com/stir-fried-pea-shoots/ Dau miu] is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as "pea shoots", but is often served by some non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally, it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round.
Versions of dishes also found in China
* Beijing beef — in China, this dish uses gai lan (Chinese broccoli) rather than American broccoli.
* Beef and broccoli — flank steak cut into small pieces, stir-fried with broccoli, and covered in a dark sauce made with soy sauce and oyster sauce and thickened with cornstarch.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.newuniversity.org/2008/06/features/history_and_culture_chinese156/ |titleHistory and Culture: Chinese Food |dateJune 2, 2008 |publisherNew University |access-date2018-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.canyoustayfordinner.com/2010/06/30/beef-and-broccoli/ |titleBeef and Broccoli &#124; Can You Stay For Dinner? |dateJune 30, 2010 |publisherCanyoustayfordinner.com |access-date2018-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://chinese.food.com/recipe/the-best-easy-beef-and-broccoli-stir-fry-99476|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120910210447/http://chinese.food.com/recipe/the-best-easy-beef-and-broccoli-stir-fry-99476|url-statusdead|titleThe Best Easy Beef And Broccoli Stir-Fry Recipe - Food.com - 99476<!-- Bot generated title -->|archive-date=September 10, 2012}}</ref>
* Cashew chicken — stir-fried tender chicken pieces with cashew nuts.
* Chow mein — literally means "stir-fried noodles". Chow mein consists of fried crispy noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. It can come with chicken, pork, shrimp or beef.
* Egg foo young — Chinese-style omelet with vegetables and meat, usually served with a brown gravy. While some restaurants in North America deep-fry the omelet, versions found in Asia are more likely to fry in the wok.
* Egg roll — while spring rolls have a thin, light beige crispy skin that flakes apart, and is filled with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the American-style egg roll has a thicker, chewier, dark brown bubbly skin stuffed with cabbage and usually bits of meat or seafood (such as pork or shrimp), but no egg. In some regions, a filling of shredded and dried celery replaces cabbage, resulting in a more greenish tinge to the filling.<ref>[https://dinnerinthepines.com/homemade-egg-rolls/ Egg roll recipe] Dinner in the Pines {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240315191236/https://dinnerinthepines.com/homemade-egg-rolls/|dateMarch 15, 2024}}</ref>
* Fried rice — fried-rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to American tastes.It is commonly prepared with rice cooled overnight, allowing restaurants to put leftover rice to good use (freshly cooked rice is actually less suitable for fried rice). The American-Chinese version of this dish typically uses more soy sauce than the versions found in China, and it's offered with different combinations of meat (pork, chicken, shrimp ) and vegetables.
* Ginger beef ({{zh|t生薑牛肉|pshēngjiāng niúròu|labels=no}}) — tender beef cut in chunks, mixed with ginger and Chinese mixed vegetables.
* Ginger fried beef ({{zh|t乾炒牛肉絲|pgānchǎo niúròu-sī|labels=no}}) — tender beef cut in strings, battered, deep fried, then re-fried in a wok mixed with a sweet sauce, a variation of a popular Northern Chinese dish.
* Hulatang — a traditional Chinese soup with hot spices, often called "spicy soup" on menus.
* Hot and sour soup — the North American soups tend to have starch added as a thickener.
* Kung Pao chicken — a spicy Sichuan dish that is served with peanuts, scallions, and Sichuan peppers. Some versions in North America may include zucchini and bell peppers.
* Lo mein ("stirred noodles") — frequently made with eggs and flour, making them chewier than a recipe simply using water. Thick, spaghetti-shaped noodles are pan fried with vegetables (mainly bok choy and Chinese cabbage or napa) and meat. Sometimes this dish is referred to as chow mein (which literally means "stir-fried noodles" in Cantonese).
* Mei fun — noodles usually simmered in broth with other ingredients such as fish balls, beef balls or slices of fishcake.
* Moo shu pork — the original version uses more typically Chinese ingredients (including wood ear fungi and daylily buds) and thin flour pancakes, while the American version often uses vegetables more familiar to Americans, and thicker pancakes. This dish is quite popular in Chinese restaurants in the United States, but not as popular in China.
* Orange chicken — chopped, battered, fried chicken with a sweet orange flavored chili sauce that is thickened and glazed. The traditional version consists of stir-fried chicken in a light, slightly sweet soy sauce flavored with dried orange peels.
* Wonton soup — In most American Chinese restaurants, only wonton dumplings in broth are served, while versions found in China may come with noodles. (In Guangdong, it can be a full meal in itself, consisting of thin egg noodles and several pork and prawn wontons in a pork or chicken soup broth or noodle broth). Especially in takeout restaurants, wonton are often made with thicker dough skins, to withstand the rigors of delivery.
Regional variations
New York City
The New York metropolitan area is home to the largest Chinese population outside of Asia,<ref name"NYCLargestChinesePopulation">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/23/nyregion/in-new-york-indictment-of-officer-peter-liang-divides-chinese-americans.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/23/nyregion/in-new-york-indictment-of-officer-peter-liang-divides-chinese-americans.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|titleIndictment of New York Officer Divides Chinese-Americans|firstVivian|lastYee|newspaperThe New York Times|dateFebruary 22, 2015|access-dateFebruary 23, 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name"queensbuzz">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.queensbuzz.com/flushing-neighborhood-corona-neighborhood-cms-302|titleChinese New Year 2012 in Flushing|publisherQueensBuzz.com|dateJanuary 25, 2012|access-dateFebruary 23, 2015}}</ref> which also constitutes the largest metropolitan Asian-American group in the United States and the largest Asian-national metropolitan diaspora in the Western Hemisphere. The Chinese-American population of the New York City metropolitan area was an estimated 893,697 as of 2017.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/17_1YR/S0201/330M400US408/popgroup~016|titleSelected Population Profile in the United States 2017 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates New York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA CSA Chinese alone|publisherUnited States Census Bureau|access-dateJanuary 27, 2019|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20200214002005/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/17_1YR/S0201/330M400US408/popgroup~016|archive-dateFebruary 14, 2020|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Given the New York metropolitan area's continuing status as by far the leading gateway for Chinese immigrants to the United States, all popular styles of every Chinese regional cuisine have commensurately become ubiquitously accessible in New York City,<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/30/dining/30flushing.html|titleLet the Meals Begin: Finding Beijing in Flushing|firstJulia|lastMoskin|workThe New York Times|dateJuly 30, 2008 |access-dateNovember 26, 2017}}</ref> including Hakka, Taiwanese, Shanghainese, Hunanese, Szechuan, Cantonese, Fujianese, Xinjiang, Zhejiang, and Korean Chinese cuisine. Even the relatively obscure Dongbei style of cuisine indigenous to Northeast China is now available in Flushing, Queens,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/10/dining/10chine.html?scp1&sqdongbei%20cuisine&stcse |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120906201750/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/10/dining/10chine.html?_r1&scp1&sqdongbei%20cuisine&stcse |archive-date2012-09-06 |titleNortheast China Branches Out in Flushing|date2010-02-09 |access-dateDecember 17, 2021 |workThe New York Times |firstJulia |lastMoskin}}</ref> as well as Mongolian cuisine and Uyghur cuisine.<ref name"DiverseCuisineFlushingChinatownTimesSquare">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/25/dining/food-queens-us-open.html?actionclick&moduleEditors%20Picks&pgtypeHomepage |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180826122822/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/25/dining/food-queens-us-open.html |archive-date2018-08-26 |titleFood Outside the U.S. Open Gates |lastFalkowitz |firstMax |workThe New York Times |dateAugust 25, 2018 |access-dateDecember 17, 2021}}</ref>
Kosher preparation
{{Main|Jewish American Chinese restaurant patronage}}
Kosher preparation of Chinese food is also widely available in New York City, given the metropolitan area's large Jewish and particularly Orthodox Jewish populations.
The perception that American Jews eat at Chinese restaurants on Christmas Day is documented in media.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/12/why-american-jews-eat-chinese-food-on-christmas/384011/ |titleWhy Do American Jews Eat Chinese Food on Christmas? — The Atlantic |publisherTheatlantic.com |date2014-12-23 |access-date2018-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-features/1.633512 |title'Tis the season: Why do Jews eat Chinese food on Christmas? - Jewish World Features - Israel News |newspaperHaaretz |date2014-12-24 |access-date2018-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/isaac-zablocki/the-jewish-christmas-trad_b_6272972.html |titleMovies and Chinese Food: The Jewish Christmas Tradition &#124; Isaac Zablocki |publisherHuffingtonpost.com |date2017-12-06 |access-date=2018-04-16}}</ref> The tradition may have arisen from the lack of other open restaurants on Christmas Day, the close proximity of Jewish and Chinese immigrants to each other in New York City, and the absence of dairy foods combined with meat.
Kosher Chinese food is usually prepared in New York City, as well as in other large cities with Orthodox Jewish neighborhoods, under strict rabbinical supervision as a prerequisite for Kosher certification.
Los Angeles County
Chinese populations in Los Angeles represent at least 21 of the 34 provincial-level administrative units of China, along with the largest population of Taiwanese-born immigrants outside of Taiwan, making greater Los Angeles home to a diverse population of Chinese people in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en_us/article/8qzz5b/the-best-chinese-restaurants-in-la-according-to-chinese-people|titleThe Best Chinese Restaurants in LA, According to Chinese People|firstClarissa|lastWei|date=April 28, 2017}}</ref>
Chinese-American cuisine in the Greater Los Angeles area is concentrated in Chinese ethnoburbs rather than traditional Chinatowns. The oldest Chinese ethnoburb is Monterey Park, considered to be the nation's first suburban Chinatown.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-04-06-mn-135-story.html|titleMonterey Park : Nation's 1st Suburban Chinatown|dateApril 6, 1987|websiteLos Angeles Times}}</ref>
Although Chinatown in Los Angeles is still a significant commercial center for Chinese immigrants, the majority are centered in the San Gabriel Valley which is the one of the largest concentration of Asian-Americans in the country, stretching from Monterey Park into the cities of Alhambra, San Gabriel, Rosemead, San Marino, South Pasadena, West Covina, Walnut, City of Industry, Diamond Bar, Arcadia, and Temple City.
The Valley Boulevard corridor is the main artery of Chinese restaurants in the San Gabriel Valley. Another hub with a significant Chinese population is Irvine (Orange County). More than 200,000 Chinese Americans live in the San Gabriel Valley alone, with over 67% being foreign-born.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.scpr.org/news/2018/02/21/80976/report-on-sgv-s-asian-americans-shows-two-thirds-a/|titleTwo-thirds of San Gabriel Valley's Asian-Americans are immigrants|firstSouthern California Public|lastRadio|dateFebruary 21, 2018|websiteSouthern California Public Radio}}</ref> The valley has become a brand-name tourist destination in China, although droughts in California are creating a difficult impact upon its water security and existential viability.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-xpm-2014-feb-13-la-me-ln-san-gabriel-chinese-tourists-20140212-story.html|titleSan Gabriel becomes brand-name destination for Chinese tourists|dateFebruary 13, 2014|websiteLos Angeles Times}}</ref> Of the ten cities in the United States with the highest proportions of Chinese Americans, the top eight are located in the San Gabriel Valley, making it one of the largest concentrated hubs for Chinese Americans in North America.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://imdiversity.com/villages/asian/history-of-asians-in-the-san-gabriel-valley/|titleHistory of Asians in the San Gabriel Valley – IMDiversity|website=imdiversity.com}}</ref>
Some regional styles of Chinese cuisine include Beijing, Chengdu, Chongqing, Dalian, Hangzhou, Hong Kong, Hunan, Mongolian hot pot, Nanjing, Shanghai, Shanxi, Shenyang, Wuxi, Xinjiang, Yunnan, and Wuhan.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/food/la-xpm-2013-feb-15-la-dd-jonathan-gold-best-chinese-restaurants-in-los-angeles-20130215-story.html|titleJonathan Gold's best Chinese restaurants in L.A., by regional cuisine|dateFebruary 15, 2013|websiteLos Angeles Times}}</ref>
Food blogger David R. Chan has visited more than 8000 Chinese restaurants, including hundreds around his home in Los Angeles.<ref name"Holmes2018">{{cite web |urlhttps://la.eater.com/2018/10/24/18019362/southern-californian-chinese-food-historian |titleThis Retiree Might Be Southern California's Foremost Chinese Food Historian |first1Mona |last1Holmes |accessdate2024-11-18 |date2018-10-24 |workEater Los Angeles}}</ref><ref name"Park2023">{{cite web |first1Chrissy |last1Park |urlhttps://theantreader.org/2023/06/09/david-r-chan-8000-chinese-restaurants-and-counting/ |titleDavid R. Chan: 8,000 Chinese Restaurants and Counting |date2023-06-09 |accessdate2024-11-18 |workThe Ant Reader}}</ref>
San Francisco Bay Area
Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by California cuisine have opened in the San Francisco Bay Area. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly.
This new cuisine has exotic ingredients like mangos and portobello mushrooms. Brown rice is often offered as an alternative to white rice.
Some restaurants substitute grilled wheat flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu{{nbsp}}shu dishes. This occurs even in some restaurants that would not otherwise be identified as California Chinese, both the more Westernized places and the more authentic places. There is a Mexican bakery that supplies some restaurants with thinner tortillas made for use with mu{{nbsp}}shu. Mu{{nbsp}}shu purists do not always react positively to this trend.<ref>{{Cite news |titleMu Shu Tortilla Flats: Chinese restaurant needs better mu shu wraps |date February 27, 2004 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071007080309/http://news.asianweek.com/news/view_article.html?article_id5b6c82e1ca42c0c4a952c682acd5b192 |archive-dateOctober 7, 2007 |workAsianWeek |quoteEverything was well and good with one huge exception: The mu shu wrappers were flour tortillas!|urlhttp://news.asianweek.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b6c82e1ca42c0c4a952c682acd5b192 }}</ref>
In addition, many restaurants serving more native-style Chinese cuisines exist, due to the high numbers and proportion of ethnic Chinese in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Restaurants specializing in Cantonese, Sichuanese, Hunanese, Northern Chinese, Shanghainese, Taiwanese, and Hong Kong traditions are widely available, as are more specialized restaurants such as seafood restaurants, Hong Kong-style diners and cafes, also known as Cha chaan teng ({{zh|t茶餐廳|pchácāntīng|labels=no}}), dim sum teahouses, and hot pot restaurants. Many Chinatown areas also feature Chinese bakeries, boba milk tea shops, roasted meat, vegetarian cuisine, and specialized dessert shops.
Chop suey is not widely available in San Francisco, and the area's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein.
Boston
Chinese cuisine in Boston results from a combination of economic and regional factors, in association with the wide Chinese academic scene. The growing Boston Chinatown accommodates Chinese-owned bus lines shuttling an increasing number of passengers to and from the numerous Chinatowns in New York City, and this has led to some exchange between Boston Chinese cuisine and that in New York.
A large immigrant Fujianese immigrant population has made a home in Boston, leading to Fuzhou cuisine being readily available there. An increasing Vietnamese population has also had an influence on Chinese cuisine in Greater Boston.
In addition, innovative dishes incorporating chow mein and chop suey as well as locally farmed produce and regionally procured seafood are found in Chinese as well as non-Chinese food in and around Boston. The selection of Chinese bakery products has increased markedly in the 21st century, although the range of choices in New York City remains supreme.
Joyce Chen introduced northern Chinese (Mandarin) and Shanghainese dishes to Boston in the 1950s, including Peking duck, moo shu pork, hot and sour soup, and potstickers, which she called "Peking Ravioli" or "Ravs".<ref nameMennies>{{cite web|last1Mennies|first1Leah|titleThe Story of Peking Ravioli|urlhttp://luckypeach.com/the-story-of-peking-ravioli|websiteLucky Peach|dateFebruary 25, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150317230442/http://luckypeach.com/the-story-of-peking-ravioli/|archive-dateMarch 17, 2015}}</ref> Her restaurants were frequented by early pioneers of the ARPANET,<ref>Hafner, K., & Lyon, M. (1996). Where wizards stay up late: The origins of the Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 112.</ref> as well as celebrities such as John Kenneth Galbraith, James Beard, Julia Child, Henry Kissinger, Beverly Sills, and Danny Kaye.<ref nameNYT-Obit>{{cite news|titleJoyce Chen, 76, U.S. Popularizer Of Mandarin Cuisine|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/26/obituaries/joyce-chen-76-us-popularizer-of-mandarin-cuisine.html|access-dateApril 12, 2019|newspaperNew York Times|dateAugust 26, 1994|agencyAssociated Press}}</ref> A former Harvard University president called her eating establishment "not merely a restaurant, but a cultural exchange center".<ref nameRobertson>{{cite web|lastRobertson|firstRain|titleJoyce Chen|urlhttp://cambridgehistory.org/discover/culinary/joycechen.html|workCulinary Cambridge|publisherCambridge Historical Society|access-date12 June 2013|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150410033814/http://cambridgehistory.org/discover/culinary/joycechen.html|archive-dateApril 10, 2015}}</ref> In addition, her single-season PBS national television series Joyce Chen Cooks popularized some dishes which could be made at home, and she often encouraged using substitute ingredients when necessary.PhiladelphiaThe evolving American Chinese cuisine scene in Philadelphia has similarities with the situation in both New York City and Boston. As with Boston, Philadelphia is experiencing significant Chinese immigration from New York City, {{convert|95|mi}} to the north,<ref nameChineseNYCtoPhiladelphia>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/20/nyregion/philadelphia-new-york-migration-immigrants.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/20/nyregion/philadelphia-new-york-migration-immigrants.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|titleLeaving New York to Find the American Dream in Philadelphia|firstMatt|lastKatz|newspaperThe New York Times|dateJuly 20, 2018|access-dateApril 18, 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and from China, the top country of birth by a significant margin for a new arrivals there .<ref namePhiladelphiaChineseForeignBorn>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.philly.com/news/immigrants-philly-population-growth-foreign-born-20190510.html|titleWelcome to Philly: Percentage of foreign-born city residents has doubled since 1990|firstJeff|lastGammage|newspaperThe Philadelphia Inquirer|dateMay 10, 2019|access-dateMay 10, 2019|quote=China is, far and away, the primary sending country, with 22,140 city residents who make up about 11 percent of the foreign-born population, according to a Pew Charitable Trusts analysis of Census data. Next is the Dominican Republic with 13,792, followed by Jamaica, 13,500; India, 11,382; and Vietnam, 10,132...About 230,000 Philadelphians are foreign-born. More than a quarter of residents are immigrants or have a foreign-born parent, Pew reported, and 23 percent speak a foreign language at home.}}</ref>
There is a growing Fujianese community in Philadelphia as well, and Fuzhou cuisine is readily available in the Philadelphia Chinatown. Also, emerging Vietnamese cuisine in Philadelphia is contributing to evolution in local Chinese cuisine, with some Chinese-American restaurants adopting Vietnamese influences or recipes.
Washington, D.C.
Although Washington, D.C.'s Chinese community has not achieved as high of a local profile as that in other major cities along the Mid-Atlantic United States, it is now growing, and rapidly so, due to the gentrification of DC's Chinatown and the status of Washington, D.C., as the capital of the United States. The growing Chinese community in D.C. and its suburbs has revitalized the influence of Chinese cuisine in the area.
Washington, D.C.'s population is 1% Chinese, making them the largest single Asian ancestry in the city. However, the Chinese community in the DC area is no longer solely concentrated in the area of Chinatown, which is about 15% Chinese and 25% Asian, but is mostly concentrated throughout various towns in suburban Maryland and Northern Virginia. The largest concentration of Chinese and Taiwanese in the D.C. area is in Rockville, Maryland, in Montgomery County.
A popular dish localized in Chinese American carryouts across the DMV region consists of whole fried chicken wings served with mumbo sauce, a sweet, tangy ketchup-based condiment.<ref>Ballard, K. (2018, May 9). ''A brief history of Washington, D.C.'s famous mambo sauce. Culture Trip. https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/washington-dc/articles/a-brief-history-of-washington-d-c-s-famous-mambo-sauce/</ref>
In D.C. proper, there are Chinese-owned restaurants specializing in both Chinese American and authentic Chinese cuisine. Regional variations of Chinese cuisine that restaurants in D.C. specialize in include Shanghainese cuisine, Cantonese cuisine, Uyghur cuisine, Mongolian cuisine, and Sichuan cuisine. In the suburbs of D.C. in Maryland and Virginia, many of which have a much higher Chinese population than D.C., regional variations present aside from the ones previously mentioned include Hong Kong cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shaanxi cuisine, Taiwanese cuisine, and Yunnan cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web |lastPlumb |firstTierney |date2017-11-10 |titleThe Best Chinese Restaurants Around D.C. |urlhttps://dc.eater.com/maps/best-chinese-restaurants-dc |access-date2025-04-02 |websiteEater DC |languageen}}</ref>
Puerto Rico
{{Main|Puerto Rican Chinese cuisine}}
Hawaii
Hawaiian-Chinese food developed somewhat differently from Chinese cuisine in the continental United States.
Owing to the diversity of Pacific ethnicities in Hawaii and the history of the Chinese influence in Hawaii, resident Chinese cuisine forms a component of the cuisine of Hawaii, which is a fusion of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of plate lunches in Hawaii.
The names of foods are different as well, such as Manapua'', from the Hawaiian contraction of "Mea ono pua'a" or "delicious pork item" from the dim sum bao, though the meat is not necessarily pork.
Other regions
* Chow mein sandwich — sandwich of chow mein and gravy (Southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island)
* Chop suey sandwich — sandwich of chicken chop suey on a hamburger bun (North Shore of Massachusetts)
* St. Paul sandwich — egg foo young patty in plain white sandwich bread (St. Louis, Missouri)
* Springfield-style cashew chicken — a style of cashew chicken that combines breaded deep-fried chicken, cashew nuts, and oyster sauce (Springfield, Missouri)
* War/wor sue gai (boneless almond chicken) — bite-sized Southern-style fried chicken with yellow sauce (Columbus, Ohio)
* Yaka mein — Chinese-Creole food found in New Orleans that evolved from beef noodle soup
Chain restaurants
meal: Kung Pao chicken, orange chicken, chow mein and steamed vegetables]]
* China Coast — closed in 1995; owned by General Mills Corporation, formerly 52 locations throughout the United States
* Leeann Chin — Minnesota and North Dakota; owned at one time by General Mills Corp.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.pri.org/stories/2016-05-16/how-chinese-restaurant-americas-midwest-won-sean-connerys-heart|titleHow a Chinese restaurant in America's Midwest won Sean Connery's heart|workPublic Radio International|access-date2017-06-05|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Manchu Wok — throughout the United States and Canada, as well as Guam, Korea and Japan
* Panda Express — throughout North America (including Canada and Mexico), plus locations in Asia and the Middle East<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.pandarg.com/About/ |titlePanda Restaurant Group, Inc. - Manager of Panda Express, Panda Inn and Hibachi-San |access-date2013-04-21 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130518210601/http://www.pandarg.com/About/ |archive-date2013-05-18 }}</ref>
* Pei Wei Asian Diner — throughout the United States; formerly a subsidiary of P.F. Chang's
* P. F. Chang's China Bistro — throughout the United States; featuring California-Chinese fusion cuisine
* Pick Up Stix — California, Arizona, and Nevada
* Stir Crazy — Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New York, Florida, Indiana, Texas, and Ohio. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stir_Crazy_%28restaurant%29?utm_source Stir Crazy has faced closures in recent years]. As of 2025, its operational status is uncertain, and it may have ceased operations.
Popular culture
Many American films (for example: The Godfather; Ghostbusters; The Lost Boys; The Naked Gun; Crossing Delancey; Paid in Full; and Inside Out) involve scenes where Chinese take-out food is eaten from oyster pails. A consistent choice of cuisine in all these cases, however, might just be an indicator of its popularity. A running gag in Dallas is Cliff Barnes' fondness for inexpensive Chinese take-out food, as opposed to his nemesis J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;Ewing frequenting fine restaurants.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/an-american-story/article22640790.ece |titleAN AMERICAN STORY |firstSucheta |lastChakraborty |newspaperThe Hindu|dateFebruary 3, 2018}}</ref>
Among the numerous American television series and films that feature Chinese restaurants as a setting include A Christmas Story, Seinfeld (particularly the episode "The Chinese Restaurant"), Sex and the City, Big Trouble in Little China, South Park, Year of the Dragon, Lethal Weapon 4, Mickey Blue Eyes, Booty Call, Rush Hour 2, and Men in Black 3.<ref name"scoutingny.com">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.scoutingny.com/why-everyone-films-at-the-same-new-york-chinese-restaurant/|titleWhy Everyone Films At The Same Damn New York Chinese Restaurant |publisherScouting NY |dateJanuary 14, 2013}}</ref><ref name"thespruceeats.com">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.thespruceeats.com/top-movies-featuring-chinese-food-694794|title10 Binge-Worthy Movies to Watch With Chinese Take-Out}}</ref> In most cases, it is not an actual restaurant but a movie set that typifies the stereotypical American Chinese eatery, featuring "paper lanterns and intricate woodwork", with "numerous fish tanks and detailed [red] wallpaper [with gold designs]" and "golden dragons", plus "hanging ducks in the window".<ref name"scoutingny.com"/><ref name"thespruceeats.com"/>
Cultural impact
Impact on United States
Chinese American cuisine provides an option for Americans to taste Chinese food, which is adapted to both Chinese and American flavors. It allows people in America to learn more about Chinese traditional culture. During this process, Chinese Americans have developed a new cuisine which is different from traditional Chinese food, contributing to the food diversity in America by running their own restaurants or eateries, first-generation Chinese immigrants eliminated discrimination against them and gained sufficient income to send the next generations to universities or colleges.<ref name"Ch Six">Ch Six, "The Globalization of Chinese Food: The Early Stages", in J. A. G. Roberts. China to Chinatown: Chinese Food in the West (London: Reaktion, 2002) {{ISBN|1-86189-133-4}}.</ref> For Chinese Americans, American Chinese cuisine has already become part of their childhood memories and life,<ref name"Liu-2009">{{cite journal |last1Liu |first1Yinghua |last2Jang |first2SooCheong (Shawn) |date2009-09-01 |titlePerceptions of Chinese restaurants in the U.S.: What affects customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions? |journalInternational Journal of Hospitality Management |volume28 |issue3 |pages338–348 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.10.008}}</ref> which also would be a bridge between Chinese and American cultural communications and interactions. For example, Panda Express and P.F. Chang's, two of the most famous American Chinese restaurants in the United States that have become the symbol of American Chinese cuisine and have gained appreciation from many Americans.
Additionally, American Chinese cuisine brought some new ingredients and cooking methods to the United States, such as stir-frying and steaming. Thus, many restaurants in the United States started to combine non-Chinese dishes with traditional Chinese cooking techniques and flavors, which promoted the development of fusion cuisine.<ref name="Smith" /> Introduction of Chinese food also triggered people's curiosity about Asian food, including Japanese, Thai and Singaporean food, leading to a prevalence of Asian cuisine.
Authenticity
American Chinese food is often criticized for the lack of authenticity or called ‘fake’ Chinese food. The criticism stems from their different characteristics such as taste, ingredients, and preparation of the food. “Traditions that seem timeless and ancient are in fact being constantly modified and reinvented within any given historical context,” so what may be authentic in a given time may not be in another. However, some argue that it represents a new yet authentic Chinese cuisine. While distinct from traditional regional Chinese cuisine, it’s a fusion of American and Chinese flavors as it is a product of Chinese immigrants who have “adapted to their social environments, developed new identities, and formed new cultural sensibilities.” What started as a way for Chinese immigrants to eat familiar foods later transformed into a cultural blend of their traditional recipes and their adapted way of life facing the U.S. economy.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastLiu |firstHaiming |date2009-02-16 |titleChop Suey as Imagined Authentic Chinese Food: The Culinary Identity of Chinese Restaurants in the United States |urlhttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/2bc4k55r |journalJournal of Transnational American Studies |languageen |volume1 |issue1 |doi10.5070/T811006946|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Authenticity in Restaurants
Articles have stated that authenticity involves “more than food; [https://friedmanhospitalitygroup.com/perfecting-the-ambiance-the-role-of-decor-and-service/ ambiance], [https://modwineco.com/music-for-restaurants-matters/ music], serving style come into play”. Restaurants’ authenticity is often not fixed, but rather based on communication, symbols, and changing ideas. Some argue that ethnic restaurants, such as Chinese restaurants, helping immigrants feel connected culturally. According to researchers “relationship (guanxi) surfaces as a key expression of what makes a culinary experience authentic”, aligning with the idea that publicity, reputation and relationship factoring in for Chinese in terms of public relations. This suggests that social connections and reputations contribute towards how authenticity is perceived in the culinary context. However, past studies argue that the concept of authenticity is simply a marketing ploy to attract non-chinese customers rather than a true reflection of the culture. In other words, the concept of authenticity has often been examined from the perspective of the tourist seeking an authentic experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastClair |firstRobin Patric |last2Kuang |first2Kai |last3Long |first3Ziyu |last4Tan |first4Jasmin E. |date2016 |titleAuthenticity, Personal Relationships and the Aura of Home: The Case of the Chinese American Restaurant |urlhttps://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/digest/article/view/27863/33081 |journalDigest: A Journal of Foodways and Culture |languageen |volume5 |issue1 |issn2329-4787}}</ref>
Nutritional Concerns
The adaptation of Chinese cuisine to American tastes has also shifted its nutritional content. Many have claimed that these modifications have made it less healthy, as the dishes now contain higher levels of sodium, fat, and oil. This has influenced some to perceive the ‘Americanization’ of the cuisine to have contributed to the reduced nutritional value. For example, the Orange Chicken at Panda Express contains 22 grams of fat, exceeding the recommended daily intake of 20 grams. Similarly, the Kung Pao Chicken contains 21 grams of fat, which also surpasses the dietary guidelines. However, it is possible to customize the meals to fit an individual’s nutritional needs.
MSG Panic
In the 1980s, a popular food seasoning known as monosodium glutamate (MSG) became the subject of health concerns leading up to the “MSG panic.” A report from Dr. Robert Ho Man Kwok in a medical journal describing the symptoms he experienced after dining at a Chinese restaurant, contributed to the growing concerns about MSG. Media coverage amplified these concerns which popularized the term “Chinese Restaurant Syndrome,” despite MSG being a widely used seasoning in a range of foods. In response to a heightened public concern, researchers hastily conducted studies that framed the issue towards Chinese cuisine rather than the seasoning MSG, though it has been claimed as the initial linkage.
Sociologist Stanley Cohen defined the fear surrounding MSG in which “a condition, episode, person, or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests.” Some researchers characterize the fear of MSG in Chinese cuisine as a "moral panic”, and claim it was influenced by historical xenophobia toward Chinese Americans and immigrants, contributing to the stigmatization of Chinese cuisine as being of lower quality or unhealthy due to its MSG content.<ref>{{Cite journal |titleEzra's Archives Volume 10, Number 1, Spring 2020 |urlhttps://ecommons.cornell.edu/collections/a92fc791-8ca5-4550-bf46-0f6ec55f1ad7 |languageen |archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20240724164830/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/collections/a92fc791-8ca5-4550-bf46-0f6ec55f1ad7 |archive-date2024-07-24}}</ref> Impact on China Although some Chinese people will regard American Chinese food as inauthentic food and less likely to have it, or they will not recognize American Chinese cuisine, in recent years,{{when|dateDecember 2024}} some American Chinese food restaurants have opened in some cities of China, such as Beijing and Shanghai.<ref name"美式中餐-2023">{{Cite web |languagezh |title"美式中餐"开回中国，卖的只是"情怀"吗？ |trans-title"American Chinese food" opens back in China, is it just selling "sentiment"? |urlhttps://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id1773209872113443342&wfrspider&forpc |date2023-08-03}}</ref><ref name"Liu-2015" /> P.F. Chang's, a restaurant chain specialized in American Chinese food, opened a new restaurant in Shanghai, China. The CEO of this chain Michael Osanloo revealed his positive attitude towards the future of opening more chain restaurants in China because he believed that Chinese people would like to try something new.<ref name="Chen-2017" />
Many owners of the American Chinese restaurants opened in the cities of China are Chinese Americans. Their primary target customers were people from foreign countries and students who have had study abroad experiences. However, many native Chinese people, especially younger generations have a greater willingness to try American Chinese food. Yinhao Xu, the owner of Americanized Chinese eatery-Bamboo Chinese Fast Food in Beijing, said that he was surprised that some younger generations without overseas experiences have a higher level of acceptance of American-style Chinese cuisine.<ref name"美式中餐-2023" /> The reason for that is cultural impact; many American Chinese cuisines appear in American shows or films, such as Friends and The Big Bang Theory, which leads young people in China to want to try American Chinese food.{{cn|dateDecember 2024}}
Impact to other countries
, Vietnam]]
South Korea
Woktionary, an American Chinese restaurant opened in Seoul, South Korea, provides authentic American Chinese food, such as Chow mein and Mongolian beef. Meanwhile, the head chef Kim also added new flavors to some of the dishes.<ref name="Godoy-2016" />
At the same time, Panda Express also opened a restaurant in Seoul, South Korea. The CEO of the company indicated that many Korean customers were already expecting for their opening.<ref name"Grant-2022" /> Japan The first Panda Express in Japan was opened in November 2016 in Kawasaki. It is dedicated to providing the original taste of American Chinese food to Americans in Japan. It offers similar menus in Japan compared to Panda Express restaurants in the United States, such as Orange Chicken, Beijing Beef, and Fortune cookies. Nevertheless, the restaurant also tries to implement localization by offering a limited dish only in Japan: Sweet and Pungent Shrimp.<ref name"NPR Morning Edition-2007" />
United Kingdom
Chinese food and American Chinese cuisine has become a staple food in British Cuisine as early as the 19th century with the first arrivals of Chinese immigrants to the UK. In an 2009 survey, over 80% of participants enjoy Chinese cuisine. British Chinese cuisine can be distinguished by its partnering with the British classic chips. American Chinese characteristics come inspired by the fried dishes like Rangoons and Chop Suey.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastLeung |firstG. |date2010-08-20 |titleNEWS AND VIEWS: Ethnic foods in the UK: Ethnic foods in the UK |urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2010.01840.x |journalNutrition Bulletin |languageen |volume35 |issue3 |pages226–234 |doi10.1111/j.1467-3010.2010.01840.x}}</ref>See also
{{Portal|Food|United States|China|Taiwan}}
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
* American cuisine
* Australian Chinese cuisine
* British Chinese cuisine
* Canadian Chinese cuisine
* Chinese bakery products
* Chinese cuisine
* Chinese Latin American cuisine
* Filipino Chinese cuisine
* Fortune Cookie
* Fusion cuisine
* Indian Chinese cuisine
* List of Chinese restaurants
* New Zealand Chinese cuisine
* Oyster pail
{{Div col end}}
Citations
{{reflist|30em}}
References and further reading
Studies
* {{cite book |last Chen |first Yong |year 2014 |title Chop Suey, USA: The Story of Chinese Food in America |publisher Columbia University Press |location New York |isbn 9780231168922 |url-access registration |url = https://archive.org/details/chopsueyusastory0000chen }}
* {{cite book |last Coe |first Andrew | year 2009 |title Chop Suey: A Cultural History of Chinese Food in the United States |publisher Oxford University Press| location New York |isbn = 9780195331073 }}
* {{cite journal |lastHayford |firstCharles |titleWho's Afraid of Chop Suey? |journalEducation About Asia |volume16 |issue3 |pages7–12 |date2011 |urlhttp://www.asian-studies.org/eaa/Hayford_16-3.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120617022910/http://asian-studies.org/eaa/Hayford_16-3.pdf |archive-date2012-06-17 }} Free download:
* {{cite book |last Jung|first John|year 2010 |title Sweet and Sour: Life in Chinese Family Restaurants |publisher Yin and Yang Press| location Cypress, CA |isbn = 9780615345451}}
* {{cite book |last Lee |firstJennifer 8. |author-link Jennifer 8. Lee |year 2008 |title The Fortune Cookie Chronicles: Adventures in the World of Chinese Food |publisher Twelve| location New York |isbn 9780446580076}}
* {{cite book |last Roberts, J. A. G. |year 2002 |title China to Chinatown: Chinese Food in the West |publisher Reaktion |location London |isbn 1861891334 |url = https://archive.org/details/chinatochinatown00robe }}
* Lv, Nan, and J. Lynne Brown (2010). Chinese American Family Food Systems: Impact of Western Influences. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 106-114. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2009.04.005.{{cite book |last1 Wu|first1David Y. H. |first2 Sidney C. H. |last2 Cheung |year 2002 |title The Globalization of Chinese Food |publisher Curzon| location Richmond, Surrey |isbn = 0700714030}}
* Library of Congress (2021). Chinese Americans and the Gold Rush. Inside Adams: Science, Technology & Business, Library of Congress.
Cookbooks
* Sara Bosse, Onoto Watanna, with an Introduction by Jacqueline M. Newman. Chinese-Japanese Cook Book. (1914; reprinted, Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 2006). {{ISBN|1-55709-371-7}}. {{ISBN|978-1-55709-371-4}}.
* {{cite book |last Hom |first Ken |year 1997 |title Easy Family Recipes from a Chinese American Childhood |publisher Knopf |location New York |isbn 0-394-58758-8 |url https://archive.org/details/easyfamilyrecipe00homk }}
* Eileen Yin-Fei Lo and Alexandra Grablewski. ''The Chinese Kitchen: Recipes, Techniques and Ingredients, History, and Memories from America's Leading Authority on Chinese Cooking.'' (New York: William Morrow, 1999). {{ISBN|0-688-15826-9}}.
External links
{{Commons category|American Chinese cuisine}}
* "Chinese food in America History" (The Food Timeline) [http://www.foodtimeline.org/restaurants.html#chineserestaurants The Food Timeline: history notes--restaurants, chefs & foodservice]
* [https://viuspace.viu.ca/handle/10613/2699 Imogen Lim Restaurant Menu Collection: American menus]. Vancouver Island University Library.
* [https://archive.org/details/spiller?tab=about Harley J. Spiller Collection of Chinese Restaurant Menus] University of Toronto, Scarborough Library
{{Chinese American|state=collapsed}}
{{Cuisine of the United States|state=collapsed}}
{{cuisine|state=collapsed}}
Cuisine
Cuisine
Category:Chinese cuisine
Category:Hawaiian cuisine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Chinese_cuisine | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.988332 |
1559 | Ahenobarbus | Ahenobarbus (Latin, 'red-beard', literally 'bronze-beard'), also spelled Aenobarbus or Ænobarbus, may refer to:
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (disambiguation), Romans
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (disambiguation), Romans
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, birth name of Nero, Roman emperor 54–68
Frederick Barbarossa, known in Latin as Fridericus Ænobarbus, Holy Roman Emperor 1155–1190
See also | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahenobarbus | 2025-04-05T18:25:41.991421 |
1560 | Ahmad Shah Durrani | {{Short description|Founder of the Durrani Empire (r. 1747–1772)}}
{{redirect|Ahmed Shah Durrani|the cricket umpire|Ahmed Shah Durrani (umpire)}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ahmad Shah Durrani<br/>{{lang|ps|احمد شاه دراني}}
| title = Padishah<br>Ghazi<br> Shāh Durr-i-Durrān ("King, Pearl of Pearls")
| image = Portrait of Ahmad-Shah Durrani. Mughal miniature. ca. 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France.jpg
| image_size | caption Portrait of Ahmad Shah Durrani, {{circa}} 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France
| succession1 = Afghan Emperor
| reign1 = July 1747 – 4 June 1772
| coronation1 = July 1747
| predecessor1 = Office established<br>(Nader Shah as the Shah of Iran)
| successor1 = Timur Shah Durrani
| house = House of Durrani
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Zaman Khan
| mother Zarghona Anaa<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/09/afghan-first-lady-shadow-1920s-queen-2014930142515254965.html|titleAfghan first lady in shadow of 1920s queen?|dateOctober 1, 2014|viawww.aljazeera.com|access-date4 June 2020|archive-date23 October 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191023020907/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/09/afghan-first-lady-shadow-1920s-queen-2014930142515254965.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| birth_name = Ahmad Khan Abdali
| birth_date = 1720—1722
| birth_place = Herat
or Multan
| death_date {{Death date and given age|1772|6|4|49–52|dfyes}}
| death_place = Maruf, Durrani Empire
| burial_date = June 1772
| burial_place = Tomb of Ahmad Shah Durrani, Kandahar
| religion = Sunni Islam{{efn|School of Jurisprudence: Hanafi}}
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Hazrat Begum|1757|}}
* {{marriage|Iffat-un-Nissa Begum|1757|}}
}}
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| allegiance {{flagicon image|Afsharid Imperial Standard (3 Stripes).svg|border}} Afsharid Empire<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Herat until 1842.svg|border=}} Durrani Empire
| branch {{flagicon image|Nadir Shah Flag.svg|border}} Persian Army<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Herat until 1842.svg|border=}} Afghan Army
| serviceyears = 1738–1772
| rank = Sipahi, Ispahsalar, Emir, Shah
| battles = {{Collapsible list
|'''Nader Shah's invasion of India<br>Khyber Pass (1738)<br>Karnal (1739)<br>Delhi (1739)<br>Ottoman–Persian War (1743–1746)<br>Quchan (1747)<br>Farah (1747)<br>Qalati Ghilji (1747)<br>Ghazni (1747)<br>Kabul (1747)<br>Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani<br>Lahore (1748)<br>Manupur (1748)<br>Khorasan (1750—1751)<br>Herat (1749–1750)<br>Mashhad (1750)<br>Nishapur (1750)<br>Lahore (1752)<br>Khorasan (1754–1755)<br>Tabas (1754)<br>Mashhad (1754)<br>Nishapur (1755)<br>Sack of Delhi (1757)<br>Mastung (1758)<br>Kalat (1758)<br>Afghan–Maratha War<br>Taraori (1759)<br>Barari Ghat (1760)<br>Sikandarabad (1760)<br>Aligarh (1760)<br>Samalkha (1760)<br>Meerut (1760)<br>Panipat III (1761)<br>Kup (1762)<br>Barnala (1762)<br>Pipli Sahib (1762)<br>Ravi (1762)<br>Qarawal (1764)<br>Darbar Sahib (1764)<br>Bukharan war (1768)
}}
}}
}}
{{Ahmad Shah Durrani}}
Ahmad Shāh Durrānī ({{langx|ps|احمد شاه دراني}}; {{Langx|fa|{{nq|احمد شاه درانی}}}}), also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī' ({{Langx|ps|احمد شاه ابدالي}}), was the first ruler and founder of the Durrani Empire. He is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan.
Throughout his reign, Ahmad Shah fought over fifteen major military campaigns. Nine of them being centered in India, three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p118}} Having rarely lost a battle,<ref>{{harvnb|Dalrymple|Anand|2016|p67}}: "Few possessors of the Koh-I-Noor have led happy lives, and while Ahmad Shah rarely lost a battle, he was eventually defeated by a foe more intractable than any army..."</ref> historians widely recognize Ahmad Shah as a brilliant military leader and tactician, typically being compared to rulers such as Mahmud of Ghazni, Babur, and as well as Nader Shah.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p141}}<ref>{{harvnb|K. Palat|Tabyshalieva|2003|p290}}: "Ahmad Shah Durrani was not only a visionary leader but also a talented military man."</ref> Historian Hari Ram Gupta refers to Ahmad Shah as the "greatest general of Asia of his time",<ref>{{harvnb|Gupta|1978|p192}}: "The Afghans fought with equal valour and energy and displayed strategy under the leadership of the greatest general of Asia of his time..."</ref> as well as one of the greatest conquerors in Asian history.<ref>{{harvnb|Gupta|1976|pp225–226}}: "Ahmad Shah Abdali was one of the greatest conquerors who have ever appeared in Asia."</ref>
Name and title
His birth name was Ahmad Khan, born into the Abdali tribe. After his accession to power in 1747, he became known as Ahmad Shah. His tribe also changed the name from Abdali, instead becoming the Durrani.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p246}}{{sfn|Barfield|2022|p98}}{{sfn|Balland|1995}} Afghans often call him Ahmad Shāh Bābā'', meaning "Ahmad Shah the Father".{{sfn|Singh|1959|p459}}{{sfn|Runion|2007|p71}}
In historical sources, his tribes name is interchangeably used between Abdali and Durrani, with other common names for him being Ahmad Shah Abdali.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p246}}{{sfn|Chaurasia|2002|p321}}
Early life
Ahmad Shah was born between 1720 and 1722 in either Herat, Afghanistan, or Multan, Pakistan. Sources are disputed on where he was born.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p287}} Modern scholarship came to the consensus that Ahmad Shah was born in Multan, but this is disputed by Nejatie, who states that the majority of sources from Ahmad Shah's time state that he was born in Herat, rather than Multan, including the Tarikh-i Ahmad Shahi, a primary source commissioned by Ahmad Shah.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p287-293}}
His father, Zaman Khan, was the emir of Herat. Zaman Khan had died in 1721, leading to Ahmad Shah being raised alongside his brother Zulfiqar Khan in Shindand and Farah. In the mid-1720s, Zulfiqar Khan was invited to rule Herat. Nothing else is heard of Ahmad Shah until 1731–1732, when Zulfiqar Khan was defeated by Nader Shah, forcing both Zulfiqar Khan and Ahmad Shah to flee to Kandahar, where they remained political prisoners of Hussain Hotak.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p294}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p15-16}}{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=87}}
After Nader Shah conquered Kandahar, Ahmad Shah and Zulfiqar Khan were freed. Ahmad Shah spent much of his early life in the service of Nader Shah. Accompanying him on his invasion of India, Ahmad Shah was later resettled in Mazandaran alongside his brother. Iranica states that Ahmad Shah may have become the governor of Mazandaran.{{sfn|Balland|1995}} After the death of his brother, Ahmad Shah enlisted in the Afsharid military in 1742. Some sources suggest that it was only Zulfiqar Khan that left for Mazandaran, while Ahmad Shah remained in Nader Shah's service as an officer.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p296-298}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p18}}{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=91}}
During Nader Shah's invasion of India, Ahmad Shah personally commanded a regiment of Durrani tribesmen. Ahmad Shah's forces committed massacres and sacked Delhi alongside Nader Shah's army in 1739.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p247}} According to legend, Nizam ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of Hyderabad, who was an expert in physiognomy, predicted that Ahmad Shah would become king. Nader Shah took notice of this and also believed in the prophecy, supposedly clipping a piece of Ahmad Shah's ears, and remarking "When you become a king, this will remind you of me". Nader Shah also requested that Ahmad Shah be generous with his descendants.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p300}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p19}} Nejatie is skeptical of the account.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p302}}
In 1744, Ahmad Shah was promoted to a personal staff of Nader Shah. In a campaign against the Ottomans, Ahmad Shah distinguished himself and was allowed to raise a contingent of 3–4,000 Durrani tribesmen by Nader Shah. Ahmad Shah's contingent became one of Nader Shah's most trusted, utilizing them to shatter the power of his other commanders due to his perception that they were planning to rebel or kill him.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p100}}{{sfn|Barfield|2022|p98}}
Death of Nader Shah
In June 1747, Nader Shah was convinced that his personal guard intended to assassinate him. As a result, he summoned Ahmad Shah and other loyal commanders. Nader Shah ordered Ahmad Shah to assemble his Durrani regiments, and to arrest his personal guard. If the personal guard resisted, Ahmad Shah was given permission to kill them all. He was ordered to do this at first light. Nader Shah then chose to sleep with his favorite wife, but did so outside the royal tent, where the same guards he accused of treachery presumed night duty, while Ahmad Shah with his regiments were established at the defenses of the camp.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=102}}
News of Nader Shah's plan leaked, with the conspirators being forced to act. Four conspirators entered the royal enclosure and entered Nader Shah's tent at Quchan, assassinating him.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p102-103}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p21-22}} Chaos ensued afterward, and plans to coverup the killing by the conspirators failed. They resorted to pillaging the royal enclosure while news of Nader Shah's death rapidly spread. The next morning, the royal guard attacked Ahmad Shah's forces, who despite being heavily outnumbered, drove the Persians and Qizilbash off. Ahmad Shah then entered the tent of Nader Shah, taking the Koh-i-Noor diamond and a signet ring from his body.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p103}}{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p305-306}}
Return to Kandahar
]]
Having driven off the Persians and Qizilbash, Ahmad Shah departed for Kandahar with his regiments, and his Uzbek ally, Hajji Bi Ming. Ahmad Shah first settled the dispute of leadership, asserting himself as the leader of Durrani tribesmen by forcing the former leader to step down. Ahmad Shah also killed 'Abd al-Ghani Khan, his uncle and the governor of Kandahar to secure complete power over the Durrani regiments. With the dispute over leadership concluded, Ahmad Shah's forces grew to 6,000 Afghans.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=105}}
Following this, Ahmad Shah moved through Khabushan, advancing to Kashmar. While on-route, Ahmad Shah accumulated supplies for his army and proceeded toward Torbat-e Heydarieh, where they received news that Adel Shah had sent a force to halt the Afghans. As a result, Ahmad Shah led his forces to Tun and then Farah, where they defeated an army sent by Adel Shah. With Farah under his control, the Afghans proceeded to Grishk, and then Kandahar.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p306}}{{sfn|Lee|2022|p105}}
While on-route to Kandahar, Ahmad Shah recovered a military convoy that contained the annual tribute from Sindh. The value of the treasure is disputed, but it's given within an estimate of 3,000,000–260,000,000 rupees. The convoy was escorted by Mohammad Taqi Khan Shirazi, a disgruntled former officer of Nader Shah, and Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul and Peshawar. Taqi Khan joined Ahmad Shah and divided the wealth, while Nasir Khan refused and was imprisoned. Later, he was ransomed on the conditions of an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees, and that he would enter Ahmad Shah's suzerainty. The army of Ahmad Shah grew to over 18,000 men, also including war elephants.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p106-107}}{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p307}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p32}}Accession and coronation
of Ahmad Shah Durrani by Abdali chiefs at Kandahar in 1747]]
Upon reaching Kandahar, Ahmad Shah established camp in Naderabad and prepared to be crowned as King. According to legend, Ahmad Shah declared a Jirga, summoning all tribal leaders who unanimously selected Ahmad Shah as king. A piece of wheat or barley was then placed on Ahmad Shah's turban.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p24-27}} Singh cites this account, despite there being no contemporary evidence to suggest this occurred.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p106}}
In reality, Ahmad Shah was brought to power through a nine-man military council. Ahmad Shah's accession was further disputed by Jamal Khan, the leader of the Barakzai tribe. The Barakzai were the most powerful clan of the Durranis centered in the Kandahar and Helmand regions. The dispute over accession continued until an agreement was made where Jamal Khan would submit to Ahmad Shah as king, while Ahmad Shah would make Jamal Khan and his descendants Wazir. With an agreement reached, Sabir Shah, Ahmad Shah's advisor, took a piece of greenery or stalk and attached it to Ahmad Shah's cap, officially crowning him. Scholars state that Ahmad Shah's rise to power was effectively a military coup, rather than an election.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=107-113}}
Following his accession, Ahmad Shah adopted the epithet "Durr-i Durrān", meaning "Pearl of Pearls", also changing the name of his tribe from Abdali to Durrani.{{sfn|Nejatie|2017|p334}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p248}}{{sfn|Barfield|2022|p98}}Reign as Shah (1747–1772), who Ahmad Shah often envisioned himself as the successor of.]]AdministrationAt the beginning of his rule, Ahmad Shah's empire consisted of Kandahar, Helmand, and Farah. The Hazaras of Bala Murghab and the Khanate of Kalat ruled by Nasir Khan also rested under Afghan suzerainty.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p115}}
However, Ahmad Shah had no administrative experience, nor did much of his closest advisors. As a result, he chose to adopt a government style similar to the Mughals and Safavids, with his main idea of a government based on an absolute monarchy. A tribal council ruled in hand with Ahmad Shah as well, serving as a form of cabinet. However, Ahmad Shah had made the positions of his cabinet hereditary, thus making it difficult to dismiss advisors without causing conflict. Their roles, however, were mostly purely de-jure, and tasks were delegated to subordinates.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=116-117}}
The civil service of the empire was dominated by the Qizilbash, as most of the Durrani elite were illiterate. The Qizilbash also significantly formed the major part of Ahmad Shah's bodyguard,{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|1997|p25}} counterbalancing other Durrani leaders and tribes. The complications and effectively divided government made the administration difficult to function, and caused ethnic tension between the Qizilbash and tribal council of Ahmad Shah.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p117}}
Further complications erupted in Ahmad Shah's administration over exempting his own tribe from taxation. Other Afghan tribes and ethnicities were discontent from such, as they were also devoid of being allowed to serve in the administration of the empire. This was further exasperated by Ahmad Shah when he gave the right of revenue collection to the highest bidder. The victors of these auctions, typically members of Ahmad Shah's own tribe, were completely free in taxing as much as they wished. While members of the Durrani tribe rapidly became rich, some landholders were forced into complete debt, forcing many to sell their lands or flee the kingdom, likely being bought up by the Durranis who had driven them to bankruptcy.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=117}}
Ahmad Shah envisioned himself as the successor of Nader Shah. Instead of establishing a capable administration, Ahmad Shah focused on wars and military campaigns to supply his treasury, with any downturns easily being covered by the treasures of war. Throughout his reign, he rarely spent his time in Kandahar, the capital of his empire,{{sfn|Balland|1995}} and instead pursued military campaigns, returning only to restore stability after conflict. By the end of his reign, Ahmad Shah committed to over fifteen military campaigns, Nine of them being centered in India, three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p117-118}}ObjectivesAfghanistan was a relatively poor country. As a result, Ahmad Shah, following in the footsteps of conquerors before him such as Mahmud of Ghazni,{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p262}} invaded India to plunder and obtain wealth. Relating as well from Muhammad of Ghor, Ahmad Shah invaded India to also establish his own political dominance, as the power vacuum following the decline of the Mughal Empire allowed him to repeat extensive campaigns, while also reviving the prominence of Afghans in India. Furthermore, by institutionalizing the casus belli of holy war, Ahmad Shah was able to direct the majority of his campaigns toward India.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=248-249}}
Moreover, Ahmad Shah saw invasions as the proper way to propagate his strength. The Afghan chiefs and nobility initially saw him as an upstart, and as a result, Ahmad Shah sought victories to legitimize himself and to bring the nobility under him.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p69}}Military campaignsCampaign to Kabul (1747)Weeks after Ahmad Shah's accession, Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul, Ghazni, and Peshawar revolted against him. Ahmad Shah previously imprisoned Nasir Khan and ransomed him for an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees, and while Nasir Khan was attempting to raise this amount, the Ghilzai tribes refused to pay their taxes toward the Durranis, and only wished to do so to their Mughal sovereign, Muhammad Shah. With a growing Ghilzai revolt, Nasir Khan declared his independence from Durrani suzerainty and began raising an army of Uzbeks and Hazaras, while also frantically asking Muhammad Shah for aid.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p118}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=36-37}}
In Autumn of 1747, Ahmad Shah began his campaign against Nasir Khan. Appointing his nephew Luqman Khan as the regent in Kandahar while he left on campaign, Ahmad Shah marched his army toward Ghazni only to be halted at Qalati Ghilji by his former allies, the Tokhi Ghilzai. Ahmad Shah stormed the fortress of Qalat, bringing the Tokhis to submission and annexing their lands over the following decades.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p118}} Ahmad Shah continued to Ghazni, defeating the governor established there and conquering it with little opposition.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p36-37}}{{sfn|Jr|2015|p=261}}
Before advancing on Kabul, Ahmad Shah garnered the support of the Suleimankhel tribes in the region, while Taqi Khan managed to procure the defection of the Qizilbash garrison in Kabul, so that once the Afghan army would arrive, they'd hand over the city. The acceptance of these terms forced Nasir Khan to flee to Peshawar, and when Ahmad Shah arrived at Kabul in October 1747, the Qizilbash handed over the Bala Hissar fortress. Ahmad Shah awarded the Qizilbash by giving them districts in Chindawol and Murad Khani.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p118}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p37}}{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|1997|p111}}First invasion of India (1747–1748)
{{main|Battle of Lahore (1748)|Battle of Manupur}}
With Kabul under his control, Ahmad Shah dispatched his Commander-in-chief, Jahan Khan, toward Peshawar with the intention of advancing as far as Attock. Jahan Khan quickly overran Jalalabad, and Nasir Khan was unable mount a defense at the Khyber Pass, forcing him to flee. The Afghan armies approached Peshawar, prompting many Pashtun tribes to declare for them, such as the Yusufzai, Afridi, and Khattak. With Nasir Khan overwhelmed, he completely withdrew from Peshawar and fled to Delhi.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p119}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p127}}
Shah Nawaz Khan, the Mughal governor of the Punjab, opened correspondence with the Afghans after they had seized Peshawar. Shah Nawaz, having toppled his brother from power to assume control over the Punjab, was opposed by the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, who refused to recognize him as governor. As a result, the Afghans promised to affirm Shah Nawaz as governor of the Punjab if he accepted Durrani suzerainty. Shah Nawaz accepted this before the Mughal vizier promised to confirm him as governor if he opposed the Afghan invasion instead, which Shah Nawaz accepted.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p119-120}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p83}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=42-43}}
The betrayal saw Ahmad Shah dispatch Sabir Shah to try and convince Shah Nawaz once again. However, after insulting Shah Nawaz, Sabir Shah was imprisoned and executed, and Shah Nawaz began marching against the Afghan army.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p250}}{{sfn|Lee|2022|p120}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p128}} Ahmad Shah crossed the Ravi River on 10 January, and established himself at the Shalimar Gardens, outside of Lahore. The armies of Shah Nawaz and Ahmad Shah began battle on 11 January, and as the battle began, the Afghan regiments of Shah Nawaz's army defected. Despite commanding a much larger army then the Afghans, the Mughals were utterly defeated, and Shah Nawaz fled to Delhi.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p120-121}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p129}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p84}}
With their victory, the Afghans entered Lahore, plundering and massacring the city. Thousands were also conscripted, while the Mughals began mobilizing a larger army. Ahmad Shah left Lahore on 19 February with his forces, beginning to advance on Delhi. He captured Sirhind and continued advancing, outmaneuvering Mughal forces until they were caught at Manupur, where they battled. The Afghan army pressed the attack until a catastrophe occurred in the form that the ammunition stores of the Afghan army caught fire and exploded, incinerating 1,000 men, and forcing a complete withdrawal from the battlefield.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p121-122}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p130-142}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p85-86}} The Mughals did not pursue the Afghan army due to the death of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, and turmoil in the camp.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p67-70}}
Withdrawing to Lahore, Ahmad Shah became aware that his nephew, Luqman Khan, who had been left as regent in Kandahar, had revolted. Ahmad Shah immediately returned to Afghanistan, and marched on Kandahar, quickly quelling the revolt. He spent the summer of 1748 preparing for his second invasion of India.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p122}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p68-72}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p143}} The timing was significant for Ahmad Shah, as Qamar-ud-Din, a significant commander for the Mughals at Manupur, had been killed, while the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah's death saw him succeeded by Bahadur Shah, who largely focused on pleasure-seeking. Ahmad Shah also wished to avenge his defeat.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p74}}
Second invasion of India (1748)
In November 1748, Ahmad Shah began his second invasion of India.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|1997|p111}} Moin-ul-Mulk, the new governor of the Punjab, urgently requested reinforcement from the Mughals in Delhi. Moin-ul-Mulk, wishing to not fight the Afghans on open plains, remained on the defensive at Sodhra, as an ongoing power struggle with the former Mughal governor of Kabul, Nasir Khan, threatened his position. As a result, Jahan Khan was able to raid the countryside, including the Chaj Doab, whilst a party of Sikhs raided Lahore.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p122}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=251}}
Ahmad Shah advanced to Kopra, and engaged in skirmishes with Moin-ul-Mulk's army. Overwhelmed with the rising power of the Sikhs and the Afghan invasion, Moin-ul-Mulk opened negotiation, ceding the revenues of Gujrat, Aurangabad, Sialkot, and Pasrur, which all amounted to revenues worth 1.4 million rupees yearly. Ahmad Shah returned to Afghanistan following the treaty, crossing through Peshawar, Dera Ismail Khan, and Dera Ghazi Khan.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p123}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p251}}{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p111}} The regions of Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan fell as he returned to Afghanistan, confirming the former tribal chiefs as governors in the region under his suzerainty.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p80}}
First Khorasan campaign (1749–1751)
{{main|Durrani Campaign to Khorasan (1749–51)}}
Between 1749 and 1750, after his second invasion of India, Ahmad Shah launched his first campaign into Khorasan. Intent on conquering Herat, Ahmad Shah besieged the city for a long period of time until it finally fell in late 1750.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110}}{{sfn|Lee|2022|p131}}{{sfn|Perry|1985}}
With the fall of Herat, Ahmad Shah continued his campaign into Khorasan, invading the Afsharids and besieging Mashhad, where he remained until November 1750. Attempts to storm the city by the Afghans were unsuccessful, and Lee and Gupta state that Shahrokh Shah surrendered to Ahmad Shah personally so he could raise the siege. Shahrokh Shah accepted Afghan suzerainty, paying large tribute and releasing members of Ahmad Shah's family.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p132}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p88-89}}
Noelle however, states that Ahmad Shah lifted the siege on 10 November, and was intent on returning years later. Shahrokh Shah had released a son of Ahmad Shah, possibly being Timur Shah Durrani, or Ahmad Shah's youngest son, Sanjar Mirza.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p=110}}
Nonetheless, after the siege of Mashhad, Ahmad Shah advanced to Nishapur, which was ruled by the Qara Bayat Amirdom. He besieged the city and demanded its surrender, which the governor, Jafar Khan, refused despite only having a few thousand men as garrison. Ahmad Shah ordered the walls to be breached, utilizing cannons, which the Afghans surged through. However, the defenders of the city had established defenses and a trap, which the Afghans fell into. Close-quarters combat began after, in which Jafar Khan was killed. His nephew, Abbas Quli, took command of the garrison and repulsed the Afghan forces, inflicting horrific casualties unto them, including some 12,000 dead, and thousands more wounded.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p132-133}}{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=90-92}}
With his army seriously weakened, Ahmad Shah ordered a retreat to Herat. The harsh winter weather killed thousands while the Afghans retreated,{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110}} and Ahmad Shah was forced to leave behind much of his baggage, including his artillery and food supplies. When the Afghans reached the Hari Rud river, it was completely frozen. Attempting to cross it caused much of the ice to break, killing even more men and sweeping away pack animals for the army.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p133}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=90-92}}
Upon the armies return to Herat, Ahmad Shah faced an assassination conspiracy from Darwish Ali Khan Hazara, Ahmad Shah's governor of Herat. The conspiracy was quickly quelled and Darwish Ali was imprisoned, where in his stead, Ahmad Shah appointed Timur Shah as the new governor.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p132-133}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p90-92}}
Third invasion of India (1751–1752)
{{main|Battle of Lahore (1752)}}
Possibly due to Ahmad Shah's struggle in Khorasan,{{sfn|Singh|1959|p101}} Moin-ul-Mulk failed to pay the agreed tribute to Ahmad Shah from his second invasion on the revenues of Gujrat, Aurangabad, Sialkot, and Pasrur. Inducing Ahmad Shah to invade again, he began in November 1751, leading his forces to invade the Punjab. Moin-ul-Mulk immediately sent 900,000 rupees forward as tribute, which Ahmad Shah seized and continued his march. With the advance guard under Jahan Khan, Ahmad Shah led his forces through Rohtas, Gujrat, and Shahdara. Jahan Khan's forces pillaged the countryside while skirmishes began with Moin-ul-Mulk, who raised his own force to meet the Afghans in battle.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p101-106}} The advance of Ahmad Shah triggered mass panic in Lahore, with many fleeing to Delhi or Jammu for safety.{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p=109}}
In January 1752, Ahmad Shah forded the Ravi in secrecy at Ghazipur, before advancing on Lahore. Jahan Khan began advancing on Lahore as well, initially being driven out of Faiz Bagh, and instead establishing himself at the Shalimar gardens. Moin-ul-Mulk immediately dashed back to Lahore, to which the Afghans laid siege for over four months. Receiving no aid from the Mughals, or any other nobles, Moin-ul-Mulk settled for a pitched battle with the Afghans outside of Lahore.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p106-110}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p269-270}}
On 6 March, after a fierce battle, Moin-ul-Mulk was defeated and surrendered to Ahmad Shah, who received him in person. Impressed by the efforts of Moin-ul-Mulk in his resistance, Ahmad Shah instated him as the governor of Lahore under his suzerainty. Lahore was however, plundered and slaughtered. Following this, Ahmad Shah drafted a peace treaty with Moin-ul-Mulk, officiating the annexation of the Punjab including Multan and Lahore, and as far as Sirhind to the Durrani Empire. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah signed the treaty on 3 April 1752, ending Mughal rule in the Punjab.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p252-253}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p119-123}}{{sfn|Lee|2022|p=123}}
Having conquered the Punjab, Ahmad Shah also dispatched his general, Shah Pasand Khan, with 15,000 men to Kashmir, which was embroiled in civil war. Supporting the deposed governor, Mir Muqim, Afghan forces quickly occupied Srinagar and established complete control in the province.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p123}}{{sfn|Parmu|1969|p348-349}}
Turkestan (1751–1768)
{{main|Afghan Turkestan}}
At the start of Ahmad Shah's reign, he had held friendly relations with the ruler of the Maimana Khanate, Hajji Bi, who had assumed control over the Chahar Wilayat. Coming into conflict against Hazara Bi, the ruler of Qataghan, Hajji Bi lost control over Balkh to the Qataghanids. In 1751, Hajji Bi, with a delegation of amirs, traveled to Herat, seeking Ahmad Shah's aid to reclaim Balkh. Ahmad Shah accepted the call to arms, forging an alliance with Hajji Bi, and sent thousands of Afghan and Qizilbash men under Allah Khan Turkman. Hajji Bi was also bestowed by Ahmad Shah the titles of governor of Balkh and tax collector.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p134}}{{sfn|Lee|1996|p85}}
Not much information is given about the campaign against the Qataghanids. However, by the summer of 1752, the forces of the alliance were victorious, and Balkh was restored to the rule of the Maimana Khanate. While the campaign ensued, a commander of one of the Afghan Qizilbash forces fought with Allah Khan, prompting Mizrab Bi, a son of Hazara Bi, to revolt in 1753. Hajji Bi urgently requested aid from Ahmad Shah again, which he responded with by sending 5,000 men north. After having been restored to Balkh, Hajji Bi pursued a campaign in Qataghan, and with aid from the Afghans, the revolt was defeated. Mizrab Bi was brought to submission, and Badakhshan was subjugated as well.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p135-136}}{{sfn|Lee|1996|p85-86}}
In 1755–1756, Hajji Bi petitioned Ahmad Shah at Kabul to be made commander-in-chief of forces in Balkh. The request was accepted, stripping Allah Khan of his position. However, Hajji Bi became noted for his abuse of power in the position, triggering an investigation by the Afghans, who sent Allah Khan to oversee the affairs of the region. Allah Khan immediately declared the reports of oppression to be true, and was reinstated as commander-in-chief in Balkh. Ahmad Shah also declared a new governor of Balkh, Nawab Khan Alakozai.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p136}}{{sfn|Lee|1996|p86}}
Believing that it was the beginning of the Afghans attempting to assert their own hegemony over all of Turkestan, Hajji Bi began plotting with Izbasar, the ruler of Sheberghan. The two began a rebellion that achieved little, ending in a pardon for both Hajji Bi and Izbasar.{{sfn|Lee|1996|p86-87}} In 1761, Rahim Bi Manghit, the ruler of Bukhara, began an invasion of Afghan Turkestan, intent on re-establishing Bukharan suzerainty over the region. Izbazar declared his loyalty to the ruler of Bukhara, and aided in the invasion. Bukharan forces initially overran Aqcha before being defeated by Allah Khan, who built a pyramid with the head of dead Bukharan soldiers. Afghan forces continued to Aqcha, where the Bukharans and Izbasar were defeated again. Aqcha was besieged, while another force of 8,000 Bukharans were sent to Aqcha to relieve the siege, only to be defeated by the combined forces of Allah Khan and Hajji Bi.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p136}}{{sfn|Lee|1996|p=87-89}}
Attempts to breach the walls of Aqcha failed, and instead, negotiations began. The Bukharans withdrew across the Amu Darya, while Allah Khan was sent to Sheberghan to bring Izbasar into submission. Izbasar, however, opened negotiation with Nawab Khan, who demanded Allah Khan be put to death due to an enmity between the two. Izbasar complied, executing Allah Khan, receiving a pardon from Nawab Khan as a result.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p136}}{{sfn|Lee|1996|p87-89}}
In 1768, a rebellion in Qataghan and Badakhshan prompted an invasion from Shah Murad Manghit, the next Bukharan ruler. Ahmad Shah sent 6,000 men under Shah Wali Khan to face the rebels. As a result, Shah Murad crossed the Amu Darya, advancing to Qarshi, and threatening to attack Aqcha. In response, Ahmad Shah mobilized an army, affirming his authority in Maimana, Andkhoy, Sheberghan, and Balkh as he advanced. This quickly brought Shah Murad to negotiation, who recognized Afghan control over Balkh, with the amirs of the Chahar Wilayat also submitting tribute to the Durranis. To further avoid a battle with the Afghans, Shah Murad surrendered the cloak of Muhammad after Ahmad Shah had demanded it. With the cloak, Ahmad Shah created a shrine known as the Kirka Sharif, which was built next to his tomb.{{sfn|Lee|2022|p136-137}}{{sfn|Lee|1996|p90-91}}{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|1997|p71}}Second Khorasan campaign (1754–1755)
{{main|Durrani Campaign to Khorasan (1754–55)}}
In 1754, Ahmad Shah began preparing for a second campaign to Khorasan. During this time, Nishapur was besieged by Alam Khan, a former Afsharid viceroy. When Ahmad Shah began his invasion, Alam Khan's army completely dispersed, forcing his withdrawal to Sabzevar.{{sfn|Perry|1985}}
Beginning his campaign in May 1754, Ahmad Shah departed from Herat with his army and advanced toward Tun. He dispatched Jahan Khan and Nasir Khan, the ruler of the Khanate of Kalat, to devastate the countryside. Following this, the Afghan forces marched against the governor of Tabas, Ali Murad Khan, who assembled his own army and met the Afghans in battle. Singh describes the battle that took place as one of the most bloodiest battles in Persian history. Ammunition failed to gain any clear advantage for both sides, forcing both armies to draw swords and began clashing. The battle remained indecisive until Ali Murad Khan was killed, and the remaining Persian army was completely routed.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=95-96}}
With the Persians defeated, Tabas and Tun were conquered in between June and July 1754 by the Afghans.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p96}} Ahmad Shah then led his forces to Mashhad, arriving before the city on 23 July.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110}} A long siege protracted until the Afsharids finally submitted to Ahmad Shah on 1 December 1754. On the 4th, Ahmad Shah's name was read in the sermon, acknowledging his sovereignty over the Afsharids. With their victory, the Durranis annexed territories of Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari from the Afsharids.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p97}}{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110}} On 9 May 1755, Shahrokh Shah was officially re-instated as ruler over Mashhad, effectively as a Durrani protectorate.{{sfn|Perry|1985}} Following this, Ahmad Shah began his march on Nishapur in the spring of 1755, while Shah Pasand Khan was dispatched toward Mazandaran against the Qajars.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p89}}
dedicated to Ahmad Shah Durrani, c.1754]]
During the siege of Mashhad, The Camesgazak Kurd contingent of Alam Khan's forces completely defected to the Afghans, killing Alam Khan after dragging him from Sabzevar, which was conquered.{{sfn|Perry|1985}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=95}}
On 17 June 1755, the Afghan armies arrived at Nishapur, resulting in Abbas Quli's immediate submission. Abbas Quli sought to be pardoned for giving resistance during Ahmad Shah's first campaign. Not long after, however, Nishapur raised in rebellion due to news that Shah Pasand Khan had been defeated by the Qajars. The gates of the city were closed on Ahmad Shah's troops,{{sfn|Singh|1959|p89}} prompting the Afghans to begin a one-week siege.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p110-111}} During the siege, Ahmad Shah lacked important siege equipment, which he solved by having every mounted soldier carry kilograms of gunmetals. As the siege began, Ahmad Shah's Armenian cannon makers melted down the metal the soldiers had carried, forging a large cannon. The first shot of the cannon blasted through the city walls, and caused havoc in the city through houses and bazaars.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=133}}
The weapon forced the submission of the cities elders, and they opened the gates of the city despite Abbas Quli's opposition. The city was then subsequently plundered, with the populace of the city spared if they went to mosques and didn't take anything with them. Afghan forces went to houses and tore down the defenses, razing significant portions of the city.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p134}}{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p111}} Following the victory at Nishapur, Ahmad Shah defeated the Qajars and advanced further by sacking the cities of Tun and Tabas, instilling massacres in their cities.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=134}}
Abbas Quli was initially taken by Ahmad Shah until he had earned his favor. Abbas Quli married one of Ahmad Shah's daughters, while Ahmad Shah married Abbas Quli's sister. With the arrangements, Abbas Quli was allowed to return to Nishapur as governor of the city. He would remain close to Ahmad Shah throughout his life.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p100, 135}}Fourth invasion of India (1756–1757)
{{main|Sack of Delhi (1757)}}
]]
Moin-ul-Mulk governed the Punjab until his death in November 1753, and was succeeded by Mughlani Begum. In March 1756, Mughal vizier Imad ul-Mulk imprisoned and replaced her with Adina Beg. Mughlani Begum pleaded Ahmad Shah to lead another invasion, promising wealth.{{sfn|Gupta|1976|p169}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p123-128}}
Due to the tyrannies of Imad ul-Mulk, several nobles such as Najib ud-Daula, a chief of Rohilkand, and the new Mughal emperor Alamgir II, pleaded for Ahmad Shah to invade. Ahmad Shah accepted the invitations and began his fourth invasion in November 1756, leaving Peshawar on the 15th, and crossing Attock on the 26th with an army of 80,000 men.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p81}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p148-151}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p326}} He reached Lahore on 20 December, seizing the city with little resistance.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p124}} Ahmad Shah garnered tribute from the city before continuing his march, crossing the Sutlej river on 10 January at Ludhiana, while the advance guard under his general, Jahan Khan, seized Sirhind, Karnal, and Panipat.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p80}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p153}}
The Marathas, who had signed a treaty to protect the Mughals from foreign invasions in 1752,{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p223}} assembled a contingent of 3,400 men under Antaji Mankeshwar, battling the Afghans at Narela. The Maratha forces, however, were defeated and forced to withdraw with losses of 100 men.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p158}}{{sfn|Barua|2005|p55}} Following the defeat of the Marathas, Najib ud-Daula defected to the Afghans, with Imad ul-Mulk surrendering not long after. Jahan Khan continued his advance to Luni and besieged Shahdara on 17 January, with the Jama Masjid in Delhi reading Ahmad Shah's name in the Khutbah as a sign of sovereignty. The Afghan forces continued advancing on Delhi, arriving before the city on 28 January.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p163}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p=129}}
, where Alamgir received Ahmad Shah before he entered Delhi]]
Meeting with Alamgir at the Fatehpuri Mosque, Ahmad Shah led a grand entry into Delhi, which was marked with a gun salute.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p164}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p254}} However many inhabitants of the city had already fled or hidden, with the streets completely deserted. Many people barricaded themselves in their houses. Ahmad Shah's name was also inserted in the Khutbah for other mosques. Initially, the Afghan army was ordered not to sack the city.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=124}}
Alamgir was placed under house arrest,{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p226}} and houses outside the city of Delhi were ravaged.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p254}} On the 29th, the bazaars of the city were sacked and Jahan Khan's soldiers extracted tribute from Feroz Shah Kotla, a large fortress in Delhi. On 30 January, Ahmad Shah minted coins in his name. He further married Hazrat Begum, a daughter of Alamgir,{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p89-90}} whilst also marrying his son, Timur Shah Durrani, to another daughter of Alamgir.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p326-327}}
Ahmad Shah then ordered all Hindus to wear distinctive marks on their head,{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p327}} as well as forbidding non-Muslims from wearing the turban. Extortionate demands were also placed upon the Mughal nobility. The Mughal nobility refused, to which Ahmad Shah dispatched his own tax collectors, demanding additional tribute. Those suspected of concealing valuables were subjected to torture, including foot whipping. Many thousands died or were crippled as a result, while others resorted to suicide. Additionally, a tax was imposed on every household in Delhi.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p124}}
Imad ul-Mulk was forced to hand over gold and ornaments valued at 10&nbsp;million rupees, and another 300,000 gold coins.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p81}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p165}} Intizam-ud-Daulah was summoned, and many of his assets were confiscated, including over 10 million rupees and 100 of his wives. Unable to produce the required wealth, Intizam admitted that his father had buried a fortune, which the Afghans uncovered. The Afghans recovered over 15&nbsp;million rupees in cash, along with various goods, including 200 golden candles that were the size of a man. The treasure also included diamonds, rubies, pearls, and emeralds.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p81}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p166}}
After the sacking, Ahmad Shah campaigned against the Jats. Suraj Mal, the ruler of the Jats, initially submitted to Ahmad Shah, but refused to send asylum seekers from the sacking of Delhi, resulting in conflict.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p83-84}} An Afghan force was sent to Faridabad, seizing the fortress and razing it. However, a Jat raid under Jawahar Singh defeated the Afghans, massacring them. Ahmad Shah, in response, laid siege to Ballabhgarh, while Jahan Khan and Najib ud-Daula were dispatched to loot the surrounding regions. They advanced toward Mathura, while Jawahar Singh met them for battle at Chaumuhan. The battle that ensued left between 10 and 12,000 dead on both sides combined, with an innumerable amount of men wounded as well.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p85-86}} Jawahar Singh, however, alongside Antaji Mankeshwar, reinforced Ballabhgarh. The cannon fire of the Afghans completely broke the defenses of the fortress, forcing Jawahar to withdraw in the night, with Afghan forces seizing the city on 4 March.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p124}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p175-176}} An expedition under Abdus Samad Khan, another one of Ahmad Shah's generals, nearly arrested Jawahar Singh through ambush, but Jawahar ultimately evaded capture.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p=84}}
Toward the end of February 1757, the Afghan forces arrived at and attacked Mathura. The city, despite being inhabited overwhelmingly by non-combatants, mainly pilgrims due to the Hindu Holi festival, was attacked and the inhabitants were massacred by the Afghans. The Afghan forces slaughtered and defiled the bodies of Hindu ascetics by humiliating them with slaughtered cows. Temples of the city were razed, and the images of idols were destroyed. Jahan Khan furthered the massacre by rewarding a bounty of five rupees for every Hindu head, resulting in the death of thousands of men, women, and children. The Muslims of the city were subjected to the attack as well. Following his massacre at Mathura, Jahan Khan continued his campaign, with the city of Vrindavan being attacked and its inhabitants massacred on 6 March.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p125}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p176-178}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p85-87}} The Tarikh-I-Husain Shahi establishes the idol destruction in line with iconoclasm, remarking: "Idols were broken and kicked about like polo-balls by the Islamic heroes."{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p119}}
Ahmad Shah, following Jahan Khan, attacked the city of Gokul on 16 March, which was inhabited by Naga Sadhus, a Hindu Bhakti sect. The Afghans attacked the city where a battle ensued, resulting in the death of 2,000 men for both sides. Jugal Kishor, a diplomat from the Bengal Subah, informed Ahmad Shah that there was nothing of value in Gokul. Ahmad Shah ordered a withdrawal, sparing the city from a sacking.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p179}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p88}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=125}}
On 21 March, Jahan Khan arrived before Agra with 15,000 men, besieging the city. Civilians from the town received Jahan Khan and his army, promising 500,000 rupees in tribute. However, after failing to raise the amount, Afghan forces entered the city, plundering it and massacring over 2,000. The Afghan forces attempted to seize the citadel but failed due to the defense of Mirza Saifullah, the garrison commander. He defended the fort with extensive artillery usage, preventing the Afghans from approaching with cannons. Jahan Khan seized 100,000 rupees in tribute, before withdrawing to Ahmad Shah's camp on 24 March after being recalled.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p176-177}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p85-86}}
Cholera had broken out in the Afghan camp, killing around 150 men per day, beginning mainly from the polluted Yamuna River which was overwhelmed with bodies. As a result, Ahmad Shah intended to return to Afghanistan, especially to secure the loot from the campaign. The heat as a result from the beginning of the Indian summer also convinced him. As a result, Ahmad Shah began returning for Afghanistan in April 1757, declaring his son, Timur Shah, governor of the Punjab, while Jahan Khan served as his deputy. Sirhind was annexed from the Mughals, while Imad ul-Mulk was re-instated as vizier, with Najib ud-Daula given the office of Mir Bakhshi.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p254}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p180-189}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p89-91}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p125-126}} Alamgir was permitted to rule Delhi, however as a vassal of the Durrani Empire.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=254}}
The Afghan invasion had dire consequences for the Mughal Empire, as most of the Mughal army, along with those from the Bengal Subah, were forcibly deployed against the Afghans. Mere months later, the army of the Bengal Subah, weakened due to the Afghan invasion, were utterly defeated at the Battle of Plassey, beginning the rise of British power in India.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=130}}
The total loot Ahmad Shah carried back to Afghanistan is disputed. Its been estimated from contemporary writers that the Afghans seized 30 to 300&nbsp;million rupees worth of goods.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p186}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126}} Over 28,000 elephants, camels, and mules carried Ahmad Shah's loot, alongside his 80,000 men, who carried whatever they took, with many of the Afghan cavalry returning on foot, while they loaded loot unto their horses.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p186}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126}} The massacres done by the Afghans throughout the campaign made the Yamuna River flow red with blood for two weeks.{{sfn|Barua|2005|p55}}Durrani administration of the Punjab (1757–1758)
(1757) between the Sikhs and Afghans]]
Timur Shah, being only eleven years old, saw the Punjab governed mostly by Jahan Khan, who was noted as an experienced warrior, but incapable administrator. He attacked the Sikhs who were celebrating the Diwali festival at Amritsar in 1757, as well as destroying and polluting many Sikh shrines, declaring Jihad.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p256}} The tyrannies of Jahan Khan resulted in the Sikhs forging an alliance with Adina Beg, who had initially fled during Ahmad Shah's fourth invasion.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p91-92}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=126}}
As a result, Jahan Khan led a campaign against Adina Beg in the Jalandhar Doab, pillaging the region. Adina Beg acquiesced to submitting tribute, but ignored summons to the Afghan court in Lahore. On one such occasion of being summoned, Adina Beg refused to trust Jahan Khan and fled to the Hill states, where he forged an alliance with Vadbhag Singh Sodhi and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, the leader of the Dal Khalsa.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p=91-92}}
Jahan Khan dispatched a force under Murad Khan in response, meeting the alliance at the battle of Mahilpur, where the Afghans were defeated, resulting in the looting of the Jalandhar Doab. Further dispatches from Lahore were sent to quell the alliance but all were defeated, allowing the Sikhs to plunder the suburbs of Lahore.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p92-93}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=256}}
Further complications occurred for the Afghans, as a Maratha force led by Raghunath Rao had arrived at Agra in May 1757 by the time Ahmad Shah was crossing the Indus River back to Afghanistan. The Maratha forces completely seized the Ganges Doab, and defeated Najib ud-Daula at the battle of Delhi in September 1757. Alamgir II was retained on the throne as a puppet, and Imad ul-Mulk remained as vizier.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p255-256}} Adina Beg thus requested the Marathas to invade the Punjab, which Raghunath Rao accepted.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p93}}
The Maratha invasion began in February 1758, advancing and reaching Sirhind in March, which was besieged. Abdus Samad Khan, the Afghan governor of Sirhind, fled the city but was eventually captured, with Sirhind being plundered after. The developments at Sirhind alerted Jahan Khan, who raised an army of 2,000 men and scouted far ahead of Lahore, but refused to give battle to the alliance. Upon receiving news that the Marathas were approaching Lahore, he began preparing to return to Afghanistan on 19 April.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p93-94}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=200-203}}
Establishing camp at Shahdara, the Afghans retreated across the Ravi, leaving Lahore in lawlessness, and to be captured by the alliance.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p256}} Afghan rearguard contingents were ambushed by the Marathas, emboldening Jahan Khan and Timur Shah to speed their progress to Afghanistan. Further close encounters at Eminabad saw the Afghans driven to the Chenab below Wazirabad, where they were attacked by the Marathas and Sikhs, who took some two hundred Afghan prisoners. After this encounter, modern scholarship designates the end of the Maratha pursuit. Near contemporary sources state that the Marathas were able to establish themselves at Attock, and possibly even Peshawar.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p94-96}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p205-206}}Kalat Rebellion (1758—1759)With the Maratha conquest of the Punjab, Nasir Khan, the ruler of the Khanate of Kalat, declared his independence from Ahmad Shah. Attempts to conciliate and have Nasir Khan return to Afghan suzerainty failed, prompting Ahmad Shah to dispatch a force under Shah Wali Khan, which was defeated at Pringuez, forcing their retreat to Quetta.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p211}}{{sfn|Khan Durrani|1991|p139}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126}}
Informed of the defeat, Ahmad Shah raised his own force and marched against Kalat in the summer of 1758.{{sfn|Chahryar|Baipakov|Irfan|2003|p289}} He met Nasir Khan in battle at Mastung, where the forces of Kalat were defeated, prompting Nasir Khan's withdrawal to Kalat, which Ahmad Shah besieged.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p118}} The siege of Kalat continued for forty days to no avail, and numerous storming attempts by the Afghans failed.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p211-212}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126}}
Nasir Khan, beleaguered of having been trapped in his capital, opened peace negotiations with the Afghans, apologizing for his rebellion. Ahmad Shah, having no intentions to annex Kalat or to bestow the province unto another governor, reaffirmed Nasir Khan in his position. A treaty was made, stipulating that Nasir Khan would re-enter and recognize the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah, but he would pay no tribute, and would furnish troops when called upon for war paid by the Shah. After the treaty, Ahmad Shah married a cousin of Nasir Khan.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p212-214}}{{sfn|Chahryar|Baipakov|Irfan|2003|p289}}{{sfn|Khan Durrani|1991|p=139}}
Months later, a dervish began a revolt by having an individual named Mir Khush Khan Durrani proclaimed as King. The rebellion however, was crushed with the dervish who instigated the revolt being executed, and Mir Khush Khan being blinded.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p140}}Fifth invasion of India (1759–1761)
{{main|Afghan–Maratha War|Third Battle of Panipat}}
Preoccupied with the uprising in Kalat, Ahmad Shah was unable to pursue a campaign against the Marathas. He dispatched many of his generals to lead attacks unto them, such as Jahan Khan and Nur ud-Din Bamizai, who were both defeated. In October 1759, Ahmad Shah began his fifth invasion of India.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p112}} He had been invited by numerous rulers and religious leaders across India, including Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, who wrote to Ahmad Shah pleading for him to save the Muslims of India.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p121}} Ahmad Shah utilized this in having it declared a jihad by religious leaders in Kandahar.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p126-127}} Further invitations were sent by Najib ud-Daula, who wanted India to become a permanent extension of the Afghan empire. Alamgir II sent fervent requests to Ahmad Shah for aid, affirming his loyalty and informing him of the intentions of Imad ul-Mulk, who wished to him. Even Hindu rulers such as Madho Singh, the ruler of Amber, and Vijay Singh, the ruler of Marwar, were discontent over Maratha expansion, and sent letters to Ahmad Shah.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p221-225}} Ahmad Shah also wished to avenge the defeat of his son, Timur Shah, and to reclaim the lost territories of the Punjab.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=263-264}}
Beginning his invasion, Ahmad Shah split his forces to attack from two sides. Jahan Khan advanced from Kandahar to Kabul, and then through the Khyber Pass with an army of 20,000, while Ahmad Shah led a force of 40,000 through the Bolan Pass. He was further reinforced by Nasir Khan, and other Afghan chiefs, eventually fording the Indus on 25 October, 1759.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p264}} As Ahmad Shah entered the Punjab, Jahan Khan had forced the Maratha forces stationed at Attock to evacuate, pursuing them and battling at Rohtas, where the Maratha army was routed, forcing a withdrawal to as far as Delhi.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p225-226}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=264-265}}
As this happened, Ahmad Shah approached Multan with his army. The Maratha governor in response, fled to Lahore, leaving the city to be captured without resistance. With the Afghans converging on Lahore, the Maratha forces withdrew to Batala, and then Sirhind,{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p124}} with some Maratha detachments being caught and destroyed. At Lahore, Jahan Khan battled with the Sikhs. No clear victor emerged, and the Afghans suffered some 2,000 dead, while Jahan Khan was wounded during the battle.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p226-227}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=265}}
The approach of Ahmad Shah Durrani caused havoc throughout all of Northern India, and Imad ul-Mulk had Alamgir and Intizam-ud-Daulah murdered as a result, placing Shah Jahan III on the Mughal throne.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p125-126}} Ahmad Shah continued advancing through the Punjab, with Jahan Khan seizing Sirhind on 27 November, with both armies uniting at Sirhind in December 1759.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p266}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=228}}
Enraged by the execution of Alamgir, Ahmad Shah began racing toward Delhi. He reached Ambala on 20 December, and advanced toward Taraori, beginning a battle against the Marathas led by Dattaji Scindia. The advance guard of the Afghan army came in clash against the Marathas, and was initially routed, beginning a withdrawal. However, Ahmad Shah, ready to support the battle, dispatched 5,000 men under Shah Pasand Khan. The forces of Imad ul-Mulk in the battle completely fled at the sight of Shah Pasand's flag,{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p218}} and the Afghans attacked with muskets. Further detachments of the Afghan army sent by Ahmad Shah brought the battle to an end, with the Maratha force completely surrounded and destroyed.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p266-267}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p228-229}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p126-127}}
Following the battle, Ahmad Shah forded the Yamuna and united with the forces of Najib ud-Daula and other Rohilla leaders at Saharanpur. The combined armies marched toward Delhi, encamping at Luni, some 10 kilometers from the Red Fort of Delhi on the other side of the Yamuna. Dattaji Scindia returned to Kunjpura following his defeat at Taraori, and began preparing to defend Delhi from the Afghan army. He first sent Imad ul-Mulk to prepare the defenses of the city. However, Imad ul-Mulk completely deserted the Marathas and fled to Suraj Mal.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p266-267}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p228-229}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p=126-127}}
Dattaji then advanced to Sonipat, attempting to track Ahmad Shah's movements, which was made difficult as the Afghans kept their movement confidential by killing every Indian that was found outside their houses. As a result, Dattaji established camp at Barari on 4 January, 1760. On 9 January, Najib ud-Daula began crossing the Yamuna with Ahmad Shah following him, beginning the battle of Barari Ghat. The Maratha forces opposed the advance of the Afghans across the river but were overpowered by musketeers, with much of the Maratha army only armed with spears and swords. Dattaji, attempting to enter the fray himself, was shot either in the eye,{{sfn|Singh|1959|p231}} or the ribs,{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p129}} causing his death. Further Maratha reinforcements were useless against the Afghan musket fire, forcing the Marathas to withdraw from the field with a thousand dead, and the Afghans victorious.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p127}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p128-129}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p230-231}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p267-269}}
Having defeated the Marathas at Barari Ghat, Ahmad Shah entered Delhi, with his men plundering the city. Much of the population of the city had already fled, and he took Shah Jahan III under his protection instead of claiming the Mughal throne for himself. Ahmad Shah also placed Yaqub Ali Khan as governor of the city, a nephew of his vizier, Shah Wali Khan, before beginning to march against Suraj Mal.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p130-131}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p270}}
Leaving Delhi on 27 January, Ahmad Shah besieged Deeg on 7 February, although not committing to the siege seriously.{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p227}} While besieging, he sent a detachment under Jahan Khan which routed a Maratha army on 11 February at Rewari. Following this, Ahmad Shah pursued a Maratha force led by Malhar Rao Holkar, who was stationed at Narnaul. After reaching Rewari, Ahmad Shah was evaded by Holkar, and the Maratha force crossed the Yamuna river on 26—27 February, entering Najib ud-Daula's territories. On 28 February, Holkar advanced to Sikandrabad, awaiting for news of the Afghan position. On 1 March 1760, Ahmad Shah dispatched a force of 15,000 under Jahan Khan, Shah Pasand Khan, and Qalandar Khan to halt the Maratha army. The Marathas were caught on 4 March and were completely routed at the battle of Sikandarabad,{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p271-272}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p234-235}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p127}} with many Maratha officers slain. Holkar himself fled for his life to Agra, and then to Bharatpur, meeting Suraj Mal.{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p228-229}}{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p131-132}}
With another victory over the Marathas, Ahmad Shah proceeded to Aligarh, which belonged to the Jats, and besieged it. Unable to receive any reinforcement, the fort was surrendered to the Afghans. At Aligarh, Najib ud-Daula advised Ahmad Shah to rest and wait out for the summer and monsoon seasons to pass, especially as the summer had been so catastrophic for the Afghans during the fourth invasion of India.{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p229-230}} Ahmad Shah accepted, and Najib ud-Daula used this to expel the Marathas from Shikohabad, Phaphund, and Bithoor.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p132}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=272-273}}
As the Afghans settled in, they resorted to diplomacy to strengthen their position. Ahmad Khan Bangash, although an initial Maratha ally, was appealed to by Shah Wali Khan, Ahmad Shah's vizier, as an Afghan brother. Ahmad Khan thus allied with the Durranis and arrived at their camp on 13 April 1760.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p237-240}} The Afghans also successfully negotiated with the ruler of Oudh, Shuja ud-Daula, who united with the Durrani camp in July 1760. Ahmad Shah also held friendly relations with the Rajputs, even declaring to them his intention to invade the Deccan in the winter.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p133-143}}
As this occurred, the Marathas sent reinforcements under Sadashivrao Bhau, the cousin of the Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao. The reinforcements also included Vishwasrao, the heir of the Maratha Confederacy, and nearly all significant Maratha commanders. Sadashivrao was described as an ignorant commander with a short temper and pride, ignoring the advice of more senior commanders who had experience in Northern India, and failing to anticipate certain outcomes.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p=147-150}}
The Maratha force reached Agra on 14 July. Sadashivrao, finding the Yamuna river overflowing, settled on advancing to Delhi. The Marathas advanced from Mathura and reached Delhi on 23 July, where it was stormed. The city had fallen to the Marathas, but the citadel held out. On 29 July, negotiations for the garrisons withdrawal went underway, and Yaqub Ali was allowed to leave the city with his men unharmed to Ahmad Shah's camp, with Maratha forces entering the fort on 1 August.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p153-154}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p274-275}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p=252-255}}
The Marathas began facing difficulties when on 4 August, Suraj Mal and Imad ul-Mulk defected from the Marathas and returned to their posts. Furthermore, the Maratha army lacked food and feed for their horses. The situation became so difficult that Sadashivrao recorded in a letter that there was no food to pay for money, and that the men of the army alongside the horses were fasting.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p155-158}} Peace negotiations corresponding from Ahmad Shah and the Marathas had also failed, with both seeking their own extensive demands.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p275-276}}
By the end of September 1760, the Maratha camp was overridden with starvation. Ahmad Shah was anxious to return to Afghanistan since his settling at Aligarh, as he never intended to form an Afghan empire based in India. The Marathas left Delhi on 10 October, which Ahmad Shah responded by having his army arrayed across the Yamuna. Sadashivrao, intending to seize Kunjpura, which had vast supplies, arrived before the city on 16 October. The battle of Kunjpura ensued which saw the Marathas victorious and the Afghan governor at Kunjpura, Najabat Khan, alongside Abdus Samad Khan killed.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p164-167}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p277-278}} Ahmad Shah was unable to help the defenders of Delhi and Kunjpura due to him being stuck on the other side of the Yamuna.{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p=282}}
Ahmad Shah, infuriated at the fall of Kunjpura, began preparing a ford over the flooded Yamuna river at Baghpat.{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p182}} The Afghan forces crossed between 25—26 October, massacring a Maratha detachment at near Sonipat. Another battle at Sambhalka saw the Marathas forced back to their camp now established at Panipat.{{sfn|Gupta|1961|p168-169}}{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p278}} On 30 October, Ahmad Shah reached Sambhalka, and arrayed before the Marathas on 1 November.{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p284}}
Najib ud-Daula was dispatched by Ahmad Shah to prevent Maratha supplies flowing in from Delhi, defeating the forces of Naro Shankar, the Maratha governor of Delhi. Saashivrao in response sent Govind Pant Bundela to invade the Rohilla territories and cut off Afghan supply. Marching with 12,000 horsemen, the Maratha detachment advanced as far as Meerut before being set upon by an Afghan contingent of 14,000 dispatched by Ahmad Shah on 17 December under Atai Khan,{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p312}} who slew Govind and routed the Maratha force, with large amounts of supplies being seized by the Afghans.{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p183}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=253}}
With this, the Marathas were cut off from all supplies. A last desperate attempt for peace was sent by Sadashivrao, even agreeing on any term Ahmad Shah deemed fit. Najib ud-Daula shut down the idea and Ahmad Shah rejected peace.{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p316-317}} As starvation gripped the Maratha camp, Sadashivrao concluded with his cabinet of war on 13 January to attack the Afghans. On 14 January, the Maratha forces assembled and began marching on the Afghan camp.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p283}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p184}} The numbers of the battle vary by source. Mehta presents the Afghans at having 79,800 men, and the Marathas 85,000, with numerous non-combatants. The Afghans had a gradual flow of manpower stream into the army while the Marathas did not, making it definite that the Marathas were far outnumbered at the battle.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p280}}
in Northern India]]
Beginning the third battle of Panipat, Ibrahim Khan Gardi unleashed his cannons on the Afghans. However, the troops operating the cannons were completely inexperienced and upon firing, the artillery shots merely flew overhead the Afghan army. Ibrahim Khan, realizing his failure in this regard, held his cannon fire and instead engaged with a detachment of his troops against the Rohilla portions of Ahmad Shah's army. Other Maratha officers attempted to engage as well by Ibrahim Khan's forces, which was met with musket fire from the Rohillas that saw the Marathas beaten back with heavy casualties, while Ibrahim Khan's forces were devastated by Rohilla cavalry, resulting in the losses of over six battalions and Ibrahim Khan himself being wounded, with the Maratha left wing failing.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p286}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p257}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p=328-333}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Detail of Sadashiv Rao on horseback from a larger Faizabad-style painting of the Third Battle of Panipat, Mughal, ca.1761–1770.jpg
| width1 = 180
| alt1 = Sadashivrao on horseback, wounded, being taken away from the battle
| link1 = Sadashivrao Bhau
| caption1 = Painting of a wounded Sadashivrao being carried away on horseback during the Third battle of Panipat
| image2 = Detail of Ahmad Shah Abdali on horseback from a larger Faizabad-style painting of the Third Battle of Panipat, Mughal, ca.1761–1770.jpg
| width2 = 130
| alt2 = Ahmad Shah Durrani on horseback during the Third Battle of Panipat
| link2 | caption2 Ahmad Shah Durrani depicted on horseback during the Third battle of Panipat
}}
Sadashivrao led an attack on the Afghan centre as well during this, with both sides numerically similar. Despite the Rohilla victory on the left wing, the Afghan centre was exposed, with the Marathas dismantling over three lines in the Afghan centre, and inflicting some 3,000 dead or wounded. At the pivotal moment, Ahmad Shah surged his reinforcements, some 4,000 Qizilbash to the right wing and 10,000 men to the Afghan centre. Ahmad Shah also dispatched his zamburaks, inflicting heavy casualties onto the Marathas. A counter-attack was thus launched by the Afghans across all fronts.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p286-289}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p333-336}}
Amidst the fray, Vishwasrao was killed by a bullet. News of his death spread quickly throughout the Maratha camp, and it led to the desertion of over 2,000 Afghans and Rohillas that were in service of the Marathas. The Maratha left wing was thus dismantled, and routed. As the Rohillas launched their own attack, Holkar fled the battle. The Afghan left wing thus caved in on the centre. The Maratha right wing was completely annihilated by Najib ud-Daula, and Ahmad Shah advanced to the centre to command the final operation of battle.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p290-292}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p341}}
Sadashivrao attempted to assault the Afghan centre twice but was pushed back with heavy losses. Ahmad Shah then ordered eight thousand reinforcements from his own tribe to attack, which saw Sadashivrao killed amidst the fray. The death of Sadashivrao saw all Maratha resistance dissipate and the Maratha centre was slaughtered. Marathas who tried to escape the battle were pursued.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p292-294}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p184}}
The casualties of the battle saw as low as 75,000 Marathas estimated to have been killed,{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p294}} to as high as 100,000.{{sfn|Burnard|Hart|Houllemare|2024|p332}}{{sfn|Sardesai|2018|p194}} This included over 30,000 Marathas perishing in battle, another 10,000 being killed while retreating, and another 10,000 reported missing. While following the battle, 50,000 Maratha camp followers were massacred or sold to slavery.{{sfn|Roy|2004|p93}}
Panipat resulted in the end of Maratha influence over Northern India. The day following the battle, Ahmad Shah entered the city of Panipat wearing jewels such as the Koh-i-Noor. The Afghan troops massacred any male over the age of fourteen and enslaved the woman and children of the city.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p127-128}} Ahmad Shah afterward made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Bu Ali Shah Qalandar, and then left Panipat on 19 July to enter Delhi. Proceeding formally into the Red fort on 29 January, with the khutbah being read in his name and coins being struck. After resting for two months, Ahmad Shah's troops demanded to return to Afghanistan, as much of them had been unpaid for over a year and a half. As a result, after plundering Delhi, he began returning to Afghanistan on 20—22 March.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p298-302}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p375-376}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p185}}
Ahmad Shah settled the affairs of India by placing Shah Alam II on the Mughal throne with Najib ud-Daula as his Bakhshi, with Jawan Bakht being recognized as heir to Shah Alam. Delhi was given to Najib ud-Daula and Jawan Bakht to rule together, while Imad ul-Mulk was permitted to serve as vizier again.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p299-300}} No peace deal was made with the Marathas as the Maratha Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao died soon after Panipat.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p261-262}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1971|p=378-381}}
While returning to Afghanistan, the Afghan army was attacked by the Sikhs under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, who carried away stragglers. The Sikhs attacked the Afghan flanks typically at night but maintained distance to avoid the Afghan artillery and cavalry, and avoiding pitched battle. A surprise attack on the Beas river by the Sikhs freed many Maratha prisoners.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p302}} In response, Ahmad Shah established defenses around his camp every night, and at Lahore, he sent numerous expeditions against the Sikhs that captured and killed many. He completed his return to Afghanistan by May 1761.{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p185}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p264}}Rebellions in Afghanistan (1760—1762)While Ahmad Shah campaigned, numerous incidents occurred throughout Afghanistan. When the Marathas occupied Delhi, an uprising triggered under Hajji Jamal Khan Zargarani, who followed off reports that Ahmad Shah had been killed, and proclaimed himself king of Afghanistan. At Kandahar, he struck coins. However, as news of Ahmad Shah's victories trickled in from India, he renounced his claim and fled for his life to a remote area of the country.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p268}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=140}}
Another revolt that had began was under Darwish Ali Khan Hazara, who avoided Shah Pasand's forces, before eventually being allowed to return to Herat between 1761—1762.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p119-120}} While in early 1761, Abd al-Khaliq Khan, alongside Dilawar Khan Ishaqzai and Zal Beg Popalzai, who were among Ahmad Shah's tribal council, rebelled. They first went toward the fortress of Grishk, falsely proclaiming that Ahmad Shah had been defeated in India, and declared Abd al-Khaliq as king. The combined forces from Griskh marched to Kandahar, making Ahmad Shah's son, Sulaiman Mirza abandon the capital.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p139}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p=268-269}}
Shah Pasand Khan was dispatched to crush the revolt, and he arrived before the city, elaborating that Ahmad Shah was alive. The rebellion's support thus dissipated and the leaders of the rebellion went to Shah Pasand's camp for mercy. Lesser involved individuals were spared, while Zal Beg Popalzai and other significant leaders were executed. Dilawar Khan fled to Herat where Timur Shah allowed him to become the commander of his personal bodyguard, while Abd al-Khaliq was imprisoned.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p139}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p269}}
Sixth invasion of India (1762)
{{main|Battle of Kup}}
triumphantly enter Lahore in November 1761|alt=Depiction of the fall of Lahore in November 1761 to Sikh armies]]
As Ahmad Shah retired to Afghanistan from his fifth invasion of India, the Sikhs defeated numerous of his governors, including a decisive battle at Gujranwala that resulted in the fall of Lahore in November 1761.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p303}}{{sfn|Lee|2019|p128}} Enraged at the defeat of his deputies, Ahmad Shah prepared for his sixth invasion of India, beginning it in February 1762.{{sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2014|p112}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p187}}
With a light cavalry force, he dashed through the Punjab in a rapid march, with the news of which reaching the Sikhs who were engaged in a siege at Jandiala. The Sikhs raised the siege and withdrew, until their position was compromised by the Afghan governor of Malerkotla.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p277}} Ahmad Shah led his forces including Zain Khan Sirhindi, catching the Sikhs at the village of Kup. The Sikhs, under Jassa Singh and Charat Singh, were completely defeated and massacred in an event known as the Vadda Ghalughara.{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p483-486}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p188-191}} Ahmad Shah had ordered that nobody wearing Indian clothes was to be left alive, with mostly camp followers including women and children being killed.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p128}}
Following the battle of Kup, Ahmad Shah invaded through the domains of Patiala State, ruled by Ala Singh. Ahmad Shah stormed the fortress of Barnala, before Ala Singh produced himself before the Shah, submitting tribute. With this, Ahmad Shah returned to Lahore on 3 March after camping at Sirhind.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p280-281}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p486}}
. Afghan forces had razed it and polluted the lake|alt=19th century watercolor painting of the Golden Temple]]
At Lahore, he assembled his forces and attacked Amritsar, arriving at the city on 10 April, a day before the Vaisakhi festival. The city was sacked and a massacre ensued where the Golden Temple was razed, being blown with gunpowder and the blood of men and cows polluting the lake surrounding it.{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p192}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p487}} While the temple was blown with gunpowder, a piece of shrapnel hit Ahmad Shah on the nose, causing an open wound that would plague him for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Lee|2019|p128}}{{sfn|Singh|1959|p281-282}}
Following this, Ahmad Shah rested at Lahore, intending to settle the affairs of India. He firstly sent an expedition toward Kashmir which had declared it's independence under Sukh Jiwan Mal, which was successful and Kashmir was re-conquered.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p283-284}}{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p193-194}} Other political settlements also occurred, with peace negotiations ensuing with the Marathas, while also calling upon Indian princes to recognize Shah Alam II as the Mughal Emperor.{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p=487-489}}
Between April–May 1762, Zain Khan was defeated by the Sikhs at Harnaulgarh. During the summer months, Ahmad Shah moved his camp to Kalanaur. The Sikhs capitalized off of this, with Jassa Singh alongside Tara Singh invading the Jalandhar Doab, while Charat Singh plundered the regions north of Lahore.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p285-286}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1964|p490-491}}
In October 1762, Ahmad Shah possibly fought a battle at Amritsar, which is not accepted by all historians.{{sfn|Singh|1977|p148}} The possible battle was fought under a complete solar eclipse that raged until the night, where Ahmad Shah withdrew to Lahore before returning to see the Sikhs had also withdrawn.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p286-287}}
Afterward, Ahmad Shah placed a Hindu, Kabuli Mal, as the Durrani governor of the Punjab, believing it would bring stability. Ahmad Shah began withdrawing back to Afghanistan on 12 December, where while proceeding, he routed a Sikh army on the banks of the Ravi river.{{sfn|Gupta|1978|p194-195}} His health was significantly affected during the invasion as a result of the summer heat, adding to his wounded nose.{{sfn|Singh|1959|p288}}
Encounters with the Qing (1763—1764, 1768—1769)
{{main|Four Afghan Steeds}}
Fazil Biy, the ruler of Kokand, and other Kyrgyz chieftains pleaded to Ahmad Shah to aid them against Qing expansionism. Ahmad Shah, delighted to use a casus belli in the name of Islam, accepted, sending men to occupy the regions between Tashkent and Kokand, though these men later withdrew by 1764 as any alliance failed to be forged.{{sfn|Newby|2005|p=34}}
In 1763, Ahmad Shah had dispatched an embassy to the Qing. His aims in this are unknown, however, an embassy allowed Ahmad Shah to establish himself as an emperor. The letter he sent to the Qing emperor Qianlong is missing, but from the Qing reply, the letter was likely dedicated to his conquests and victory at Panipat, alongside Qing expansion.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=715-717}}
The letter positioned Ahmad Shah's expansions as bringing order and stability to areas overrun with rebels and lawlessness (in reference to his campaigns in Iran and India). The battle of Panipat was strongly detailed in the letter, in what was likely a fath-nama, meaning a victory letter or declaration to celebrate ones victory. The Qing emperor ignored the effective threat and downplayed the Afghan victory.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=716-717}}
In the second part of the letter, the Qianlong appeared much more defensive, in need of justifying the Qing conquest of the Dzungars and the Altishahr Khojas. He accused them of causing devastation and laying false accusations against him. A report also suggested that Ahmad Shah considered the territories the Qing claimed belonged to the Muslims. In reality, Ahmad Shah possibly wanted to establish spheres of influence, which was similarly done with the Ottomans which divided Iran between them, and a treaty with Bukhara that had established the Amu Darya as the border.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=717-718}}
{{Quote box |quote Why has your Khan dispatched you? Has your Khan not sent you to appear at an audience with the brilliance of our Great Lord? Our Great Lord is the ruler who has united All under Heaven. Besides you Afghans, as soon as people from the West, Russia, even the former Zunghars came, all of them promptly prostrated themselves before the Great Lord. He is like Heaven; do you not bow before Heaven?{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p708}}
|author = A Qing grand councillor, remarking at the Afghan envoy's refusal to Kowtow
|width = 30%
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When the Afghan embassy had arrived in Beijing, the chief envoy, Khwaja Mirhan, had refused to kowtow before the Qing emperor. The Qing officials, in shock, demanded he kowtow, to which Mirhan acquiesced. This incident damaged the Qing-Afghan relations and Qianlong cut ties with the Afghans following this. No immediate consequence occurred, and the envoy was given favor.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=718-720}}
Mirhan's refusal possibly came out of religious reasons, but the Qing received it as Ahmad Shah declaring himself equal to Qianlong. Qianlong, however, was reconciliatory and instead shifted blame on their escort. From Qianlong's view, he saw the Afghans as a significant power and attempted to impress the envoy and in contrast, Ahmad Shah, of the Qing empire. This was especially done in motivation of Altishahr's recent conquest and concerns over stability in the region.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=720-724}}
{{multiple image|perrow 2|total_width300
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| alt1 | link1 Four Afghan Steeds
| image2 = Horse Laiyuanliu.jpg
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| alt3 | link3 Four Afghan Steeds
| image4 = Horse Lingkunbai.jpg
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| footer = Depiction of the four Afghan horses sent by Ahmad Shah, painted by Qing court painter Giuseppe Castiglione
}}
Ahmad Shah's gifts to the Qing emperor included four horses, which were painted by the Qing court painter, Giuseppe Castiglione. Nonetheless, by the time of the envoy's return journey to Afghanistan, Qianlong made preparations to secure Qing territories.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=724-726}}
In 1759, as the revolt of the Altishahr Khojas crumbled, two descendants of the Afaqi Sufi lineage crossed into Badakhshan, being pursued by the Qing forces. Fude, the Qing general of the expedition, demanded that Sultan Shah, the ruler of Badakhshan, to arrest the brothers. Sultan Shah accepted, likely wishing to have Qing military aid, especially against the Durrani Empire. Distrust occurred between the Qing and Sultan Shah due to the Afaqi descendants residing in Badakhshan for months, including Sultan Shah's possible initial refusal to hand them over, possibly intending to send them to Bukhara. Qianlong threatened invasion, which did not occur as one of the descendant's remains were sent to Yarkand.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=726-729}}
The death of the Afaqi brothers spurned relations with the Afghans, causing Sultan Shah to plead to the Qing, claiming that Ahmad Shah intended to exact revenge for their deaths. No immediate Afghan invasion occurred. The Qing however, faced numerous frustrations with their tributaries in Central Asia, alongside a major insurrection in Uch-Turfan that required tremendous effort to defeat.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=729-730}}
As a result, Qianlong adopted a policy of strict non-interference, realizing that Qing troops in Altishahr were significantly stretched and spread thin. The Afghans, however, seen as a threat, would show the weakness of Qing control in the region.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=730-732}}
In August 1768, Qianlong was informed of the Afghan invasion of Badakhshan led by Shah Wali Khan in May, with Afghan forces seizing Sultan Shah's capital, Fayzabad, who fled north. A Qing agent, Yunggui, held the position that the Qing should interfere in the conflict. Qianlong, however, affirmed that military intervention would irrational, and strictly forbade any military interference. Historians see this as surprising, as the invasion by the Afghans threatened the Qing Empire itself.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=732}}
, 1761]]
Qing sources affirm that the Afghans established Sarimsaq, a child of the Afaqi's who escaped to Badakhshan, in Kunduz. Qianlong was distraught, as another possible revolt could revolve around Sarimsaq, with reports of Muslim travelers and funds being sent to Sarimsaq. This still did not convince Qianlong to act, and he refused to send any message negatively to Ahmad Shah at all. During this, Sultan Shah defeated the Afghan governor and reoccupied his capital, but feared another Afghan invasion, sending desperate letters to the Qing in the winter of 1768 to ask for help, claiming that Ahmad Shah would invade next year.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=733}}
Qianlong harshly rebutted, blaming Sultan Shah for provoking the conflict with the Afghans and affirmed that he would only fight the Afghans if they actually invaded Qing territory. Sultan Shah wrote a letter to Emin Khoja in response in August 1769, expecting aid as he was a vassal, only to find himself totally abandoned. In December 1769, Sultan Shah wrote another letter which Qianlong received that accused him of failing to uphold his duties. Qianlong rebuked him, and stated that under no circumstances would the Qing aid him.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=733-734}}
{{Quote box |quote We have long known that you have previously presented gifts to the Afghans. That you now have no more options but to evade the issue just shows that you are paying tribute to the Afghans! […] If you cannot protect your own lands, and wish to submit to the Afghans, then suit yourself! […] If you wish to rely on our armies to serve your enmities and to subjugate your neighboring tribes, then we will under no circumstances provide you with our troops.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p734}}
|author = Qianlong's reply to Sultan Shah's plea for aid against Ahmad Shah
|width = 30%
|align = right
}}
Qianlong had initially considered the Afghans tributaries, but after the former incident, he no longer even sought the prospect of any form of Durrani submission. His reply to Sultan Shah effectively saw the Qing recognize the Afghans as a rival power to them, with Qianlong recognizing that the Afghans were unable to be treated like tributaries. Rather then aiding the ruler of Badakhshan as his initial policy had implicated him to, Qianlong instead justified the Afghan invasion, prompted to by overextended armies, the distance, and stability. Instead, gambling on the difficult terrain between the Afghan and Qing realms for safety.{{sfn|Eijk|Khan|2023|p=734-735}}
Within the year, Ahmad Shah occupied Badakhshan and Sultan Shah was executed.{{sfn|Newby|2005|p43}}Death and legacy
in Kandahar City, which also serves as the Congregational Mosque and contains the sacred cloak that the Islamic Prophet Muhammad wore.]]
]]
Ahmad Shah may have suffered an injury due to a flying brick striking his nose when the Harimandir Sahib was destroyed with gunpowder.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGrewal |firstJ. S. |titleThe Khalsa Sikh and Non-Sikh Perspectives |publisherManohar |year2004 |isbn 9788173045806|pages23|url https://books.google.com/books?idSonXAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Other sources state that he suffered from what Afghan sources described as a "gangrenous ulcer", which may attribute to numerous illnesses, such as Leprosy, Syphilis, or a tumor.<ref>{{Cite book |lastWilliam, Anita |firstDalrymple, Anand |titleKoh-I-Noor: The History of the World's Most Infamous Diamond |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |year2017 |isbn978-1-63557-076-2 |editionHardcover |pages65|quoteFew possessors of the Koh-i-Noor have led happy lives, and while Ahmad Shah rarely lost a battle, he was eventually defeated by a foe more intractable than any army. From early on in his reign, his face began to be eaten away by what the Afghan sources call a ‘gangrenous ulcer’, possibly leprosy, syphilis or some form of tumour. Even as he was winning his greatest victory at Panipat, Ahmad Shah’s disease had already consumed his nose, and a diamond-studded substitute was attached in its place.}}</ref>
Lee writes: "Ahmad Shah gained poor health as a result of all his campaigns. Despite all attempts to treat it, a wound in his nose remained. The ulcer in his later years began eating into his brain".<ref>{{Cite book |lastLee |firstJonathan |titleAfghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present |publisherReaktion Books |year2019 |isbn9781789140101 |pages140|languageEnglish}}</ref> Following the advice of his physicians, he spent part of the summer in the cooler climate of the Margha plain in the Toba Achakzai range during the last few years of his life. He died of his illness on 4 June 1772 (2 Rabi' al-Awwal 1186) in Maruf, Toba Achakzai, east of Kandahar. Some other sources state that he died on 16 October 1772.<ref name":3">{{Cite book |lastSaggu |firstDevinder Singh |titleBattle Tactics And War Manoeuvres of the Sikhs |publisherNotion Press |year2018 |isbn9781642490060 |quoteIn the following years Abdali's face became disfigured due to the wound inflicted on his nose by the flying brick. To cover it up, he got a nose of silver made. As ordained by Providance, maggot's formation took place in his nose, throat and brain. So much so that it became difficult for him to swallow the food. Maggots would slip down his throat. Attendants, tried to feed him milk by spoon but maggots would fall from his nose in the spoon. His condition became miserable and on the night of 16th Oct, 1772 at Toba Maruf in Suilleman hills he met with a terrible end.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Bruce Malleson |first1George |titleHistory of Afghanistan From the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 |date1878 |publisherW.H Allen Company |locationBritish India |isbn9780341781523 |page291 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0ec2AQAAMAAJ |access-date11 September 2021 |archive-date2 October 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221002100539/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/History_of_Afghanistan/0ec2AQAAMAAJ?hlen&gbpv1&printsecfrontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>
Ahmad Shah was buried in the city of Kandahar adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak, where a large mausoleum was built. It has been described in the following way:
{{blockquote|Under the shimmering turquoise dome that dominates the sand-blown city of Kandahar lies the body of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the young Kandahari warrior who in 1747 became the region's first Durrani king. The mausoleum is covered in deep blue and white tiles behind a small grove of trees, one of which is said to cure toothache, and is a place of pilgrimage. In front of it is a small mosque with a marble vault containing one of the holiest relics in the Islamic World, a kherqa, the Sacred Cloak of Mohammed that was given to Ahmad Shah by Mured Beg, the Emir of Bokhara. The Sacred Cloak is kept locked away, taken out only at times of great crisis but the mausoleum is open and there is a constant line of men leaving their sandals at the door and shuffling through to marvel at the surprisingly long marble tomb and touch the glass case containing Ahmad Shah's brass helmet. Before leaving they bend to kiss a length of pink velvet said to be from his robe. It bears the unmistakable scent of jasmine.<ref>Lamb, Christina (2002). The Sewing Circles of Herat. HarperCollins. First Perennial edition (2004), p. 38. {{ISBN|0-06-050527-3}}.</ref>}}
In his tomb his epitaph is written:
{{blockquote|<poem>
The King of high rank, Ahmad Shah Durrani,
Was equal to Kisra in managing the affairs of his government.
In his time, from the awe of his glory and greatness,
The lioness nourished the stag with her milk.
From all sides in the ear of his enemies there arrived
A thousand reproofs from the tongue of his dagger.
The date of his departure for the house of mortality
Was the year of the Hijra 1186 (1772&nbsp;A.D.)<ref name="Dupree">Nancy Hatch Dupree&nbsp;– An Historical Guide To Afghanistan&nbsp;– The South (Chapter 16)</ref></poem>}}
Durrani's victory over the Marathas influenced the history of the subcontinent and, in particular, the policies of the East India Company in the region.{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2020}} His refusal to continue his campaigns deeper into India prevented a clash with the company and allowed them to continue to acquire power and influence after they established complete control over the former Mughal province of Bengal in 1793. Fear of another Afghan invasion influenced company policy-makers for almost half a century after the Battle of Panipat.{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2020}} The acknowledgment of Durrani's military accomplishments is reflected in an intelligence report made by Company officials on the Battle of Panipat, which referred to Ahmad Shah as the 'King of Kings'.<ref name"British library">{{Cite web|titleCentral Asia|urlhttps://www.bl.uk/subjects/central-asia|access-date2022-12-31|websiteThe British Library|archive-date21 May 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170521120830/http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/afghanistan/afghanistancollection/1919to1928/sources1919to1928.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> This fear led in 1798 to a Company envoy being sent to the Persian court in part to instigate the Persians in their claims on Herat to forestall a possible Afghan invasion of India that might have halted Company expansion.<ref name="British library"/> Mountstuart Elphinstone wrote of Ahmad Shah:
{{blockquote|His military courage and activity are spoken of with admiration, both by his own subjects and the nations with whom he was engaged, either in wars or alliances. He seems to have been naturally disposed to mildness and clemency and though it is impossible to acquire sovereign power and perhaps, in Asia, to maintain it, without crimes; yet the memory of no eastern prince is stained with fewer acts of cruelty and injustice.|Mountstuart Elphinstone}}
His successors, beginning with his son Timur Shah and ending with Shuja Shah Durrani, proved largely incapable of governing the last Afghan empire and faced with advancing enemies on all sides. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah fell to others by the end of the 19th century. Timur Shah consolidated the holdings of the Durrani Empire, quashed civil war and rebellion throughout his reign and led multiple campaigns into Punjab to try and repeat his fathers success. After the death of Timur Shah, his son, Zaman Shah Durrani ascended to the throne; throughout his reign he lost the outlying territories, alienated some Pashtun tribes and those of other Durrani lineages. Zaman Shah led campaigns into Punjab, capturing Lahore. Due to internal strife, he withdrew on all attempts. He was later deposed by Mahmud Shah Durrani, his brother, and the Durrani Realm continued to disintegrate in the following years from progressive succession crises, usually between Timur Shah's sons, with Mahmud Shah Durrani, Zaman Shah Durrani, and Shah Shuja Durrani. Afghanistan remained disunited until Dost Mohammad Khan's ascendancy in 1826. Chaos had effectively reigned and it ceased to exist as a single entity, disintegrating into a fragmented collection of small countries or units. Throughout his reign, the khan focused on reuniting it and somewhat did so with the Herat Campaign of 1862-63, which retook Herat, and the eventual conquest of the Principality of Qandahar.
In Pakistan, a short-range ballistic missile Abdali-I, is named in the honour of Ahmad Shah Abdali.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |titleAsia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date3 December 2010 |archive-date3 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303192733/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |url-statusunfit }}</ref>
Poetry
Durrani wrote a collection of odes in his native Pashto. He was also the author of several poems in Persian. One of his most famous Pashto poems was Love of a Nation:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/poems.html#|titleAhmad Shah Durrani (Pashto Poet)|workAbdullah Qazi|publisherAfghanistan Online|access-date23 September 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100908224421/http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/poems.html|archive-date8 September 2010|url-statusdead|dfdmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://maic.jmu.edu/journal/8.1/features/kim/kim.htm|titleA Profile of Afghanistan – Ahmad Shah Durrani (Pashto Poet)|workKimberly Kim|publisherMine Action Information Center|access-date23 September 2010|archive-date22 May 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090522212212/http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/8.1/features/kim/kim.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtF8D2jWMunwC |titleCome Back to Afghanistan: A California Teenager's Story |isbn9781596919976 |last1Akbar |first1Said Hyder |dateDecember 2008 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing USA |access-date29 January 2023 |archive-date17 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231017095254/https://books.google.com/books?idtF8D2jWMunwC |url-statuslive }}</ref>
{{blockquote|<poem>
{{lang|ps|ستا د عشق له وينو ډک سول ځيګرونه}}
By blood, we are immersed in love of you
{{lang|ps|ستا په لاره کښې بايلي زلمي سرونه}}
The youth lose their heads for your sake
{{lang|ps|تا ته راسمه زړګی زما فارغ سي}}
I come to you and my heart finds rest
{{lang|ps|بې له تا مې اندېښنې د زړه مارونه}}
Away from you, grief clings to my heart like a snake
{{lang|ps|که هر څو مې د دنيا ملکونه ډېر سي}}
Whatever countries I conquer in the world,
{{lang|ps|زما به هېر نه سي دا ستا ښکلي باغونه}}
I will never forget your beautiful gardens
{{lang|ps|د ډیلي تخت هېرومه چې را ياد کړم}}
I forget the throne of Delhi when I remember,
{{lang|ps|زما د ښکلي پښتونخوا د غرو سرونه}}
The mountain tops of my beautiful Pashtunkhwa
{{lang|ps|د فريد او د حميد دور به بيا سي}}
The eras of Farid [Sher Shah Suri] and Hamid [Lodi] will return,
{{lang|ps|چې زه وکاندم پر هر لوري تاختونه}}
When I launch attacks on all sides
{{lang|ps|که تمامه دنيا يو خوا ته بل خوا يې}}
If I must choose between the world and you,
{{lang|ps|زما خوښ دي ستا خالي تش ډګرونه}}
I shall not hesitate to claim your barren deserts as my own</poem>}}
In popular culture
* In the 1994 television series The Great Maratha, the character of Ahmad Shah Durrani is portrayed by Bob Christo.<ref>{{Cite web |date2011-03-06 |titleMr Christos Mojo |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/mr-christo-s-mojo/ |access-date2024-11-13 |websiteThe Indian Express |languageen}}</ref>
* In the 2019 Bollywood war drama Panipat film, Ahmad Shah Durrani appears as the main antagonist who invades the Maratha Empire, and is portrayed by Sanjay Dutt.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAshutosh Gowariker's period drama 'Panipat' first poster is out |urlhttps://connectgujarat.com/ashutosh-gowarikers-period-drama-panipat-first-poster-is-out/ |access-date2024-11-13 |websiteconnectgujarat.com |languageen}}</ref>See also* List of monarchs of Afghanistan References Notes {{notelist}} Citations {{Reflist|23em}} Bibliography
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite web|lastPerry|firstJohn R.|date1985|titleʿALAM KHAN|urlhttps://iranicaonline.org/articles/alam-khan-arab-e-kozayma-amir-viceroy-of-the-afsharid-state-of-khorasan-1161-68-1748-54|websiteEncyclopedia Iranica}}
* {{Cite book |last1Chahryar |first1Adle |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAzG5llo3YCMC |titleHistory of civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |last2Baipakov |first2Karl M |last3Irfan |first3Habib |date2003-12-31 |publisherUNESCO Publishing |isbn978-92-3-103876-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite journal |lastKhan Durrani |firstAshiq Muhammad |date1991 |titleThe People of Afghanistan: Relations between the Sadozais and the Ahmadzais of Qalat |urlhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/1VRq1_v1wuGf4MpSS229I3TAHVEpiWt1_/view |journalProquest |pages139 |viaGoogle drive}}
* {{Cite book |lastSardesai |firstD. R. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsx-yDwAAQBAJ |titleIndia: The Definitive History |date2018-05-04 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-429-96842-6 |languageen}}
* {{Cite book |last1Burnard |first1Trevor |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8GkTEQAAQBAJ |titleThe Oxford Handbook of the Seven Years' War |last2Hart |first2Emma |last3Houllemare |first3Marie |date2024 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-762260-5 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |lastRoy |firstKaushik |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjpXijlqeRpIC |titleIndia's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |date2004 |publisherOrient Blackswan |isbn978-81-7824-109-8 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |lastSingh |firstKhushwant |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPfSISgAACAAJ |titleA History of the Sikhs |date1977 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-560600-3 |language=en}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Eijk |first1Juul |last2Khan |first2Timur |date2023-06-07 |title'Do You Not Bow before Heaven?': The First Qing- Durrānī Encounter, the Tributary Non-relationship, and Disorder on a Shared Frontier |urlhttps://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/66/5-6/article-p707_5.xml |journalJournal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume66 |issue5–6 |pages707–741 |doi10.1163/15685209-12341605 |issn=1568-5209}}
* {{Cite book |lastNewby |firstL. J. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKTmO416hNQ8C |titleThe Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C1760-1860 |date2005 |publisherBRILL |isbn978-90-04-14550-4 |language=en}}
{{refend}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=Position established}}
{{s-ttl|titleEmir of Afghanistan|years1747–1772}}
{{s-aft|after=Timur Shah Durrani}}
{{s-end}}
{{Monarchs of Afghanistan}}
{{Durrani dynasty}}
{{Pashtun}}
{{Peshawar}}
{{Subject bar|Biography|Royalty|History|d1|auto1}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Durrani, Ahmad Shah}}
Category:1720s births
Category:1772 deaths
Category:18th-century Afghan monarchs
Category:Emirs of Afghanistan
Ahmad Shah
Category:18th-century Afghan poets
Category:Afsharid generals
Category:Pashtun people
Category:Pashto-language poets
Category:People from Herat
Category:People from Kandahar
Category:People from Multan
Category:Afghan Muslims
Category:18th-century monarchs in Asia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.043203 |
1563 | Arthur Aikin | {{Short description|English chemist, mineralogist and scientific writer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Arthur Aikin
| honorific_suffix = FLS, FGS
| image = ArthurAikin2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Arthur Aikin (1773–1854)
| birth_date {{birth date|1773|05|19|dfy}}
| birth_place = Warrington, Lancashire, England
| death_date {{death date and age|1854|04|15|1773|05|19|dfy}}
| death_place = Hoxton, Middlesex, England
| residence | nationality British
| field = Chemistry
| work_institutions | alma_mater
| known_for = Geological Society of London
| prizes | footnotes
| signature =
}}
Arthur Aikin (19 May 1773{{snd}}15 April 1854) was an English chemist, mineralogist and scientific writer, and was a founding member of the Chemical Society (now the Royal Society of Chemistry). He first became its treasurer in 1841,<ref nameKnights-earth>{{cite journal|last1Knight|first1David|titleChemists get down to earth|journalGeological Society, London, Special Publications|date2009|volume317|issue1|pages93–103|doi10.1144/SP317.3|urlhttps://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/staff/chang/knight_020310.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/staff/chang/knight_020310.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|bibcode2009GSLSP.317...93K|s2cid130452589}}</ref> and later became the society's second president.<ref nameGG>{{cite web|titleArthur Aiken|urlhttp://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Arthur_Aiken|websiteGrace's Guide|access-date14 January 2015}}</ref>Life
He was born at Warrington, Lancashire into a distinguished literary family of prominent Unitarians. The best known of these was his paternal aunt, Anna Laetitia Barbauld, a woman of letters who wrote poetry and essays as well as early children's literature. His father, Dr John Aikin, was a medical doctor, historian, and author. His grandfather, also called John (1713–1780), was a Unitarian scholar and theological tutor, closely associated with Warrington Academy. His sister Lucy (1781–1864) was a historical writer. Their brother Charles Rochemont Aikin was adopted by their famous aunt and brought up as their cousin.
Arthur Aikin studied chemistry under Joseph Priestley in the New College at Hackney, and gave attention to the practical applications of the science. In early life, he was a Unitarian minister for a short time.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAikin, Arthur|volume1|page437}}</ref> Aikin lectured on chemistry at Guy's Hospital for thirty-two years. He became the President of the British Mineralogical Society in 1801 for five years up until 1806 when the Society merged with the Askesian Society.<ref nameKnights-earth /> From 1803 to 1808 he was editor of the Annual Review. In 1805 Aiken also became a proprietor of the London Institution, which was officially founded in 1806. He was one of the founders of the Geological Society of London in 1807 and was its honorary secretary in 1812–1817. He also gave lectures in 1813 and 1814.<ref nameKnights-earth /> He contributed papers on the Wrekin and the Shropshire coalfield, among others, to the transactions of that society.<ref name"EB1911"/> His Manual of Mineralogy was published in 1814. Later he became the paid secretary of the Society of Arts and later was elected as a fellow. He was founder of the Chemical Society of London in 1841, being its first treasurer and, between 1843 and 1845, second president.
In order to support himself, outside of his work with the British Mineralogical Society, the London Institution and the Geological Society, Aiken worked as a writer, translator and lecturer to the public and to medical students at Guy's Hospital. His writing and journalism were useful for publicising foreign scientific news to the wider British public. He was also a member of the Linnean Society and in 1820 joined the Institution of Civil Engineers.
He was highly esteemed as a man of sound judgement<ref name"EB1911"/> and wide knowledge. Aikin never married, and died at Hoxton in London in 1854.<ref nameKnights-earth />
Publications
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2022}}
* [https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_the-natural-history-of-t_aikin-arthur_1798/page/n1/mode/2up ''The natural history of the year; being an enlargement of Dr. Aikin's Calendar of nature], 1798
* [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_tpEGvJnP3lIC/page/n5/mode/2up Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire with Observations in Mineralogy and Other Branches of Natural History] (London, 1797)
* [https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_syllabus-of-a-course-of-_aikin-arthur_1799 Syllabus of a course of lectures on chemistry, by A. and C.R. Aikin], 1799
* [https://archive.org/details/annualreviewand00aikigoog/page/n7/mode/2up The Annual review and history of literature; for 1807], 1808
* [https://archive.org/details/amanualmineralo00aikigoog/page/n4/mode/2up A Manual of Mineralogy] (1814; ed. 2, 1815)
* [https://archive.org/details/b22011638_0001/page/n3/mode/2up dictionary of chemistry and mineralogy, with an account of the processes employed in many of the most important chemical manufactures. To which are added a description of chemical apparatus, and various useful tables of weights and measures, chemical instruments, &c. &c. Vol. I]; [https://archive.org/details/b22011638_0002/page/n3/mode/2up Vol. II] (with his brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814).
*[https://archive.org/details/AnAccountOfTheMostImportantRecentDiscoveriesAndImprovementsInChemistryAndMineralogy/aikin-a-account-1814-RTL000985-LowRes/page/n5/mode/2up An account of the most important recent discoveries and improvements in chemistry and mineralogy, to the present time : being an appendix to their Dictionary of chemistry and mineralogy], 1814
For Rees's Cyclopædia'' he wrote articles about chemistry, geology and mineralogy, but the topics are not known.
References
{{More citations needed|date=March 2016}}
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{DNB poster|Aikin, Arthur|Arthur Aikin}}
* [https://rbscp.lib.rochester.edu/finding-aids/D190/ The Aikin Family Papers], D.190, at Rare Books, Special Collections, and Preservation, River Campus Libraries, University of Rochester.
* {{wikisource author-inline}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aikin, Arthur}}
Category:1773 births
Category:1854 deaths
Category:English mineralogists
Category:19th-century English chemists
Category:People from Warrington
Category:Fellows of the Linnean Society of London
Category:People from Hoxton
Category:English Unitarians
Category:Anna Laetitia Barbauld
Category:18th-century English writers
Category:18th-century English male writers
Category:19th-century English writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Aikin | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.048107 |
1564 | Ailanthus | {{Short description|Genus of flowering trees}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = Ailanthus altissima1.jpg
|image_caption = Ailanthus altissima leaf and fruit
|taxon = Ailanthus
|authority = Desf.
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = See text
|synonyms =
*Hebonga {{small|Radlk. (1911 publ. 1912)}}
*Pongelion {{small|Adans. (1763), nom. rej.}}
|synonyms_ref <ref name powo>[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:329436-2 Ailanthus Desf.] Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 8 August 2023.</ref>
}}
Ailanthus ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|l|æ|n|θ|ə|s}};<ref>Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607</ref> derived from ailanto, an Ambonese word probably meaning "tree of the gods" or "tree of heaven")<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAilanthus|volume1|page437}}</ref> is a genus of trees belonging to the family Simaroubaceae, in the order Sapindales (formerly Rutales or Geraniales). The genus is native from east Asia south to northern Australasia. One species, the Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima,) is considered a weed in some parts of the world.Selected species
The number of living species is disputed, with some authorities accepting up to ten species, while others accept six or fewer. Species include:
*Ailanthus altissima {{Au|(Mill.) Swingle}} (tree of heaven, syn. A. vilmoriniana {{Au|Dode}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-2626859|titleThe Plant List – Ailanthus vilmoriniana}}</ref>) – northern and central mainland China, Taiwan. Invasive in North America, Europe, Britain, and Australia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/local/oxford/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_8582000/8582535.stm|titleInvasive species of Oxfordshire|author1Peter Brown|author2Helen Roy|author2-linkHelen Roy|date23 March 2010|publisherBBC Oxford|access-date9 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/tree-heaven|title National Invasive Species Information Center (NISIC): Gateway to invasive species information; covering Federal, State, local, and international sources.}}</ref> Serves as central metaphor in A Tree Grows in Brooklyn.
*Ailanthus excelsa {{Au|Roxb.}} – India and Sri Lanka
*Ailanthus fordii {{Au|Noot.}} – China
*Ailanthus integrifolia {{Au|Lam.}} – New Guinea and Queensland, Australia
*Ailanthus triphysa {{Au|(Dennst.) Alston}} (white siris syn. A. malabarica<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/tro-50126836|titleThe Plant List – Ailanthus malabarica}}</ref>) – India, South-east Asia and Australia
*Ailanthus vietnamensis {{Au|H.V.Sam & Noot.}} – Vietnam
There is a good fossil record of Ailanthus with many species names based on their geographic occurrence, but almost all of these have very similar morphology and have been grouped as a single species among the three species recognized:<ref>{{cite journal|author1Corbett, S.L. |author2Manchester, S.R. |year2004|titlePhytogeography and Fossil History of Ailanthus (Simaroubaceae)|journalInternational Journal of Plant Sciences |volume165|issue4|pages671–690|jstor10.1086/386378|doi10.1086/386378|s2cid=85383552 }}</ref>
*Ailanthus tardensis {{Au|Hably}} – from a single locality in Hungary
*Ailanthus confucii {{Au|Unger}} – Tertiary period, Europe, Asia, and North America
*Ailanthus gigas {{Au|Unger}} – from a single locality in Slovenia
*Ailanthus pythii {{Au|Unger}} – known from the Miocene of Iceland, Styria in Austria and the Gavdos island in Greece
*Ailanthus kurzii {{Au|Prain}} – endemic to the Andaman Islands, India
*Ailanthus maximus {{Au|Liu}} - known from the latest Paleocene to late Oligocene in the Tibetan Plateau<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018219300574|titleBiotic interchange through lowlands of Tibetan Plateau suture zones during Paleogene|author1Jia Liu|author2Tao Su|journalPalaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date2019|volume524 |pages33–40 |publisherElsevier|doi10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.02.022 |bibcode2019PPP...524...33L |access-date15 December 2024}}</ref>
Ailanthus silk moth
A silk spinning moth, the ailanthus silkmoth (Samia cynthia), lives on Ailanthus leaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth has been introduced to the eastern United States and is common near many towns; it is about 12&nbsp;cm across, with angulated wings, and in color olive brown, with white markings.<ref name"EB1911"/> Other Lepidoptera whose larvae feed on Ailanthus include Endoclita malabaricus, and Atteva aurea (commonly known as the Ailanthus webworm moth).See also* Spotted lanternfly References
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
*{{APNI | nameAilanthus Desf. | id 25309}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20001023195846/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?326 Germplasm Resources Information Network: Ailanthus]
*[http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/aial1.htm Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group: Least Wanted]
{{Refend}}
{{Taxonbar |from=Q160580}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Sapindales genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailanthus | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.052914 |
1565 | Aimoin of Fleury | Aimoin of Fleury (; ) was a medieval French monk and chronicler active in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. He was born at Villefranche-de-Longchat, in Southwestern France, about 960. Early in his life he entered the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and then passed the greater part of his life. Between c. 980 and 985 Aimoin wrote about Saint Benedict in the Abbey of Fleury-sur-Loire. His chief work is the Historia Francorum, or Libri V. de Gestis Francorum, which deals with the history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the middle of the 12th century. It was much in vogue during the Middle Ages, but its historical value is now regarded as slight. It was edited in the 19th century by G. Waitz and published in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores, Band xxvi (Hanover and Berlin, 1826–1892).
In 1004 Aimoin also wrote Vita Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis, the last of a series of lives of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have been lost. This was published by J. Mabillon in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (Paris, 1668–1701).
Aimoin's third work was the composition of books ii and iii of the Miracula sancti Benedicti, the first book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named Adrevald ( – 878). This also appears in the Acta sanctorum.
References
External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indices
Category:960s births
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:1010s deaths
Category:Year of death unknown
Category:French chroniclers
Category:French Christian monks
Category:11th-century French historians
Category:11th-century writers in Latin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aimoin_of_Fleury | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.054971 |
1566 | Akkadian Empire | {{Short description|Historical state in Mesopotamia}}
{{Lead too short|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name {{native name|akk|𒆳𒌵𒆠}}<br /><span style"font-weight: normal">{{transl|akk|māt Akkadi}}</span><br />{{native name|sux|𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠}}<br /><span style="font-weight: normal">{{transl|sux|a-ga-de<sub>3</sub><sup>KI</sup>}}</span>
| conventional_long_name = Akkadian Empire
| common_name = Akkadian Empire
| era = Bronze Age
| government_type = Monarchy
| year_start = {{circa|2334 BC}}
| year_end {{circa|lkno|2154 BC}}
| life_span {{circa|lkno|2334{{snd}}2154 BC}}
| event1 = Conquests of Sargon of Akkad
| date_event1 {{circa|lkno|2340{{snd}}2284 BC}}
| p1 = Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia){{!}}Early Dynastic Period
| p2 | p3
| s1 = Gutian dynasty of Sumer{{!}}Gutian Period (Sumer)
| s2 | s3
| stat_year1 2350 BC<ref namesize>{{cite journal |lastTaagepera |firstRein |author-linkRein Taagepera |urlhttps://escholarship.org/content/qt6wf6m5qg/qt6wf6m5qg.pdf |date1978 |pages186 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://escholarship.org/content/qt6wf6m5qg/qt6wf6m5qg.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleSize and Duration of Empires Growth-Decline Curves, 3000 to 600 B.C.|journal=Social Science Research}}</ref>
| stat_area1 = 30000
| stat_year2 2300 BC<ref namesize/>
| stat_area2 = 650000
| stat_year3 2250 BC<ref namesize/>
| stat_area3 = 800000
| stat_year4 2200 BC<ref namesize/>
| stat_area4 = 250000
| image_map2_caption = Map of the Akkadian Empire (brown) near its height around the reign of Naram-Sin. The yellow arrows show the directions in which military campaigns were conducted
| image_map = Empire akkad.svg
| image_map_caption = Map of the Akkadian Empire (brown) and the directions in which military campaigns were conducted (yellow arrows)
| capital = Akkad
| common_languages = Akkadian<br>Sumerian
| official_languages = {{plainlist|
* Akkadian
* Sumerian}}
| religion = Ancient Mesopotamian religion
| leader1 = Sargon {{small|(first)}}
| leader2 = Shu-turul {{small|(last)}}
| year_leader1 {{circa|lkno|2334–2279 BC}}
| year_leader2 {{circa|lkno|2168–2154 BC}}
| title_leader = Šarrum (Kings)
| demonym | area_km2
| area_rank | GDP_PPP
| GDP_PPP_year | HDI
| HDI_year | today Iraq<br>Iran<br>Syria<br>Turkey<br>Kuwait
}}
The Akkadian Empire ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ən}}){{refn|{{langx|akk|<sup>URU</sup>Akkad KI}}; {{langx|hit|KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI|labelHittite cuneiform}} "land of Akkad"; {{langx|hbo|אַכַּד}} {{transl|hbo|Akkad}}.|group}} was the first ever empire of the world,<ref>{{Cite book |lastKirby|firstMayson| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQePEDwAAQBAJ|titleHistory of Civilizations |date2018|publisherEDTECH|pages116|isbn978-1-83947-277-0 |languageen}}</ref> succeeding the long-lived city-states of Sumer. Centered on the city of Akkad ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|k|æ|d}})<ref>{{langx|sux|Agade}}</ref> and its surrounding region, the empire united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule and exercised significant influence across Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Anatolia, sending military expeditions as far south as Dilmun and Magan (modern United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman) in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref name"WebsterNinthNewCollege">Mish, Frederick C., Editor in Chief. "Akkad" ''Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary''. ninth ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster 1985. {{ISBN|0-87779-508-8}}).</ref>{{Page needed|dateOctober 2023}}
The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests by its founder Sargon of Akkad. Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though the meaning of this term is not precise, and there are earlier Sumerian claimants.<ref>F Leo Oppenhiem – Ancient Mesopotamia</ref><ref>Liverani (1993), p. 3. "The factual criticism is that empires existed even before Akkad: or more properly that the term and concept of 'empire' has been recently applied (on not worse grounds than in the case of Akkad) to other older cases, from the Uruk of the late-Uruk period to the Ebla of the royal archives, to the very state formations of the Sumerian south in the period called in fact 'proto-imperial'. In no case is the Akkad empire an absolute novelty [...] 'Akkad the first empire' is therefore subject to criticism not only as for the adjective 'first' but especially as for the noun 'empire'.</ref>
Contemporary epigraphic sources
Epigraphic sources from the Sargonic (Akkadian Empire) period are in relatively short supply, partly because the capital Akkad, like the capitals of the later Mitanni and Sealand, has not yet been located, though there has been much speculation.<ref namewallromana1990>{{cite journal |last1Wall-Romana |first1Christophe |year1990 |titleAn Areal Location of Agade |journalJournal of Near Eastern Studies |volume49 |issue3 |pages205–245 |jstor546244 |doi10.1086/373442 |s2cid161165836 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1Weiss |first1Harvey |author-linkHarvey Weiss |year1975 |titleKish, Akkad and Agade |journalJournal of the American Oriental Society |volume95 |issue3 |pages434–453 |jstor599355 |doi=10.2307/599355}}</ref> Some cuneiform tablets have been excavated at cities under Akkadian Empire control such as Eshnunna and Tell Agrab.<ref>[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/mad1.pdf] I.J. Gelb, "Sargon Texts from the Diyala Region", Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 1, Chicago, 1961</ref>
Other tablets have become available on the antiquities market and are held in museums and private collections such as those from the Akkadian governor in Adab.<ref>M. Molina, "Sargonic Cuneiform Tablets in the Real Academia de la Historia : The Carl L. Lippmann Collection", Real Academia de la Historia, 2014 {{ISBN|978-8415069713}}</ref> Internal evidence allows their dating to the Sargonic period and sometimes to the original location. Archives are especially important to historians and only a few have become available.<ref name="Foster" /> The Me-sag Archive, which commenced publication in 1958, is considered one of the most significant collections. The tablets, about 500 in number with about half published, are held primarily at the Babylonian Collection of the Yale University and Baghdad Museum with a few others scattered about. The tablets date to the period of late in the reign of Naram-Sin to early in the reign of Shar-kali-shari. They are believed to be from a town between Umma and Lagash and Me-sag to be the governor of Umma.<ref>Markina, Ekaterina, "Akkadian of the Me-ság Archive", in Babel und Bibel 6, edited by Leonid E. Kogan, N. Koslova, S. Loesov and S. Tishchenko, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 169–188, 2012</ref><ref>Susan Jane Bridges, The Mesag Archive: A Study of Sargonic Society and Economy, Yale University Dissertation, 1981</ref><ref>Robson, Eleanor, and Gábor Zólyomi, "Mesag reports a murder: cuneiform tablets in the collections of Norwich Castle Museum and Cambridge University Library", Iraq 76, pp. 189–203, 2014</ref> An archive of 47 tablets was found at the excavation of Tell el-Suleimah in the Hamrin Basin.<ref>Visicato, Giuseppe, "The Sargonic Archive of Tell El-Suleimah", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 51, pp. 17–30, 1999</ref>
Various royal inscriptions by the Akkadian rulers have also been found. Most of the original examples are short, or very fragmentary like the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and the Sargonic victory stele from Telloh.<ref>Foster, Benjamin R., "The Sargonic Victory Stele from Telloh", Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 15–30, 1985</ref> A few longer ones are known because of later copies made, often from the much later Old Babylonian period. While these are assumed to be mostly accurate, it is difficult to know if they had been edited to reflect current political conditions.<ref name="Frayne" >Douglas R. Frayne, The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, 1993, {{ISBN|0-8020-0593-4}}</ref> One of the longer surviving examples is the Bassetki Statue, the copper base of a Narim-Sin statue:
{{Blockquote|"Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of Agade, when the four quarters together revolted against him, through the love which the goddess Astar showed him, he was victorious in nine battles in one in 1 year, and the kings whom they (the rebels[?]) had raised (against him), he captured. In view of the fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made) the god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him. As for the one who removes this inscription, may the gods Samas, Astar, Nergal, the bailiff of the king, namely all those gods (mentioned above) tear out his foundations and destroy his progeny."<ref name="Frayne" />
}}
A number of fragments of royal statues of Manishtushu all bearing portions of a "standard inscription". Aside from a few minor short inscriptions this is the only known contemporary source for this ruler.<ref>Eppihimer, Melissa, "Assembling King and State: The Statues of Manishtushu and the Consolidation of Akkadian Kingship", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 114, no. 3, pp. 365–80, 2010</ref> An excerpt:
{{Blockquote|"Man-istusu, king of the world: when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum, had ... ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the Sea, thirty-two (in number), assembled for battle, but he was victorious (over them). Further, he conquered their cities, [st]ru[c]k down their rulers and aft[er] he [roused them (his troops)], plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded (it) on ships, and moored (the ships) at the quay of Agade"<ref name="Frayne" />
}}
{{multiple image|perrow2|total_width400|caption_align=center
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| image1 = P1050576 Louvre Oblélisque de Manishtusu rwk.JPG
| image2 = P1050578 Louvre Obélisque de Manishtusu détail rwk.JPG
| footer=Manishtushu Obelisk, with close-up of the text. 2270–2255 BC, Louvre Museum
}}
Before the Akkadian Empire, calendar years were marked by Regnal Numbers. During Sargonic times, a system of year-names was used. This practice continued until the end of the Old Babylonian period, for example, "Year in which the divine Hammu[rabi] the king Esznunna destroyed by a flood.”<ref>Ebeling, E. and Meissner, B., "Reallexikon der Assyriologie (RIA-2), Berlin, 1938</ref> Afterwards, Regnal Numbers were used by all succeeding kingdoms.<ref>Horsnell, Malcolm J. A., "Why Year-Names? An Exploration into the Reasons for Their Use", Orientalia, vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 196–203, 2003</ref> During the Akkadian Empire 3 of the presumed 40 Sargon year-names are known, 1 (presumed 9) of Rimush, 20 (presumed 56) of Naram-Sin, and 18 (presumed 18) of Shar-kali-shari.<ref>[https://cdli-gh.github.io/year-names/HTML/T2K1.htm Marcel Sigrist and Peter Damerow, "Mesopotamian Year Names", Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative, 2001]</ref> Recently, a single year-name had been found "In the year that Dūr-Maništusu was established.”<ref>Alkhafaji, Nashat Ali Omran, "A Double Date Formula of the Old Akkadian King Manishtusu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 71, pp. 3–9, 2019</ref> There are also, perhaps, a dozen more known, which cannot be firmly linked to a ruler. Especially with the paucity of other inscriptions, year-names are extremely important in determining the history of the Akkadian Empire. As an example, from one year-name, we know that the empire was in conflict with the Gutians long before its end. It attests the name of a Gutian ruler and marks the construction of two temples in Babylon as recognition of Akkadian victory.
{{Blockquote|"In the year in which Szarkaliszarri laid the foundations of the temples of the goddess Annunitum and of the god Aba in Babylon and when he defeated Szarlak, king of Gutium"<ref>Lambert, Wilfred G., "Babylon: Origins". Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident", edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Margarete van Ess and Joachim Marzahn, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 71–76, 2011</ref>}}
The final contemporary source are seals and their sealing dates. These are especially important here, as markers, with the shortage of other Akkadian Empire epigraphics and very useful to historians. As an example, two seals and one sealing were found in the Royal Cemetery at Ur which contained the name of Sargons's daughter En-hedu-ana. This provided confirmation of her existence. The seals read "En-hedu-ana, daughter of Sargon: Ilum-pal[il] (is) her coiffeur" and "Adda, estate supervisor/majordomo of En-hedu-ana".<ref name"Frayne" /> At Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light a clay sealing of Tar'am-Agade (Akkad loves <her>), a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin, who was possibly married to an unidentified local endan (ruler).<ref>{{cite book |last1Buccellati |first1Giorgio |last2Kelly-Buccellati |first2Marilyn |editor1-firstLamia |editor1-lastAl-Gailani Werr |titleOf Pots and Plans. Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday |year2002 |publisherNabu |locationLondon |isbn978-1897750629 |chapter-urlhttps://urkesh.org/EL-MZ/Buccellati_and_Kelly-Buccellati_2002_Taram_Agade_Daughter_-_MDOG_133.pdf |pages11–31 |chapterTar’am-Agade, Daughter of Naram-Sin, at Urkesh}}</ref>Later copies and literary compositions
So great was the Akkadian Empire, especially Sargon and Narim-Sin, that its history was passed down for millennia. This ranged on one end to purported copies of still existing Sargonic period inscriptions to literary tales made up from the whole cloth at the other.<ref>Westenholz, Joan Goodnick, "Heroes of Akkad", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 103, no. 1, pp. 327–36, 1983</ref> A few examples:
*Great Rebellion Against Naram-Sin – At one point in his reign much of the Empire, especially in the old mainly Sumerian city-states, rose up against Naram-Sin. The revolt was crushed but the echoes of the event were passed down in history. Some of the tales, like "Naram-Sin and the Enemy Hordes" (Old Babylonian – purported to be a copy of an inscription at the temple of Nergal in Cutha) and "Gula-AN and the Seventeen Kings against Naram-Sin" were literary compositions which further developed and changed the themes. The earliest examplar, from the Old Babylonian period, is found in several incomplete tablets and fragments, which differ somewhat, purporting to be copies of an inscription on a statue of Naram-Sin standing in the Ekur temple of Enlil at Nippur. Because it aligns with known contemporary inscriptions and year name it is considered authentic, which the usual Mesopotamian slant that something going wrong means you displeased the gods.<ref>Tinney, Steve, "A New Look at Naram-Sin and the ‘Great Rebellion’", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 47, pp. 1–14, 1995</ref><ref>Michalowski, Piotr, "New Sources Concerning the Reign of Naram-Sin", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 233–46, 1980</ref><ref>Westenholz, Joan Goodnick, "Naram-Sin and the Enemy Hordes": The “Cuthean Legend” of Naram-Sin", Legends of the Kings of Akkade: The Texts, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 263–368, 1997</ref>
{{Blockquote|"... By the verdict of the goddess Astar-Annunltum, Naram-Sin, the mighty, [was vic]torious over the Kisite in battle at TiWA. [Further], Ili-resi, the general; Ilum-muda, Ibbi-Zababa, Imtalik, (and) Puzur-Asar, captains of Kis; and Puzur-Ningal, governor of TiWA; Ili-re'a, his captain; Kullizum, captain of Eres; Edam'u, captain of Kutha ..."<ref name="Frayne" />
}}
*Cursing of Agade – A purely literary composition which was handed down for millennia in Mesopotamia. Composed in the Ur III period, a century or at most two after the events, it is essentially artistic propaganda. After a long period of Akkadian dominance the Sumerians from the south are back in ascendancy. The Ur rule is sometimes called the Neo-Sumerian Empire. This composition lays all the troubles before the rise of Ur at the feet of the Akkadian Empire (because Naram-Sin leveled the Ekur temple of Enlil while rebuilding it causing the eight chief deities of Mesopotamia to withdraw their support and protection from Akkad). While basically fiction, it is still useful to historians.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?textt.2.1.5|title=The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|"...Enlil brought out of the mountains those who do not resemble other people, who are not reckoned as part of the Land, the Gutians, an unbridled people, with human intelligence but canine instincts and monkeys' features. Like small birds they swooped on the ground in great flocks. Because of Enlil, they stretched their arms out across the plain like a net for animals. Nothing escaped their clutches, no one left their grasp. Messengers no longer traveled the highways, the courier's boat no longer passed along the rivers. The Gutians drove the trusty (?) goats of Enlil out of their folds and compelled their herdsmen to follow them, they drove the cows out of their pens and compelled their cowherds to follow them. Prisoners manned the watch. Brigands occupied the highways. The doors of the city gates of the Land lay dislodged in mud, and all the foreign lands uttered bitter cries from the walls of their cities ..."<ref>Cooper, Jerrold S., The Curse of Agade., The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore/London, 1983</ref><ref>Jacobsen, Thorkild, The Harps that Once .... Sumerian Poetry in Translation. Yale University Press: New Haven/London, 1987</ref>}}
There were a number of these, passed down as part of scribel tradition including The Birth Legend of Sargon (Neo-Assyrian), Weidner Chronicle, and the Geographical Treatise on Sargon of Akkad's Empire.<ref>Lenzi, Alan, "Legends of Akkadian Kings", in An Introduction to Akkadian Literature: Contexts and Content, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 123–132, 2019</ref><ref>E. A. Speiver, "Akkadian Myths and Epics", in Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement, edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 60–119, 1955</ref><ref>Albright, W. F., "A Babylonian Geographical Treatise on Sargon of Akkad's Empire", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 45, pp. 193–245, 1925</ref><ref>Al-Rawi, F. N. H. “Tablets from the Sippar Library. I. The ‘Weidner Chronicle’: A Supposititious Royal Letter Concerning a Vision.” Iraq, vol. 52, pp. 1–13, 1990</ref>
Archaeology
Identifying architectural remains is hindered by the fact that there are sometimes no clear distinctions between features thought to stem from the preceding Early Dynastic period, and those thought to be Akkadian. Likewise, material that is thought to be Akkadian continues to be in use into the Ur III period.<ref>[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip129.pdf] Augusta McMahon, "Nippur V. The Early Dynastic to Akkadian Transition: The Area WF Sounding at Nippur", Oriental Institute Publications 129, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2006 {{ISBN|1-885923-38-4}}</ref> There is a similar issue with cuneiform tablets. In the early Akkadian Empire tablets and the signs on them are much like those from earlier periods, before developing into the much different Classical Sargonic style.<ref name="Foster" >Foster, Benjamin R., "Archives and Record-keeping in Sargonic Mesopotamia", ZAVA, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 1–27, 1982</ref>
With the capital, Akkad, still unlocated, archaeological remains of the empire are still to be found, mainly at the cities where they established regional governors. An example is Adab where Naram-Sin established direct imperial control after Adab joined the "great revolt".<ref>[https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/234857/1/2019-Palace_Adab_Sargonic_period.pdf] M. Molina, "The palace of Adab during the Sargonic period", D. Wicke (ed.), Der Palast im antiken und islamischen Orient, Colloquien der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 9, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 151–20, 2019</ref> After destroying the city of Mari the Akkadian Empire rebuilt it as an administrative center with an imperial governor.<ref>Margueron, Jean-Claude, "The Kingdom of Mari", In Crawford, Harriet (ed.). The Sumerian World. Translated by Crawford, Harriet. Routledge, 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-21912-2}}</ref> The city of Nuzi was established by the Akkadians and a number of economic and administrative texts were found there.<ref>Freedman, Nadezhda, "The Nuzi Ebla", The Biblical Archaeologist, 40 (1), pp. 32–33, 1977</ref> Similarly, there are Marad, Nippur, Tutub and Ebla.<ref>Archi, Alfonso, "Ebla and Its Archives: Texts, History, and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-61451-788-7}}</ref><ref>Gibson, McGuire, "A Re-Evaluation of the Akkad Period in the Diyala Region on the Basis of Recent Excavations at Nippur and in the Hamrin", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 86, no. 4, pp. 531–38, 1982</ref>
Excavation at the modern site of Tell Brak has suggested that the Akkadians rebuilt a city ("Brak" or "Nagar") on this site, for use as an administrative center. The city included two large buildings including a complex with temple, offices, courtyard, and large ovens.<ref>J. Oates (2004), pp. [https://books.google.com/books?idEnQ8W6AmCq0C&pgPA5 5]–8. "Following the destruction of the city sometime in the twenty-third century BC, Nagar was rebuilt by officials of the Akkadian Dynasty as a major centre of their provincial administration, a fact clearly attested in the cuneiform documents from this site."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor 4200303|title Akkadian Buildings at Tell Brak|journal Iraq|volume 51|pages 193–211|last1 Oates|first1 David|last2 Oates|first2 Joan|year 1989|doi 10.2307/4200303| s2cid162449952 }}</ref>
Dating and periodization
The Akkadian period is generally dated to 2334–2154 BC (according to the middle chronology). The short-chronology dates of 2270–2083 BC are now considered less likely. It was preceded by the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia (ED) and succeeded by the Ur III Period, although both transitions are blurry. For example, it is likely that the rise of Sargon of Akkad coincided with the late ED Period and that the final Akkadian kings ruled simultaneously with the Gutian kings alongside rulers at the city-states of both Uruk and Lagash. The Akkadian Period is contemporary with EB IV (in Israel), EB IVA and EJ IV (in Syria), and EB IIIB (in Turkey).<ref nameschrakamp/><ref namepruss2004>{{citation |last1Pruß |first1Alexander |year2004 |editor1-lastLebeau |editor1-firstMarc |editor2-lastSauvage |editor2-firstMartin |titleAtlas of Preclassical Upper Mesopotamia |chapterRemarks on the Chronological Periods |pages7–21 |isbn978-2503991207 |seriesSubartu |volume13 }}</ref>Timeline of rulers
{{Main|List of kings of Akkad}}
The relative order of Akkadian kings is clear, while noting that the Ur III version of the Sumerian King List inverts the order of Rimush and Manishtushu.<ref>Steinkeller, P., "An Ur III manuscript of the Sumerian King List", in: W. Sallaberger [e.a.] (ed.), Literatur, Politik und Recht in Mesopotamien. Festschrift fü r Claus Wilcke. OBC 14. Wiesbaden, 267–29, 2003</ref><ref>Thomas, Ariane. "The Akkadian Royal Image: On a Seated Statue of Manishtushu" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 105, no. 1-2, 2015, pp. 86–117</ref> The absolute dates of their reigns are approximate (as with all dates prior to the Late Bronze Age collapse c. 1200 BC).<ref name"Mieroop2007" >{{cite book |last1van de Mieroop |first1M. |author-linkMarc Van de Mieroop |titleA History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC |year2007 |publisherBlackwell |locationMalden |isbn=978-0-631-22552-2}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ruler
!
! Middle chronology<br/><small>All dates BC</small>
!Family tree
|-
|Sargon
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2334–2279
| style"text-align:center;" rowspan7|
|-
|Rimush
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2278–2270
|-
|Manishtushu
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2269–2255
|-
|Naram-Sin
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2254–2218
|-
|Shar-Kali-Sharri
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2217–2193
|-
|Dudu
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2189–2169
|-
|Shu-turul
|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2168–2154
|}
History and development of the empire
Pre-Sargonic Akkad
under its last king Lugal-Zage-Si appears in orange. Circa 2350 BC]]
, holding a mace and wearing a flounced royal coat on his left shoulder with a large belt (left), followed by an attendant holding a royal umbrella.<ref name"AOA">{{cite book |last1Foster |first1Benjamin R. |titleThe Age of Agade: Inventing Empire in Ancient Mesopotamia |date2015 |publisherRoutledge |isbn9781317415527 |page3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idO680CwAAQBAJ&pgPA3 |languageen}}</ref><ref name"LN">{{cite journal |last1Nigro |first1Lorenzo |titleThe Two Steles of Sargon: Iconology and Visual Propaganda at the Beginning of Royal Akkadian Relief |journalIraq |volume60 |date1998 |publisherBritish Institute for the Study of Iraq |page92 |doi10.2307/4200454 |jstor4200454 |hdl11573/109737 |s2cid193050892 }}</ref> The name of Sargon in cuneiform ("King Sargon") appears faintly in front of his face.<ref name"AOA"/><ref name="LN93-94"/> Louvre Museum.]]
The Akkadian Empire takes its name from the region and the city of Akkad, both of which were localized in the general confluence area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although the city of Akkad has not yet been identified on the ground, it is known from various textual sources. Among these is at least one text predating the reign of Sargon. Together with the fact that the name Akkad is of non-Akkadian origin, this suggests that the city of Akkad may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times.<ref namewallromana1990/><ref>{{citation |last1Foster |first1Benjamin R.|editor1-firstRoger S. |editor1-lastBagnall |titleThe Encyclopedia of Ancient History |year2013 |publisherBlackwell |locationChicago |doi10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah01005 |chapterAkkad (Agade) |pages266–267 |isbn9781444338386}}</ref>Sargon of Akkad
{{Main|Sargon of Akkad}}
The earliest records in the Akkadian language date to the time of Sargon of Akkad, who defeated the Sumerian king Lugal-zage-si at the Battle of Uruk and conquered his former territory, establishing the Akkadian Empire. Sargon was claimed to be the son of a gardener in the Sumerian King List. Later legends named his father as La'ibum or Itti-Bel and his birth mother as a priestess (or possibly even a hierodule) of Ishtar, the Akkadian equivalent of the Sumerian goddess Inanna. One legend of Sargon from Neo-Assyrian times quotes him as saying
{{Blockquote|My mother was a changeling, my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates. My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and (fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship.<ref name=Roux />}}
Later claims made on behalf of Sargon were that his mother was an "entu" priestess (high priestess). The claims might have been made to ensure a pedigree of nobility, since only a highly placed family could achieve such a position.<ref>{{cite book |last1Stiebing |first1H. William Jr. |titleAncient Near Eastern History and Culture |publisherPearson Longman; University of New Orleans |year2009 |page69}}</ref>
Originally a cupbearer (Rabshakeh) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. The royal cupbearer at this time was in fact a prominent political position, close to the king and with various high level responsibilities not suggested by the title of the position itself.<ref>{{citation |titleSargon |doi10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1101500}}</ref> This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest.<ref>Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians, Chicago University Press, 1971, {{ISBN|0-226-45238-7}}</ref> Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan, and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire".
However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus (Kaptara); northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda, well into Anatolia); eastward over Elam; and as far south as Magan (Oman)&nbsp;— a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "year-names" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing the earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty was thus ensured.<ref>{{cite book |last1Stiebing |first1H. William Jr. |titleAncient Near Eastern History and Culture |publisherPearson Longman; University of New Orleans |year2009 |page70}}</ref>
.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Nigro |first1Lorenzo |titleThe Two Steles of Sargon: Iconology and Visual Propaganda at the Beginning of Royal Akkadian Relief |journalIraq |volume60 |date1998 |pages85–102 |publisherBritish Institute for the Study of Iraq |doi10.2307/4200454 |jstor4200454 |hdl11573/109737 |s2cid193050892 }}</ref> Louvre Museum.]]
Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in modern Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Magan. This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production.
Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak, king of Gutium. He also boasted of having subjugated the "four-quarters"&nbsp;— the lands surrounding Akkad to the north, the south (Sumer), the east (Elam), and the west (Martu). Some of the earliest historiographic texts (ABC 19, 20) suggest he rebuilt the city of Babylon (Bab-ilu) in its new location near Akkad.<ref>Dalley proposes that these sources may have originally referred to Sargon II of the Assyria rather than Sargon of Akkad. Stephanie Dalley, "Babylon as a Name for Other Cities Including Nineveh", in [http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc62.pdf] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120730041524/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc62.pdf|date30 July 2012}} Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Oriental Institute SAOC 62, pp. 25–33, 2005</ref>
Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The anointed priest of Anu" and "the great ensi of Enlil" and his daughter, Enheduanna, was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur.
Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states:
{{Blockquote|In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city) [but] he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their vast army.}}
It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated a coalition army led by the King of Awan and forced the vanquished to become his vassals.<ref>{{cite book |last1Stiebing |first1H. William Jr. |titleAncient Near Eastern History and Culture |publisherPearson Longman; University of New Orleans |year2009 |page71}}</ref>
Also shortly after, another revolt took place:
{{Blockquote|the Subartu the upper country—in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously.}}
The Bible refers to the city of Akkad in the Book of Genesis, which states:
{{blockquote|text="Cush [grandson of Noah] became the father of Nimrod; he was the first on earth to become a mighty warrior. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; therefore it is said, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the Lord.” The beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, and Accad, all of them in the land of Shinar. From that land he went into Assyria, and built Nineveh, Rehoboth-ir, Calah, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah; that is the great city."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|10:8–12|NRSV}}, New Revised Standard Version (1989)</ref>
}}
Nimrod's historical inspiration remains uncertain, but he has been identified with Sargon of Akkad by some scholars who also propose that the name of Sargon's grandson and successor Naram-Sin is the root of Nimrod's,<ref>{{cite magazine |firstYigal |lastLevin |titleNimrod the Mighty, King of Kish, King of Sumer and Akkad |magazineVetus Testamentum |volume52 |year2002 |issue3 |pages350–356 |doi10.1163/156853302760197494}}</ref> while others have noted similarities between Nimrod and the legendary Gilgamesh, king of Uruk (Erech).<ref>{{cite book |last1Dalley |first1Stephanie |author-linkStephanie Dalley |titleThe Legacy of Mesopotamia |year1997 |publisherOxford University Press |locationNew York |isbn9780198149460 |page116 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUhVfijsPxOMC&pgPA116 }}</ref><ref nameschrakamp>{{cite encyclopedia |last1Schrakamp |first1Ingo |editor1-firstRoger S. |editor1-lastBagnall |titleThe Encyclopedia of Ancient History |year2013 |publisherBlackwell |locationChicago |doi10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah24182 |chapterSargon of Akkad and his dynasty |pages6045–6047 |isbn9781444338386}}</ref>
Rimush and Manishtushu
{{Main|Rimush|Manishtushu}}
Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons, where revolts broke out during the nine-year reign of Rimush (2278–2270 BC), who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. According to his inscriptions, he faced widespread revolts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur, Umma, Adab, Lagash, Der, and Kazallu from rebellious ensis:<ref name"WJH93"/> Rimush introduced mass slaughter and large scale destruction of the Sumerian city-states, and maintained meticulous records of his destructions. Most of the major Sumerian cities were destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous:<ref name"WJH93">{{cite book |last1Hamblin |first1William J. |titleWarfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History |date2006 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-134-52062-6 |pages93–94 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbiyDDd0uKGMC&pgPT93 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Crowe |first1D. |titleWar Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History |date2014 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-1-137-03701-5 |page10 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtSnFAgAAQBAJ&pgPT10 |languageen}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable" align"center" style"margin-left: 1em;" style"font-size: 80%;"
|-
| colspan"7" align"center" cellspacing"0" style"background:lightgrey; color:black" |Sumerian casualties from the campaigns of Rimush<ref name="WJH93"/>
|-
|Destroyed cities:
| aligncenter rowspan1 |Adab and Zabala
|aligncenter rowspan1|Umma and KI.AN
| colspan"1" aligncenter |Ur and Lagash
| colspan"1" aligncenter |Kazallu
| colspan"1" aligncenter |(Three battles in Sumer)
| colspan"1" aligncenter |TOTAL
|-
| Killed
|15,718
|8,900
|8,049
|12,052
|11,322
|56,041
|-
| Captured and enslaved
|14,576
|3,540
|5,460
|5,862
|_
|29,438
|-
| "Expelled and annihilated"
|_
|5,600
|5,985
|_
|14,100
|25,685
|-
|}
Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (2269–2255 BC) succeeded him. The latter seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took control over their pre-Arab country, consisting of modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman. Despite the success, like his brother he seems to have been assassinated in a palace conspiracy.<ref>{{cite book|last1Stiebing|first1H. William Jr.|titleAncient Near Eastern History and Culture|publisherPearson Longman; University of New Orleans|year2009|page72}}</ref><ref name"WJH93"/>Naram-Sin
{{Main|Naram-Sin of Akkad}}
Manishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), due to vast military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin, king of the four-quarters" (''Lugal Naram-Sîn, Šar kibrat 'arbaim), the four-quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god (Sumerian DINGIR, Akkadian ilu'') of Agade" (Akkad), in opposition to the previous religious belief that kings were only representatives of the people towards the gods.<ref name="H.William 2009 p.74"/><ref>[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/ois4.pdf] Piotr Michalowski, "The Mortal Kings of Ur: A Short Century of Divine Rule in Ancient Mesopotamia", in Religion and Power: Divine Kingship in the Ancient World and Beyond – Nicole Brisch ed., pp. 33–45, Oriental Institute Seminars 4, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2012 {{ISBN|978-1-885923-55-4}}</ref>
He also faced revolts at the start of his reign,<ref>{{cite journal |first1Steve |last1Tinney |titleA New Look at Naram-Sin and the Great Rebellion |journalJournal of Cuneiform Studies |volume47 |pages1–14 |year1995 |doi10.2307/1359810 |jstor1359810 |s2cid163629316 }}</ref> but quickly crushed them.
, celebrating victory against the Lullubi from Zagros 2260 BC. He is wearing a horned helmet, a symbol of divinity, and is also portrayed in a larger scale in comparison to others to emphasize his superiority.<ref name"H.William 2009 p.74">{{cite book |last1Stiebing |first1H. William Jr. |titleAncient Near Eastern History and Culture |publisherPearson Longman |year2009 |page74 |isbn978-0-321-42297-2 }}</ref> Brought back from Sippar to Susa as war prize in the 12th century BC.]]
Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well as Armanum and its king.<ref name"Otto2006">{{cite journal |first1Adelheid |last1Otto |titleArchaeological Perspectives on the Localization of Naram-Sin's Armanum |journalJournal of Cuneiform Studies |volume58 |pages1–26 |year2006 |doi10.1086/JCS40025220 |s2cid163490130 }}</ref>
at Tell Brak.]]
To better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah. Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king", where he instated garrisons to protect the main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to the carving of the "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the Louvre. Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia, battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti, Zipani of Kanesh, and 15 others.
The economy was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses.<ref>{{cite book |last1Fagan |first1Brian |year2004 |titleThe Long Summer: how climate changed civilisation |publisherGranta Books |isbn1-86207-644-8 }}</ref> This newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other peoples.<ref name"William J. Burroughs 2008">{{cite book |first1William J. |last1Burroughs |titleClimate Change in Prehistory: The end of the age of chaos |publisherCambridge University Press |year2008 |isbn=978-0-521-07010-2 }}</ref>
In later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name Akkad, together with Sumer, appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi,<ref name="Mieroop2007" /> translating to "king of Sumer and Akkad".<ref>Ulanowski, Krzysztof, "The Rituals of Power: The Akkadian Tradition in Neo-Assyrian Policy", Tradition and Innovation in the Ancient Near East. Ed. by A. Arch, Winona Lake, Indiana Eisenbrauns, pp. 237-250, 2015</ref> This title was assumed by the king who seized control of Nippur, the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia.
During the Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in the Amarna Period) and Anatolia, to Persia (Behistun).
Submission of Sumerian kings
The submission of some Sumerian rulers to the Akkadian Empire, is recorded in the seal inscriptions of Sumerian rulers such as Lugal-ushumgal, governor (ensi) of Lagash ("Shirpula"), circa 2230–2210 BC. Several inscriptions of Lugal-ushumgal are known, particularly seal impressions, which refer to him as governor of Lagash and at the time a vassal ({{cuneiform|6|𒀵}}, arad, "servant" or "slave") of Naram-Sin, as well as his successor Shar-kali-sharri.<ref>{{cite web |titleSumerian Dictionary |urlhttp://oracc.iaas.upenn.edu/epsd2/cbd/sux/A.html |websiteoracc.iaas.upenn.edu}}</ref><ref name"HR"/><ref>{{cite book |last1Woolley |first1Leonard |titleThe Summerians |date1938 |page[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.166848/page/n130 83] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.166848}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleThe Art Of Ancient Mesopotamia ( Art Ebook) |page53}}</ref> One of these seals proclaims:
{{Blockquote|“Naram-Sin, the mighty God of Agade, king of the four corners of the world, Lugal-ushumgal, the scribe, ensi of Lagash, is thy servant.”|Seal of Lugal-ushumgal as vassal of Naram-sin.<ref name"HR">{{cite book |last1Radau |first1Hugo |titleEarly Babylonian History: Down to the End of the Fourth Dynasty of Ur |date2005 |publisherWipf and Stock Publishers |isbn978-1-59752-381-3 |pages6–7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8HVLAwAAQBAJ&pgPA7 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCDLI-Archival View RT 165 |urlhttps://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectIDP216941 |websitecdli.ucla.edu}}</ref>}}
It can be considered that Lugal-ushumgal was a collaborator of the Akkadian Empire, as was Meskigal, ruler of Adab.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Cambridge Ancient History |date1971 |publisherCambridge University Press |page436 |isbn9780521077910 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKorxAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Later however, Lugal-ushumgal was succeeded by Puzer-Mama who, as Akkadian power waned, achieved independence from Shar-Kali-Sharri, assuming the title of "King of Lagash" and starting the illustrious Second Dynasty of Lagash.<ref>{{cite book |last1Álvarez-Mon |first1Javier |last2Basello |first2Gian Pietro |last3Wicks |first3Yasmina |titleThe Elamite World |date2018 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-317-32983-1 |page254 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyClKDwAAQBAJ&pgPT254 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleThe Cambridge Ancient History |date1971 |publisherCambridge University Press |page998 |isbn9780521077910 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKorxAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Collapse
capturing a Babylonian city, as the Akkadians are making a stand outside of their city. 19th century illustration.]]
{{See also|Gutian dynasty of Sumer}}
The empire of Akkad likely fell in the 22nd century BC, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a "Dark Age" with no prominent imperial authority until the Third Dynasty of Ur. The region's political structure may have reverted to the status quo ante of local governance by city-states.<ref name=Zettler24>Zettler (2003), pp. 24–25.</ref>
By the end of Sharkalisharri's reign, the empire had begun to unravel.
<ref>Nicholas Kraus, The Weapon of Blood: Politics and Intrigue at the Decline of Akkad, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 108, iss. 1, pp. 1–9, June 2018</ref>
After several years of chaos (and four kings), Shu-turul and Dudu appear to have restored some centralized authority for several decades; however, they were unable to prevent the empire from eventually collapsing outright, eventually ceding power to Gutians, based in Adab, who had been conquered by Akkad during the reign of Sharkalisharri.<ref>Kraus, Nicholas. "The Weapon of Blood: Politics and Intrigue at the Decline of Akkad" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 108, no. 1, 2018, pp. 1–9.</ref>
Little is known about the Gutian period, or how long it endured. Cuneiform sources suggest that the Gutians' administration showed little concern for maintaining agriculture, written records, or public safety; they reputedly released all farm animals to roam about Mesopotamia freely and soon brought about famine and rocketing grain prices. The Sumerian king Ur-Nammu (2112–2095 BC) cleared the Gutians from Mesopotamia during his reign.
The Sumerian King List, describing the Akkadian Empire after the death of Shar-kali-shari, states:
{{Blockquote|Who was king? Who was not king? Irgigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the king; Ilulu, the king—the four of them were kings but reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shu-Turul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years. ... Agade was defeated and its kingship carried off to Uruk. In Uruk, Ur-ningin reigned 7 years, Ur-gigir, son of Ur-ningin, reigned 6 years; Kuda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Ur-Utu reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes.}}
However, there are no known year-names or other archaeological evidence verifying any of these later kings of Akkad or Uruk, apart from several artefact referencing king Dudu of Akkad and Shu-turul.<ref>{{cite web |titleCDLI-Found Texts |urlhttps://cdli.ucla.edu/search/search_results.php?SearchModeText&requestFromSearch&DatesReferenceddudu |websitecdli.ucla.edu}}</ref> The named kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad, but in any event could not have been very prominent.
{{Blockquote|In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; ... reigned 3 years; Kurum reigned 1 year; ... reigned 3 years; ... reigned 2 years; Iararum reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7 years; ... reigned 7 years; ... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days.}}
|url= http://art.thewalters.org/detail/4594
|title= Cylinder Seal with King or God and Vanquished Lion}}</ref> The Walters Art Museum.]]
The period between {{circa|2112}} BC and 2004 BC is known as the Ur III period. Documents again began to be written in Sumerian, although Sumerian was becoming a purely literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later became in Medieval Europe.<ref name=Roux>Georges Roux (1996), Ancient Iraq (3rd Edition)(Penguin Harmondsworth)</ref>
One explanation for the end of the Akkadian empire is simply that the Akkadian dynasty could not maintain its political supremacy over other independently powerful city-states.<ref nameZettler24 /><ref>Norman Yoffee, "The Collapse of Ancient Mesopotamian States and Civilization", in The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, ed. Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, University of Arizona Press, 1991</ref> Natural causes: drought, seasonal weather patterns
{{Main|4.2-kiloyear event}}
One theory, which remains controversial, associates regional decline at the end of the Akkadian period (and of the First Intermediary Period following the Old Kingdom in Ancient Egypt) with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused by a global centennial-scale drought, sometimes called the 4.2 kiloyear event.<ref>{{cite journal | author Richard A. Kerr | year 1998 | title Sea-Floor Dust Shows Drought Felled Akkadian Empire | journal Science | volume 279 | issue 5349 | pages 325–326 | doi 10.1126/science.279.5349.325 |bibcode 1998Sci...279..325K | s2cid 140563513 }}</ref><ref name"Weiss1993">{{cite journal | last1 Weiss | first1 H | year 1993 | title The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization | journal Science | volume 261 | issue 5124 | pages 995–1004 | doi 10.1126/science.261.5124.995 | pmid 17739617 | bibcode 1993Sci...261..995W | s2cid 31745857 |display-authorsetal | url http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ILUR/article/view/61022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Wiener |first1Malcolm H. |date2014 |titleThe Interaction of Climate Change and Agency in the Collapse of Civilizations ca. 2300–2000 BC |journalRadiocarbon |volume56 |issue4 |pagesS1–S16 |doi10.2458/azu_rc.56.18325 |bibcode2014Radcb..56S...1W |citeseerx10.1.1.692.2170 |s2cid128775473 }}</ref> Harvey Weiss has shown that {{blockquote|[A]rchaeological and soil-stratigraphic data define the origin, growth, and collapse of Subir, the third millennium rain-fed agriculture civilization of northern Mesopotamia on the Habur Plains of Syria. At 2200 BC, a marked increase in aridity and wind circulation, subsequent to a volcanic eruption, induced a considerable degradation of land-use conditions. After four centuries of urban life, this abrupt climatic change evidently caused abandonment of Tell Leilan, regional desertion, and the collapse of the Akkadian empire based in southern Mesopotamia. Synchronous collapse in adjacent regions suggests that the impact of the abrupt climatic change was extensive.<ref name"Weiss1993" />}} Peter B. de Menocal has shown "there was an influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the streamflow of the Tigris and Euphrates at this time, which led to the collapse of the Akkadian Empire".<ref>{{cite journal |lastde Menocal |firstP.B. |titleNorth Atlantic influence on Tigris–Euphrates streamflow |journalInternational Journal of Climatology |volume20 |issue8 |pages853–863 |date30 June 2000|doi10.1002/1097-0088(20000630)20:8<853::AID-JOC497>3.0.CO;2-M |bibcode2000IJCli..20..853C }}</ref> More recent analysis of simulations from the HadCM3 climate model indicate that there was a shift to a more arid climate on a timescale that is consistent with the collapse of the empire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Cookson |first1Evangeline |last2Hill |first2Daniel J. |last3Lawrence |first3Dan |date2019-06-01 |titleImpacts of long term climate change during the collapse of the Akkadian Empire |urlhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318306198 |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |languageen |volume106 |pages1–9 |doi10.1016/j.jas.2019.03.009 |bibcode2019JArSc.106....1C |s2cid133772098 |issn0305-4403|archive-urlhttp://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/145596/ |archive-date=2 May 2019}}</ref>
(c. 2200 BC), with central inscription: "The Divine Sharkalisharri Prince of Akkad, Ibni-Sharrum the Scribe his servant". The long-horned buffalo is thought to have come from the Indus Valley, and testifies to exchanges with Meluhha (the Indus Valley civilization) in a case of Indus-Mesopotamia relations. Circa 2217–2193 BC. Louvre Museum.<ref>{{cite web |titleCylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum |urlhttps://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cylinder-seal-ibni-sharrum |websiteLouvre Museum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleSite officiel du musée du Louvre |urlhttp://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srvcar_not_frame&idNotice12067 |websitecartelfr.louvre.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Brown |first1Brian A. |last2Feldman |first2Marian H. |titleCritical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art |date2013 |publisherWalter de Gruyter |isbn9781614510352 |page187 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF4DoBQAAQBAJ&pgPA187 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Excavation at Tell Leilan suggests that this site was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganized. The debris, dust, and sand that followed show no trace of human activity. Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000&nbsp;people abandoned the site, presumably seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the Amorites moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with Akkadian populations. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.<ref name="Weiss1993"/>
This collapse of rain-fed agriculture in the Upper Country meant the loss to southern Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris and Euphrates fell 1.5&nbsp;meters beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they stabilized for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in agricultural lands, such as the building of a {{convert|180|km|0|abbron}} wall known as the "Repeller of the Amorites" between the Tigris and Euphrates under the Ur III ruler Shu-Sin. Such attempts led to increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depression occurred to re-establish demographic equilibrium with the less favorable climatic conditions.<ref>Christie, Peter (2008) The Curse of Akkad: Climate upheavals that rocked human history, Annick Press, pp. 31–48</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 deMenocal | first1 Peter B. | year 2001 | title Cultural responses to climate change during the late Holocene | url https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~peter/site/Papers_files/deMenocal.2001.pdf | journal Science | volume 292 | issue 5517| pages 667–673 | doi 10.1126/science.1059827 | pmid 11303088 | bibcode 2001Sci...292..667D | s2cid 18642937 }}</ref><ref>"[https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~peter/site/Papers_files/Cullen.et.al.2000.pdf Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: Evidence from the deep sea]" Geology 28(4), April 2000.</ref>
Richard Zettler has critiqued the drought theory, observing that the chronology of the Akkadian empire is very uncertain and that available evidence is not sufficient to show its economic dependence on the northern areas excavated by Weiss and others. He also criticizes Weiss for taking Akkadian writings literally to describe certain catastrophic events.<ref>Zettler (2003), pp. 18–21.</ref>
According to Joan Oates, at Tell Brak, the soil "signal" associated with the drought lies below the level of Naram-Sin's palace. However, evidence may suggest a tightening of Akkadian control following the Brak 'event', for example, the construction of the heavily fortified 'palace' itself and the apparent introduction of greater numbers of Akkadian as opposed to local officials, perhaps a reflection of unrest in the countryside of the type that often follows some natural catastrophe. Furthermore, Brak remained occupied and functional after the fall of the Akkadians.<ref>J. Oates (2004), p. [https://books.google.com/books?idEnQ8W6AmCq0C&pgPA11 11]–13. "A French soil-micromorphologist, Marie-Agnès Courty, a leading figure in assessing the evidence for this 'event', has now identified at Brak the earliest clearly dated Near Eastern soil 'signal' in a level unquestionably preceding the construction of Naram-Sin's Palace, that is, well before the collapse of the Akkadian Empire (see Courty 2001 and associated bibliography)."</ref>
In 2019, a study by Hokkaido University on fossil corals in Oman provides an evidence that prolonged winter shamal seasons led to the salinization of the irrigated fields; hence, a dramatic decrease in crop production triggered a widespread famine and eventually the collapse of the ancient Akkadian Empire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Watanabe |first1Takaaki K. |last2Watanabe |first2Tsuyoshi |last3Yamazaki |first3Atsuko |last4Pfeiffer |first4Miriam |titleOman corals suggest that a stronger winter shamal season caused the Akkadian Empire (Mesopotamia) collapse |journalGeology |volume47 |issue12 |pages1141–1145 |publisherGeoScienceWorld |year2019 |doi10.1130/G46604.1 |bibcode2019Geo....47.1141W|s2cid204781389 |urlhttps://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/12/1141/4870170/1141.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |urlhttps://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/blog/strong-winter-dust-storms-may-have-caused-the-collapse-of-the-akkadian-empire/ |titleStrong winter dust storms may have caused the collapse of the Akkadian Empire |websiteHokkaido University |date24 October 2019}}</ref>Government
, circa 2250 BC]]{{main|History of institutions in Mesopotamia}}
The Akkadian government formed a "classical standard" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared themselves. Traditionally, the ensi was the highest functionary of the Sumerian city-states. In later traditions, one became an ensi by marrying the goddess Inanna, legitimising the rulership through divine consent.
Initially, the monarchical lugal (lu man, galGreat) was subordinate to the priestly ensi, and was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the lugal who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own "é" (house) or "palace", independent from the temple establishment. By the time of Mesalim, whichever dynasty controlled the city of Kish was recognised as šar kiššati ( king of Kish), and was considered preeminent in Sumer, possibly because this was where the two rivers approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately controlled the irrigation systems of the other cities downstream.
As Sargon extended his conquest from the "Lower Sea" (Persian Gulf), to the "Upper Sea" (Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled "the totality of the lands under heaven", or "from sunrise to sunset", as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the ensis generally retained their positions, but were seen more as provincial governors. The title šar kiššati became recognised as meaning "lord of the universe". Sargon is even recorded as having organised naval expeditions to Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan, amongst the first organised military naval expeditions in history. Whether he also did in the case of the Mediterranean with the kingdom of Kaptara (possibly Cyprus), as claimed in later documents, is more questionable.
With Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further than with Sargon, with the king not only being called "Lord of the Four-Quarters (of the Earth)", but also elevated to the ranks of the dingir (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like Gilgamesh, become divine after death but the Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered gods on earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger size than mere mortals and at some distance from their retainers.<ref>Leick, Gwendolyn (2001) "Mesopotamia: Invention of the City" (Penguin Books)</ref>
One strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to maintain control of the country, was to install their daughters, Enheduanna and Emmenanna respectively, as high priestess to Sin, the Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, Nanna, at Ur, in the extreme south of Sumer; to install sons as provincial ensi governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire (Urkesh and Marhashe). A well documented case of the latter is that of Naram-Sin's daughter Tar'am-Agade at Urkesh.<ref>[http://128.97.6.202/attach/Buccellati%202002%20Taram%20Agade%20Daughter%20of%20Naram%20Sin.pdf] Tar'am-Agade, Daughter of Naram-Sin, at Urkesh, Buccellati, Giorgio and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, in of Pots and Plans. Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday, London: Nabu Publications, 2002</ref>
Records at the Brak administrative complex suggest that the Akkadians appointed locals as tax collectors.<ref>J. Oates (2004), p. [https://books.google.com/books?idEnQ8W6AmCq0C&pgPA10 10].</ref>
Economy
The population of Akkad, like nearly all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the agricultural systems of the region, which seem to have had two principal centres: the irrigated farmlands of southern Iraq that traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as the "Upper Country."
Southern Iraq during Akkadian period seems to have been approaching its modern rainfall level of less than {{convert|20|mm|1|abbr=on}} per year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon irrigation. Before the Akkadian period, the progressive salinisation of the soils, produced by poorly drained irrigation, had been reducing yields of wheat in the southern part of the country, leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant barley growing. Urban populations there had peaked already by 2,600 BC, and demographic pressures were high, contributing to the rise of militarism apparent immediately before the Akkadian period (as seen in the Stele of the Vultures of Eannatum). Warfare between city states had led to a population decline, from which Akkad provided a temporary respite.<ref>Thompson, William J. (2003), "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation," Journal of World Systems Research</ref> It was this high degree of agricultural productivity in the south that enabled the growth of the highest population densities in the world at this time, giving Akkad its military advantage.
bearing the name of Rimush, king of Kish, {{circa|lk=no|2270}} BC, Louvre, traded from the Mediterranean coast where it was used by Canaanites to make a purple dye.]]
The water table in this region was very high and replenished regularly—by winter storms in the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates from October to March and from snow-melt from March to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000 to 2,600 BC, had started falling, and by the Akkadian period were a half-meter to a meter lower than recorded previously. Even so, the flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more unpredictable than in the case of the Nile; serious deluges seem to have been a regular occurrence, requiring constant maintenance of irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited into regiments for this work from August to October—a period of food shortage—under the control of city temple authorities, thus acting as a form of unemployment relief. Gwendolyn Leick has<ref>Leick Gwendolyn (2003), "Mesopotamia: The invention of the city" (Penguin)</ref> suggested that this was Sargon's original employment for the king of Kish, giving him experience in effectively organising large groups of men; a tablet reads, "Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil permitted no rival—5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him".<ref>Kramer 1963:324, quoted in Charles Keith Maisels, The Emergence of Civilization ch. "The institutions of urbanism", 1990:179.</ref>
Harvest was in the late spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic Amorites from the northwest pastured their flocks of sheep and goats to graze on the crop residue and were watered from the river and irrigation canals. For this privilege, they had to pay a tax in wool, meat, milk, and cheese to the temples, who distributed these products to the bureaucracy and priesthood. In good years, all went well, but in bad years, wild winter pastures were in short supply, nomads sought to pasture their flocks in the grain fields, resulting in conflicts with farmers. It appeared that the subsidizing of southern populations by the import of wheat from the north of the Empire temporarily overcame this problem,<ref>{{cite book|last1Bourke|first1Stephen|titleThe Middle East: the cradle of civilization revealed|date2008|publisherThames & Hudson|isbn9780500251478|page89}}</ref> and it seems to have allowed economic recovery and a growing population within this region.Foreign trade
, Magan, Dilmun, Marhashi and Meluhha.]]
{{See also|Indus–Mesopotamia relations}}
As a result, Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products but was short of almost everything else, particularly metal ores, timber and building stone, all of which had to be imported. The spread of the Akkadian state as far as the "silver mountain" (possibly the Taurus Mountains), the "cedars" of Lebanon, and the copper deposits of Magan, was largely motivated by the goal of securing control over these imports. One tablet, an Old Babylonian Period copy of an original inscription, reads:
{{Blockquote|"Sargon, the king of Kish, triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge of the sea (and) destroyed their walls. He made the ships from Meluhha, the ships from Magan (and) the ships from Dilmun tie up alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself before (the god) Dagan (and) made supplication to him; (and) he (Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely Mari, Yarmuti, (and) Ebla, up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver Mountain"|Inscription by Sargon of Akkad (ca.2270–2215 BC)<ref>{{cite book |last1Ray |first1Himanshu Prabha |titleThe Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia |date2003 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn9780521011099 |page85 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiHHzP4uVpn4C&pgPA85 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleThe Indus Civilization and Dilmun, the Sumerian Paradise Land |urlhttps://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-indus-civilization-and-dilmun-the-sumerian-paradise-land/ |websitewww.penn.museum}}</ref><ref name"JR14">{{cite book |last1Reade |first1Julian E. |titleThe Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date2008 |publisherArchaeopress |isbn978-1-4073-0312-3 |pages14–17 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/28245304 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Stein |first1Stephen K. |titleThe Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes] |date2017 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn9781440835513 |page38 |languageen}}</ref>}}
International trade developed during the Akkadian period. Indus–Mesopotamia relations also seem to have expanded: Sargon of Akkad (circa 2300 or 2250 BC), was the first Mesopotamian ruler to make an explicit reference to the region of Meluhha, which is generally understood as being the Balochistan or the Indus area.<ref name"JR14"/>CultureAkkadian art{{multiple image|total_width450|perrow2|caption_aligncenter
| align = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=Nasiriyah Victory Stele of Naram-Sin
| image1 = Nasiriyah_Victory_Stele_of_Naram-Sin._From_Mesopotamia,_Iraq,_c._2300_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg
| image2 = Nasiriyah Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, from Mesopotamia, Iraq, c. 2300 BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg
| footerSoldier with sword, naked captives, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1McKeon |first1John F. X. |titleAn Akkadian Victory Stele |journalBoston Museum Bulletin |date1970 |volume68 |issue354 |page239 |issn0006-7997 |jstor=4171539}}</ref>
}}
In art, there was a great emphasis on the kings of the dynasty, alongside much that continued earlier Sumerian art. Little architecture remains. In large works and small ones such as seals, the degree of realism was considerably increased,<ref>{{cite book |last1Frankfort |first1Henri |author-linkHenri Frankfort |titleThe art and architecture of the ancient Orient |date1970 |publisherPenguin Books (now Yale History of Art)|isbn0-14-056107-2 |pages83–91 |edition4th rev. impression with additional bibliography |url}}</ref> but the seals show a "grim world of cruel conflict, of danger and uncertainty, a world in which man is subjected without appeal to the incomprehensible acts of distant and fearful divinities who he must serve but cannot love. This sombre mood ... remained characteristic of Mesopotamian art..."{{sfn|Frankfort|1970|p=71}}
Akkadian sculpture is remarkable for its fineness and realism, which shows a clear advancement compared to the previous period of Sumerian art.<ref>{{cite book |titleArt of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |date2003 |publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art |isbn978-1-58839-043-1 |pages204–205 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8l9X_3rHFdEC&pgPA204 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1McKeon |first1John F. X. |titleAn Akkadian Victory Stele |journalBoston Museum Bulletin |date1970 |volume68 |issue354 |pages226–243 |jstor4171539 }}</ref>
{{clear}}
<gallery widths"200" heights"200" perrow="4">
File:Bassetki Statue, Akkadian period, 23rd century BCE, from Bassetki, Iraq. Iraq Museum.jpg|The Bassetki statue, another example of Akkadian artistic realism
File:Statue de Manishtusu - Sb 47 - Antiquités orientales du Louvre.jpg|The Manishtushu statue
File:Statue of an Akkadian ruler of Assur city. From Assur, Iraq, c. 2300 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|Statue of an Akkadian ruler. From Assur, Iraq, c. 2300 BC. Pergamon Museum.
File:Fragment of the statue of a devotee, with inscription in the name of Naram-Sin.jpg|Fragment of the statue of a devotee, with inscription in the name of Naram-Sin: "To the god Erra, for the life of Naram-Sin, the powerful, his companion, the king of the four regions, Shu'astakkal, the scribe, the majordomo, has dedicated his statue".<ref>{{cite web |titleSite officiel du musée du Louvre |urlhttp://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srvcar_not&idNotice12209 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}</ref>
</gallery>
Seals
The Akkadians used visual arts as a vehicle of ideology. They developed a new style for cylinder seals by reusing traditional animal decorations but organizing them around inscriptions, which often became central parts of the layout. The figures also became more sculptural and naturalistic. New elements were also included, especially in relation to the rich Akkadian mythology.
{{clear}}
<gallery widths"200px" heights"100px" perrow="4">
File:Adda Seal Akkadian Empire 2300 BC.jpg|upright1.8|Inscription "Adda, the scribe", hunting god with bow and an arrow, Ishtar with weapons rising from her shoulders, emerging sun-god Shamash, Zu bird of destiny, water god Ea with bull between legs, two-faced attendant god Usimu with right hand raised.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Adda Seal |urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId368706&partId1&searchText89115&page1 |websiteBritish Museum}}</ref>
File:Akkadian seal Agricultural scene Louvre Museum.jpg|Akkadian seal depicting an agricultural scene. Louvre Museum
File:Le dieu de l ete et dumuzi.jpg|Summer God and Dumuzi. Louvre Museum
File:Periodo accadico, sigillo in calcare verde con eroi a sei ricci che sottomettono un bufalo d'acqua e un leone, 2350-2150 ac ca.jpg|Ea wrestling with a water buffalo, and bull-man Enkidu fighting with a lion.
</gallery>
Language
{{See also|Sumerian language|Akkadian language}}
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.<ref name"Deutscher">{{cite book|authorDeutscher, Guy|titleSyntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation|publisherOxford University Press US|year2007|isbn978-0-19-953222-3|pages20–21|author-linkGuy Deutscher (linguist)}}</ref> The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.<ref name"Deutscher"/> This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.<ref name"Deutscher"/>
Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around 2000 BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate),<ref name"woods">[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/ois2_2007.pdf], Christopher Woods, "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian", in S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture, pp. 91–120, Oriental Institute Seminars 2, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007 {{ISBN|1-885923-39-2}}</ref> but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.<ref>Cooper, J. S., "Sumerian and Akkadian in Sumer and Akkad", Orientalia, n.s., 42, pp. 239–46, 1973</ref><ref>[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/ois2_2007.pdf], Piotr Michalowski, "The Lives of the Sumerian Language", in S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture, pp. 163–190, Oriental Institute Seminars 2, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007 {{ISBN|1-885923-39-2}}</ref>Poet–priestess Enheduanna
, daughter of Sargon of Akkad, circa 2300 BC]]
Sumerian literature continued in rich development during the Akkadian period. Enheduanna, the "wife (Sumerian dam high priestess) of Nanna [the Sumerian moon god] and daughter of Sargon"<ref>Winter, Irene J. (1987), "Women in Public: The Disk of Enheduanna, The Beginning of the Office of En-Priestess, the Weight of the Visual Evidence". La Femme dans le Proche-Orient Antique. (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations)</ref> of the temple of Sin at Ur, who lived {{circa|lkno|2285}}–2250 BC, is the first poet in history whose name is known. Her known works include hymns to the goddess Inanna, the Exaltation of Inanna and In-nin sa-gur-ra. A third work, the Temple Hymns, a collection of specific hymns, addresses the temples and their occupants, the deities to whom they were consecrated. The works of this poet are significant, because although they start out using the third person, they shift to the first person voice of the poet herself, and they mark a significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poet, princess, and priestess, she was a person who, according to William W. Hallo, "set standards in all three of her roles for many succeeding centuries"<ref>Enheduanna, The Exaltation of Inanna. Translated by William W. Hallo and J. J. A. Van Dijk,
Ams Pr Inc, 1979, {{ISBN|0-404-60263-0}}</ref>
In the Exultation of Inanna,
{{Blockquote|Enheduanna depicts Inanna as disciplining mankind as a goddess of battle. She thereby unites the warlike Akkadian Ishtar's qualities to those of the gentler Sumerian goddess of love and fecundity. She likens Inanna to a great storm bird who swoops down on the lesser gods and sends them fluttering off like surprised bats. Then, in probably the most interesting part of the hymn, Enheduanna herself steps forward in the first person to recite her own past glories, establishing her credibility, and explaining her present plight. She has been banished as high priestess from the temple in the city of Ur and from Uruk and exiled to the steppe. She begs the moon god Nanna to intercede for her because the city of Uruk, under the ruler Lugalanne, has rebelled against Sargon. The rebel, Lugalanne, has even destroyed the temple Eanna, one of the greatest temples in the ancient world, and then made advances on his sister-in-law.<ref>[https://www.feminism.researche-editions.cddc.vt.edu/Enheduanna.html] Binkley, Roberta, "Enheduanna: An Overview of Her Writings", Feminist Theory Website, 1998</ref>}}
on an Akkadian seal, 2350–2150 BC]]
The kings of Akkad were legendary among later Mesopotamian civilizations, with Sargon understood as the prototype of a strong and wise leader, and his grandson Naram-Sin considered the wicked and impious leader (Unheilsherrscher in the analysis of Hans Gustav Güterbock) who brought ruin upon his kingdom.<ref>Jerrold S. Cooper, "Paradigm and Propaganda: The Dynasty of Akkade in the 21st Century", in Liverani, Mario, ed. Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology Traditions, Padova: Sargon srl, 1993 {{ISBN| 978-8-81120-468-8}}</ref><ref>Bill T. Arnold, "The Weidner Chronicle and the Idea of History in Israel and Mesopotamia"; in Faith, Tradition, and History: Old Testament Historiography in Its Near Eastern Context; Millard, Hoffmeier & Baker, eds.; Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1994; {{ISBN|0-931464-82-X}}; p. [https://books.google.com/books?idqYudy66ymrUC&pgPA138 138].</ref>
Technology
A tablet from the periods reads, "(From the earliest days) no-one had made a statue of lead, (but) Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself made of lead. It stood before Enlil; and it recited his (Rimush's) virtues to the idu of the gods". The copper Bassetki Statue, cast with the lost wax method, testifies to the high level of skill that craftsmen achieved during the Akkadian period.<ref name"Mieroop2007" />See also
* List of cities of the ancient Near East
* List of Mesopotamian deities
* History of Mesopotamia
* List of Mesopotamian dynasties
{{clear}}
Notes
{{Reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
{{History of Iraq|File:Impression_of_an_Akkadian_cylinder_seal_with_inscription_The_Divine_Sharkalisharri_Prince_of_Akkad_Ibni-Sharrum_the_Scribe_his_servant.jpg}}
* Liverani, Mario, ed. (1993). Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology Traditions. Padova: Sargon srl. {{ISBN|978-8-81120-468-8}}
* Oates, Joan (2004). "Archaeology in Mesopotamia: Digging Deeper at Tell Brak". 2004 Albert Reckitt Archaeological Lecture. In Proceedings of the British Academy: 2004 Lectures; Oxford University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0-19726-351-8}}.
* {{Cite journal|jstor3632803|titleReconstructing the World of Ancient Mesopotamia: Divided Beginnings and Holistic History|journalJournal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume46|issue1|pages3–45|last1Zettler|first1Richard L.|year2003|doi10.1163/156852003763504320}}
Further reading
*Gough, M.A, [http://www.rosetta.bham.ac.uk/Issue_01/Gough2006.pdf Historical Perception in the Sargonic Literary Tradition. The Implication of Copied Texts], Rosetta 1, pp 1–9, 2006
*[https://www.czasopisma.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Acta-Archaeologica-Lodziensia/article/download/1848/1704] Paszke, Marcin Z, "From Sargon To Narām-Sîn: some remarks on Akkadian military activity in the II nd half of the III rd millennium bc. The example of eastern campaigns", Acta Archaeologica Lodziensia 68, pp.&nbsp;75–83, 2022
* {{citation |last1Sallaberger |first1Walther |last2Westenholz |first2Aage |titleMesopotamien. Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit |seriesOrbis Biblicus et Orientalis |volume160/3 |year1999 |publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht |locationGöttingen |isbn=978-3-525-53325-3 }}
* E. A. Speiser, "Some Factors in the Collapse of Akkad", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 72, no. 3, pp.&nbsp;97–101, (Jul. - Sep. 1952)
External links
{{Commons category|Akkadian Empire}}
* [http://www.penn.museum/sites/iraq/ Iraq's Ancient Past] – Penn Museum
* [http://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/HTML/T2K3.htm Year Names of Narim-Sin – CDLI]
* [http://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/HTML/T2K4.htm Year Named of Shar-kali-Sharri – CDLI]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091212064322/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/Enheduanna.html Site on Enheduanna at Virginia Tech University] (archived 12 December 2009)
{{Ancient states and regions of the Levant |state=collapsed}}
{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Iraq topics}}
{{Empires}}
{{Early Rulers of Mesopotamia}}
{{Authority control}}
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Category:Former empires | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_Empire | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.091929 |
1567 | Ajax the Lesser | thumb|Ajax the Lesser by Francesco Sabatelli, 1829
thumb|Scene from the Trojan War: Cassandra clings to the Palladium, the wooden cult image of Athene, while Ajax the Lesser is about to drag her away in front of her father Priam (standing on the left). Fresco from the atrium of the Casa del Menandro (I 10, 4) in Pompeii.
thumb|Ajax, 1820 painting by Henri Serrur
Ajax ( Aias according to Graves means "of the earth".) was a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris. He was called the "Ajax the Less", the "lesser" or "Locrian" Ajax, to distinguish him from Ajax the Great, son of Telamon. He was the leader of the Locrian contingent during the Trojan War. He is a significant figure in Homer's Iliad and is also mentioned in the Odyssey, in Virgil's Aeneid and in Euripides' The Trojan Women. In Etruscan legend, he was known as Aivas Vilates.
Description
In the account of Dares the Phrygian, Ajax was described as "stocky, powerfully built, swarthy, a pleasant person, and brave."
Mythology
Life
thumb|left|Ajax the Lesser and Cassandra
Ajax's mother's name was Eriopis. According to Strabo, he was born in Naryx in Locris, where Ovid calls him Narycius heros. According to the Iliad, he led his Locrians in forty ships against Troy. He is described as one of the great heroes among the Greeks. In battle, he wore a linen cuirass (, ), was brave and intrepid, especially skilled in throwing the spear and, next to Achilles, the swiftest of all the Greeks. The chronicler Malalas portrayed him as "tall, strong, tawny, squinting, good nose, curly hair, black hair, thick beard, long face, daring warrior, magnanimous, a womanizer."
In the funeral games at the pyre of Patroclus, Ajax contended with Odysseus and Antilochus for the prize in the footrace; but Athena, who was hostile towards him and favored Odysseus, made him stumble and fall, so that he won only the second prize.
In later traditions, this Ajax is called a son of Oileus and the nymph Rhene, and is also mentioned among the suitors of Helen. After the taking of Troy, he rushed into the temple of Athena, where Cassandra had taken refuge, and was embracing the statue of the goddess in supplication. Ajax violently dragged her away to the other captives. According to some writers, he raped Cassandra inside the temple. Odysseus called for Ajax's death by stoning for this crime, but Ajax saved himself by claiming innocence with an oath to Athena, clutching her statue in supplication.
Death
Since Ajax dragged the supplicant from her temple, Athena had cause to be indignant. According to the Bibliotheca, no one was aware that Ajax had raped Cassandra until Calchas, the Greek seer, warned the Greeks that Athena was furious at the treatment of her priestess and she would destroy the Greek ships if they did not kill him immediately. Despite this, Ajax managed to hide at the altar of a deity where the Greeks, fearing divine retribution should they kill him and destroy the altar, allowed him to live. When the Greeks left without killing Ajax, despite their sacrifices, Athena became so angry that she persuaded Zeus to send a storm that sank many of their ships.
thumb|Poseidon killing Ajax the Lesser, drawing by Bonaventura Genelli
As Ajax was returning from Troy, Athena hit his ship with a thunderbolt and the vessel was wrecked on the Whirling Rocks (). But he escaped with some of his men, managing to cling onto a rock through the assistance of Poseidon. He would have been saved in spite of Athena, but he then audaciously declared that he would escape the dangers of the sea in defiance of the immortals. Offended by this presumption, Poseidon split the rock with his trident and Ajax was swallowed up by the sea. Thetis buried him when the corpse washed up on Mykonos. Other versions depict a different death for Ajax, showing him dying when on his voyage home. In these versions, when Ajax came to the Capharean Rocks on the coast of Euboea, his ship was wrecked in a fierce storm, he himself was lifted up in a whirlwind and impaled with a flash of rapid fire from Athena in his chest, and his body thrust upon sharp rocks, which afterwards were called the rocks of Ajax.
After Ajax's death, his spirit dwelt in the island of Leuce. The Opuntian Locrians worshipped Ajax as their national hero, and so great was their faith in him that when they drew up their army in battle, they always left one place open for him, believing that, although invisible to them, he was fighting for and among them. The story of Ajax was frequently made use of by ancient poets and artists, and the hero who appears on some Locrian coins with the helmet, shield, and sword is probably this Ajax.
Other accounts of Ajax's death are offered by Philostratus, Euripides, and the scholiast on Lycophron.
Art
thumb|upright|Ajax and Cassandra by Solomon Joseph Solomon (1886)
The abduction of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently represented in Greek works of art, such as the chest of Cypselus described by Pausanias and in extant works.
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Conon, Fifty Narrations, surviving as one-paragraph summaries in the Bibliotheca (Library) of Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople translated from the Greek by Brady Kiesling. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Dictys Cretensis, from The Trojan War. The Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian translated by Richard McIlwaine Frazer Jr. Indiana University Press. 1966. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, Harmondsworth, London, England, Penguin Books, 1960.
Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books Limited. 2017.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. . Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Lycophron, The Alexandra translated by Alexander William Mair. Loeb Classical Library Volume 129. London: William Heinemann, 1921. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Lycophron, Alexandra translated by A.W. Mair. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1921. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More. Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy translated by Way. A. S. Loeb Classical Library Volume 19. London: William Heinemann, 1913. Online version at theio.com
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy. Arthur S. Way. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1913. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Tryphiodorus, Capture of Troy translated by Mair, A. W. Loeb Classical Library Volume 219. London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1928. Online version at theoi.com
Tryphiodorus, Capture of Troy with an English Translation by A.W. Mair. London, William Heinemann, Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1928. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Tzetzes, John, Allegories of the Iliad translated by Goldwyn, Adam J. and Kokkini, Dimitra. Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, Harvard University Press, 2015.
External links
Category:Suitors of Helen
Category:Achaean Leaders
Category:Mythological rapists
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Characters in the Aeneid
Category:Locrians
Category:Deeds of Poseidon
Category:Greek mythological heroes
Category:Cassandra | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Lesser | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.125613 |
1568 | Ajax the Great | Ajax () or Aias (; , Aíantos; archaic ) is a Greek mythological hero, the son of King Telamon and Periboea, and the half-brother of Teucer. He plays an important role in the Trojan War, and is portrayed as a towering figure and a warrior of great courage in Homer's Iliad and in the Epic Cycle, a series of epic poems about the Trojan War, being second only to Achilles among Greek heroes of the war. He is also referred to as "Telamonian Ajax" (, in Etruscan recorded as Aivas Tlamunus), "Greater Ajax", or "Ajax the Great", which distinguishes him from Ajax, son of Oileus, also known as Ajax the Lesser.
Family
Ajax is the son of Telamon. Telamon was the son of Aeacus and grandson of Zeus, and his first wife Periboea. By Telamon, he is also the elder half-brother of Teucer. Through his uncle Peleus (Telamon's brother), he is the cousin of Achilles.
The etymology of his given name is uncertain. By folk etymology, his name was said to come from the root of aiazō which means "to lament", translating to "one who laments; mourner". Hesiod provided a different folk etymology in a story in his "The Great Eoiae", where Ajax the great receives his name when Heracles prays to Zeus that a son might be born to Telemon and Eriboea: Zeus sends an eagle (aetos αετός) as a sign, and Heracles then bids the parents call their son Ajax after the eagle.
Many illustrious Athenians, including Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades and the historian Thucydides, traced their descent from Ajax. On an Etruscan tomb dedicated to Racvi Satlnei in Bologna (5th century BC), there is an inscription that says aivastelmunsl, which means "[family] of Telamonian Ajax".
Mythology
Description
In the account of Dares the Phrygian, Ajax was illustrated as ". . .powerful. His voice was clear, his hair black and curly. He was perfectly single-minded and unrelenting in the onslaught of battle." Meanwhile, In Homer's Iliad he is described as of great stature, colossal frame, and strongest of all the Achaeans. Known as the "bulwark of the Achaeans", he was trained by the centaur Chiron (who had trained Ajax's father Telamon and Achilles' father Peleus and later died of an accidental wound inflicted by a poison arrow belonging to Heracles). He was described as fearless, strong, and powerful but also with a very high level of combat intelligence. Ajax commands his army wielding a huge shield made of seven cowhides with a layer of bronze. Most notably, Ajax is not wounded in any of the battles described in the Iliad, and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive substantial assistance from any of the gods (except for Agamemnon) who take part in the battles, although, in book 13, Poseidon strikes Ajax with his staff, renewing his strength. Unlike Diomedes, Agamemnon, and Achilles, Ajax appears as a mainly defensive warrior, instrumental in the defense of the Greek camp and ships and that of Patroclus' body. When the Trojans are on the offensive, he is often seen covering the retreat of the Achaeans. Significantly, while one of the deadliest heroes in the whole poem, Ajax has no aristeia depicting him on the offensive.thumb|The Belvedere Torso, a marble sculpture carved in the first century BC depicting Ajax.
Trojan War
In the Iliad, Ajax is notable for his abundant strength and courage, seen particularly in two fights with Hector. In Book 7, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector battles on until the heralds, acting at the direction of Zeus, call a draw, with the two combatants exchanging gifts, Ajax giving Hector his "war-belt, glistening purple" and Hector giving Ajax his "silver-studded sword"
The second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the Mycenaean camp, and battles with the Greeks among the ships. In Book 14, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book 15, Hector is restored to his strength by Apollo and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding an enormous spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the Trojan armies virtually single-handedly. In Book 16, Hector and Ajax duel once again. Hector then disarms Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat, seeing that Zeus is clearly favoring Hector. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. Ajax is responsible for the death of many Trojan lords, including Phorcys.
Ajax often fought in tandem with his brother Teucer, known for his skill with the bow. Ajax would wield his magnificent shield, as Teucer stood behind picking off enemy Trojans.
Achilles was absent during these encounters because of his feud with Agamemnon. In Book 9, Agamemnon and the other Mycenaean chiefs send Ajax, Odysseus and Phoenix to the tent of Achilles in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles.
When Patroclus is killed, Hector tries to steal his body. Ajax, assisted by Menelaus, succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; however, the Trojans have already stripped Patroclus of Achilles' armor. Ajax's prayer to Zeus to remove the fog that has descended on the battle to allow them to fight or die in the light of day has become proverbial. According to Hyginus, in total, Ajax killed 28 people at Troy.
thumb|A copy of the 4th century BC fresco from the François Tomb, showing the sacrifice of Trojan slaves. Ajax the Great is the second from the right
Death
thumb|The Argument between Ajax and Odysseus over Achilles' armour, by Agostino Masucci
thumb|Sorrowful Ajax (Asmus Jacob Carstens, c. 1791)
As the Iliad comes to a close, Ajax and the majority of other Greek warriors are alive and well. When Achilles dies, killed by Paris (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes who fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it with his companion, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great shield and spear, manages to recover the body and carry it to the ships, while Odysseus fights off the Trojans. After the burial, each claims Achilles' magical armor, which had been forged on Mount Olympus by the smith-god Hephaestus, for himself as recognition for his heroic efforts. A competition is held to determine who deserves the armor. Ajax argues that because of his strength and the fighting he has done for the Greeks, including saving the ships from Hector, and driving him off with a massive rock, he deserves this magical protection. However, Odysseus proves to be more eloquent, and with the aid of Athena, the council gives him the armor. Ajax, distraught by this result and "conquered by his own grief", plunges his sword into his own chest, killing himself. In the Little Iliad, Ajax goes mad with rage at Odysseus' victory and slaughters the cattle of the Greeks. After returning to his senses, he kills himself out of shame.
The Belvedere Torso, a marble torso now in the Vatican Museums, is considered to depict Ajax "in the act of contemplating his suicide".
In Sophocles' play Ajax, a famous retelling of Ajax's demise, after the armor is awarded to Odysseus, Ajax feels so insulted that he wants to kill Agamemnon and Menelaus. Athena intervenes and clouds his mind and vision, and he goes to a flock of sheep and slaughters them, imagining they are the Achaean leaders, including Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, he realizes that what he has done has diminished his honor, and decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than live in shame. He does so with the same sword which Hector gave him when they exchanged presents. From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name Ai, also expressive of lament. His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the entrance of the Hellespont.
Ajax's half-brother Teucer stood trial before his father for not bringing Ajax's body or famous weapons back. Teucer was acquitted for responsibility but found guilty of negligence. He was disowned by his father and was not allowed to return to his home, the island of Salamis off the coast of Athens.
Homer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles' armor; when Odysseus visits Hades, he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into Erebus.
Like Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death on the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube. Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great-grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis, where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called Aianteia was celebrated in his honour. At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Lectisternium. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in the Iliad (2.557–558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was named after him.
See also
Corpus vasorum antiquorum
Troy VII
Notes
References
Bibliography
Homer. Iliad, 7.181–312.
Homer, Odyssey 11.543–67.
Bibliotheca. Epitome III, 11-V, 7.
Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, Harmondsworth, London, England, Penguin Books, 1960.
Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books Limited. 2017.
Ovid. Metamorphoses 12.620–13.398.
Friedrich Schiller, Das Siegerfest.
Pindar's Nemeans, 7, 8; Isthmian 4
Tzetzes, John, Allegories of the Iliad translated by Goldwyn, Adam J. and Kokkini, Dimitra. Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, Harvard University Press, 2015.
External links
A translation of the debate and Ajax's death. http://classics.mit.edu/Ovid/metam.13.thirteenth.html
Category:Suitors of Helen
Category:Achaean Leaders
Category:Kings of Argos
Category:Characters in the Odyssey
Category:Suicides in Greek mythology
Category:Tutelary gods
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Mythological Salaminians
Category:Metamorphoses into flowers in Greek mythology
Category:Greek mythological heroes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Great | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.141326 |
1569 | Ajax | Ajax may refer to:
Greek mythology and tragedy
Ajax the Great, a Greek mythological hero, son of King Telamon and Periboea
Ajax the Lesser, a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris
Ajax (play), by the ancient Greek tragedian Sophocles, about Ajax the Great
Arts and entertainment
Fictional characters
Ajax Duckman, in the animated television series Duckman
Marvel Comics:
Ajax the Greater, another name for Ajak, one of the Eternals from Marvel Comics
Ajax the Lesser, another name for Arex, one of the Eternals from Marvel Comics
Ajax, a member of the Pantheon appearing in Marvel Comics
Ajax (Francis Freeman), a fictional supervillain first appearing in Deadpool #14
Martian Manhunter, a DC Comics superhero called Ajax in Brazil and Portugal
Ajax, a Call of Duty: Black Ops 4 operative
Ajax, the real name of Tartaglia, a character in 2020 video game Genshin Impact
Music
A-Jax (band), a South Korean boy band
Ajax (band), an electronic music band from New York City
Ajax (opera), by the French composer Toussaint Bertin de la Doué
DJ Ajax (1971–2013; born Adrian Thomas), an Australian electro mashup DJ
Lisa Ajax (born 1998), Swedish singer
"Ajax" (song), a song by Tante Leen, 1969
Ajax Records, a former North American record company
Other arts and entertainment
Ajax (painting), a painting by John Steuart Curry
Ajax (Disney), a fictional company (the Disney equivalent of Looney Tunes' Acme Corporation)
A-Jax (video game), a 1987 Konami arcade game
Computing
Ajax (floppy disk controller), a floppy disk controller fitted to the Atari STE
Ajax (programming), Asynchronous JavaScript and XML, a method used in web application development, and a software framework for it
Places
Canada
Ajax (federal electoral district), in the Durham Region of Ontario
Ajax (provincial electoral district), in Ontario
Ajax, Ontario, a town in the Greater Toronto Area
United States
Ajax, Louisiana, an unincorporated community
Ajax, Missouri, a ghost town
Ajax Peak, a summit near Telluride, Colorado
Ajax, South Dakota, an unincorporated community
Ajax, Utah, a ghost town
Ajax, Virginia, an unincorporated community
Ajax, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
Aspen Mountain (Colorado), also known as Ajax Mountain
Elsewhere
Mount Ajax, part of the Admiralty Mountains, Victoria Land, Antarctic
1404 Ajax, an asteroid
People
Ajax (missionary), Arian missionary who converted the Suevi to Christianity ( 466)
Ajax, pen name of Sidney William Jackson (1873–1946), Australian naturalist and ornithologist
Ajax, nickname of Heinrich Bleichrodt (1909–1977), German World War II U-boat commander
Sport
Association football (soccer)
AFC Ajax, a football club in Amsterdam, Netherlands
Ajax Cape Town F.C., a South African football club
Ajax Futebol Clube, a Brazilian football club
Ajax de Ouenzé, a Congolese football club
FC Ajax Lasnamäe, an Estonian football club
Ajax Orlando Prospects, American soccer team from Orlando, Florida, a.k.a. Ajax America
Ajax America Women, American women's soccer team from California
Aias Salamina F.C., a football club in Salamina, Greece
Ajax Sportsman Combinatie, a cricket and football club in Leiden, Netherlands
Rabat Ajax F.C., a Maltese football club
Unión Ájax, a football club in Trujillo, Honduras
V.V. Ajax, a Surinamese football club
Other sports
Aias Evosmou, a Greek sports club
Ajax Kenitra, a Moroccan futsal (indoor football) club
Ajax København, a Danish handball team
Ajax (horse) (born 1901), a French Champion racehorse
Ajax II (born 1934), an Australian Champion racehorse
Military
, several ships of the Royal Navy
, several ships of the US Navy
General Dynamics Ajax, a family of armoured fighting vehicles for the British Army
Operation Ajax, the 1953 Iranian coup d'état
Transport
Ajax (1906 automobile), a Swiss automobile
Ajax (1913 automobile), a French automobile by the American Briscoe brothers
Ajax (1914 automobile), an American automobile by Ajax Motors Co. of Seattle, Washington
Ajax (1921 automobile), an American prototype that was not produced
Ajax (Nash Motors), an automobile brand of Nash Motors, 1925–1926
Ajax (locomotive), several train locomotives
Ajax (motorcycle), manufactured in England between 1923 and 1924
Ajax (crane barge), a floating crane used to install the Panama Canal locks
Ajax (ship), various ships
Ajax GO Station, a train and bus station in Ajax, Ontario, Canada
Ajax Motors Co., an American carmaker, manufacturer of the Ajax (1914 automobile)
Other uses
Ajax (cleaning product), a brand of household cleaning products
AFC Ajax N.V., a sports company associated with AFC Ajax
Kanichee Mine, Temagami, Ontario, also known as Ajax Mine
Ajax High School, a public high school in Ajax, Ontario, Canada
AJAX furnace, a type of open hearth furnace
See also
Nike Ajax, the world's first operational surface-to-air missile
Ayaks (Ajax), a hypersonic waverider aircraft program started in the Soviet Union
Ayaks (disambiguation) () | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.147484 |
1570 | Alaric I | {{short description|King of the Visigoths from 395 to 410}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name Alaric I<span class"plainlinks"></span>
| succession = King of the Visigoths
| image = Alaric entering Athens.jpg
| caption = A 20th-century depiction of Alaric parading through Athens after conquering the city in 395
| reign = 395–410
| coronation = 395
| predecessor = Athanaric
| successor = Ataulf
| dynasty = Balt
| father Unknown{{sfn|Wolfram|1997|p90}}
| birth_date = Unknown, {{c.}} 370
| birth_place = Peuce Island, Danube Delta
| death_date = 411
| death_place = Consentia, Italia, Roman Empire
| place of burial = Busento River, Calabria, Italy
| religion = Arianism
}}
Alaric I ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ər|ɪ|k}}; {{langx|got|𐌰𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃}}, {{lang|got-latn|Alarīks}} {{lit.}}'ruler of all';{{sfn|Harder|1986|pp=10–11}} {{Circa|370}} – 411&nbsp;AD) was the first king of the Visigoths, from 395 to 410. He rose to leadership of the Goths who came to occupy Moesia—territory acquired a couple of decades earlier by a combined force of Goths and Alans after the Battle of Adrianople.
Alaric began his career under the Gothic soldier Gainas and later joined the Roman army. Once an ally of Rome under the Roman emperor Theodosius, Alaric helped defeat the Franks and other allies of a would-be Roman usurper. Despite losing many thousands of his men, he received little recognition from Rome and left the Roman army disappointed. After the death of Theodosius and the disintegration of the Roman armies in 395, he is described as king of the Visigoths. As the leader of the only effective field force remaining in the Balkans, he sought Roman legitimacy, never quite achieving a position acceptable to himself or to the Roman authorities.
He operated mainly against the successive Western Roman regimes, and marched into Italy, where he died. He is responsible for the sack of Rome in 410; one of several notable events in the Western Roman Empire's eventual decline.
Early life, federate status in the Balkans
According to Jordanes, a 6th-century Roman bureaucrat of Gothic origin—who later turned his hand to history—Alaric was born on Peuce Island at the mouth of the Danube Delta in present-day Romania and belonged to the noble Balti dynasty of the Thervingian Goths. There is no way to verify this claim.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p31}}{{efn|To a large extent, Alaric's kin were largely Thervingi, with whom Constantine had concluded a lasting peace in the 330s.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p31}}}} Historian Douglas Boin does not make such an unequivocal assessment about Alaric's Gothic heritage and instead claims he came from either the Thervingi or the Greuthung tribes.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p14}} When the Goths suffered setbacks against the Huns, they made a mass migration across the Danube, and fought a war with Rome. Alaric was probably a child during this period who grew up along Rome's periphery.{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp14–15, 37}} Alaric's upbringing was shaped by living along the border of Roman territory in a region that the Romans viewed as a veritable "backwater"; some four centuries before, the Roman poet Ovid regarded the area along the Danube and Black Sea where Alaric was reared as a land of "barbarians", among "the most remote in the vast world."{{sfn|Boin|2020|p15}}{{efn|Ovid never singled out any particular barbarian group and at the time of his writings, was referencing the ethnic Sarmatians, Getae, Dacians and Thracians.{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp15–16}}}}
Alaric's childhood in the Balkans, where the Goths had settled by way of an agreement with Theodosius, was spent in the company of veterans who had fought at the Battle of Adrianople in 378,{{efn|Many of Rome's leading officers and some of their most elite fighting men died during the battle which struck a major blow to Roman prestige and the Empire's military capabilities.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p179}}}} during which they had annihilated much of the Eastern army and killed Emperor Valens.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p11}} Imperial campaigns against the Visigoths were conducted until a treaty was reached in 382. This treaty was the first foedus on imperial Roman soil and required these semi-autonomous Germanic tribes—among whom Alaric was raised—to supply troops for the Roman army in exchange for peace, control of cultivatable land, and freedom from Roman direct administrative control.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|pp179–180}} Correspondingly, there was hardly a region along the Roman frontier during Alaric's day without Gothic slaves and servants of one form or another.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p19}} For several subsequent decades, many Goths like Alaric were "called up into regular units of the eastern field army" while others served as auxiliaries in campaigns led by Theodosius against the western usurpers Magnus Maximus and Eugenius.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|pp152–153}}Rebellion against Rome, rise to Gothic leadershipA new phase in the relationship between the Goths and the empire resulted from the treaty signed in 382, as more and more Goths attained aristocratic rank from their service in the imperial army.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p155}} Alaric began his military career under the Gothic soldier Gainas, and later joined the Roman army.{{efn|Alaric had a fascination for the 'golden age' of Rome and insisted on his tribesmen calling him 'Alaricus'.{{sfn|Bayless|1976|pp65–67}}}} He first appeared as leader of a mixed band of Goths and allied peoples, who invaded Thrace in 391 but were stopped by the Roman general Stilicho. While the Roman poet Claudian belittled Alaric as "a little-known menace" terrorizing southern Thrace during this time, Alaric's abilities and forces were formidable enough to prevent the Roman emperor Theodosius from crossing the Hebrus River.{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp52–53}}
Service under Theodosius I
By 392, Alaric had entered Roman military service, which coincided with a reduction of hostilities between Goths and Romans.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p53}} In 394, he led a Gothic force that helped Emperor Theodosius defeat the Frankish usurper Arbogast—fighting at the behest of Eugenius—at the Battle of Frigidus.{{sfn|Bauer|2010|pp72–74}} Despite sacrificing around 10,000 of his men, who had been victims of Theodosius' callous tactical decision to overwhelm the enemies' front lines using Gothic foederati,{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp93–94}} Alaric received little recognition from the emperor. Alaric was among the few who survived the protracted and bloody affair.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p94}} Many Romans considered it their "gain" and a victory that so many Goths had died during the Battle of Frigidus River.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p97}} Alaric biographer Douglas Boin (2020) posited that seeing ten thousand of his (Alaric's) dead kinsmen likely elicited questions about what kind of ruler Theodosius actually had been and whether remaining in direct Roman service was best for men like him.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p103}} Refused the reward he expected, which included a promotion to the position of magister militum and command of regular Roman units, Alaric mutinied and began to march against Constantinople.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=125}}
On 17 January 395, Theodosius died of an illness, leaving his two young and incapable sons Arcadius and Honorius in Stilicho's guardianship.{{sfn|Burns|2003|p335}} Modern writers regard Alaric as king of the Visigoths from 395.{{sfn|James|2014|p54}}{{sfn|Burns|2003|p367}} According to historian Peter Heather, it is not entirely clear in the sources if Alaric rose to prominence at the time the Goths revolted following Theodosius's death, or if he had already risen within his tribe as early as the war against Eugenius.{{sfn|Heather|1991|p197}}{{efn|Heather surmises that Alaric's participation in the earlier revolt that followed Maximus' defeat and his "command of Gothic troops on the Eugenius campaign suggest...a noble steadily advancing his prestige among the Goths settled in the Balkans by Theodosius."{{sfn|Heather|1991|p198}} The sources do not make it clear whether Alaric's "desire for a generalship" was a means to legitimize himself "further within a Gothic following," or whether he was simply an ambitious man, who was at heart, "essentially a Roman soldier." Kulikowski adds that trying to determine either "depends upon our own previous assumptions, not upon the evidence."{{sfn|Kulikowski|2002|p79}}}} Whatever the circumstances, Jordanes recorded that the new king persuaded his people to "seek a kingdom by their own exertions rather than serve others in idleness."{{sfn|Jordanes|1915|p92 [XXIX.147]}}Semi-independent action in Eastern Roman interests, Eastern Roman recognition
{{Main|Revolt of Alaric I}}
Whether or not Alaric was a member of an ancient Germanic royal clan—as claimed by Jordanes and debated by historians—is less important than his emergence as a leader, the first of his kind since Fritigern.{{sfn|Collins|1999|p54}} Theodosius's death left the Roman field armies collapsing and the Empire divided again between his two sons, one taking the eastern and the other the western portion of the Empire. Stilicho made himself master of the West and attempted to establish control in the East as well, and led an army into Greece.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p142}}{{sfn|Heather|2013|pp153–160}} Alaric rebelled again. Historian Roger Collins points out that while the rivalries created by the two halves of the Empire vying for power worked to Alaric's advantage and that of his people, simply being called to authority by the Gothic people did not solve the practicalities of their needs for survival. He needed Roman authority in order to be supplied by Roman cities.{{sfn|Collins|1999|pp54–55}}
, as imagined by Ludwig Thiersch in 1879 ]]
Alaric took his Gothic army on what Stilicho's propagandist Claudian described as a "pillaging campaign" that began first in the East.{{sfn|James|2014|p54}} Historian Thomas Burns's interpretation is that Alaric and his men were recruited by Rufinus's Eastern regime in Constantinople, and sent to Thessaly to stave off Stilicho's threat.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p159}} No battle took place. Alaric's forces made their way down to Athens and along the coast, where he sought to force a new peace upon the Romans.{{sfn|James|2014|p54}} In 396, he marched through Thermopylae and sacked Athens, where archaeological evidence shows widespread damage to the city.{{sfn|Frantz|Thompson|Travlos|1988|pp49–56}} Stilicho's propagandist Claudian accuses his troops of plundering for the next year or so as far south as the mountainous Peloponnese peninsula, and reports that only Stilicho's surprise attack with his western field army (having sailed from Italy) stemmed the plundering as he pushed Alaric's forces north into Epirus.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=126}} Zosimus adds that Stilicho's troops destroyed and pillaged too, and let Alaric's men escape with their plunder.{{efn|See: Zosimus, book 5 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/New_History/Book_the_Fifth}}
Stilicho was forced to send some of his Eastern forces home.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p154}} They went to Constantinople under the command of one Gainas, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed magister militum for Thrace by Eutropius, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome, who, Zosimus claims, controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep".{{efn|See: Zosimus, book 5 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/New_History/Book_the_Fifth}} A poem by Synesius advises Arcadius to display manliness and remove a "skin-clad savage" (probably referring to Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of this advice, but it had no recorded effect.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp162–163}}
Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign indecisively against the Eastern empire; again he was opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some Huns who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as magister militum per Illyricum{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p126}} Alaric thus acquired entitlement to gold and grain for his followers and negotiations were underway for a more permanent settlement.{{sfn|Kelly|2009|p52}} Stilicho's supporters in Milan were outraged at this seeming betrayal; meanwhile, Eutropius was celebrated in 398 by a parade through Constantinople for having achieved victory over the "wolves of the North".{{sfn|Kelly|2009|pp52–53}}{{efn|This victory celebration included recognizing Eutropius's part in allowing Roman troops to be reinforced by Goths, who jointly ejected the Huns from nearby Armenia.{{sfn|Kelly|2009|p53}}}} Alaric's people were relatively quiet for the next couple of years.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p200}} In 399, Eutropius fell from power.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p169}} The new Eastern regime now felt that they could dispense with Alaric's services and they nominally transferred Alaric's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army—the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans—as a problem for Stilicho.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p175}}In search of Western Roman recognition; invading Italy First invasion of Italy ({{circa}} 401–403)
{{Main|Gothic War (401-403)}}
According to historian Michael Kulikowski, sometime in the spring of 402 Alaric decided to invade Italy, but no sources from antiquity indicate to what purpose.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p122}}{{efn|Some lines from the Roman poet Claudian inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a sacred grove, "Away with delay, Alaric; boldly cross the Italian Alps this year and thou shalt reach the city."{{sfn|Claudian|1922|p165 [XXVI.545]}}}} Burns suggests that Alaric was probably desperate for provisions.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p190}} Using Claudian as his source, historian Guy Halsall reports that Alaric's attack actually began in late 401, but since Stilicho was in Raetia "dealing with frontier issues" the two did not first confront one another in Italy until 402.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p201}} Alaric's entry into Italy followed the route identified in the poetry of Claudian, as he crossed the peninsula's Alpine frontier near the city of Aquileia.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p139}} For a period of six to nine months, there were reports of Gothic attacks along the northern Italian roads, where Alaric was spotted by Roman townspeople.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p140}} Along the route on Via Postumia, Alaric first encountered Stilicho.{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp=140–141}}
Two battles were fought. The first was at Pollentia on Easter Sunday, where Stilicho (according to Claudian) achieved an impressive victory, taking Alaric's wife and children prisoner, and more significantly, seizing much of the treasure that Alaric had amassed over the previous five years' worth of plundering.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p135}}{{efn|Stilicho's enemies later reproached him for not having finished off the enemy by slaying them in their entirety.{{sfn|Bunson|1995|p12}}}} Pursuing the retreating forces of Alaric, Stilicho offered to return the prisoners but was refused. The second battle was at Verona,{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p135}} where Alaric was defeated for a second time. Stilicho once again offered Alaric a truce and allowed him to withdraw from Italy. Kulikowski explains this confusing, if not outright conciliatory behavior by stating, "given Stilicho's cold war with Constantinople, it would have been foolish to destroy as biddable and violent a potential weapon as Alaric might well prove to be".{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p135}} Halsall's observations are similar, as he contends that the Roman general's "decision to permit Alaric's withdrawal into Pannonia makes sense if we see Alaric's force entering Stilicho's service, and Stilicho's victory being less total than Claudian would have us believe".{{sfn|Halsall|2007|pp201–202}} Perhaps more revealing is a report from the Greek historian Zosimus—writing a half a century later—that indicates an agreement was concluded between Stilicho and Alaric in 405, which suggests Alaric being in "western service at that point", likely stemming from arrangements made back in 402.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p202}}{{efn|While Alaric had not penetrated into the city, his invasion of Italy still produced important results. It caused the imperial residence to be transferred from Milan to Ravenna, and necessitated the withdrawal of Legio XX Valeria Victrix from Britain.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|p471}}}} Between 404 and 405, Alaric remained in one of the four Pannonian provinces, from where he could "play East off against West while potentially threatening both".{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p135}}
Historian A.D. Lee observes, "Alaric's return to the north-west Balkans brought only temporary respite to Italy, for in 405 another substantial body of Goths and other barbarians, this time from outside the empire, crossed the middle Danube and advanced into northern Italy, where they plundered the countryside and besieged cities and towns" under their leader Radagaisus.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p112}} Although the imperial government was struggling to muster enough troops to contain these barbarian invasions, Stilicho managed to stifle the threat posed by the tribes under Radagaisus, when the latter split his forces into three separate groups. Stilicho cornered Radagaisus near Florence and starved the invaders into submission.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p112}}{{efn|Historian Walter Goffart points out that while many sources identify Radagaisus as an Ostrogoth, he and his forces were likely composed of "odds and ends of peoples who crossed into the empire" and that their documented numbers have been inflated.{{sfn|Goffart|2006|p78}}}} Meanwhile, Alaric—bestowed with codicils of magister militum by Stilicho and now supplied by the West—awaited for one side or the other to incite him to action as Stilicho faced further difficulties from more barbarians.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|pp170–171}}
Second invasion of Italy, agreement with Western Roman regime
{{Further|Crossing of the Rhine#Stilicho's inaction}}
Sometime in 406 and into 407, more large groups of barbarians, consisting primarily of Vandals, Sueves and Alans, crossed the Rhine into Gaul while about the same time a rebellion occurred in Britain. Under a common soldier named Constantine it spread to Gaul.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p171}} Burdened by so many enemies, Stilicho's position was strained. During this crisis in 407, Alaric again marched on Italy, taking a position in Noricum (modern Austria), where he demanded a sum of 4,000 pounds of gold to buy off another full-scale invasion.{{sfn|Lee|2013|pp112–113}}{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p172}} The Roman Senate loathed the idea of supporting Alaric; Zosimus observed that one senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude").{{efn|See: Zosimus, Nova Historia, book 5. http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus05_book5.htm}} Stilicho paid Alaric the 4,000 pounds of gold nevertheless.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p215}} This agreement, sensible in view of the military situation, fatally weakened Stilicho's standing at Honorius's court.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p172}} Twice Stilicho had allowed Alaric to escape his grasp, and Radagaisus had advanced all the way to the outskirts of Florence.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p148}}
Renewed hostilities after Western Roman coup
In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son Theodosius II; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p216}} He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before Stilicho could do so, while he was away at Ticinum at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius's court. It was led by Honorius's minister, Olympius.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p218}} Stilicho's small escort of Goths and Huns was commanded by a Goth, Sarus, whose Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and then withdrew towards the cities in which their own families were billeted. Stilicho ordered that Sarus's Goths should not be admitted, but, now without an army, he was forced to flee for sanctuary. Agents of Olympius promised Stilicho his life, but instead betrayed and killed him.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p219}}{{efn|Despite skillful maneuvering against the Goths, historian J. M. Wallace-Hadrill explains that Stilicho could not endear himself to the Romans, even though he had rescued Rome on two occasions before it fell to Alaric. The reasons he remained "the scapegoat of Roman writers" were many; including that they saw Stilicho as "the man who "sold the pass." Wallace-Hadrill adds, "Partly, it seems, because he (Stilicho) was ready to compromise with the Goths in an attempt to wrest the much-coveted eastern parts of Illyricum from the control of Constantinople. Partly, too, because his concentration on Italian and Balkan affairs left Gaul open to invasion. Partly because his defense policy proved costly to the senatorial class. But most of all, perhaps, because to the Romans, he signified the arrival of Arianism," a belief system that Western Catholics found sacrilegious.{{sfn|Wallace-Hadrill|2004|pp22–23}}}}
Alaric was again declared an enemy of the emperor. Olympius's men then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected en masse to Alaric.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp224–225}} Many thousands of barbarian auxiliaries, along with their wives and children, joined Alaric in Noricum.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|pp172–173}} The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp228, 236}} Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter.{{sfn|Macgeorge|2002|p171}}
As a declared 'enemy of the emperor', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to Pannonia, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes, but he was refused because Olympius's regime regarded him as a supporter of Stilicho.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp226–227}}First siege of Rome, agreed ransomWhen Alaric was rebuffed, he led his force of around 30,000 men—many newly enlisted and understandably motivated—on a march toward Rome to avenge their murdered families.{{sfn|Heather|2005|p224}} He moved across the Julian Alps into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho,{{sfn|Burns|1994|p227}} bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and in September 408 he menaced the city of Rome, imposing a strict blockade. No blood was shed this time; Alaric relied on hunger as his most powerful weapon. When the ambassadors of the Senate, entreating for peace, tried to intimidate him with hints of what the despairing citizens might accomplish, he laughed and gave his celebrated answer: "The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!" After much bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of pepper.{{sfn|Norwich|1988|p134}} Alaric also recruited some 40,000 freed Gothic slaves. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|p=471}}
by the Visigoths on 24 August 410 by J.-N. Sylvestre (1890)]]
Failed agreement with the Western Romans, Alaric sets up his own emperor
After having provisionally agreed to the terms offered by Alaric for lifting the blockade, Honorius recanted; historian A.D. Lee highlights that one of the points of contention for the emperor was Alaric's expectation of being named head of the Roman Army, a post Honorius was not prepared to grant to Alaric.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p113}} When this title was not bestowed onto Alaric, he proceeded to not only "besiege Rome again in late 409, but also to proclaim a leading senator, Priscus Attalus, as a rival emperor, from whom Alaric then received the appointment" he desired.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p113}} Meanwhile, Alaric's newly appointed "emperor" Attalus, who seems not to have understood the limits of his power or his dependence on Alaric, failed to take Alaric's advice and lost the grain supply in Africa to a pro-Honorian comes Africae, Heraclian.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p175}} Then, sometime in 409, Attalus—accompanied by Alaric—marched on Ravenna and after receiving unprecedented terms and concessions from the legitimate emperor Honorius, refused him and instead demanded that Honorius be deposed and exiled.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p175}} Fearing for his safety, Honorius made preparations to flee to Ravenna when ships carrying 4,000 troops arrived from Constantinople, restoring his resolve.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p113}} Now that Honorius no longer felt the need to negotiate, Alaric (regretting his choice of puppet emperor) deposed Attalus, perhaps to re-open negotiations with Ravenna.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p176}}
Sack of Rome
{{main|Sack of Rome (410)}}
Negotiations with Honorius might have succeeded had it not been for another intervention by Sarus, of the Amal family, and therefore a hereditary enemy of Alaric and his house. He attacked Alaric's men.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|p471}} Why Sarus, who had been in imperial service for years under Stilicho, acted at this moment remains a mystery, but Alaric interpreted this attack as directed by Ravenna and as bad faith from Honorius. No longer would negotiations suffice for Alaric, as his patience had reached its end, which led him to march on Rome for a third and final time.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p177}}
On 24 August 410, Alaric and his forces began the sack of Rome, an assault that lasted three days.{{sfn|James|2014|p57}} After hearing reports that Alaric had entered the city—possibly aided by Gothic slaves inside—there were reports that Emperor Honorius (safe in Ravenna) broke into "wailing and lamentation" but quickly calmed once "it was explained to him that it was the city of Rome that had met its end and not 'Roma'," his pet fowl.{{sfn|James|2014|p57}} Writing from Bethlehem, St. Jerome (Letter 127.12, to the lady Principia){{efn|See the New Advent source here: https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001127.htm}} lamented: "A dreadful rumour reached us from the West. We heard that Rome was besieged, that the citizens were buying their safety with gold … The city which had taken the whole world was itself taken; nay, it fell by famine before it fell to the sword."{{sfn|James|2014|p57}} Nonetheless, Christian writers also cited how Alaric ordered that anyone who took shelter in a Church was to be spared.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p216}}{{efn|Evidently the piety and restraint of the barbarian soldiers under Alaric, despite their adherence to Arianism, was less pagan in the eyes of Christian writers than the practices of the Romans themselves.{{sfn|James|2014|p57}}}} When liturgical vessels were taken from the basilica of St. Peter and Alaric heard of this, he ordered them returned and had them ceremoniously restored in the church.{{sfn|James|2014|p58}} If the account from the historian Orosius can be seen as accurate, there was even a celebratory recognition of Christian unity by way of a procession through the streets where Romans and barbarians alike "raised a hymn to God in public"; historian Edward James concludes that such stories are likely more political rhetoric of the "noble" barbarians than a reflection of historical reality.{{sfn|James|2014|p=58}}
According to historian Patrick Geary, Roman booty was not the focus of Alaric's sack of Rome; he came for needed food supplies.{{sfn|Geary|1988|p70}}{{efn|Geary also contends that Alaric had the long-term intention to lead his people to North Africa, much like the later Vandals would do.{{sfn|Geary|1988|p70}}}} Historian Stephen Mitchell asserts that Alaric's followers seemed incapable of feeding themselves and relied on provisions "supplied by the Roman authorities."{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p98}} Whatever Alaric's intentions were cannot be known entirely, but Kulikowski certainly sees the issue of available treasure in a different light, writing that "For three days, Alaric's Goths sacked the city, stripping it of the wealth of centuries."{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p177}} The barbarian invaders were not gentle in their treatment of property as substantial damage was still evident into the sixth century.{{sfn|James|2014|p58}} Certainly the Roman world was shaken by the fall of the Eternal City to barbarian invaders, but as Guy Halsall emphasizes, "Rome's fall had less striking political effects. Alaric, unable to treat with Honorius, remained in the political cold."{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p216}} Kulikowski sees the situation similarly, commenting:
<blockquote>But for Alaric the sack of Rome was an admission of defeat, a catastrophic failure. Everything he had hoped for, had fought for over the course of a decade and a half, went up in flames with the capital of the ancient world. Imperial office, a legitimate place for himself and his followers inside the empire, these were now forever out of reach. He might seize what he wanted, as he had seized Rome, but he would never be given it by right. The sack of Rome solved nothing and when the looting was over Alaric's men still had nowhere to live and fewer future prospects than ever before.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=177}}</blockquote>
Still, the importance of Alaric cannot be "overestimated" according to Halsall, since he had desired and obtained a Roman command even though he was a barbarian; his real misfortune was being caught between the rivalry of the Eastern and Western empires and their court intrigue.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p217}} According to historian Peter Brown, when one compares Alaric with other barbarians, "he was almost an Elder Statesman."{{sfn|Brown|2000|p286}} Nonetheless, Alaric's respect for Roman institutions as a former servant to its highest office did not stay his hand in violently sacking the city that had for centuries exemplified Roman glory, leaving behind physical destruction and social disruption, while Alaric took clerics and even the emperor's sister, Galla Placidia, with him when he left the city.{{sfn|James|2014|p=58}} Many other Italian communities beyond the city of Rome itself fell victim to the forces under Alaric, as Procopius (Wars 3.2.11–13) writing in the sixth century later relates:
<blockquote>For they destroyed all the cities which they captured, especially those south of the Ionian Gulf, so completely that nothing has been left to my time to know them by, unless, indeed, it might be one tower or gate or some such thing which chanced to remain. And they killed all the people, as many as came in their way, both old and young alike, sparing neither women nor children. Wherefore even up to the present time Italy is sparsely populated.{{sfn|James|2014|p=59}}</blockquote>
Whether Alaric's forces wrought the level of destruction described by Procopius or not cannot be known, but evidence speaks to a significant population decrease, as the number of people on the food dole dropped from 800,000 in 408 to 500,000 by 419.{{sfn|Lançon|2001|pp14, 119}} Rome's fall to the barbarians was as much a psychological blow to the empire as anything else, since some Romans citizens saw the collapse as resulting from the conversion to Christianity, while Christian theologians like St.Augustine (writing City of God) responded in turn.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p114}} Lamenting Rome's capture, famed Christian theologian Jerome, wrote how "day and night" he could not stop thinking of everyone's safety, and moreover, how Alaric had extinguished "the bright light of all the world."{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp167–168}} Some contemporary Christian observers even saw Alaric—a professed Christian—as God's wrath upon a still pagan Rome.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p233}}
Move to southern Italy, death from disease
(1895)]]
Not only had Rome's sack been a significant blow to the Roman people's morale, they had also endured two years' worth of trauma brought about by fear, hunger (due to blockades), and illness.{{sfn|Lançon|2001|p39}} However, the Goths were not long in the city of Rome, as only three days after the sack, Alaric marched his men south to Campania, from where he intended to sail to Sicily—probably to obtain grain and other supplies—when a storm destroyed his fleet.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p101}} During the early months of 411, while on his northward return journey through Italy, Alaric took ill and died at Consentia in Bruttium.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p101}} His cause of death was likely fever,{{sfn|Durschmied|2002|p401}}{{efn|Scholars have often wondered about the cause of King Alaric's death. As recent as 2016, Francesco Galassi and his colleagues pored over all the historical, medical and epidemiological sources they could find about Alaric's death, and concluded that the underlying cause was malaria. For further information, see: "The sudden death of Alaric I (c. 370–410 AD), the vanquisher of Rome: A tale of malaria and lacking immunity." Francesco M. Galassi, Raffaella Bianucci, Giacomo Gorini, Giacomo M. Paganottie, Michael E. Habicht, Frank J. Rühli. European Journal of Internal Medicine June 2016 Volume 31, pp. 84–87. https://www.ejinme.com/article/S0953-6205(16)00067-4/abstract}} and his body was, according to legend, buried under the riverbed of the Busento in accordance with the pagan practices of the Visigothic people. The stream was temporarily turned aside from its course while the grave was dug, wherein the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were interred. When the work was finished, the river was turned back into its usual channel and the captives by whose hands the labour had been accomplished were put to death that none might learn their secret.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|pp471–472}}{{efn|A similar story is told of the Decebalus Treasure, buried under a river in 106 AD. These burials repeat Scythian models from the Lower Danube and the Black Sea. See the following Spanish-language source: [http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/5926/alarico-i Alarico I] {{in lang|es}}, Diccionario biográfico español, Luis Agustín García Moreno, Real Academia de la Historia.}}AftermathAlaric was succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-in-law, Ataulf,{{sfn|Lee|2013|pp114–115}} who married Honorius' sister Galla Placidia three years later.{{sfn|Bunson|1995|p=53}}
Following in the wake of Alaric's leadership, which Kulikowski claims, had given his people "a sense of community that survived his own death...Alaric's Goths remained together inside the empire, going on to settle in Gaul. There, in the province of Aquitaine, they put down roots and created the first autonomous barbarian kingdom inside the frontiers of the Roman empire."{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p158}} The Goths were able to settle in Aquitaine only after Honorius granted the once Roman province to them, sometime in 418 or 419.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p176}} Not long after Alaric's exploits in Rome and Athaulf's settlement in Aquitaine, there is a "rapid emergence of Germanic barbarian groups in the West" who begin controlling many western provinces.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p110}} These barbarian peoples included: Vandals in Spain and Africa, Visigoths in Spain and Aquitaine, Burgundians along the upper Rhine and southern Gaul, and Franks on the lower Rhine and in northern and central Gaul.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p110}}
Sources
The chief authorities on the career of Alaric are: the historian Orosius and the poet Claudian, both contemporary, neither disinterested; Zosimus, a historian who lived probably about half a century after Alaric's death; and Jordanes, a Goth who wrote the history of his nation in 551, basing his work on Cassiodorus's Gothic History.
See also
* Alaric II
* Gaiseric
* Odoacer
References
Notes
{{notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist|22em}}
Bibliography
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{cite book | lastGoffart | firstWalter | author-linkWalter Goffart | titleBarbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire | year2006 | placePhiladelphia | publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press | isbn978-0-81222-105-3}}
* {{cite book| lastHalsall | firstGuy | author-linkGuy Halsall | year2007 | titleBarbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 | place Cambridge and New York | publisherCambridge University Press | isbn 978-0-52143-543-7}}
* {{cite book| lastHarder | firstKelsie B. |author-linkKelsie B. Harder | year1986 | titleNames and Their Varieties: A Collection of Essays in Onomastics | place Lanham, MD | publisherUniversity Press of America | isbn978-0-81915-233-6}}
* {{cite book| lastHeather | firstPeter | author-linkPeter Heather | year1991 | titleGoths and Romans, 332–489 | placeOxford | publisherClarendon Press | isbn978-0-19820-234-9}}
* {{cite book| lastHeather | firstPeter | author-linkPeter Heather | year2005 | titleThe Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians | placeOxford and New York | publisherOxford University Press | isbn978-0-19515-954-7 }}
* {{cite book| lastHeather | firstPeter | author-linkPeter Heather | year2013 | titleThe Restoration of Rome: Barbarian Popes and Imperial Pretenders | placeOxford and New York | publisherOxford University Press | isbn978-0-19936-851-8 }}
* {{cite book | lastJames | firstEdward | author-linkEdward James (historian) | titleEurope's Barbarians, AD 200–600 | year2014 | locationLondon and New York | publisherRoutledge | isbn978-0-58277-296-0}}
*{{cite book | lastJordanes | author-linkJordanes | year1915 | titleThe Gothic History of Jordanes | urlhttps://archive.org/details/gothichistoryofj00jord | othersTranslated by Charles C. Mierow | locationLondon | publisherOxford University Press | oclc=463056290 }}
* {{cite book | lastKelly | firstChristopher | author-linkChristopher Kelly (historian) | year2009 | titleThe End of Empire: Attila the Hun and the Fall of Rome | urlhttps://archive.org/details/endofempireattil00kell | url-accessregistration | placeNew York | publisherW.W. Norton & Company | isbn978-0-39333-849-2 }}
* {{cite book | lastKulikowski | firstMichael | author-linkMichael Kulikowski | chapterNation versus Army: A Necessary Contrast? | titleOn Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages | editorAndrew Gillett |editor-linkAndrew Gillett | year2002 | locationTurnhout | publisher Brepols Publishers | isbn= 2-503-51168-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastKulikowski |firstMichael | author-linkMichael Kulikowski | date2006 | titleRome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric | locationCambridge and New York |publisherCambridge University Press | isbn978-0-521-84633-2}}
* {{cite book | lastKulikowski | firstMichael | author-linkMichael Kulikowski | year2019 | titleThe Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy | locationCambridge, MA | publisherThe Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | isbn978-0-67466-013-7}}
* {{cite book | lastLançon | firstBertrand | author-linkBertrand Lançon | year2001 | titleRome in Late Antiquity: AD 312–609 | locationNew York | publisherRoutledge | isbn978-0-41592-975-2}}
* {{cite book | lastLee | firstA. D. | year2013 | titleFrom Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome | locationEdinburgh | publisherEdinburgh University Press | isbn=978-0-74863-175-9}}
* {{cite book |lastMcEvoy |firstMeaghan | date2013 | titleChild Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367–455 | locationOxford and New York |publisherOxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19164-210-4 }}
* {{cite book |lastMacgeorge|firstPenny| date2002 | titleLate Roman Warlords | locationOxford and New York |publisherOxford University Press | isbn= 0-19-925244-0 }}
* {{cite book| lastMitchell | firstStephen | year2007 | titleA History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641| locationOxford and Malden, MA | publisherWiley Blackwell }}
*{{cite book| lastNorwich | firstJohn Julius | author-linkJohn Julius Norwich | year1988 | titleByzantium: The Early Centuries | placeLondon | publisherViking | isbn978-0-67080-251-7 }}
* {{cite book | lastWallace-Hadrill | firstJ. M. | author-linkJ. M. Wallace-Hadrill | titleThe Barbarian West, 400–1000 | year2004 | placeMalden, MA | publisherWiley-Blackwell | isbn978-0-63120-292-9 }}
* {{cite book| lastWolfram | firstHerwig | author-linkHerwig Wolfram | year1997 | titleThe Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples | placeBerkeley and Los Angeles| publisherUniversity of California Press | isbn0-520-08511-6}}
{{refend}}
Online
* {{EB1911|wstitleAlaric|volume1|pages470–472|firstThomas|lastHodgkin|author-linkThomas Hodgkin (historian)}}
External links
{{wikisource author}}
{{Commons category|Alaric I}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070602165920/http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2006/08/alaric-i.html Alaric I]
* Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040923080132/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter30.html Chapter 30] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20040914234518/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter31.html Chapter 31].
* [http://lostfort.blogspot.com/2006/04/legend-of-alarics-burial.html The Legend of Alaric's Burial]
* For a modern-day novel exploring the historical sources relating to Alaric's riverbed grave, see [http://www.troubador.co.uk/book_info.asp?bookid3194 Alaric's Gold by Robert Fortune] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304093456/http://www.troubador.co.uk/book_info.asp?bookid3194 |date2016-03-04 }}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|Balti dynasty||370||410|name=King Alaric I of the Visigoths}}
{{S-reg|}}
|-
{{S-vac|last=Athanaric}}
{{S-ttl|titleKing of the Visigoths|years395–410}}
{{S-aft|after=Ataulf}}
{{s-end}}
{{Visigothic kings}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alaric 01}}
Category:410s deaths
Category:5th-century Visigothic monarchs
Category:Balt dynasty
Category:People from Tulcea County
Category:5th-century Arian Christians
Category:Ancient Italian history
Category:Gothic warriors
Category:4th-century monarchs in Europe
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:4th-century Gothic people
Category:390s in the Byzantine Empire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_I | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.170257 |
1571 | Alaric II | {{Short description|King of the Visigoths from 484 until 507}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
|image = Anneau sigillaire Alaric II.jpg
|caption = A ring depicting Alaric II
|succession = King of the Visigoths
|reign = 28 December 484 – {{circa}} August 507
|predecessor = Euric
|successor = Gesalec
|birth_date = {{circa}} 458/466
|death_date = {{circa}} August 507 (aged 41/49)
| spouse = Unknown<br/>Theodegotha
| issue = Gesalec<br/>Amalaric
| father = Euric
| mother = Ragnagild
|religion = Arian Christianity
}}
Alaric II ({{langx|got|𐌰𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃}}, {{lang|got-latn|Alareiks}}, 'ruler of all';<ref>Kelsie B. Harder, Names and their varieties: a collection of essays in onomastics, American Name Society, University Press of America, 1984, pp. 10–11</ref> {{langx|la|Alaricus}}; {{circa|458/466}} – August 507) was the King of the Visigoths from 484 until 507. He succeeded his father Euric as King of the Visigoths in Toulouse on 28 December 484;<ref>Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, translated by Thomas J. Dunlap (Berkeley: University of California, 1988), p. 190.</ref> he was the great-grandson of the more famous Alaric I, who sacked Rome in 410. He established his capital at Aire-sur-l'Adour (Vicus Julii) in Aquitaine. His dominions included not only the majority of Hispania (excluding its northwestern corner) but also Gallia Aquitania and the greater part of an as-yet undivided Gallia Narbonensis.
Reign
Herwig Wolfram opens his chapter on the eighth Visigothic king, "Alaric's reign gets no full treatment in the sources, and the little they do contain is overshadowed by his death in the Battle of Vouillé and the downfall of the Toulosan kingdom."<ref name=Wolfram-191>Wolfram, History of the Goths, p. 191</ref> One example is Isidore of Seville's account of Alaric's reign: consisting of a single paragraph, it is primarily about Alaric's death in that battle.<ref>Isidore of Seville, Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum, chapter 36. Translation by Guido Donini and Gordon B. Ford, ''Isidore of Seville's History of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi'', second revised edition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1970), pp. 17f</ref>
The earliest-documented event in Alaric's reign concerned providing refuge to Syagrius, the former ruler of the Domain of Soissons (in what is now northwestern France) who had been defeated by Clovis I, King of the Franks. According to Gregory of Tours' account, Alaric was intimidated by Clovis into surrendering Syagrius to Clovis; Gregory then adds that "the Goths are a timorous race." The Franks then imprisoned Syagrius, and once his control over Syagrius' former kingdom was secure, Clovis had him beheaded.<ref nameGregory-27>Gregory of Tours, Decem Libri Historiarum, II.27; translated by Lewis Thorpe, History of the Franks (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 139</ref> However, Wolfram points out that at the time "Clovis got no farther than the Seine; only after several more years did the Franks succeed in occupying the rest of the Gallo-Roman buffer state north of the Loire." Any threat of war Clovis could make would only be effective if they were neighbors; "it is nowhere written that Syagrius was handed over in 486 or 487."<ref nameWolfram-191/>
Despite Frankish advances in the years that followed, Alaric was not afraid to take the military initiative when it presented itself. In 490, Alaric assisted his fellow Gothic king, Theodoric the Great, in his conquest of Italy by dispatching an army to raise Odoacer's siege of Pavia, where Theodoric had been trapped.<ref>Wolfram, History of the Goths, pp. 281f</ref> Then when the Franks attacked the Burgundians in the decade after 500, Alaric assisted the ruling house, and according to Wolfram the victorious Burgundian king Gundobad ceded Avignon to Alaric.<ref>Wolfram, History of the Goths, p. 291</ref> By 502 Clovis and Alaric met on an island in the Loire near Amboise for face-to-face talks, which led to a peace treaty.<ref>{{cite book |last1Gregory of Tours |titleA History of the Franks |date1976 |publisherPenguin |pages150 |editiontrans. Lewis Thorpe}}</ref>
In 506, the Visigoths captured the city of Dertosa in the Ebro valley. There they captured the Roman usurper Peter and had him executed.<ref>Collins, Roger. Visigothic Spain, 409–711. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004, p. 35.</ref>
Battle of Vouillé and aftermath
under Alaric II]]
After a few years, however, Clovis violated the peace treaty negotiated in 502. Despite the diplomatic intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and father-in-law of Alaric, Clovis led his followers into Visigothic territory. Alaric was forced by his magnates to meet Clovis in the Battle of Vouillé (summer 507) near Poitiers; there the Goths were defeated and Alaric slain, according to Gregory of Tours, by Clovis himself.<ref>Wolfram, History of the Goths, pp. 292f</ref>
The most serious consequence of this battle was not the loss of their possessions in Gaul to the Franks; with Ostrogothic help, much of the Gallic territory was recovered, Wolfram notes, perhaps as far as Toulouse.<ref>Wolfram, History of the Goths, p. 245</ref> Nor was it the loss of the royal treasury at Toulouse, which Gregory of Tours writes Clovis took into his possession.<ref nameGregory-27/> As Peter Heather notes, the Visigothic kingdom was thrown into disarray "by the death of its king in battle".<ref>Peter Heather, The Goths (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), p. 215</ref> Alaric's heirs were his eldest son, the illegitimate Gesalec, and his younger son, the legitimate Amalaric, who was still a child. Gesalec proved incompetent, and in 511 King Theodoric assumed the throne of the kingdom ostensibly on behalf of Amalaric—Heather uses the word "hijacked" to describe his action. Although Amalaric eventually became king in his own right, the political continuity of the Visigothic kingdom was broken; "Amalaric's succession was the result of new power structures, not old ones," as Heather describes it. With Amalaric's death in 531, the Visigothic kingdom entered an extended period of unrest which lasted until Leovigild assumed the throne in 569.<ref>Heather, The Goths, p. 277</ref> Ability as king In religion Alaric was an Arian, like all the early Visigothic nobles, but he greatly mitigated the persecution policy of his father Euric toward the Catholics and authorized them to hold in 506 the council of Agde.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleAlaric II.|volume1|page472}}</ref> He was on uneasy terms with the Catholic bishops of Arelate (modern Arles) as epitomized in the career of the Gallo-Roman Caesarius, bishop of Arles, who was appointed bishop in 503. Caesarius was suspected of conspiring with the Burgundians, whose king had married the sister of Clovis, to assist the Burgundians capture Arles. Alaric exiled him for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitania, then allowed him to return unharmed when the crisis had passed.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/iii.iii.iv.htm| title Wace, Dictionary}}</ref>
Alaric displayed similar wisdom in political affairs by appointing a commission headed by the referendary Anianus to prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which would form the authoritative code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the Breviarium Alaricianum or Breviary of Alaric.<ref name"EB1911"/>LegacyThe {{ill|Montagne d'Alaric|fr}} (Alaric's Mountain), near Carcassonne, is named after the Visigoth king.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe legend of the treasure of Alaric |urlhttp://www.rhedesium.com/the-legend-of-the-treasure-of-alaric.html |url-statusdead |access-date12 March 2015 |archive-date27 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227235811/https://www.rhedesium.com/the-legend-of-the-treasure-of-alaric.html }}</ref> Local rumour has it that he left a vast treasure buried in the caves beneath the mountain.<ref>[http://www.corbieresweb.com/Montagne-d-Alaric Montagne d’Alaric] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402093258/http://www.corbieresweb.com/Montagne-d-Alaric |date=2 April 2015 }}</ref>
The {{ill|Canal d'Alaric|fr}} (Alaric's Canal) in the Hautes-Pyrénées department is named after him.<ref>Theodoric the Goth: the barbarian champion of civilisation by Hodgkin, Thomas, 1891 New York : G.P. Putnam's Son pg. 239</ref>
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Edward Gibbon, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040817020717/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter38.html History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire] Chapter 38
* [http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/5930/alarico-ii Alarico II] {{in lang|es}}, Diccionario biográfico español, Luis Agustín García Moreno, Real Academia de la Historia.
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|Balti dynasty||||507|name=King Alaric II of the Visigoths}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Alaric 02}}
Category:507 deaths
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Category:6th-century Visigothic monarchs
Category:Ancient child monarchs
Category:Balt dynasty
Category:Monarchs killed in action
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:Year of birth unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_II | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.175606 |
1573 | Albertus Magnus | {{Short description|German Dominican friar and saint (c. 1200–1280)}}
{{Redirect|Albertus}}
{{redirect|Albert the Great|the American Thoroughbred racehorse|Albert the Great (horse)}}
{{For|the asteroid|20006 Albertus Magnus}}
{{Use mdy dates|date= September 2019}}
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix = Saint
| name = Albertus Magnus
| honorific_suffix = OP
| image = File:Vicente salvador gomez-san alberto.jpg
| alt | caption The Apparition of the Virgin to Saint Albert the Great by Vicente Salvador Gomez
| titles = Bishop of Regensburg<br />Doctor of the Church
| birth_name | birth_date {{Circa|1200}}<ref>{{Cite web|titleSt. Albertus Magnus|url https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus|access-date19 July 2020|publisher Britannica}}</ref>
| birth_place = Lauingen, Duchy of Bavaria
| death_date = 15 November 1280
| death_place = Cologne, Holy Roman Empire
| venerated_in = Catholic Church
| beatified_date = 1622
| beatified_place = Rome, Papal States
| beatified_by = Pope Gregory XV
| canonized_date = 16 December 1931
| canonized_place = Vatican City
| canonized_by = Pope Pius XI
| major_shrine = St. Andrew's Church, Cologne
| feast_day = 15 November
| attributes = Dominican habit, mitre, book, and quill
| patronage = Those who cultivate the natural sciences, medical technicians, philosophers, and scientists
{{Infobox scientist
| embed = yes
| other_names = Albertus Teutonicus, Albertus Coloniensis, Albert the Great, Albert of Cologne
| fields = {{Flatlist}}
*Natural science
*Alchemy
*Jurisprudence
*Diplomacy
*Theology
*Natural philosophy
{{Endflatlist}}
| known_for = Teaching of theology<br /> Pioneering scholar of Aristotle<br /> Systematic study of minerals<br />Discovery of the element arsenic
| alma_mater = University of Padua
| doctoral_advisor = Jordan of Saxony
| module = {{Infobox philosopher
| embed = yes
| region = Western philosophy
| era = Medieval philosophy
| name = Albertus Magnus
| institutions = University of Paris
| school_tradition =
{{Flatlist}}
*Scholasticism
*Aristotelianism
*Medieval realism<ref>Hilde de Ridder-Symoens (ed.). A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 439.</ref>
{{Endflatlist}}
| main_interests = {{hlist|Philosophy|physiology|mineralogy|astrology|geography|astronomy|music theory|natural science|alchemy|jurisprudence|diplomacy|theology|natural philosophy}}
| notable_students = Thomas Aquinas, Petrus Ferrandi Hispanus
| notable_ideas =
{{Flatlist}}
*Natural law
*Aevum<ref>Albertus Magnus, De IV coaequaevis, tract. 2, qu. 3.</ref>
{{Endflatlist}}
| module = {{Infobox clergy
| child= yes
| religion = Christianity
| church = Catholic Church
| ordained | offices_held Bishop of Regensburg
}}}}}}}}
{{Catholic philosophy}}
Albertus Magnus{{efn|{{langx|la|Albertus Teutonicus, Albertus Coloniensis}}}} {{post-nominals|post-noms= OP}} ({{Circa |1200}} – 15 November 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great, Albert of Swabia<ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Duchet-Suchaux
|first1 = Gaston
|last2 = Pastoureau
|first2 = Michel
|author-link2 = Michel Pastoureau
|year = 1994
|title = The Bible and the Saints
|url https://books.google.com/books?idUNNOAAAAMAAJ
|series = Flammarion iconographic guides, ISSN 1258-2220
|publisher = Flammarion
|page = 325
|isbn = 9782080135643
|access-date = 5 November 2023
|quote = Albert of Swabia, known as Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus) [...]
}}
</ref>
or Albert of Cologne, was a German Dominican friar, philosopher, scientist, and bishop, considered one of the greatest medieval philosophers and thinkers.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://albertusmagnus.uwaterloo.ca/#:~:textAlbertus%20Magnus%20%28ca.%201200%E2%80%931280%29%20is%20one%20of%20the,Despite%20this%20fact%2C%20his%20ideas%20remain%20relatively%20understudied | title=Alberti Magni e-corpus }}</ref>
Canonized in 1931, he was known during his lifetime as Doctor universalis and Doctor expertus; late in his life the sobriquet Magnus was appended to his name.<ref>{{Citation |editor-lastWeisheipl |editor-first James A. |lastWeisheipl |first James A. |titleAlbertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays |place Toronto |publisherPontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |series Studies and texts |volume49 |year 1980 |chapterThe Life and Works of St. Albert the Great |page 46 |isbn978-0-88844-049-5}}</ref> Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages.<ref>Joachim R. Söder, "Albert der Grosse – ein staunen- erregendes Wunder," Wort und Antwort 41 (2000): 145; J.A. Weisheipl, "Albertus Magnus," Joseph Strayer ed., Dictionary of the Middle Ages 1 (New York: Scribner, 1982) 129.</ref> The Catholic Church distinguishes him as one of the Doctors of the Church.BiographyIt seems likely that Albertus Magnus was born sometime before 1200, given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on his death in 1280.<ref name":0" /> Two later sources say that Albert was about 87 on his death, which has led 1193 to be commonly given as the date of Albert's birth, but this information does not have enough evidence to be confirmed.<ref name":0" /> Albert was probably born in Lauingen (now in Bavaria), since he called himself 'Albert of Lauingen', but this might simply be a family name. Most probably his family was of ministerial class; his familial connection with (being son of the count) the Bollstädt noble family is almost certainly mere conjecture by 15th century hagiographers.<ref name":0">{{cite book|authorTugwell, Simon|titleAlbert and Thomas|placeNew York |publisherPaulist Press|year1988|pages 3, 96, 97|isbn=978-08091-3022-1}}</ref>
Albert was probably educated principally at the University of Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy Orders. In 1223 (or 1229),{{sfn|Tugwell|1988|pp4–5}} he became a member of the Dominican Order, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, as well as in Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg, and Hildesheim. During his first tenure as lecturer at Cologne, Albert wrote his Summa de bono after having a discussion with Philip the Chancellor concerning the transcendental properties of being.<ref name"Kovach, Francs 1980, p.X">Kovach, Francs, and Rober Shahan. Albert the Great: Commemorative Essays . Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980, p. x.</ref> In 1245, Albert became master of theology under Guerric of Saint-Quentin, the first German Dominican to achieve this distinction. Following this turn of events, Albert was able to teach theology at the University of Paris as a full-time professor, holding the seat of the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James.<ref name"Kovach, Francs 1980, p.X" /> During this time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus.<ref nameKennedy>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm Kennedy, Daniel. "St. Albertus Magnus." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 10 Sept. 2014]</ref>
, {{Circa|1493}}]]
Albert was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle, thus making them accessible to wider academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notably Avicenna and Averroes, and this would bring him into the heart of academic debate.
In 1254, Albert was made provincial of the Dominican Order<ref name=Kennedy /> and fulfilled the duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure, he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on John the Evangelist, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Islamic philosopher Averroes.
In 1259, Albert took part in the General Chapter of the Dominicans at Valenciennes together with Thomas Aquinas, masters Bonushomo Britto,<ref>{{cite book |titleHistoire littéraire de la France: XIIIe siècle |volume19 |page103 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLIYNAAAAQAAJ&qbonushomo&pgPA103 |access-dateOctober 27, 2012|last1Grange |first1Antoine Rivet de la |last2Clément |first2François |last3(Dom) |first3Charles Clémencet |last4Daunou |first4Pierre Claude François |last5Clerc |first5Joseph Victor Le |last6Hauréau |first6Barthélemy |last7Meyer |first7Paul |year1838 }}</ref> Florentius,<ref>Probably Florentius de Hidinio, a.k.a. Florentius Gallicus, [https://books.google.com/books?idLIYNAAAAQAAJ&pgPA103 Histoire littéraire de la France: XIIIe siècle], Volume 19, p. 104, Accessed October 27, 2012</ref> and Peter (later Pope Innocent V), establishing a ratio studiorum or program of studies for the Dominicans<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idpf4hAAAAYAAJ&pgPA701 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics], Volume 10, p. 701. Accessed 9 June 2011</ref> that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for those not sufficiently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order's studium provinciale at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome, out of which would develop the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, the "Angelicum".<ref>[http://www.domcentral.org/study/opstudy.htm Weisheipl O.P., J. A., "The Place of Study In the Ideal of St. Dominic"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101229185458/http://www.domcentral.org/study/opstudy.htm |date=2010-12-29 }}, 1960. Accessed 19 March 2013</ref>
containing the relics of Albertus Magnus in the crypt of St. Andrew's Church, Cologne, Germany]]
In 1260, Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg, an office from which he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse, in accord with the dictates of the Order, instead traversing his huge diocese on foot. In 1263, Pope Urban IV relieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preach the eighth Crusade in German-speaking countries.<ref name=Markus>[http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/albert-great/ Führer, Markus, "Albert the Great", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)],</ref> After this, he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties. In Cologne, he is known not only for being the founder of Germany's oldest university there, but also for "the big verdict" (der Große Schied) of 1258, which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albert (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed).
Albert was a scientist, philosopher, astrologer, theologian, spiritual writer, ecumenist, and diplomat. Under the auspices of Humbert of Romans, Albert molded the curriculum of studies for all Dominican students, introduced Aristotle to the classroom and probed the work of Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus. Indeed, it was the thirty years of work done by Aquinas and himself that allowed for the inclusion of Aristotelian study in the curriculum of Dominican schools.
After suffering declining health in 1278, he died on 15 November 1280 in the Dominican convent in Cologne, Germany. His relics are located in a Roman sarcophagus in the crypt of the Dominican St. Andrew's Church in Cologne.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://gemeinden.erzbistum-koeln.de/st_andreas_koeln/albertusMagnus/ |titleZeittafel |publisherGemeinden.erzbistum-koeln.de |access-date2013-08-09 |archive-dateMay 21, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130521042851/http://gemeinden.erzbistum-koeln.de/st_andreas_koeln/albertusMagnus/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> His body was claimed to be incorrupt during an exhumation three years after his death. However, a later exhumation in 1483 found that only a skeleton remained.<ref name"Cruz 1977">{{cite book |titleThe Incorruptibles: A Study of the Incorruption of the Bodies of Various Catholic Saints and Beati |lastCarroll Cruz |firstJoan |publisherTAN Books |locationCharlotte, NC |year1977 |isbn978-0-89555-066-8 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/incorruptiblesst00cruz }}</ref>
Albert was beatified in 1622. He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on 16 December 1931 by Pope Pius XI<ref nameMarkus /><ref>Füllenbach, Elias H.: The Canonization of Albert the Great in 1931, in: Fra trionfi e sconfitte. "Politica della santità" dell'Ordine dei predicatori, ed. by Viliam S. Doci and Gianni Festa, Rome 2021 (Dissertationes Historicae, vol. 39), p. 131-147. [https://www.academia.edu/80171214/The_canonization_of_Albert_the_Great_in_1931 Article]</ref> and the patron saint of natural scientists in 1941. St. Albert's feast day is November 15.Writings
]]
(1352), Chapter hall of convent of St. Nicholas, Treviso, Italy|thumb|right]]
Albert's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, alchemy, zoology, physiology, phrenology, justice, law, friendship, and love. He digested, interpreted, and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert.<ref name=Kennedy />
His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa Theologiae in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.
Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order.<ref name=Markus />
)]]
Albert's knowledge of natural science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great: not only did he produce commentaries and paraphrases of the entire Aristotelian corpus, including his scientific works, but Albert also added to and improved upon them. His books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also results of his own empirical investigations. These investigations pushed several of the special sciences forward, beyond the reliance on classical texts. In the case of embryology, for example, it has been claimed that little of value was written between Aristotle and Albert, who managed to identify organs within eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal|date2004-09-01|titleMuch more from the chicken's egg than breakfast – a wonderful model system|journalMechanisms of Development|languageen|volume121|issue9|pages1015–1017|doi10.1016/j.mod.2004.04.021|pmid15296967|issn0925-4773|last1Wolpert|first1Lewis|s2cid7065525|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Furthermore, Albert also effectively invented entire special sciences, where Aristotle has not covered a topic. For example, prior to Albert, there was no systematic study of minerals.<ref name=":2" /> For the breadth of these achievements, he was bestowed the name Doctor Universalis.
Much of Albert's empirical contributions to the natural sciences have been superseded, but his general approach to science may be surprisingly modern. For example, in De Mineralibus (Book II, Tractate ii, Ch. 1) Albert claims, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things."<ref name":2">{{Cite book|urlhttps://archive.org/details/308059821ALBERTUSMAGNUSTheBookOfMinerals|titleBook of Minerals|lastWyckoff|firstDorothy|publisherClarendon Press|year1967|locationOxford|pagesPreface}}</ref>Alchemy
Trading Card, 1929]]
In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albert as an alchemist and magician. "Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as the Secreta Alberti or the Experimenta Alberti, were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association."<ref>Katz, David A., "An Illustrated History of Alchemy and Early Chemistry", 1978</ref> On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary, De mineralibus, he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be.<ref>Georg Wieland, "Albert der Grosse. Der Entwurf einer eigenständigen Philosophie," Philosophen des Mittelalters (Darmstadt: Primus, 2000) 124-39.</ref> A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include Metals and Materials; the Secrets of Chemistry; the Origin of Metals; the Origins of Compounds, and a Concordance which is a collection of ''Observations on the philosopher's stone; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of Theatrum Chemicum.<ref>Walsh, John, The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries.'' 1907:46 ([https://books.google.com/books?id_rofAAAAIAAJ&dqalbertus+magnus+gold+minerals&pgRA2-PA46 available online]).</ref> He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic<ref name"BuildingBlocks451-3">{{cite book |lastEmsley |firstJohn |titleNature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |year2001 |isbn978-0-19-850341-5 |pages43,513,529 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford}}</ref> and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including silver nitrate.<ref>{{cite web|lastDavidson |firstMichael W. |author2National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University |titleMolecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You&nbsp;— Timeline&nbsp;— Albertus Magnus |publisherThe Florida State University |date2003-08-01 |urlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html |access-date2009-11-28 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100330045629/http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html |archive-date2010-03-30 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastSzabadváry |firstFerenc |titleHistory of analytical chemistry |publisherTaylor & Francis |year1992 |page17 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id53APqy0KDaQC |isbn978-2-88124-569-5}}</ref> He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work De mineralibus. However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.
According to legend, Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation."<ref>Julian Franklyn and Frederick E. Budd. A Survey of the Occult. Electric Book Company. 2001. p. 28-30. {{ISBN|1-84327-087-0}}.</ref> Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert's death, this legend as stated is unlikely.
Astrology
Albert was deeply interested in astrology, as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli<ref>Paola Zambelli, "The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma" Dordrecht.</ref> and Scott Hendrix.<ref name":1" /> Throughout the Middle Ages&nbsp;–and well into the early modern period– astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on earth is effectively a microcosm within the macrocosm (the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albert argued that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts.<ref name":1">Scott E. Hendrix, How Albert the Great's Speculum Astronomiae Was Interpreted and Used by Four Centuries of Readers (Lewiston: 2010), 44-46.</ref> The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in two separate works that he authored around 1260, known as the Speculum astronomiae and De Fato.<ref>{{Cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6pKpEAAAQBAJ&dq%22on+fate%22+%22albertus+magnus%22&pgPA10 |title On Fate (De Fato)|isbn 9781960069030|last1 Curtin|first1 D. P.|date 1 February 2023| publisherDalcassian Publishing Company }}</ref> However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early De natura boni to his last work, the Summa theologiae.<ref>Hendrix, 195.</ref> His speculum was critiqued by Gerard of Silteo.<ref>{{cite book |authorZambelli, Paola |titleThe Speculum Astronomiae and its enigma. Astrology, Theology and Science in Albertus Magnus and his Contemporaries |publisherSpringer |year1992 |isbn9789048140985 |pages51–59}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Albertus Magnus – De meteoris, 1488 – BEIC 13302626.jpg|De meteoris, 1488
</gallery>
Tides and the Moon
Albert considered the tides to be influenced by the moon. Based on ancient Greek theories of light and Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi’s astrological explanations, he proposed a mixed theory where the Moon doubly attracts the water by its intrinsic astrological humid nature and by the heat that the moonlight produces.<ref>{{Citation |last1Deparis |first1Vincent |titleInvestigations of Tides from the Antiquity to Laplace |date2013 |workTides in Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume861 |pages31–82 |editor-lastSouchay |editor-firstJean |urlhttps://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-32961-6_2 |access-date2024-10-03 |placeBerlin, Heidelberg |publisherSpringer Berlin Heidelberg |languageen |doi10.1007/978-3-642-32961-6_2 |isbn978-3-642-32960-9 |last2Legros |first2Hilaire |last3Souchay |first3Jean |bibcode2013LNP...861...31D |editor2-lastMathis |editor2-firstStéphane |editor3-lastTokieda |editor3-firstTadashi}}</ref>Matter and formAlbert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form, to which he referred as quod est and quo est. Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity. Albert's version of hylomorphism is very similar to the Aristotelian doctrine.MusicAlbert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics. He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.Metaphysics of moralsBoth of his early treatises, De natura boni and De bono, start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good. Albert refers to the physical good as bonum naturae. Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics. In Albert's later works, he says in order to understand human or moral goodness, the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds. This procedure reflects Albert's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines of Pseudo-Dionysius.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p. 93</ref> Albert's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers.Natural lawAlbert devoted the last tractatus of De Bono to a theory of justice and natural law. Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law. God legislates and divine authority is supreme. Up until his time, it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.207</ref>FriendshipAlbert mentions friendship in his work, De bono, as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning of Tractatus II. Later in his life he published Super Ethica.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.242</ref> With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Albert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a quote from Cicero, who writes, "friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human, with goodwill and love". Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement.<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.243</ref> Albert calls this harmony, consensio, itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes several levels of goodness; the useful (utile), the pleasurable (delectabile) and the authentic or unqualified good (honestum). Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels, namely friendship based on usefulness (amicitia utilis), friendship based on pleasure (amicitia delectabilis), and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness (amicitia honesti; amicitia quae fundatur super honestum).<ref>Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.244</ref>Cultural references
and archivolts of Strasbourg Cathedral, with iconography inspired by Albertus Magnus]]
The iconography of the tympanum and archivolts of the late 13th-century portal of Strasbourg Cathedral was inspired by Albert's writings.<ref>France: A Phaidon Cultural Guide, Phaidon Press, 1985, {{ISBN|0-7148-2353-8}}, p. 705</ref> Albert is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system. In his Divine Comedy, Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven of the Sun.
In The Concept of Anxiety, Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert, "arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid." Kierkegaard cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as saying "Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus" [Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass].<ref>The Concept of Anxiety, Princeton University Press, 1980, {{ISBN|0-691-02011-6}}, pp. 150–151</ref>
In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the titular scientist, Victor Frankenstein, studies the works of Albertus Magnus.<ref>{{Cite web|titleA Cultural History of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein|urlhttps://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist257s02/students/Stacy/Frankenstein.htm|access-date2021-11-06|websitewww.mtholyoke.edu|archive-dateJuly 30, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210730140935/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist257s02/students/Stacy/Frankenstein.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Pastor Johann Eduard Erdmann considered Albert greater and more original than his pupil Aquinas.<ref>Erdmann - History of Philosophy vol 1 trans Hough - London 1910. p. 422</ref>
In Open All Hours, Arkwright invents St Albert's day so Granville can check customers' pockets.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/e/mnf2/open-all-hours--s2-e7-st-alberts-day/|titleOpen All Hours Season 2|access-dateApril 16, 2021|archive-dateApril 16, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210416232520/https://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/e/mnf2/open-all-hours--s2-e7-st-alberts-day/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Influence and tribute
, Urbino, c. 1475]]
A number of schools have been named after Albert, including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia, New York;<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.albertusmagnus.net/?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport1 |titleAlbertus Magnus High School |publisherAlbertusmagnus.net |access-date2013-08-09}}</ref> Albertus Magnus Lyceum in River Forest, Illinois; and Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.albertus.edu/ |titleAlbertus Magnus College |publisherAlbertus.edu |access-date=2013-08-09}}</ref>
Albertus Magnus Science Hall at Thomas Aquinas College, in Santa Paula, California, is named in honor of Albert. The main science buildings at Providence College and Aquinas College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, are also named after him.
The central square at the campus of the University of Cologne features a statue of Albert and is named after him. Made by Gerhard Marcks around 1950s, this statue is one of four replicas found in different places around the world (along with University of Jena,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.visit-jena.de/aktiv-und-natur/gaerten-und-parks/frommannscher-garten/ |titleFrommann Garden - A gem and wonderful resting place |publishervisit-jena.de |access-date2024-02-27}}</ref> University of the Andes,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://badac.uniandes.edu.co/coleccion-uniandes/items/show/256 |titleSan Alberto Magno |publisherUniversidad de los Andes - Repositorio BADAC |access-date2024-02-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://uniandes.edu.co/es/universidad/informacion-general/nuestros-simbolos |titleNuestros símbolos |workUniversidad de los Andes - Colombia - Sitio oficial |dateNovember 25, 2016 |publisherUniversidad de los Andes |access-date2024-02-27 |author1Admin }}</ref> and University of Houston<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://publicartuhs.org/artwork/albertus-magnus/ |titleAlbertus Magnus, Original casting 1955, 3 of 3 casting 1970 |dateMarch 8, 2019 |publisherUniversity of Houston |access-date2024-02-27}}</ref>).
The Academy for Science and Design in New Hampshire honored Albert by naming one of its four houses Magnus House.
As a tribute to the scholar's contributions to the law, the University of Houston Law Center displays a statue of Albert. It is located on the campus of the University of Houston.
The Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium is found in Rottweil, Germany.
In Managua, Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.
In the Philippines, the Albertus Magnus Building at the University of Santo Tomas that houses the Conservatory of Music, College of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Education, and UST Education High School is named in his honor. The Saint Albert the Great Science Academy in San Carlos City, Pangasinan, which offers preschool, elementary and high school education, takes pride in having St. Albert as their patron saint. Its main building was named Albertus Magnus Hall in 2008. San Alberto Magno Academy in Tubao, La Union is also dedicated in his honor. This century-old Catholic high school continues to live on its vision-mission up to this day, offering Senior High school courses.
Due to his contributions to natural philosophy, the bacterium Agrobacterium albertimagni,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Salmassi |first1Tina M. |last2Venkateswaren |first2Kasthuri |last3Satomi |first3Masataka |last4Newman |first4Dianne K. |last5Hering |first5Janet G. |date2002 |titleOxidation of Arsenite by Agrobacterium albertimagni, AOL15, sp. nov., isolated from Hot Creek, California |journalGeomicrobiology Journal |volume19 |issue1 |pages53–66 |doi10.1080/014904502317246165|bibcode2002GmbJ...19...53S |s2cid85216609 }}</ref> the plant species Alberta magna, the crustacean Bodigiella albertimagni,<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHertzog |firstL. |date1933 |titleBogidiella albertimagni sp.nov., ein neuer Grundwasseramphipode aus der Rheinebene bei Strassburg |journalZoologischer Anzeiger |volume102 |issue9/10 |pages225–227}}</ref> the fossil brachiopod Albasphe albertimagni,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Halamski |first1Adam T. |last2Bitner |first2Maria Aleksandra |last3Kaim |first3Andrzej |last4Kolar-Jurkovšek |first4Tea |last5Jurkovšek |first5Bogdan |date2015 |titleUnusual brachiopod fauna from the Middle Triassic algal meadows of Mt. Svilaja (Outer Dinarides, Croatia) |journalJournal of Paleontology |volume89 |issue4 |pages553–575 |doi10.1017/jpa.2015.34|bibcode2015JPal...89..553H |s2cid131380210 }}</ref> and the asteroid 20006 Albertus Magnus were named after him.
Numerous Catholic elementary and secondary schools are named for him, including schools in Toronto; Calgary; Cologne; and Dayton, Ohio.
The Albertus typeface is named after him.<ref>{{Cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUiM108dzif0C&qalbertus+magnus+typeface&pgPA116 |title The Visual Dictionary of Typography|isbn 9782940411184|last1 Ambrose|first1 Gavin|last2 Harris|first2 Paul|date 2010-10-04| publisherAVA }}</ref>
At the University of Notre Dame du Lac in Notre Dame, Indiana, the Zahm Hall Chapel is dedicated to St. Albert the Great. Fr. John Zahm, C.S.C., after whom the men's residence hall is named, looked to St. Albert's example of using religion to illumine scientific discovery. Fr. Zahm's work with the Bible and evolution is sometimes seen as a continuation of St. Albert's legacy.
The second largest student's fraternity of the Netherlands, located in the city of Groningen, is named Albertus Magnus, in honor of the saint.
The Colegio Cientifico y Artistico de San Alberto, Hopelawn, New Jersey, USA with a sister school in Nueva Ecija, Philippines was founded in 1986 in honor of him who thought and taught that religion, the sciences and the arts may be advocated as subjects which should not contradict each other but should support one another to achieve wisdom and reason.
The Vosloorus Catholic parish (located in Vosloorus Extension One, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa) is named after the saint.
The Catholic parish in Leopoldshafen, near Karlsruhe in Germany is also named after him, too, since Albert is the patron saint of scientists and the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology has a large research center nearby.
Since the death of King Albert I, the King's Feast is celebrated in Belgium on Albert's feast day.
Edinburgh's Catholic Chaplaincy which serves the city's universities, is named after St Albert.
Sant'Alberto Magno is a titular church in Rome.
Bibliography
Translations
* The Paradise of the Soul: Forty-Two Virtues to Reach Heaven, translated by Fr. Robert Nixon, OSB (Gastonia, NC: TAN Books: 2023) [translation of Paradisus Animae]
* On Fate, translated by D.P. Curtin (Philadelphia, PA: Dalcassian Publishing Company: 2023) [translation of De fato]
* On Resurrection, translated by Irven M. Resnick and Franklin T. Harkins (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press: 2020) [translation of De resurrectione]
* On the Body of the Lord, translated by Sr. Albert Marie Surmanski, OP (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press: 2017) [translation of De corpore Domini]
* On the Causes of the Properties of the Elements, translated by Irven M. Resnick (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2010) [translation of Liber de causis proprietatum elementorum]
* ''Questions concerning Aristotle's on Animals, translated by Irven M. Resnick and Kenneth F. Kitchell Jr. (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2008) [translation of Quaestiones super De animalibus]
* The Cardinal Virtues: Aquinas, Albert, and Philip the Chancellor, translated by R. E. Houser (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediæval Studies, 2004) [contains the translations of Parisian Summa, part six: On the good and Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, book 3, dist. 33 & 36]
* The Commentary of Albertus Magnus on Book 1 of Euclid's Elements of Geometry, edited by Anthony Lo Bello (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003) [translation of Priumus Euclidis cum commento Alberti]
* On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica, translated by Kenneth F. Kitchell Jr. and Irven Michael Resnick (Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999) [translation of De animalibus]
* Paola Zambelli, The Speculum Astronomiae and Its Enigma: Astrology, Theology, and Science in Albertus Magnus and His Contemporaries (Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992) [includes Latin text and English translation of Speculum astronomiae]
* Albert & Thomas: Selected Writings, translated by {{ill|Simon Tugwell|qid=Q93230954}}, Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, 1988) [contains translation of Super Dionysii Mysticam theologiam]
* On Union with God, translated by a Benedictine of Princethorpe Priory (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1911) [reprinted as (Felinfach: Llanerch Enterprises, 1991) and (London: Continuum, 2000)] [translation of De adherendo Deo]
See also
* Christian mysticism
* List of Catholic saints
* List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
* Saint Albert the Great, patron saint archive
* Science in the Middle Ages
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin}}
* Sighart, Joachim (1876), Albert the Great : his life and scholastic labours: from original documents.
* {{cite book |last Tugwell |first Simon |title Albert and Thomas |publisher Paulist Press |location New York |year1988 }}
{{refend}}
Further reading
* Collins, David J. [https://www.academia.edu/10208373/Albertus_Magnus_or_Magus_Magic_Natural_Philosophy_and_Religious_Reform_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages "Albertus, Magnus or Magus? Magic, Natural Philosophy, and Religious Reform in the Late Middle Ages."] Renaissance Quarterly 63 (2010): 1–44.
* Collins, David J. [https://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-09744-2.htmlDisenchanting Albert the Great: The Life and Afterlife of a Medieval Magician]. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2024.
* Honnefelder, Ludger (ed.) Albertus Magnus and the Beginnings of the Medieval Reception of Aristotle in the Latin West. From Richardus Rufus to Franciscus de Mayronis, (collection of essays in German and English), Münster Aschendorff, 2005.
* Jong, Jonathan. [https://www.theschooloftheology.org/posts/essay/st-albertus-magnus-patron-of-science/ "Albert the Great: Patron Saint of Scientists"], in: St Mary Magdalen School of Theology, Thinking Faithfully.
* Kovach, Francis J. & Shahan, Robert W. Albert the Great. Commemorative Essays, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980.
* Lemay, Helen Rodnite. Women's Secrets: A Translation of Pseudo-Albertus Magnus's De secretis mulierum with Commentaries. SUNY Series in Medieval Studies. Albany: SUNY Press, 1992.
* Miteva, Evelina. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714223403/http://philosophy-e.com/the-soul-between-body-and-immortality-the-13th-century-debate-on-the-definition-of-the-human-rational-soul-as-form-and-substance/ "The Soul between Body and Immortality: The 13th Century Debate on the Definition of the Human Rational Soul as Form and Substance"]}}, in: Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture, 1/2012. {{ISSN|1314-5606}}.
* Resnick, Irven (ed.), A Companion to Albert the Great: Theology, Philosophy, and the Sciences, Leiden, Brill, 2013.
* Resnick, Irven e Kitchell Jr, Kenneth (eds.), Albert the Great: A Selective Annotated Bibliography, (1900–2000), Tempe, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2004.
* {{Cite encyclopedia |firstWilliam A. |lastWallace |titleAlbertus Magnus, Saint |urlhttp://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/scholastic/Dictionary%20of%20Scientific%20Biography/Albertus%20Magnus%20(Wallace).pdf |publisherScribner & American Council of Learned Societies |isbn978-0-684-10114-9 |editor-lastGillispie |editor-firstCharles |encyclopediaDictionary of Scientific Biography |volume1 |pages99–103 |locationNew York |year1970}}External links
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{{EB1911 poster|Albertus Magnus}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id38247| nameAlbertus Magnus}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Albertus Magnus}}
* {{Internet Archive author |name=Albert the Great}}
* {{Librivox author |id=5669}}
* {{cite SEP |url-idalbert-great |titleAlbert the Great |lastFührer |firstMarkus}}
* {{Cite CE1913| wstitleSt. Albertus Magnus |lastKennedy |firstD.J. |shortx}}
* [http://www.albertusmagnus.uwaterloo.ca/ Alberti Magni Works in Latin Online]
* [http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/albertusmagnus.html Albertus Magnus on Astrology & Magic]
* [http://www.skyscript.co.uk/magnus.html "Albertus Magnus & Prognostication by the Stars"]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070606230446/http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/magnus-virtue-stones/page_001 Albertus Magnus: "Secrets of the Virtues of Herbs, Stones and Certain Beasts"]}}, London, 1604, full online version.
* [http://www.saintsbooks.net/books/St.%20Albert%20the%20Great%20-%20On%20Cleaving%20to%20God%20-%20De%20Adhaerendo%20Deo%20-%20Latin%20and%20English%20Edition.html Albertus Magnus – De Adhaerendo Deo – On Cleaving to God]
* [http://hos.ou.edu/galleries/03Medieval/AlbertusMagnus/ Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506171832/http://hos.ou.edu/galleries/03Medieval/AlbertusMagnus/ |dateMay 6, 2021 }} – High resolution images of works by Albertus Magnus in .jpg and .tiff format.
* [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/2407/browse?valueAlbert%2C+Magne%2C+sant%2C+1193%3F-1280&typeauthor Albertus Magnus works] at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI] in the collection of the Duke of Calabria.
** [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/22005 Alberti Magni De laudibus beate Mariae Virginis], Italian digitized codex of 1476 with a completed transcription of his work "Liber de laudibus gloriosissime Dei genitricis Marie"
** [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0390 Albertus Magnus De mirabili scientia Dei], Italian digitized codex of 1484 with a transcription of the first part of his Summa Theologicae''.
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Category:Year of birth unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_Magnus | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.197940 |
1575 | Alboin | Alboin (530s – 28 June 572) was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572. During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy, the northern part of which Alboin conquered between 569 and 572. He had a lasting effect on Italy and the Pannonian Basin; in the former, his invasion marked the beginning of centuries of Lombard rule, and in the latter, his defeat of the Gepids and his departure from Pannonia ended the dominance there of the Germanic peoples.
The period of Alboin's reign as king in Pannonia following the death of his father, Audoin, was one of confrontation and conflict between the Lombards and their main neighbours, the Gepids. The Gepids initially gained the upper hand, but in 567, thanks to his alliance with the Avars, Alboin inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemies, whose lands the Avars subsequently occupied. The increasing power of his new neighbours caused Alboin some unease however, and he therefore decided to leave Pannonia for Italy, hoping to take advantage of the Byzantine Empire's vulnerability in defending its territory in the wake of the Gothic War.
After gathering a large coalition of peoples, Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in 568, entering an almost undefended Italy. He rapidly took control of most of Venetia and Liguria. In 569, unopposed, he took northern Italy's main city, Milan. Pavia offered stiff resistance, however, and was taken only after a siege lasting three years. During that time Alboin turned his attention to Tuscany, but signs of factionalism among his supporters and Alboin's diminishing control over his army increasingly began to manifest themselves.
Alboin was assassinated on 28 June 572, in a coup d'état instigated by the Byzantines. It was organized by the king's foster brother, Helmichis, with the support of Alboin's wife, Rosamund, daughter of the Gepid king whom Alboin had killed some years earlier. The coup failed in the face of opposition from a majority of the Lombards, who elected Cleph as Alboin's successor, forcing Helmichis and Rosamund to flee to Ravenna under imperial protection. Alboin's death deprived the Lombards of the only leader who could have kept the newborn Germanic entity together, the last in the line of hero-kings who had led the Lombards through their migrations from the vale of the Elbe to Italy. For many centuries following his death Alboin's heroism and his success in battle were celebrated in Saxon and Bavarian epic poetry.
Etymology
The name Alboin derives from the Proto-Germanic roots *albiz ("elf") and *winiz ("friend"); it is thus cognate with the Old English name Ælfwine. He was known in Latin as Alboinus and in Greek as Ἀλβοΐνος (Alboinos). In modern Italian he is Alboino and in modern Lombard Alboin.
Father's rule
The Lombards under King Wacho had migrated towards the east into Pannonia, taking advantage of the difficulties facing the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy following the death of its founder, Theodoric, in 526. Wacho's death in about 540 brought his son Walthari to the throne, but, as the latter was still a minor, the kingdom was governed in his stead by Alboin's father, Audoin, of the Gausian clan. Seven years later Walthari died, giving Audoin the opportunity to crown himself and overthrow the reigning Lethings.
Alboin was probably born in the 530s in Pannonia, the son of Audoin and his wife, Rodelinda. She may have been the niece of King Theodoric and betrothed to Audoin through the mediation of Emperor Justinian. Like his father, Alboin was raised a pagan, although Audoin had at one point attempted to gain Byzantine support against his neighbours by professing himself a Christian. Alboin took as his first wife the Christian Chlothsind, daughter of the Frankish King Chlothar. This marriage, which took place soon after the death of the Frankish ruler Theudebald in 555, is thought to reflect Audoin's decision to distance himself from the Byzantines, traditional allies of the Lombards, who had been lukewarm when it came to supporting Audoin against the Gepids. The new Frankish alliance was important because of the Franks' known hostility to the Byzantine empire, providing the Lombards with more than one option. However, the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire interprets events and sources differently, believing that Alboin married Chlothsind when already a king in or shortly before 561, the year of Chlothar's death. After the battle, according to a tradition reported by Paul the Deacon, to be granted the right to sit at his father's table, Alboin had to ask for the hospitality of a foreign king and have him donate his weapons, as was customary. For this initiation, he went to the court of Thurisind, where the Gepid king gave him Turismod's arms. Walter Goffart believes it is probable that in this narrative Paul was making use of an oral tradition, and is sceptical that it can be dismissed as merely a typical topos of an epic poem.
Reign in Pannonia
Alboin came to the throne after the death of his father, sometime between 560 and 565. Shortly, in 565, a new war erupted with the Gepids, now led by Cunimund, Thurisind's son. The cause of the conflict is uncertain, as the sources are divided; the Lombard Paul the Deacon accuses the Gepids, while the Byzantine historian Menander Protector places the blame on Alboin, an interpretation favoured by historian Walter Pohl.
An account of the war by the Byzantine Theophylact Simocatta sentimentalises the reasons behind the conflict, claiming it originated with Alboin's vain courting and subsequent kidnapping of Cunimund's daughter Rosamund, that Alboin proceeded then to marry. The tale is treated with scepticism by Walter Goffart, who observes that it conflicts with the Origo Gentis Langobardorum, where she was captured only after the death of her father. The Gepids obtained the support of the Emperor in exchange for a promise to cede him the region of Sirmium, the seat of the Gepid kings. Thus in 565 or 566 Justinian's successor Justin II sent his son-in-law Baduarius as magister militum (field commander) to lead a Byzantine army against Alboin in support of Cunimund, ending in the Lombards' complete defeat.
Faced with the possibility of annihilation, Alboin made an alliance in 566 with the Avars under Bayan I, at the expense of some tough conditions: the Avars demanded a tenth of the Lombards' cattle, half of the war booty, and on the war's conclusion all of the lands held by the Gepids. The Lombards played on the pre-existing hostility between the Avars and the Byzantines, claiming that the latter were allied with the Gepids. Cunimund, on the other hand, encountered hostility when he once again asked the Emperor for military assistance, as the Byzantines had been angered by the Gepids' failure to cede Sirmium to them, as had been agreed. Moreover, Justin II was moving away from the foreign policy of Justinian, and believed in dealing more strictly with bordering states and peoples. Attempts to mollify Justin II with tributes failed, and as a result the Byzantines kept themselves neutral if not outright supportive of the Avars.
In 567 the allies made their final move against Cunimund, with Alboin invading the Gepids' lands from the northwest while Bayan attacked from the northeast. Cunimund attempted to prevent the two armies from joining up by moving against the Lombards and clashing with Alboin somewhere between the Tibiscus and Danube rivers. The Gepids were defeated in the ensuing battle, their king slain by Alboin, and Cunimund's daughter Rosamund taken captive, according to references in the Origo. The full destruction of the Gepid kingdom was completed by the Avars, who overcame the Gepids in the east. As a result, the Gepids ceased to exist as an independent people and were partly absorbed by the Lombards and the Avars. Sometime before 568, Alboin's first wife Chlothsind died, and after his victory against Cunimund Alboin married Rosamund, to establish a bond with the remaining Gepids. The war also marked a watershed in the geo-political history of the region, as together with the Lombard migration the following year, it signalled the end of six centuries of Germanic dominance in the Pannonian Basin.
Preparations and departure from Pannonia
Despite his success against the Gepids, Alboin had failed to greatly increase his power, and was now faced with a much stronger threat from the Avars. Historians consider this the decisive factor in convincing Alboin to undertake a migration, even though there are indications that before the war with the Gepids a decision was maturing to leave for Italy, a country thousands of Lombards had seen in the 550s when hired by the Byzantines to fight in the Gothic War. Additionally, the Lombards would have known of the weakness of Byzantine Italy, which had endured a number of problems after being retaken from the Goths. In particular the so-called Plague of Justinian had ravaged the region and conflict remained endemic, with the Three-Chapter Controversy sparking religious opposition and administration at a standstill after the able governor of the peninsula, Narses, was recalled. Nevertheless, the Lombards viewed Italy as a rich land which promised great booty, assets Alboin used to gather together a horde which included not only Lombards but many other peoples of the region, including Heruli, Suebi, Gepids, Thuringii, Bulgars, Sarmatians, the remaining Romans and a few Ostrogoths. But the most important group, other than the Lombards, were the Saxons, of whom 20,000 male warriors with their families participated in the trek. These Saxons were tributaries to the Frankish King Sigebert, and their participation indicates that Alboin had the support of the Franks for his venture.
The precise size of the heterogeneous group gathered by Alboin is impossible to know, and many different estimates have been made. Neil Christie considers 150,000 to be a realistic size, a number which would make the Lombards a more numerous force than the Ostrogoths on the eve of their invasion of Italy. Jörg Jarnut proposes 100,000–150,000 as an approximation; Wilfried Menghen in Die Langobarden estimates 150,000 to 200,000; while Stefano Gasparri cautiously judges the peoples united by Alboin to be somewhere between 100,000 and 300,000.
thumb|left|alt=A photo showing a valley and a mountain|The Vipava Valley in Slovenia, through which Alboin led the Lombards into ItalyAs a precautionary move Alboin strengthened his alliance with the Avars, signing what Paul calls a foedus perpetuum ("perpetual treaty") and what is referred to in the 9th-century Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani as a pactum et foedus amicitiae ("pact and treaty of friendship"), adding that the treaty was put down on paper. By the conditions accepted in the treaty, the Avars were to take possession of Pannonia and the Lombards were promised military support in Italy should the need arise; also, for a period of 200 years, the Lombards were to maintain the right to reclaim their former territories if the plan to conquer Italy failed, thus leaving Alboin with an alternative open. The accord also had the advantage of protecting Alboin's rear, as an Avar-occupied Pannonia would make it difficult for the Byzantines to bring forces to Italy by land. The agreement proved immensely successful, and relations with the Avars were almost uninterruptedly friendly during the lifetime of the Lombard Kingdom.
A further cause of the Lombard migration into Italy may have been an invitation from Narses. According to a controversial tradition reported by several medieval sources, Narses, out of spite for having been removed by Justinian's successor Justin II, called the Lombards to Italy. Often dismissed as an unreliable tradition, it has been studied with attention by modern scholars, in particular Neil Christie, who see in it a possible record of a formal invitation by the Byzantine state to settle in northern Italy as foederati, to help protect the region against the Franks, an arrangement that may have been disowned by Justin II after Narses' removal.
March to Italy
"This Albuin led into Italy the Langobards who were invited by Narses (chief) of the secretaries. And Albuin, king of the Langobards, moved out of Pannonia in the month of April after Easter in the first indiction. In the second indiction, indeed, they began to plunder in Italy, but in the third indiction he became master of Italy." The Origin of the Nation of the Langobards, Chapter V
The Lombard migration started on Easter Monday, 2 April 568. The decision to combine the departure with a Christian celebration can be understood in the context of Alboin's recent conversion to Arian Christianity, as attested by the presence of Arian Gothic missionaries at his court. The conversion is likely to have been motivated mostly by political considerations, and intended to consolidate the migration's cohesion, distinguishing the migrants from the Catholic Romans. It also connected Alboin and his people to the Gothic heritage, and in this way obtained the support of the Ostrogoths serving in the Byzantine army as foederati. It has been speculated that Alboin's migration could have been partly the result of a call from surviving Ostrogoths in Italy. Paul the Deacon Historia Langobardorum, Book II, Ch. 9
The Lombards penetrated into Italy without meeting any resistance from the border troops (milities limitanei). The Byzantine military resources available on the spot were scant and of dubious loyalty, and the border forts may well have been left unmanned. What seems certain is that archaeological excavations have found no sign of violent confrontation in the sites that have been excavated. This agrees with Paul the Deacon's narrative, who speaks of a Lombard takeover in Friuli "without any hindrance".
The first town to fall into the Lombards' hands was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli), the seat of the local magister militum.
Alboin's decision to create a duchy and designate a duke were both important innovations; until then, the Lombards had never had dukes or duchies based on a walled town. The innovation adopted was part of Alboin's borrowing of Roman and Ostrogothic administrative models, as in Late Antiquity the comes civitatis (city count) was the main local authority, with full administrative powers in his region. But the shift from count (comes) to duke (dux) and from county (comitatus) to duchy (ducatus) also signalled the progressive militarization of Italy.
Conquest of Milan
From Forum Iulii, Alboin next reached Aquileia, the most important road junction in the northeast, and the administrative capital of Venetia. The imminent arrival of the Lombards had a considerable impact on the city's population; the Patriarch of Aquileia Paulinus fled with his clergy and flock to the island of Grado in Byzantine-controlled territory.
From Aquileia, Alboin took the Via Postumia and swept through Venetia, taking in rapid succession Tarvisium (Treviso), Vicentia (Vicenza), Verona, Brixia (Brescia) and Bergomum (Bergamo). The Lombards faced difficulties only in taking Opitergium (Oderzo), which Alboin decided to avoid, as he similarly avoided tackling the main Venetian towns closer to the coast on the Via Annia, such as Altinum, Patavium (Padova), Mons Silicis (Monselice), Mantua and Cremona.
Alboin moved west in his march, invading the region of Liguria (north-west Italy) and reaching its capital Mediolanum (Milan) on 3 September 569, only to find it already abandoned by the vicarius Italiae (vicar of Italy), the authority entrusted with the administration of the diocese of Annonarian Italy. Archbishop Honoratus, his clergy, and part of the laity accompanied the vicarius Italiae to find a safe haven in the Byzantine port of Genua (Genoa). Alboin counted the years of his reign from the capture of Milan when he assumed the title of dominus Italiae (Lord of Italy). His success also meant the collapse of Byzantine defences in the northern part of the Po plain, and large movements of refugees to Byzantine areas.
Several explanations have been advanced to explain the swiftness and ease of the initial Lombard advance in northern Italy. It has been suggested that the towns' doors may have been opened by the betrayal of the Gothic auxiliaries in the Byzantine army, but historians generally hold that Lombard's success occurred because Italy was not considered by Byzantium as a vital part of the empire, especially at a time when the empire was imperilled by the attacks of Avars and Slavs in the Balkans and Sassanids in the east. The Byzantine decision not to contest the Lombard invasion reflects the desire of Justinian's successors to reorient the core of the Empire's policies eastward.
Impact of the migration on Annonarian Italy
The impact of the Lombard migration on the Late Roman aristocracy was disruptive, especially in combination with the Gothic War; the latter conflict had finished in the north only in 562, when the last Gothic stronghold, Verona, was taken. Many men of means (Paul's possessores) either lost their lives or their goods, but the exact extent of the despoliation of the Roman aristocracy is a subject of heated debate. The clergy was also greatly affected. The Lombards were mostly pagans and displayed little respect for the clergy and Church property. Many churchmen left their sees to escape from the Lombards, like the two most senior bishops in the north, Honoratus and Paulinus. However, most of the suffragan bishops in the north sought an accommodation with the Lombards, as did in 569 the bishop of Tarvisium, Felix, when he journeyed to the Piave river to parley with Alboin, obtaining respect for the Church and its goods in return for this act of homage. It seems certain that many sees maintained an uninterrupted episcopal succession through the turmoil of the invasion and the following years. The transition was eased by the hostility existing among the northern Italian bishops towards the papacy and the empire due to the religious dispute involving the "Three-Chapter Controversy". In Lombard territory, churchmen were at least sure to avoid imperial religious persecution.
In the view of Pierre Riché, the disappearance of 220 bishops' seats indicates that the Lombard migration was a crippling catastrophe for the Church. Yet according to Walter Pohl the regions directly occupied by Alboin suffered less devastation and had a relatively robust survival rate for towns, whereas the occupation of territory by autonomous military bands interested mainly in raiding and looting had a more severe impact, with the bishoprics in such places rarely surviving.
Siege of Ticinum
thumb|alt=A book illustration with an armed man on a horse in a town, and below the writing "Alboin in Pavia"|A modern rendering of Alboin's entrance into Ticinum
The first attested instance of strong resistance to Alboin's migration took place at the town of Ticinum (Pavia), which he started to besiege in 569 and captured only after three years. The town was of strategic importance, sitting at the confluence of the rivers Po and Ticino and connected by waterways to Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy and the seat of the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. Its fall cut direct communications between the garrisons stationed on the Alpes Maritimae and the Adriatic coast.
Careful to maintain the initiative against the Byzantines, by 570 Alboin had taken their last defences in northern Italy except for the coastal areas of Liguria and Venetia and a few isolated inland centres such as Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), Segusio (Susa), and the island of Amacina in the Larius Lucus (Lake Como). During Alboin's kingship the Lombards crossed the Apennines and plundered Tuscia, but historians are not in full agreement as to whether this took place under his guidance and if this constituted anything more than raiding. According to Herwig Wolfram, it was probably only in 578–579 that Tuscany was conquered, but Jörg Jarnut and others believe this began in some form under Alboin, although it was not completed by the time of his death.
The king's disintegrating authority over his army was also manifested in the invasion of Frankish Burgundy which from 569 or 570 was subject to yearly raids on a major scale. The Lombard attacks were ultimately repelled following Mummolus' victory at Embrun. These attacks had lasting political consequences, souring the previously cordial Lombard-Frankish relations and opening the door to an alliance between the Empire and the Franks against the Lombards, a coalition agreed to by Guntram in about 571. Alboin is generally thought not to have been behind this invasion, but an alternative interpretation of the transalpine raids presented by Gian Piero Bognetti is that Alboin may actually have been involved in the offensive on Guntram as part of an alliance with the Frankish king of Austrasia, Sigebert I. This view is met with scepticism by scholars such as Chris Wickham.
The weakening of royal authority may also have resulted in the conquest of much of southern Italy by the Lombards, in which modern scholars believe Alboin played no role at all, probably taking place in 570 or 571 under the auspices of individual warlords. However it is far from certain that the Lombard takeover occurred during those years, as very little is known of Faroald and Zotto's respective rises to power in Spoletium (Spoleto) and Beneventum (Benevento).
Assassination
Earliest narratives
"When his wife Chlotsinda died, Albin married another wife whose father he had killed a short time before. For this reason, the woman always hated her husband and awaited an opportunity to avenge the wrong done to her father, and so it happened that she fell in love with one of the household slaves and poisoned her husband. When he died she went off with the slave but they were overtaken and put to death together." Gregory of Tours Historia Francorum, Book II, Ch. 41
Ticinum eventually fell to the Lombards in either May or June 572. Alboin had in the meantime chosen Verona as his seat, establishing himself and his treasure in a royal palace built there by Theodoric. This choice may have been another attempt to link himself with the Gothic king. with the connivance of the queen. Helmichis then married the widow, but the two were forced to escape to Byzantine Ravenna, taking with them the royal treasure and part of the army, which hints at the cooperation of Byzantium. Roger Collins describes Marius as an especially reliable source because of his early date and his having lived close to Lombard Italy.
Also contemporary is Gregory of Tours' account presented in the Historia Francorum, and echoed by the later Fredegar. Gregory's account diverges in several respects from most other sources. In his tale it is told how Alboin married the daughter of a man he had slain, and how she waited for a suitable occasion for revenge, eventually poisoning him. She had previously fallen in love with one of her husband's servants, and after the assassination tried to escape with him, but they were captured and killed. However, historians including Walter Goffart place little trust in this narrative. Goffart notes other similar doubtful stories in the Historia and calls its account of Alboin's demise "a suitably ironic tale of the doings of depraved humanity".
Skull cup
Elements present in Marius' account are echoed in Paul's Historia Langobardorum, which also contains distinctive features. One of the best-known aspects unavailable in any other source is that of the skull cup. In Paul, the events that led to Alboin's downfall unfold in Verona. During a great feast, Alboin gets drunk and orders his wife Rosamund to drink from his cup, made from the skull of his father-in-law Cunimund after he had slain him in 567 and married Rosamund. Alboin "invited her to drink merrily with her father". This reignited the queen's determination to avenge her father.
thumb|alt=Painting of a banquet with many participants in which a bearded man points to a woman with a cup while a seated woman looks the scene|The fatal banquet as painted by Peter Paul Rubens in 1615
The tale has been often dismissed as a fable and Paul was conscious of the risk of disbelief. For this reason, he insists that he saw the skull cup personally during the 740s in the royal palace of Ticinum in the hands of king Ratchis. The use of skull cups has been noticed among nomadic peoples and, in particular, among the Lombards' neighbours, the Avars. Skull cups are believed to be part of a shamanistic ritual, where drinking from the cup was considered a way to assume the dead man's powers. In this context, Stefano Gasparri and Wilfried Menghen see in Cunimund's skull cup the sign of nomadic cultural influences on the Lombards: by drinking from his enemy's skull Alboin was taking his vital strength. As for the offering of the skull to Rosamund, that may have been a ritual request of complete submission of the queen and her people to the Lombards, and thus a cause of shame or humiliation. Alternatively, it may have been a rite to appease the dead through the offering of a libation. In the latter interpretation, the queen's answer reveals her determination not to let the wound opened by the killing of her father be healed through a ritual act, thus openly displaying her thirst for revenge. Alboin's remains were allegedly buried beneath the palace steps.
Alboin's death had a lasting impact, as it deprived the Lombards of the only leader they had that could have kept together the newborn Germanic entity. His end also represents the death of the last of the line of hero-kings that had led the Lombards through their migrations from the Elbe to Italy. His fame survived him for many centuries in epic poetry, with Saxons and Bavarians celebrating his prowess in battle, his heroism, and the magical properties of his weapons.
Aftermath
"Helmegis then, upon the death of his king, attempted to usurp his kingdom, but he could not at all do this, because the Langobards, grieving greatly for the king's death, strove to make way with him. And straightway Rosemund sent word to Longinus, prefect of Ravenna, that he should quickly send a ship to fetch them. Longinus, delighted by such a message, speedily sent a ship in which Helmegis with Rosemund his wife embarked, fleeing at night." Paul the Deacon Historia Langobardorum, Book II, Ch. 29
To complete the coup d'état and legitimize his claim to the throne, Helmichis married the queen, whose high standing arose not only from being the king's widow but also from being the most prominent member of the remaining Gepid nation, and as such her support was a guarantee of the Gepids' loyalty to Helmichis. The latter could also count on the support of the Lombard garrison of Verona, where many may have opposed Alboin's aggressive policy and could have cultivated the hope of reaching an entente with the Empire. The Byzantines were almost certainly deeply involved in the plot. It was in their interest to stem the Lombard tide by bringing a pro-Byzantine regime into power in Verona, and possibly, in the long run, break the unity of the Lombards' kingdom, winning over the dukes with honours and emoluments.
The coup ultimately failed, as it met with the resistance of most of the warriors, who were opposed to the king's assassination. As a result, the Lombard garrison in Ticinum proclaimed Duke Cleph the new king, and Helmichis, rather than going to war against overwhelming odds, escaped to Ravenna with Longinus' assistance, taking with him his wife, his troops, the royal treasure and Alboin's daughter Albsuinda. In Ravenna, the two lovers became estranged and killed each other. Subsequently, Longinus sent Albsuinda and the treasure to Constantinople.
The consolidation of Byzantine and Lombard dominions had long-lasting consequences for Italy, as the region was from that moment on fragmented among multiple rulers until Italian unification in 1871.
Cultural references
Alboin, together with other tribal leaders is mentioned in the 10th century Old English poem called Widsith (lines 70–75) :
The historical period also formed the basis of the 1961 Italian adventure film Sword of the Conqueror (Italian: Rosmunda e Alboino, German title Alboin, König der Langobarden), with Jack Palance as Alboin.
There have been several artistic depictions of events from Alboin's life including Peter Paul Rubens' Alboin and Rosamunde (1615); Charles Landseer's Assassination of Alboin, King of the Lombards (1856); and Fortunino Matania's illustration Rosamund captive before King Alboin of the Lombards (1942).
See also
List of kings of the Lombards
Notes
References
Amory, Patrick. People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, .
Ausenda, Giorgio. "Current issues and future directions in the study of Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian period", Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective. Ian Wood (ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell, 1998, pp. 371–455. .
Azzara, Claudio. L'Italia dei barbari. Bologna: il Mulino, 2009, 978-88-15-08812-3.
Bertolini, Paolo. "Alboino, re dei Longobardi", Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Alberto M. Ghisalberti (ed.). v. 2, Rome: Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Treccani, 1960, pp. 34–38.
Christie, Neil. The Lombards: The Ancient Longobards. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1995 [1998], .
Collins, Roger. Early Medieval Europe 300–1000. London: Macmillan, 1991, .
Gasparri, Stefano. "I longobardi: alle origini del medioevo italiano". Storia Dossier, (1990) 42, Florence: Giunti. .
Goffart, Walter. The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988, .
Gregory of Tours. History of the Franks. Ernest Brehaut (translator). New York: Columbia University Press, 1916.
Humphries, Mark. "Italy, A. D. 425–605", Cambridge Ancient History – Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A. D. 425–600. Averil Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins and Michael Whitby (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 525–552. .
Lane, Frederic C.. Storia di Venezia. Turin: Einaudi, 1973 [1991], .
Madden, Thomas F. "Aquileia", Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia. Christopher Kleinhenz (ed.). v. 1, New York: Routledge, 2004, pp. 44–45. .
Martindale, John R. (ed.), Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire – Volume III: A.D. 527–641, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, .
Moorhead, John. "Ostrogothic Italy and the Lombard invasions", The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume I c. 500 – c. 700. Paul Fouracre (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 140–162. .
Ostrogorsky, Georg. Storia dell'impero bizantino. Turin: Einaudi, 1963 [1993], .
Palmieri, Stefano. "Duchi, Principi e Vescovi nella Longobardia meridionale", Longobardia e longobardi nell'Italia meridionale: le istituzioni ecclesiastiche. Giancarlo Andenna e Giorgio Picasso (eds.). Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 1996, pp. 43–99. .
Paul the Deacon. History of the Langobards. William Dudley Foulke (translator). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1907.
Pohl, Walter. "The Empire and the Lombards: treaties and negotiations in the sixth century", Kingdoms of the Empire: the Integration of barbarians in late Antiquity. Walter Pohl (ed.). Leiden: Brill, 1997, pp. 75–134. .
Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752. London: Routledge, 1979, .
Rovagnati, Sergio. I Longobardi. Milan: Xenia, 2003, .
Schutz, Herbert. Tools, Weapons and Ornaments: Germanic Material Culture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400–750. Leiden: Brill, 2001, .
Whitby, Michael. "The successors of Justinian", The Cambridge Ancient History – Volume XIV. pp. 86–112.
Wickham, Chris. Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1981 [1989], .
Wickham, Chris. Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, .
Wolfram, Herwig. The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990 [1997], .
External links
Category:530s births
Category:572 deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:6th-century Lombard monarchs
Category:6th-century murdered monarchs
Category:Lombard warriors
Category:Gausian dynasty
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Category:Italian rapists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alboin | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.268121 |
1576 | Afonso de Albuquerque | {{Short description|Portuguese general, admiral, and statesman (1453–1515)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix | name Afonso de Albuquerque
| pronunciation = {{IPA|pt|ɐˈfõsu ðɨ alβuˈkɛɾkɨ|lang}}
| image = File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png
| office = 2nd Viceroy of Portuguese India
| term_start = 4 November 1509
| term_end = 8 September 1515
| monarch = Manuel I
| predecessor = Francisco de Almeida
| successor = Lopo Soares de Albergaria
| birth_name = Afonso de Albuquerque
| resting_place = Graça Convent
| birth_date = {{circa|1453}}
| birth_place = Alhandra, Kingdom of Portugal
| death_date {{death date and age|1515|12|16|1453|dfy}}
| death_place = Offshore Goa, Portuguese India
| children = {{Interlanguage link|Brás de Albuquerque|pt|Brás de Albuquerque}}
| nationality = Portuguese
| citizenship | occupation Admiral<br />Governor of India
| signature = Afonso de Albuquerque Signature.svg
| battles = {{tree list}}
*Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts
**Portuguese conquest of Tangier
**Conquest of Asilah
*War of the Castilian Succession
**Battle of Toro
*Ottoman conquest of Otranto
*Zamorin–Portuguese conflicts
**First Luso-Malabarese War
*Baloch–Portuguese conflicts
*Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts
*Portuguese–Safavid wars
**Capture of Muscat (1507)
**Portuguese conquest of Hormuz
**Portuguese intervention in Hormuz (1514–1515)
*Adil Shahi–Portuguese conflicts
**Portuguese conquest of Goa
**Capture of Banastharim
*Somali–Portuguese conflicts
**Battle of Barawa
*Sack of Angoja
*Battle of Socotra
*Malay–Portuguese conflicts
**Capture of Malacca (1511)
*Siege of Aden{{tree list/end}}
}}
Afonso de Albuquerque, 1st Duke of Goa ({{circa|1453}} – 16 December 1515), was a Portuguese general, admiral, and statesman. He served as viceroy of Portuguese India from 1509 to 1515, during which he expanded Portuguese influence across the Indian Ocean and built a reputation as a fierce and skilled military commander.<ref>{{harvnb|Ooi|2004|p137}}</ref><ref name"Albuquerque p. 1">{{harvnb|Stephens|1897|p1}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Butt|2005|p10}}</ref>
Albuquerque advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity, and securing the trade of spices by establishing a Portuguese Asian empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Ooi|2004|page17}}</ref> Among his achievements, Albuquerque managed to conquer Goa and was the first European of the Renaissance to raid the Persian Gulf, and he led the first voyage by a European fleet into the Red Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Stevens|1711|p113}}</ref> He is generally considered a highly effective military commander,<ref name"Foundations" /> and "probably the greatest naval commander of the age",<ref>{{harvnb|Ricklefs|2002|p26}}</ref> given his successful strategy — he attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese mare clausum.<ref nameChisholm>{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911|page526}}</ref> He was appointed head of the "fleet of the Arabian and Persian sea" in 1506.<ref nameIranica>{{cite encyclopedia|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albuquerque-alfonso-de-ca|titleAlbuquerque, Alfonso De|volume1|edition8|date1985|pages823–824|first1J|last1Aubin|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Iranica}}</ref>
Many of the conflicts in which he was directly involved took place in the Indian Ocean, in the Persian Gulf regions for control of the trade routes, and on the coasts of India. His military brilliance in these initial campaigns enabled Portugal to become the first global empire in history.<ref>{{harvnb|Erickson|Goldstein|2012|page=403}}</ref> He led the Portuguese forces in numerous battles, including the conquest of Goa in 1510 and the capture of Malacca in 1511.
During the last five years of his life, he turned to administration,{{sfn|Bandelier|1907}} where his actions as the second governor of Portuguese India were crucial to the longevity of the Portuguese Empire. He oversaw expeditions that resulted in establishing diplomatic contacts with the Ayutthaya Kingdom through his envoy Duarte Fernandes, with Pegu in Myanmar, and Timor and the Moluccas through a voyage headed by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão. He laid the path for European trade with Ming China through Rafael Perestrello. He also aided in establishing diplomatic relations with Ethiopia,<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttps://repositorio.uac.pt/bitstream/10400.3/357/1/Maria_Vilhena_p627-649.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://repositorio.uac.pt/bitstream/10400.3/357/1/Maria_Vilhena_p627-649.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleO Preste João: mito, literatura e história|last1Vilhena|first1Maria da Conceição|journalArquipélago: História Revista da Universidade Dos Açores|pages14–15|publisherUniversidade dos Açores|trans-titleThe Prester John: myth, literature and history|issn0871-7664|edition2|volume5|year2001}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hespeler-Boultbee|2011|page186}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Clough|1994|page[https://archive.org/details/europeanoutthrus0000unse/page/85 85]}}</ref> and established diplomatic ties with Persia during the Safavid dynasty.<ref>{{harvnb|Couto|Loureiro|2008|page219}}</ref>
Throughout his career, he received epithets such as "the Terrible",<ref>{{harvnb|Subrahmanyam|1998|p365}}</ref> "the Great",<ref name"Albuquerque p. 1" /> "the Lion of the Seas",<ref name"Albuquerque" /> "the Portuguese Mars",<ref nameChisholm /> and "the Caesar of the East".<ref name"Albuquerque" />Early lifeAfonso de Albuquerque was born in 1453 in Alhandra, near Lisbon.<ref>{{cite book|first1Robert|last1Cowley|first2Geoffrey|last2Parker|titleThe Reader's Companion to Military History|isbn978-0395669693|publisherHoughton Mifflin|year1996}}</ref> He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Vila Verde dos Francos, and Dona Leonor de Menezes. His father held an important position at court and was connected by remote illegitimate descent with the Portuguese monarchy. He was a descendant of King Denis’s illegitimate son, Afonso Sanches, Lord of Albuquerque. He was educated in mathematics and Latin at the court of Afonso V of Portugal, where he befriended Prince John, the future King John II of Portugal.{{sfn|Stephens|1897|p}}<ref name"Jayne">{{cite book |last1Jayne |first1Kingsley Garland |urlhttps://archive.org/details/vascodagamahissu0000jayn |titleVasco Da Gama and His Successors, 1460-1580 |publisherTaylor & Francis |year1970 |isbn978-0389039655 |pages78–79 |url-accessregistration}}</ref>
Early military service, 1471–1509
In 1471, under the command of Afonso V, he was present at the conquest of Tangier and Arzila in Morocco,<ref name"britannica.com">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAfonso de Albuquerque |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13157/Afonso-de-Albuquerque-the-Great |access-date22 August 2010 |lastLivermore |firstHarold V.}}</ref> and he served there as an officer for some years. In 1476, he accompanied Prince John in wars against Castile, including the Battle of Toro. He participated in the campaign on the Italian peninsula in 1480 to assist Ferdinand I of Naples in repelling the Ottoman invasion of Otranto.{{sfn|Bandelier|1907}} On his return in 1481, when John was crowned as King John II, Albuquerque was made master of the horse and chief equerry ({{Lang|pt|estribeiro-mor}}) to the king, a post which he held throughout John's reign.<ref name"britannica.com" /><ref name"Jayne" /> In 1489, he returned to military campaigning in North Africa, as commander of defense in the Graciosa fortress, an island in the river Luco near the city of Larache. In 1490 Albuquerque was part of the guard of John II. He returned to Arzila in 1495, where his younger brother Martim died fighting by his side.{{citation needed|dateDecember 2020}}
First expedition to India, 1503
{{main|5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503)}}
When King Manuel I of Portugal ascended to the throne following the death of his cousin John II, he held a cautious attitude towards Albuquerque, who was a close friend of his predecessor and seventeen years Manuel's senior. Eight years later, on 6 April 1503 Albuquerque was sent on his first expedition to India together with his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque. Each commanded three ships, sailing with Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Nicolau Coelho. They engaged in several battles against the forces of the Zamorin of Calicut (Calecute, Kozhikode) and succeeded in establishing the king of Cochin (Cochim, Kochi) securely on his throne. In return, the king of Cochin gave the Portuguese permission to build the Portuguese fort Immanuel (Fort Kochi) and establish trade relations with Quilon (Coulão, Kollam). This laid the foundation for the eastern Portuguese Empire.<ref nameChisholm />Second expedition to India, 1506–1509 Return, 1506
showing the Red Sea with Socotra island (red) and the Persian Gulf (blue) with the Strait of Hormuz (Cantino planisphere, 1502)]]
Albuquerque returned home in July 1504 and was well received by King Manuel I. After he assisted with the creation of a strategy for the Portuguese efforts in the east, King Manuel entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen sailing for India in early 1506, headed by Tristão da Cunha.<ref name=Chisholm /> The aim of the expedition was to conquer Socotra and build a fortress there, hoping to close the trade in the Red Sea.
Albuquerque went as "chief-captain for the Coast of Arabia", sailing under da Cunha's orders until reaching Mozambique.<ref>Diogo do Couto, Décadas da Ásia, década X, livro I</ref> He carried a sealed letter with a secret mission ordered by the king: after fulfilling the first mission, he was to replace the first viceroy of India, Francisco de Almeida, whose term ended two years later.<ref name"Foundations">{{harvnb|Diffie|Winius|Shafer|1977|pp239–260}}</ref> Before departing, he legitimized his son Brás ("Braz" in the old Portuguese spelling), born to a common Portuguese woman named Joana Vicente in 1500.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSanceau |firstElaine |titleIndies Adventure: The Amazing Career of Afonso de Albuquerque, Captain-general and Governor of India (1509–1515) |publisherBlackie |year1936}}</ref>First conquest of Socotra, Muscat and Ormuz, 1507
{{main|Capture of Ormuz (1507)}}
The fleet left Lisbon on 6 April 1506. Albuquerque piloted his ship himself, having lost his appointed pilot on departure. In Mozambique Channel, they rescued Captain João da Nova, who had encountered difficulties on his return from India; da Nova and his ship, the Flor de la mar, joined da Cunha's fleet.<ref name"Commentaries of the Great Afonso">{{Cite book |last1de Albuquerque |first1Afonso |titleCommentaries of the Great Afonso |last2Birch |first2Walter de Gray |year2000 |isbn978-81-206-1514-4 |volume1–4}}</ref> From Malindi, da Cunha sent envoys to Ethiopia, which at the time was thought to be closer to India than it actually is, under the aegis of Albuquerque. After failing to reach Ethiopia, he managed to land the envoys in Filuk.<ref name"Stones">{{harvnb|Hespeler-Boultbee|2006|p178}}</ref> After successful attacks on Arab cities on the East African coast, the expedition conquered the island of Socotra and built a fortress at Suq, hoping to establish a base to stop the Red Sea commerce to the Indian Ocean. However, Socotra was abandoned four years later, as it was eventually realised to be a poor location for a base.<ref name"Foundations" />
, Hormuz Island, Iran]]
At Socotra, they parted ways: Tristão da Cunha sailed for India, where he would relieve the Portuguese besieged at Cannanore, while Afonso took seven ships and 500 men to Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, one of the chief eastern centers of commerce. On his way, he conquered the cities of Curiati (Kuryat), Muscat in July 1507, and Khor Fakkan, accepting the submission of the cities of Kalhat and Sohar. He arrived at Hormuz on 25 September and soon captured the city, which agreed to become a tributary state of the Portuguese king.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|page=195–199}}</ref>
Ormuz was then a tributary state of Shah Ismail I ({{Reign|1501|1524}}) of Safavid Persia. In a famous episode, shortly after its conquest, Albuquerque was confronted by Persian envoys, who demanded the payment of the due tribute from him instead. He ordered them to be given a stock of cannonballs, arrows and weapons, retorting that "such was the currency struck in Portugal to pay the tribute demanded from the dominions of King Manuel".<ref>In Portuguese: [...]mandando-lhe dizer que aquela era a moeda que se lavrava em Portugal pera pagar páreas àqueles que as pediam aos lugares e senhorios del-rei Dom Manuel, rei de Portugal e senhor das Índias e do reino de Ormuz. in Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1554)
[https://archive.org/stream/historiadodescob01castuoft#page/210/mode/2up Historia do descobrimento e conquista de India pelos Portugueses] Volume II, pg.211</ref> According to Brás de Albuquerque, it was Shah Ismael who first addressed Albuquerque as "Lion of the seas".<ref name="Commentaries of the Great Afonso" />
Afonso began building the Fort of Our Lady of Victory (later renamed Fort of Our Lady of the Conception)<ref>{{cite book|firstLaraine Newhouse|lastCarter|titlePersian Gulf States | chapter Chapter 1B. The Gulf During the Medieval Period|seriesCountries of the World|publisherBureau Development, Inc.|year1991}}</ref> on Hormuz Island, engaging his men of all ranks in the work.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|pp199–200}}</ref> However, some of his officers, claiming that Afonso was exceeding his orders, revolted against the heavy work and climate and departed for India. With his fleet reduced to two ships and left without supplies, he was unable to maintain his position. In January 1508, he was forced to abandon Ormuz. He raided coastal villages to resupply the settlement of Socotra, returned to Ormuz, and then headed to India.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|pp200–201}}</ref>Arrest at Cannanore, 1509Afonso arrived at Cannanore on the Malabar coast in December 1508, where he opened the sealed letter that he had received from the king before the viceroy, Dom Francisco de Almeida, which named him as governor to succeed Almeida.<ref name"Foundations" /> The viceroy, supported by the officers who had abandoned Afonso at Ormuz, had a matching royal order but declined to yield. He protested that his term ended only in January and stated his intention to avenge his son's death by fighting the Mamluk fleet of Mirocem, refusing Afonso's offer to fight the Mamluk fleet himself. Afonso avoided confrontation, which could have led to civil war, and moved to Kochi, India, to await further instruction from the king. Increasingly isolated, he wrote to Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, who arrived in India with a new fleet, but was ignored as Sequeira joined Almeida. At the same time, Afonso refused approaches from opponents of Almeida who encouraged him to seize power.<ref>{{cite book |first1Fernão Lopes |last1de Castanheda |titleHistoria do Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos Portugueses |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historiadodesco08castgoog |year1833 |publisherTypographia Rollandiana}}</ref>
On 3 February 1509, Almeida fought the naval Battle of Diu against a joint fleet of Mamluks, Ottomans, the Zamorin of Calicut, and the Sultan of Gujarat. His victory was decisive: the Ottomans and Mamluks abandoned the Indian Ocean, easing the way for Portuguese rule there for the next century. In August, after a petition from Afonso's former officers with the support of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira claiming him unfit for governance, Afonso was sent in custody to St. Angelo Fort in Cannanore.<ref>{{harvnb|Stephens|1897|pp61–62}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whitewayy|1995|p126}}</ref> There he remained under what he considered as imprisonment.
Governor of Portuguese India, 1509–1515
Afonso was released after three months' confinement, on the arrival at Cannanore of the Marshal of Portugal Fernando Coutinho with a large fleet sent by the king.<ref name=Chisholm /> Coutinho was the most important Portuguese noble to visit India up to that point. He brought an armada of fifteen ships and 3,000 men to defend Afonso's rights, and to take Calicut.<ref>Neto, Ricardo Bonalume. MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History p. 68. Cowles Enthusiast Media Spring. 1 April 2002 (Page news on 20 October 2006)</ref>
On 4 November 1509, Afonso became the second Governor of Portuguese India, a position he would hold until his death. Almeida set off to return to Portugal, but he was killed before he got there in a skirmish with the Khoekhoe.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|p240}}</ref> Upon his assuming office, Afonso intended to dominate the Muslim world and control the Spice trade.<ref nameAndaya>{{harvnb|Andaya|Andaya|1984}}</ref>
Initially, King Manuel I and his council in Lisbon tried to distribute the power by outlining three areas of jurisdiction in the Indian Ocean.<ref name"Foundations" /> In 1509, the nobleman Diogo Lopes de Sequeira was sent with a fleet to Southeast Asia, to seek an agreement with Sultan Mahmud Shah of Malacca, but failed and returned to Portugal. To Jorge de Aguiar was given the region between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat. He was succeeded by Duarte de Lemos, but left for Cochin and then for Portugal, leaving his fleet to Afonso.Conquest of Goa, 1510
{{Main|Portuguese Conquest of Goa (1510)}}
, from the forces of Yusuf Adil Shah.]]
In January 1510, obeying the orders from the king and aware of the absence of the Zamorin, Afonso advanced on Calicut. The attack was initially successful, but unravelled when Marshal Coutinho, infuriated by Albuquerque's success against Calicut and desiring glory for himself, attacked the Zamorin's palace against Albuquerque's advice, and was ambushed. During the retreat, Afonso was badly wounded and was forced to flee to the ships, barely escaping with his life, while Coutinho was killed.<ref name"Foundations" /><ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|pp248–254}}</ref>
Soon after the failed attack, Afonso assembled a fleet of 23 ships and 1200 men. Contemporary reports state that he wanted to fight the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate fleet in the Red Sea or return to Hormuz. However, he had been informed by Timoji (a privateer in the service of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire) that it would be easier to fight them in Goa, where they had sheltered after the Battle of Diu,<ref nameShastry>{{harvnb|Shastry|Borges|2000|pp34–36}}</ref> and also of the illness of the Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah, and war between the Deccan sultanates.<ref name=Shastry /> So he relied on surprise in the capture of Goa from the Sultanate of Bijapur.
A first assault took place in Goa from 4 March to 20 May 1510. After the initial occupation, feeling unable to hold the city given the poor condition of its fortifications, the cooling of Hindu residents' support and insubordination among his ranks following an attack by Ismail Adil Shah, Afonso refused a truce offered by the Sultan and abandoned the city in August. His fleet was scattered, and a palace revolt in Kochi hindered his recovery, so he headed to Fort Anjediva. New ships arrived from Portugal, which were intended for the nobleman Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos at Malacca, who had been given a rival command of the region.
Three months later, on 25 November Afonso reappeared at Goa with a renovated fleet. Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos was compelled to accompany him with the reinforcements for Malacca<ref name"Foundations" /> and about 300 Malabari reinforcements from Cannanore. In less than a day, they took Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6000 of the 9000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the fierce battle in the streets or by drowning while trying to escape.<ref>{{harvnb|Kerr|1824}}{{page needed|dateDecember 2020}}</ref> Afonso regained the support of the Hindu population, although he frustrated the initial expectations of Timoji, who aspired to become governor. Afonso rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people, as a knowledgeable interpreter of the local customs.<ref name=Shastry /> He then made an agreement to lower the yearly tribute.
In Goa, Afonso established the first Portuguese mint in the East, after Timoja's merchants had complained of the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to solidify the territorial conquest.<ref>{{harvnb|De Souza|1990|pp220–221}}</ref> The new coin, based on the existing local coins, showed a cross on the obverse and an armillary sphere (or "esfera"), King Manuel's badge, on the reverse. Gold cruzados or manueis, silver esferas and alf-esferas, and bronze "leais" were issued.<ref>{{harvnb|Dalgado|1982|p382}}</ref>
Albuquerque founded at Goa the Hospital Real de Goa or Royal Hospital of Goa, by the Church of Santa Catarina. Upon hearing that the doctors were extorting the sickly with excessive fees, Albuquerque summoned them, declaring that "You charge a physician's pay and don't know what disease the men who serve our lord the King suffer from. Thus, I want to teach you what is it that they die from"<ref>Gaspar Correia Lendas da Índia, book II tome II, part I pp.440–441, 1923 Edition</ref> and put them to work building the city walls all day till nightfall before releasing them.<ref>{{cite book|first1Germano|last1de Sousa|year2013|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrvg_mAEACAAJ&qHist%C3%B3ria+da+Medicina+Portuguesa+Durante+a+Expans%C3%A3o|titleHistória da Medicina Portuguesa Durante a Expansão|publisherTemes e Debates|locationLisbon|languagept|isbn=978-9896442194}}</ref>
Despite constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighbouring kingdoms: the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and local grants to fortify.
Afonso then used Goa to secure the spice trade in favor of Portugal and sell Persian horses to Vijayanagara and Hindu princes in return for their assistance.<ref name"britannica.com" />Conquest of Malacca, 1511
'' claims made by Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire, with Afonso's "Strait Controlling" strategy marked in blue circles.]]
{{Main|Portuguese Empire in the East}}
{{main|Capture of Malacca (1511)}}
Afonso explained to his armies why the Portuguese wanted to capture Malacca:
:"''The King of Portugal has often commanded me to go to the Straits, because...this was the best place to intercept the trade which the Moslems...carry on in these parts. So it was to do Our Lord's service that we were brought here; by taking Malacca, we would close the Straits so that never again would the Moslems be able to bring their spices by this route.... I am very sure that, if this Malacca trade is taken out of their hands, Cairo and Mecca will be completely lost.''" (The Commentaries of the Great Afonso de Albuquerque)
In February 1511, through a friendly Hindu merchant, Nina Chatu, Afonso received a letter from Rui de Araújo, one of the nineteen Portuguese held at Malacca since 1509. It urged moving forward with the largest possible fleet to demand their release, and gave details of the fortifications. Afonso showed it to Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos, as an argument to advance as a joint fleet. In April 1511, after fortifying Goa, he gathered a force of about 900 Portuguese, 200 Hindu mercenaries and about eighteen ships.<ref name"RICKLEFSp23">{{harvnb|Ricklefs|1991|p23}}</ref> He then sailed to Malacca against orders and despite the protest of Diogo Mendes, who claimed command of the expedition. Afonso eventually centralized the Portuguese government in the Indian Ocean. After the Malaccan conquest, he wrote a letter to the king to explain his disagreement with Diogo Mendes, suggesting that further divisions could be harmful to the Portuguese in India.<ref name="Foundations" /> Under his command was Ferdinand Magellan, who had participated in the failed embassy of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in 1509.
After a false start towards the Red Sea, they sailed to the Strait of Malacca. It was the richest city that the Portuguese tried to take, and a focal point in the trade network where Malay traders met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic, among others, described by Tomé Pires as of invaluable richness. Despite its wealth, it was mostly a wooden-built city, with few masonry buildings but was defended by a mercenary force estimated at 20,000 men and more than 2000 pieces of artillery. Its greatest weakness was the unpopularity of the government of Sultan Mahmud Shah, who favoured Muslims, arousing dissatisfaction amongst other merchants.
Afonso made a bold approach to the city, his ships decorated with banners, firing cannon volleys. He declared himself lord of all the navigation, demanded the Sultan release the prisoners and pay for damages, and demanded consent to build a fortified trading post. The Sultan eventually freed the prisoners, but was unimpressed by the small Portuguese contingent. Afonso then burned some ships at the port and four coastal buildings as a demonstration. The city being divided by the Malacca River, the connecting bridge was a strategic point, so at dawn on 25 July, the Portuguese landed and fought a tough battle, facing poisoned arrows, taking the bridge in the evening. After fruitlessly waiting for the Sultan's reaction, they returned to the ships and prepared a junk (offered by Chinese merchants), filling it with men, artillery and sandbags. Commanded by António de Abreu, it sailed upriver at high tide to the bridge. The day after, all had landed. After a fierce fight during which the Sultan appeared with an army of war elephants, the defenders were dispersed and the Sultan fled.<ref name"Foundations" /> Afonso waited for the reaction of the Sultan. Merchants approached, asking for Portuguese protection. They were given banners to mark their premises, a sign that they would not be looted. On 15 August, the Portuguese attacked again, but the Sultan had fled the city. Under strict orders, they looted the city, but respected the banners.<ref name"Bosworth2007">{{harvnb|Bosworth|2007|page=317}}</ref>
(1613)]]
, depicted by Albuquerque's scrivener, Gaspar Correia. ]]
Afonso prepared Malacca's defenses against a Malay counterattack,<ref name"RICKLEFSp23" /> building a fortress, assigning his men to shifts and using stones from the mosque and the cemetery. Despite the delays caused by heat and malaria, it was completed in November 1511, its surviving door now known as "A Famosa" ('the famous'). It was possibly then that Afonso had a large stone engraved with the names of the participants in the conquest. To quell disagreements over the order of the names, he had it set facing the wall, with the single inscription Lapidem quem reprobaverunt aedificantes (Latin for "The stone the builders rejected", from David's prophecy, Psalm 118:22–23) on the front.<ref>{{cite book|first1Afonso|last1de Albuquerque|titleCommentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque: capitão geral que foi das Indias Orientaes em tempo do muito poderoso rey D. Manuel, o primeiro deste nome|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4UILAAAAYAAJ|year1774|publisher=Na Regia Officina Typografica}}</ref>
He settled the Portuguese administration, reappointing Rui de Araújo as factor, a post assigned before his 1509 arrest, and appointing rich merchant Nina Chatu to replace the previous Bendahara. Besides assisting in the governance of the city and the first Portuguese coinage, he provided the junks for several diplomatic missions.<ref>{{harvnb|De Souza|1985|p60}}</ref> Meanwhile, Afonso arrested and had executed the powerful Javanese merchant Utimuti Raja who, after being appointed to a position in the Portuguese administration as representative of the Javanese population, had maintained contacts with the exiled royal family.Shipwreck on the Flor de la mar, 1511On 20 November 1511 Afonso sailed from Malacca to the coast of Malabar on the old Flor de la Mar carrack that had served to support the conquest of Malacca. Despite its unsound condition, he used it to transport the treasure amassed in the conquest, given its large capacity.<ref name"Foundations" /> He wanted to give the court of King Manuel a show of Malaccan treasures. There were also offerings from the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Thailand) to the king of Portugal, and all his own fortune. On the voyage, the Flor de la Mar was wrecked in a storm, and Afonso barely escaped drowning.<ref name"RICKLEFSp23" />Missions from MalaccaEmbassies to Pegu, Sumatra and Siam, 1511Most Muslim and Gujarati merchants having fled the city, Afonso invested in diplomatic efforts demonstrating generosity to Southeast Asian merchants, like the Chinese, to encourage good relations with the Portuguese. Trade and diplomatic missions were sent to continental kingdoms: Rui Nunes da Cunha was sent to Pegu (Burma), from where King Binyaram sent back a friendly emissary to Kochi in 1514<ref>{{Cite book |lastTeixeira |firstManuel |titleThe Portuguese Missions in Malacca and Singapore (1511–1958) |publisherAgência Geral do Ultramar |year1963}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh82D-Y0E3TwC |titleThe Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: An Account of the East from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515; and, the Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 |date2005 |publisherAsian Educational Services |isbn81-206-0535-7 |editor-lastCortesão |editor-firstArmando |volume1–2 |locationNew Delhi |orig-date1512–1515}}</ref> and Sumatra, Sumatran kings of Kampar and Indragiri sending emissaries to Afonso accepting the new power, as vassal states of Malacca.<ref name"Lach">{{cite book|first1Donald F.|last1Lach|titleAsia in the Making of Europe|volumeI: The Century of Discovery|year1994|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press|isbn978-0-226-46731-3|pages520–521, 571|author-linkDonald F. Lach}}</ref> Knowing of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Afonso sent Duarte Fernandes in a diplomatic mission to the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Thailand), returning in a Chinese junk. He was one of the Portuguese who had been arrested in Malacca, having gathered knowledge about the culture of the region. There he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between the kingdom of Portugal and the court of the king of Siam Ramathibodi II, returning with a Siamese envoy bearing gifts and letters to Afonso and the king of Portugal.<ref name"Lach" />
Expedition to the "spice islands" (Maluku islands), 1512
with São João Baptista Fort, built in 1522]]
In November, after having secured Malacca and learning the location of the then secret "spice islands", Afonso sent three ships to find them, led by trusted António de Abreu with deputy commander Francisco Serrão.<ref>{{harvnb|Ricklefs|1991|p24}}</ref> Malay sailors were recruited to guide them through Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Ambon Island to Banda Islands, where they arrived in early 1512.<ref name"Milton 1999 5 and 7">Hannard (1991), page 7;{{cite book|lastMilton|firstGiles|author-linkGiles Milton|titleNathaniel's Nutmeg|year1999|publisherSceptre|locationLondon|isbn978-0-340-69676-7|pages5, 7}}</ref> There they remained for a month, buying and filling their ships with nutmeg and cloves. António de Abreu then sailed to Amboina whilst Serrão sailed towards the Moluccas, but he was shipwrecked near Seram. Sultan Abu Lais of Ternate heard of their stranding, and, seeing a chance to ally himself with a powerful foreign nation, brought them to Ternate in 1512 where they were permitted to build a fort on the island, the {{Interlanguage link|Forte de São João Baptista de Ternate|pt|vertical-alignsup}}, built in 1522.
Return to Cochin and Goa
Afonso returned from Malacca to Cochin, but could not sail to Goa as it faced a serious revolt headed by the forces of Ismael Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur, commanded by Rasul Khan and his countrymen. During Afonso's absence from Malacca, the Portuguese who opposed the taking of Goa had waived its possession, even writing to the king that it would be best to let it go. Held up by the monsoon and with few forces available, Afonso had to wait for the arrival of reinforcement fleets headed by his nephew D. Garcia de Noronha, and Jorge de Mello Pereira.
While at Cochin, Albuquerque started a school. In a private letter to King Manuel I, he stated that he had found a chest full of books with which to teach the children of married Portuguese settlers (casados) and Christian converts, of which there were about a hundred, to read and write.<ref>Afonso de Albuquerque Cartas para El-Rei D. Manuel I edited by António Baião (1942). Letter of 1 April 1512</ref>
On 10 September 1512, Afonso sailed from Cochin to Goa with fourteen ships carrying 1,700 soldiers. Determined to recapture the fortress, he ordered trenches dug and a wall breached. But on the day of the planned final assault, Rasul Khan surrendered. Afonso demanded the fort be handed over with its artillery, ammunition and horses, and the deserters to be given up. Some had joined Rasul Khan when the Portuguese were forced to flee Goa in May 1510, others during the recent siege. Rasul Khan consented, on condition that their lives be spared. Afonso agreed and he left Goa. He did spare the lives of the deserters, but had them horribly mutilated. One such renegade was Fernão Lopes, bound for Portugal in custody, who escaped at the island of Saint Helena and led a 'Robinson Crusoe' life for many years. After such measures the town became the most prosperous Portuguese settlement in India.
Administration and diplomacy, 1512–1515
Ethiopian embassy, 1512
In December 1512 an envoy from Ethiopia arrived at Goa. Mateus was sent by the regent queen Eleni, following the arrival of the Portuguese from Socotra in 1507, as an ambassador for the king of Portugal in search of a coalition to help face growing Muslim influence. He was received in Goa with great honour by Afonso, as a long-sought "Prester John" envoy. His arrival was announced by King Manuel to Pope Leo X in 1513. Although Mateus faced the distrust of Afonso's rivals, who tried to prove he was some impostor or Muslim spy, Afonso sent him to Portugal.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|1962|p=[https://archive.org/details/questforeasternc0000roge/page/n102 1]}}</ref> The king is described as having wept with joy at their report.
In February 1513, while Mateus was in Portugal, Afonso sailed to the Red Sea with a force of about 1000 Portuguese and 400 Malabaris. He was under orders to secure that channel for Portugal. Socotra had proved ineffective to control the Red Sea entrance and was abandoned, and Afonso's hint that Massawa could be a good Portuguese base might have been influenced by Mateus' reports.<ref name"Foundations" />Campaign in the Red Sea, 1513Knowing that the Mamluks were preparing a second fleet at Suez, he wanted to advance before reinforcements arrived in Aden, and accordingly laid siege to the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Newitt|2005|p87}}</ref> Aden was a fortified city, but although he had scaling ladders they broke during the chaotic attack. After half a day of fierce battle, Afonso was forced to retreat. He cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab, with the first European fleet to have sailed this route. He attempted to reach Jeddah, but the winds were unfavourable and so he sheltered at Kamaran island in May, until sickness among the men and lack of fresh water forced him to retreat. In August 1513, after a second attempt to reach Aden, he returned to India with no substantial results. In order to destroy the power of Egypt, he wrote to King Manuel of the idea of diverting the course of the Nile river to render the whole country barren.<ref nameChisholm /> He also intended to steal the body of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and hold it for ransom until all Muslims had left the Holy Land.<ref>{{harvnb|McGregor|2006|page[https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00andr/page/20 20]}}</ref>
Although Albuquerque's expedition failed to reach Suez, such an incursion into the Red Sea by a Christian fleet for the first time in history stunned the Muslim world, and panic spread in Cairo.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|page335}}</ref>Submission of Calicut
{{See also|First Luso-Malabarese War}}
Albuquerque achieved during his term a favourable end to hostilities between the Portuguese and the Zamorin of Calicut, which had lasted since the massacre of the Portuguese in Calicut in 1502. As naval trade faltered and vassals defected, with no foreseeable solutions to the conflict with the Portuguese, the court of the Zamorin fell to in-fighting. The ruling Zamorin was assassinated and replaced by a rival, under the instigation of Albuquerque, permitting peace talks to commence. The Portuguese were allowed to build a fortress in Calicut itself, and acquired rights to obtain as much pepper and ginger as they wished, at stipulated prices, and half the customs duties of Calicut as yearly tribute.<ref>{{cite book|first1Elaine|last1Sanceau|year1936|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVyYbAAAAIAAJ&qinauthor%3A%22Elaine%20Sanceau%22|titleIndies Adventure: The Amazing Career of Afonso de Albuquerque, Captain-general and Governor of India (1509–1515)|page227}}</ref> Construction of the fortress began immediately, under the supervision of chief architect Tomás Fernandes.
Goa, 1514
, {{c.|1540|lk=no}})]]
With peace concluded, in 1514 Afonso devoted himself to governing Goa and receiving embassies from Indian governors, strengthening the city and encouraging marriages of Portuguese men and local women. At that time, Portuguese women were barred from traveling overseas in order to maintain discipline among the men on board the ships. In 1511 under a policy which Afonso promulgated, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to marry local women. To promote settlement, the King of Portugal granted freeman status and exemption from Crown taxes to Portuguese men (known as casados, or "married men") who ventured overseas and married local women. With Afonso's encouragement, mixed marriages flourished, giving birth to Portuguese-Indians or mestiços. He appointed local people for positions in the Portuguese administration and did not interfere with local traditions (except "sati", the practice of immolating widows, which he banned).
In March 1514 King Manuel sent to Pope Leo X a huge and exotic embassy led by Tristão da Cunha, who toured the streets of Rome in an extravagant procession of animals from the colonies and wealth from the Indies. His reputation reached its peak, laying foundations of the Portuguese Empire in the East.
, woodcut (1515)]]In early 1514, Afonso sent ambassadors to Gujarat's Sultan Muzaffar Shah II, ruler of Cambay, to seek permission to build a fort on Diu, India. The mission returned without an agreement, but diplomatic gifts were exchanged, including an Indian rhinoceros.<ref>{{harvnb|Bedini|1997|p112}}</ref> Afonso sent the rhino to King Manuel, making it the first living example of a rhinoceros seen in Europe since the Roman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowley|2015|pp319–320}}</ref> King Manuel named the rhino Genda after the Gujarat word for ball, and later gifted it to Pope Leo X, but before completing its journey to Italy the boat carrying the rhino sank and the animal drowned. In 1515, German artist Albrecht Dürer created his famous woodcut known as Dürer's Rhinoceros, based on a description from a letter and a brief sketch made by an unknown artist who had seen the actual animal. Dürer's interpretation of the rhino cemented the idea of how a rhino should look like in people's mindsets up until the late-eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Legacy of Dürer's Rhinoceros |urlhttps://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-legacy-of-durers-rhinoceros.html |access-date2024-06-15 |websitewww.nhm.ac.uk |languageen}}</ref>Conquest of Ormuz and Illness
In 1513, at Cannanore, Afonso was visited by a Persian ambassador from Shah Ismail I, who had sent ambassadors to Gujarat, Ormuz and Bijapur. The shah's ambassador to Bijapur invited Afonso to send back an envoy to Persia. Miguel Ferreira was sent via Ormuz to Tabriz, where he had several interviews with the shah about common goals of defeating the Mamluk sultan.
At the same time, Albuquerque decided to conclude the effective conquest of Hormuz. He had learned that after the Portuguese retreat in 1507, a young king was reigning under the influence of a powerful Persian vizier, Reis Hamed, whom the king greatly feared. At Ormuz in March 1515, Afonso met the king and asked the vizier to be present. He then had him immediately stabbed and killed by his entourage, thus "freeing" the terrified king, so the island in the Persian Gulf yielded to him without resistance and remained a vassal state of the Portuguese Empire. Ormuz itself would not be Persian territory for another century, until an English-Persian alliance finally expelled the Portuguese in 1622.<ref name"intlhistory.blogspot.com.au">{{cite web|urlhttp://intlhistory.blogspot.com.au/2012/07/alfonso-de-albuquerque-history-figure.html|titleAfonso de Albuquerque: History Figure of the Month|websiteInternational History Blog|dateJuly 2012|last1Toorani|first1Mohamed}}</ref> At Ormuz, Afonso met with Miguel Ferreira, returning with rich presents and an ambassador, carrying a letter from the Persian potentate Shah Ismael, inviting Afonso to become a leading lord in Persia.<ref>{{cite book|first1John Holland|last1Rose |first2Ernest Alfred|last2Benians |first3Arthur Percival|last3Newton |titleThe Cambridge History of the British Empire|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY-08AAAAIAAJ&pgPA12|year1928|publisherCUP Archive|page12}}</ref> There he remained, engaging in diplomatic efforts, receiving envoys and overseeing the construction of the new fortress, while becoming increasingly ill. His illness was reported as early as September 1515.<ref name"Early">{{harvnb|Muchembled|Monter|2007|page238}}</ref> In November 1515, he embarked on a journey back to Goa.
Death
At this time, his political enemies at the Portuguese court were planning his downfall. They had lost no opportunity in stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, insinuating that Afonso intended to usurp power in Portuguese India.<ref name"Albuquerque">Albuquerque, Brás de (1774). Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque, parte IV, pp. 200–206</ref> While on his return voyage from Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, near the harbor of Chaul, he received news of a Portuguese fleet arriving from Europe, bearing dispatches announcing that he was to be replaced by his personal foe, Lopo Soares de Albergaria. Realizing the plot that his enemies had moved against him, profoundly disillusioned, he voiced his bitterness: "Grave must be my sins before the King, for I am in ill favor with the King for love of the men, and with the men for love of the King."<ref>{{harvnb|Correia|1860|p458}}</ref>
Feeling himself near death, he donned the surcoat of the Order of Santiago, of which he was a knight, and drew up his will, appointed the captain and senior officials of Ormuz, and organized a final council with his captains to decide the main matters affecting the Portuguese State of India.<ref name"Early" /> He wrote a brief letter to King Manuel, asking him to confer onto his natural son "all of the high honors and rewards" that Afonso had received, and assuring Manuel of his loyalty.<ref name"intlhistory.blogspot.com.au" /><ref>{{cite book|firstRobert|lastRinehart|titlePortugal | chapter Chapter 2B. The Expansion of Portugal|seriesCountries of the World|publisherBureau Development, Inc.|year=1991}}</ref>
On 16 December 1515, Afonso de Albuquerque died within sight of Goa. As his death was known, in the city "great wailing arose",<ref nameCorr459>{{harvnb|Correia|1860|p459}}</ref> and many took to the streets to witness his body carried on a chair by his main captains, in a procession lit by torches amidst the crowd.<ref>{{harvnb|Correia|1860|p460}}</ref> Afonso's body was buried in Goa, according to his will, in the Church of Nossa Senhora da Serra (Our Lady of the Hill), which he had been built in 1513 to thank the Madonna for his escape from Kamaran island.{{efn|This Church was later demolished between 1811 and 1842.<ref>{{cite book|first1Manoel José Gabriel|last1Saldanha|titleHistória de Goa: (Política e arqueológica)|year1990|page145|publisherAsian Educational Services|isbn81-206-0590-X|languagept}}</ref>}} That night, the population of Goa, both Hindu and Portuguese, gathered to mourn his death.<ref nameCorr459 />
In Portugal, King Manuel's zigzagging policies continued, still trapped by the constraints of real-time medieval communication between Lisbon and India and unaware that Afonso was dead. Hearing rumours that the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt was preparing a magnificent army at Suez to prevent the conquest of Ormuz, he repented of having replaced Afonso, and in March 1516 urgently wrote to Albergaria to return the command of all operations to Afonso and provide him with resources to face the Egyptian threat. He organized a new Portuguese navy in Asia, with orders that Afonso (if he was still in India), be made commander-in-chief against the Sultan of Cairo's armies. Manuel would afterwards learn that Afonso had died many months earlier, and that his reversed decision had been delivered many months too late.<ref name"Early" /><ref name"Albuquerque" />
After 51 years, in 1566, his body was moved to Nossa Senhora da Graça church in Lisbon,<ref>{{Cite book |lastBarbosa Machado |firstDiogo |titleBibliotheca Lusitana |year1741 |volume1 |page23 |languagept}}</ref> which was ruined and rebuilt after the 1755 Great Lisbon earthquake.Legacy
in Lisbon (1902)]]
, in Portugal. Executed by Jaime Martins Barata]]
King Manuel I of Portugal was belatedly convinced of Afonso's loyalty, and endeavoured to atone for his lack of confidence in Afonso by heaping honours upon his son, Brás de Albuquerque (1500–1580),<ref>{{Cite book |lastStier |firstHans Erich |titleDie Welt als Geschichte: Zeitschrift für Universalgeschichte |publisherKohlhammer Verlag |year1942 |locationStuttgart |languagede}}</ref> whom he renamed "Afonso" in memory of the father. Afonso de Albuquerque was a prolific writer, having sent numerous letters during his governorship, covering topics from minor issues to major strategies. In 1557 his son published his biography under the title ''Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque''.<ref>{{cite book|last1Forbes|first1Jack D.|year1993|titleAfricans and Native Americans|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press|isbn0-252-06321-X}}{{page needed|dateApril 2021}}</ref>
In 1572, Afonso's actions were described in The Lusiads, the Portuguese main epic poem by Luís Vaz de Camões (Canto X, strophes 40–49). The poet praises his achievements, but has the muses frown upon the harsh rule of his men, of whom Camões was almost a contemporary fellow. In 1934, Afonso was celebrated by Fernando Pessoa in Mensagem, a symbolist epic. In the first part of this work, called "Brasão" (Coat-of-Arms), he relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields in the Portuguese coat-of-arms, Afonso being one of the wings of the griffin headed by Henry the Navigator, the other wing being King John II.
A variety of mango, which was created by Portuguese Jesuits in Goa via grafting techniques, was named in his honour.<ref name"guard">{{Cite news |lastSukhadwala |firstSejal |date27 April 2012 |titleDo You Know Alphonso Mango? |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/apr/27/do-you-know-alphonso-mango}}</ref><ref name"Alvares">{{cite news|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/the-jesuits-and-the-mango/articleshow/68894908.cms|titleThe Jesuits and the Mango|workThe Times of India|last1Alvares|first1Patricia Ann|date15 April 2019}}</ref>
Numerous homages have been paid to Afonso. He is featured in the Padrão dos Descobrimentos monument. There is a square named after him in Lisbon, which also features a bronze statue, as well as a prominent statue of his enrobed figure in a garden square in Bairro Gomes da Costa in Porto.
Two Portuguese Navy ships have been named in his honour: the sloop NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1884) and the warship NRP Afonso de Albuquerque.
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
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* {{cite book|last1McKinnon|first1Rowan|last2Carillet|first2Jean-Bernard|last3Starnes|first3Dean|titlePapua New Guinea & Solomon Islands|year2008|publisherLonely Planet |isbn978-1-74104-580-2}}
* {{cite book|last1Muchembled|first1Robert|last2Monter|first2William|titleCultural Exchange in Early Modern Europe|year2007|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-84548-9|page=238}}
* {{cite book|first1Malyn D. D.|last1Newitt|titleA History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideyQu-O1EQCAC|year2005|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-0-415-23980-6}}
* {{cite book|first1Merle Calvin|last1Ricklefs|titleA History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200|year2002|publisherStanford University Press |isbn978-0-8047-4480-5}}
* {{cite book|last1Ricklefs|first1Merle Calvin|titleA History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1300 |edition2nd |year1991|publisherMacMillan|locationLondon|isbn0-333-57689-6}}
* {{cite book|first1Francis Millet|last1Rogers|titleThe Quest for Eastern Christians|urlhttps://archive.org/details/questforeasternc0000roge|url-accessregistration|year1962|publisherUniversity of Minnesota Press|isbn978-0-8166-0275-9}}
* {{cite book|firstGordon L. |lastRottman|titleWorld War Two Pacific Island Guide|year2002|publisherGreenwood Press|isbn978-0-313-31395-0}}
* {{cite book|first1Bhagamandala Seetharama|last1Shastry|first2Charles J.|last2Borges|titleGoa-Kanara Portuguese relations, 1498–1763|year2000|publisherConcept Publishing Company |isbn978-8170228486}}
* {{cite book|first1Teotónio R.|last1De Souza|titleIndo-Portuguese History: Old Issues, New Questions|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyjXJOFEIIMkC&pgPA60|year1985|publisherConcept Publishing Company|isbn=978-8170220961}}
* {{cite book|titleGoa Through the Ages: An Economic History|year1990|isbn978-81-7022-226-2|first1Teotonio R.|last1De Souza|publisherConcept Publishing Company}}
* {{cite book|firstHenry Morse|lastStephens|titleAlbuquerque|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|seriesRulers of India series|year1897|publisherAsian Educational Services|isbn978-81-206-1524-3}}
* {{cite book|titleA New Collection of Voyages and Travels|year1711|first1John|last1Stevens|publisherOxford University|isbn978-0699168212}}
* {{cite book|titleThe Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama|first1Sanjay|last1Subrahmanyam|year1998|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0521646291}}
* {{cite book|first1Richard Stephen|last1Whitewayy|titleThe Rise of Portuguese Power in India (1497–1550)|year1995|publisherAsian Educational Services |isbn978-81-206-0500-8}}
{{Refend}}
In other languages
* {{cite book|first1Afonso|last1de Albuquerque|titleCommentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque: capitão geral que foi das Indias Orientaes em tempo do muito poderoso rey D. Manuel, o primeiro deste nome|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4UILAAAAYAAJ|year1774|publisherNa Regia Officina Typografica}}
* Albuquerque, Afonso de, D. Manuel I, António Baião, "[https://openlibrary.org/b/OL6573931M/Cartas_de_Affonso_de_Albuquerque Cartas para el-rei d]". Manuel I", Editora Livraria Sá de Costa (1957)
Primary sources
* {{cite book|last1Kerr|first1Robert|titleA General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Arranged in Systematic Order|year1824|publisherWilliam Blackwood|locationEdinburgh|urlhttp://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/kerr/vol06chap01sect05.html|author-linkRobert Kerr (writer)|atVolume 6, chapter I}}External links
{{Commons category}}
* Paul Lunde, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110821054627/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.coming.of.the.portuguese.htm The coming of the Portuguese], 2006, Saudi Aramco World
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=Francisco de Almeida}}
{{s-ttl|titleGovernor of Portuguese India|years1509–1515}}
{{s-aft|after=Lopo Soares de Albergaria}}
{{s-end}}
{{Portuguese Governors and Viceroys of India|state=collapsed}}
{{Portuguese explorers|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Albuquerque, Afonso de}}
Category:16th-century Portuguese explorers
Category:Explorers of Asia
Category:Explorers of India
Category:Viceroys of Portuguese India
Category:Date of birth unknown
Category:1450s births
Category:1515 deaths
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Category:Portuguese generals
Category:Portuguese Renaissance writers
Category:Portuguese Roman Catholics
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Category:16th-century Portuguese military personnel
Category:16th-century Portuguese nobility | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.295087 |
1577 | Alcaeus | {{short description|Greek lyric poet}}
{{About|the lyric poet||Alcaeus (disambiguation)}}
, Attic red-figure calathus, c. 470&nbsp;BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2416)]]
Alcaeus of Mytilene ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|s|iː|ə|s}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀλκαῖος ὁ Μυτιληναῖος}}, Alkaios ho Mutilēnaios; {{circa|625/620}} – {{circa|580}} BC)<ref>{{Cite journal|lastCarey|firstC.|date2016-03-07|titleAlcaeus (1), lyric poet|urlhttps://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-254|journalOxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics|languageen|doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.254|isbn9780199381135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alcaeus|titleAlcaeus {{!}} Greek poet|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|languageen|access-date2019-10-17}}</ref> was a lyric poet from the Greek island of Lesbos who is credited with inventing the Alcaic stanza. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. He was a contemporary of Sappho, with whom he may have exchanged poems. He was born into the aristocratic governing class of Mytilene, the main city of Lesbos, where he was involved in political disputes and feuds.
Biography
The broad outlines of the poet's life are well known.<ref>David Mulroy, Early Greek Lyric Poetry, University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp. 77–78</ref><ref>David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classic Press, 1982, pp. 285–7</ref><ref name"archive1901">{{cite web|firstJames S. |lastEasby-Smith|titleThe Songs of Alcaeus|publisherW. H. Lowdermilk and Co.|location Washington|year1901 |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/songsalcaeusmem00englgoog/songsalcaeusmem00englgoog_djvu.txt}}</ref> He was born into the aristocratic, warrior class that dominated Mytilene, the strongest city-state on the island of Lesbos and, by the end of the seventh century BC, the most influential of all the North Aegean Greek cities, with a strong navy and colonies securing its trade-routes in the Hellespont. The city had long been ruled by kings born to the Penthilid clan but, during the poet's life, the Penthilids were a spent force and rival aristocrats and their factions contended with each other for supreme power. Alcaeus and his older brothers were passionately involved in the struggle but experienced little success. Their political adventures can be understood in terms of three tyrants who came and went in succession:
* Melanchrus – he was overthrown sometime between 612&nbsp;BC and 609&nbsp;BC by a faction that, in addition to the brothers of Alcaeus, included Pittacus (later renowned as one of the Seven Sages of Greece); Alcaeus at that time was too young to be actively involved;
* Myrsilus – it is not known when he came to power but some verses by Alcaeus (frag. 129) indicate that the poet, his brothers and Pittacus made plans to overthrow him and that Pittacus subsequently betrayed them; Alcaeus and his brothers fled into exile where the poet later wrote a drinking song in celebration of the news of the tyrant's death (frag. 332);
* Pittacus – the dominant political figure of his time, he was voted supreme power by the political assembly of Mytilene and appears to have governed well (590–580&nbsp;BC), even allowing Alcaeus and his faction to return home in peace.
Sometime before 600&nbsp;BC, Mytilene fought Athens for control of Sigeion and Alcaeus was old enough to participate in the fighting. According to the historian Herodotus,<ref>Histories 5.95</ref> the poet threw away his shield to make good his escape from the victorious Athenians then celebrated the occasion in a poem that he later sent to his friend, Melanippus. It is thought that Alcaeus travelled widely during his years in exile, including at least one visit to Egypt. His older brother, Antimenidas, appears to have served as a mercenary in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II and probably took part in the conquest of Askelon. Alcaeus wrote verses in celebration of Antimenides's{{clarification needed|date=October 2024}} return, including mention of his valour in slaying the larger opponent (frag. 350), and he proudly describes the military hardware that adorned their family home (frag. 357).
{{Quotation|Alcaeus was in some respects not unlike a Royalist soldier of the age of the Stuarts. He had the high spirit and reckless gaiety, the love of country bound up with belief in a caste, the licence tempered by generosity and sometimes by tenderness, of a cavalier who has seen good and evil days. — Richard Claverhouse Jebb<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idDbLHNxS6heMC&pgPA3 R. C. Jebb, Greek Literature, MacMillan and Co. 1878, p. 59]</ref>}}
by
Lawrence Alma-Tadema. The Walters Art Museum.]]
Alcaeus was a contemporary and a countryman of Sappho and, since both poets composed for the entertainment of Mytilenean friends, they had many opportunities to associate with each other on a quite regular basis, such as at the Kallisteia'', an annual festival celebrating the island's federation under Mytilene, held at the 'Messon' (referred to as temenos in frs. 129 and 130), where Sappho performed publicly with female choirs. Alcaeus's reference to Sappho in terms more typical of a divinity, as holy/pure, honey-smiling Sappho (fr. 384), may owe its inspiration to her performances at the festival.<ref name"university19"/> The Lesbian or Aeolic school of poetry "reached in the songs of Sappho and Alcaeus that high point of brilliancy to which it never after-wards approached"<ref>James S. Easby-Smith, The Songs of Alcaeus, W. H. Lowdermilk and Co., Washington, 1901</ref> and it was assumed by later Greek critics and during the early centuries of the Christian era that the two poets were in fact lovers, a theme which became a favourite subject in art (as in the urn pictured above).PoetryThe poetic works of Alcaeus were collected into ten books, with elaborate commentaries, by the Alexandrian scholars Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace sometime in the 3rd century BC, and yet his verses today exist only in fragmentary form, varying in size from mere phrases, such as wine, window into a man (fr. 333) to entire groups of verses and stanzas, such as those quoted below (fr. 346). Alexandrian scholars numbered him in their canonic nine (one lyric poet per Muse). Among these, Pindar was held by many ancient critics to be pre-eminent,<ref>Quintilian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/10A*.html#1.61 10.1.61]; cf. Pseudo-Longinus [http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/longinus/desub011.htm#xxxiii 33.5] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110806092832/http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/longinus/desub011.htm#xxxiii |date2011-08-06 }}.</ref> but some gave precedence to Alcaeus instead.<ref name"digitized1">James Easby-Smith, The Songs of Alcaeus p. 31</ref> The canonic nine are traditionally divided into two groups, with Alcaeus, Sappho and Anacreon, being 'monodists' or 'solo-singers', with the following characteristics:<ref>Andrew M.Miller (trans.), Greek Lyric: An Anthology in Translation, Hackett Publishing Co. (1996), Intro. xiii</ref>
* They composed and performed personally for friends and associates on topics of immediate interest to them;
* They wrote in their native dialects (Alcaeus and Sappho in Aeolic dialect, Anacreon in Ionic);
* They preferred quite short, metrically simple stanzas or 'strophes' which they re-used in many poems – hence the 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, named after the two poets who perfected them or possibly invented them.
The other six of the canonic nine composed verses for public occasions, performed by choruses and professional singers and typically featuring complex metrical arrangements that were never reproduced in other verses. However, this division into two groups is considered by some modern scholars to be too simplistic and often it is practically impossible to know whether a lyric composition was sung or recited, or whether or not it was accompanied by musical instruments and dance. Even the private reflections of Alcaeus, ostensibly sung at dinner parties, still retain a public function.<ref name"university19">{{cite book |firstGregory |lastNagy |titleLyric and Greek Myth (The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology) |editor-firstR. D. |editor-lastWoodward |publisherUniversity Press |year2007 |pages19–51 |urlhttp://chs.harvard.edu/wa/pageR?tnArticleWrapper&bdc12&mn2654 |access-date2009-12-09 |archive-date2011-07-19 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110719204740/http://chs.harvard.edu/wa/pageR?tnArticleWrapper&bdc12&mn2654 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Critics often seek to understand Alcaeus in comparison with Sappho:
{{Quotation|If we compare the two, we find that Alcaeus is versatile, Sappho narrow in her range; that his verse is less polished and less melodious than hers; and that the emotions which he chooses to display are less intense.|David Campbell<ref name="David A 1982 page 287">David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 287</ref>}}
{{Quotation|The Aeolian song is suddenly revealed, as a mature work of art, in the spirited stanzas of Alcaeus. It is raised to a supreme excellence by his younger contemporary, Sappho, whose melody is unsurpassed, perhaps unequalled, among all the relics of Greek verse.|Richard Jebb<ref>{{cite book|firstRichard |lastJebb|titleBacchylides: the poems and fragments|publisher Cambridge University Press |year1905|page 29 |url=https://archive.org/stream/bacchylidespoem00jebbgoog#page/n9/mode/1up}}</ref>}}
{{Quotation|In the variety of his subjects, in the exquisite rhythm of his meters, and in the faultless perfection of his style, all of which appear even in mutilated fragments, he excels all the poets, even his more intense, more delicate and more truly inspired contemporary Sappho.|James Easby-Smith<ref name="digitized1"/>}}
The Roman poet, Horace, also compared the two, describing Alcaeus as "more full-throatedly singing"<ref name"classics116">James Michie (trans.), The Odes of Horace, Penguin Classics (1964), p. 116</ref> – see Horace's tribute below. Alcaeus himself seems to underscore the difference between his own 'down-to-earth' style and Sappho's more 'celestial' qualities when he describes her almost as a goddess (as cited above), and yet it has been argued that both poets were concerned with a balance between the divine and the profane, each emphasising different elements in that balance.<ref name"university19"/>
Dionysius of Halicarnassus exhorts us to "Observe in Alcaeus the sublimity, brevity and sweetness coupled with stern power, his splendid figures, and his clearness which was unimpaired by the dialect; and above all mark his manner of expressing his sentiments on public affairs",<ref>Imit. 422, quoted from Easby-Smith in Songs of Alcaeus</ref> while Quintilian, after commending Alcaeus for his excellence "in that part of his works where he inveighs against tyrants and contributes to good morals; in his language he is concise, exalted, careful and often like an orator"; goes on to add: "but he descended into wantonness and amours, though better fitted for higher things".<ref>Quintillian 10.1.63, quoted by D.Campbell in G.L.P, p. 288</ref>
Poetic genres
The works of Alcaeus are conventionally grouped according to five genres.
* Political songs: Alcaeus often composed on a political theme, covering the power struggles on Lesbos with the passion and vigour of a partisan, cursing his opponents,<ref>fr. 129</ref> rejoicing in their deaths,<ref name="autogenerated1">fr. 332</ref> delivering blood-curdling homilies on the consequences of political inaction<ref>fr. S262</ref> and exhorting his comrades to heroic defiance, as in one of his 'ship of state' allegories.<ref>fr. 6</ref> Commenting on Alcaeus as a political poet, the scholar Dionysius of Halicarnassus once observed that "if you removed the meter you would find political rhetoric".<ref>Imit. 422, quoted by Campbell in G.L.P., p. 286</ref>
* Drinking songs: According to the grammarian Athenaeus, Alcaeus made every occasion an excuse for drinking and he has provided posterity several quotes in proof of it.<ref>Athenaeus 10.430c</ref> Alcaeus exhorts his friends to drink in celebration of a tyrant's death,<ref name="autogenerated1">fr. 332</ref> to drink away their sorrows,<ref>Frs. 335, 346</ref> to drink because life is short<ref>fr. 38A</ref> and along the lines in vino veritas,<ref>fr. 333</ref> to drink through winter storms<ref>fr. 338</ref> and to drink through the heat of summer.<ref>fr. 347</ref> The latter poem in fact paraphrases verses from Hesiod,<ref>Hesiod Op. 582–8</ref> re-casting them in Asclepiad meter and Aeolian dialect.
* Hymns: Alcaeus sang about the gods in the spirit of the Homeric hymns, to entertain his companions rather than to glorify the gods and in the same meters that he used for his 'secular' lyrics.<ref>David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 286</ref> There are for example fragments in 'Sapphic' meter praising the Dioscuri,<ref>fr. 34a</ref> Hermes<ref>fr. 308c</ref> and the river Hebrus<ref>fr. 45</ref> (a river significant in Lesbian mythology since it was down its waters that the head of Orpheus was believed to have floated singing, eventually crossing the sea to Lesbos and ending up in a temple of Apollo, as a symbol of Lesbian supremacy in song).<ref>David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pp. 292–93</ref> According to Pomponius Porphyrion, the hymn to Hermes was imitated by Horace in one of his own 'sapphic' odes (C.1.10: Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis).<ref>David Campbell, 'Monody', in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 213</ref>
* Love songs: Almost all Alcaeus's amorous verses, mentioned with disapproval by Quintilian above, have vanished without trace. There is a brief reference to his love poetry in a passage by Cicero.<ref>Cicero, Tusc. Disp. 4.71</ref> Horace, who often wrote in imitation of Alcaeus, sketches in verse one of the Lesbian poet's favourite subjects – Lycus of the black hair and eyes (C.1.32.11–12: nigris oculis nigroque/crine decorum). It is possible that Alcaeus wrote amorously about Sappho, as indicated in an earlier quote.<ref>fr. 384; however, Liberman (1999) reads "Aphro" (Ἄφροι; a diminutive of "Aphrodite"), instead of "Sappho".</ref>
* Miscellaneous: Alcaeus wrote on such a wide variety of subjects and themes that contradictions in his character emerge. The grammarian Athenaeus quoted some verses about perfumed ointments to prove just how unwarlike Alcaeus could be<ref>fr. 362, Athenaeus 15.687d</ref> and he quoted his description of the armour adorning the walls of his house<ref>fr. 357</ref> as proof that he could be unusually warlike for a lyric poet.<ref>Athenaeus 14.627a</ref> Other examples of his readiness for both warlike and unwarlike subjects are lyrics celebrating his brother's heroic exploits as a Babylonian mercenary<ref>fr. 350</ref> and lyrics sung in a rare meter (Sapphic Ionic in minore) in the voice of a distressed girl,<ref>fr. 10B</ref> "Wretched me, who share in all ills!" – possibly imitated by Horace in an ode in the same meter (C.3.12: Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum neque dulci).<ref name"literature214">David Campbell, 'Monody', in P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 214</ref> He also wrote Sapphic stanzas on Homeric themes but in un-Homeric style, comparing Helen of Troy unfavourably with Thetis, the mother of Achilles.<ref>fr. 42</ref>A drinking poem (fr. 346)
The following verses demonstrate some key characteristics of the Alcaic style (square brackets indicate uncertainties in the ancient text):
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
{{lang|grc|πώνωμεν· τί τὰ λύχν' ὀμμένομεν; δάκτυλος ἀμέρα·
κὰδ δ'ἄερρε κυλίχναις μεγάλαις [αιτα]ποικίλαισ·
οἶνον γὰρ Σεμέλας καὶ Δίος υἶος λαθικάδεον
ἀνθρώποισιν ἔδωκ'. ἔγχεε κέρναις ἔνα καὶ δύο
πλήαις κὰκ κεφάλας, [ἀ] δ' ἀτέρα τὰν ἀτέραν κύλιξ
ὠθήτω...}}<ref>David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 60</ref>
|
Let's drink! Why are we waiting for the lamps? Only an inch of daylight left.
Lift down the large cups, my friends, the painted ones;
for wine was given to men by the son of Semele and Zeus
to help them forget their troubles. Mix one part of water to two of wine,
pour it in up to the brim, and let one cup push the other along...<ref>Andrew M.Miller (trans.), Greek Lyric: An Anthology in Translation, Hackett Publishing Co. (1996), p. 48</ref>}}
The Greek meter here is relatively simple, comprising the Greater Asclepiad, adroitly used to convey, for example, the rhythm of jostling cups ({{lang|grc|ἀ δ' ἀτέρα τὰν ἀτέραν}}). The language of the poem is typically direct and concise and comprises short sentences — the first line is in fact a model of condensed meaning, comprising an exhortation ("Let's drink!"), a rhetorical question ("Why are we waiting for the lamps?") and a justifying statement ("Only an inch of daylight left").<ref>David Campbell, "Monody", in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 212</ref> The meaning is clear and uncomplicated, the subject is drawn from personal experience, and there is an absence of poetic ornament, such as simile or metaphor. Like many of his poems (e.g., frs. 38, 326, 338, 347, 350), it begins with a verb (in this case "Let's drink!") and it includes a proverbial expression ("Only an inch of daylight left") though it is possible that he coined it himself.<ref name"David A 1982 page 287"/>A hymn (fr. 34)
Alcaeus rarely used metaphor or simile and yet he had a fondness for the allegory of the storm-tossed ship of state. The following fragment of a hymn to Castor and Polydeuces (the Dioscuri) is possibly another example of this though some scholars interpret it instead as a prayer for a safe voyage.<ref>David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), pp. 286, 289</ref>
{{poemquote|Hither now to me from your isle of Pelops,
You powerful children of Zeus and Leda,
Showing yourselves kindly by nature, Castor
And Polydeuces!
Travelling abroad on swift-footed horses,
Over the wide earth, over all the ocean,
How easily you bring deliverance from
Death's gelid rigor,
Landing on tall ships with a sudden, great bound,
A far-away light up the forestays running,
Bringing radiance to a ship in trouble,
Sailed in the darkness!}}
The poem was written in Sapphic stanzas, a verse form popularly associated with his compatriot, Sappho, but in which he too excelled, here paraphrased in English to suggest the same rhythms. There were probably another three stanzas in the original poem but only nine letters of them remain.<ref>David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library (1990), p. 247</ref> The 'far-away light' ({{lang|grc|Πήλοθεν λάμπροι}}) is a reference to St. Elmo's Fire, an electrical discharge supposed by ancient Greek mariners to be an epiphany of the Dioscuri, but the meaning of the line was obscured by gaps in the papyrus until reconstructed by a modern scholar; such reconstructions are typical of the extant poetry (see Scholars, fragments and sources below). This poem does not begin with a verb but with an adverb (Δευτέ) but still communicates a sense of action. He probably performed his verses at drinking parties for friends and political allies – men for whom loyalty was essential, particularly in such troubled times.<ref name"literature214"/>Tributes from other poetsHorace
The Roman poet Horace modelled his own lyrical compositions on those of Alcaeus, rendering the Lesbian poet's verse-forms, including 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, into concise Latin – an achievement he celebrates in his third book of odes.<ref>Horace Od. 3.30</ref> In his second book, in an ode composed in Alcaic stanzas on the subject of an almost fatal accident he had on his farm, he imagines meeting Alcaeus and Sappho in Hades:
{{Verse translation|lang=la|
quam paene furvae regna Proserpinae
et iudicantem vidimus Aeacum
:sedesque descriptas piorum et
::Aeoliis fidibus querentem
Sappho puellis de popularibus
et te sonantem plenius aureo,
:Alcaee, plectro dura navis,
::dura fugae mala, dura belli! <ref>Horace Od. 2.13.21–8</ref>
|
How close the realm of dusky Proserpine
Yawned at that instant! I half glimpsed the dire
Judge of the dead, the blest in their divine
Seclusion, Sappho on the Aeolian lyre,
Mourning the cold girls of her native isle,
And you, Alcaeus, more full-throatedly
Singing with your gold quill of ships, exile
And war, hardship on land, hardship at sea.<ref name"classics116"/>}}Ovid
Ovid compared Alcaeus to Sappho in Letters of the Heroines, where Sappho is imagined to speak as follows:
{{Verse translation|
nec plus Alcaeus consors patriaeque lyraeque
:laudis habet, quamvis grandius ille sonet.
|
Nor does Alcaeus, my fellow-countryman and fellow-poet,
:receive more praise, although he resounds more grandly.<ref>Ovid Her.15.29s, cited and translated by David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric I: Sappho and Alcaeus, Loeb Classical Library (1982), p. 39</ref>}}
Scholars, fragments and sources
The story of Alcaeus is partly the story of the scholars who rescued his work from oblivion.<ref name="archive1901"/><ref>David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classic Press, 1982, pp. 285–305</ref> His verses have not come down to us through a manuscript tradition – generations of scribes copying an author's collected works, such as delivered intact into the modern age four entire books of Pindar's odes – but haphazardly, in quotes from ancient scholars and commentators whose own works have chanced to survive, and in the tattered remnants of papyri uncovered from an ancient rubbish pile at Oxyrhynchus and other locations in Egypt: sources that modern scholars have studied and correlated exhaustively, adding little by little to the world's store of poetic fragments.
Ancient scholars quoted Alcaeus in support of various arguments. Thus for example Heraclitus "The Allegorist"<ref>Donald. A. Russell and David Konstan (eds. and trans.), Heraclitus:Homeric Problems, Society of Biblical Literature (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?idpLf2PNEy53AC&pgPP14 Introduction]</ref> quoted fr. 326 and part of fr. 6, about ships in a storm, in his study on Homer's use of allegory.<ref>Heraclitus All.5</ref> The hymn to Hermes, fr308(b), was quoted by Hephaestion<ref>Hephaestion Ench. xiv.1</ref> and both he and Libanius, the rhetorician, quoted the first two lines of fr. 350,<ref>Hephaestion Ench. x 3; Libanus Or. 13.5</ref> celebrating the return from Babylon of Alcaeus's brother. The rest of fr. 350 was paraphrased in prose by the historian/geographer Strabo.<ref>Strabo 13.617</ref> Many fragments were supplied in quotes by Athenaeus, principally on the subject of wine-drinking, but fr. 333, "wine, window into a man", was quoted much later by the Byzantine grammarian, John Tzetzes.<ref>Tzetzes Alex. 212</ref>
The first 'modern' publication of Alcaeus's verses appeared in a Greek and Latin edition of fragments collected from the canonic nine lyrical poets by Michael Neander, published at Basle in 1556. This was followed by another edition of the nine poets, collected by Henricus Stephanus and published in Paris in 1560. Fulvius Ursinus compiled a fuller collection of Alcaic fragments, including a commentary, which was published at Antwerp in 1568. The first separate edition of Alcaeus was by Christian David Jani and it was published at Halle in 1780. The next separate edition was by August Matthiae, Leipzig 1827.
Some of the fragments quoted by ancient scholars were able to be integrated by scholars in the nineteenth century. Thus for example two separate quotes by Athenaeus<ref>Athenaeus 15.674cd, 15.687d</ref> were united by Theodor Bergk to form fr. 362. Three separate sources were combined to form fr. 350, as mentioned above, including a prose paraphrase from Strabo that first needed to be restored to its original meter, a synthesis achieved by the united efforts of Otto Hoffmann, Karl Otfried Müller<ref>Müller, Karl Otfried, "Ein Bruder des Dichters Alkäos ficht unter Nebukadnezar", Rheinisches Museum 1 (1827):287.</ref> and Franz Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens. The discovery of the Oxyrhynchus papyri towards the end of the nineteenth century dramatically increased the scope of scholarly research. In fact, eight important fragments have now been compiled from papyri – frs. 9, 38A, 42, 45, 34, 129, 130 and most recently S262. These fragments typically feature lacunae or gaps that scholars fill with 'educated guesses', including for example a "brilliant supplement" by Maurice Bowra in fr. 34, a hymn to the Dioscuri that includes a description of St. Elmo's fire in the ship's rigging.<ref>David. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classic Press, 1982, p. 290</ref> Working with only eight letters ({{lang|grc|πρό...τρ...ντες}}; tr. pró...tr...ntes), Bowra conjured up a phrase that develops the meaning and the euphony of the poem ({{lang|grc|πρότον' ὀντρέχοντες}}; tr. ''próton' ontréchontes), describing luminescence "running along the forestays".
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* Sappho et Alcaeus. Fragmenta. Eva-Maria Voigt (ed.). Polak and van Gennep, Amsterdam, 1971.
* Greek Lyric Poetry. D.A. Campbell (ed.). Bristol Classical Press, London, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0-86292-008-1}}
* Greek Lyric 1: Sappho and Alcaeus. D. A. Campbell (ed.). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. {{ISBN|978-0-674-99157-6}}
* Alcée. Fragments. Gauthier Liberman (ed.). Collection Budé, Paris, 1999. {{ISBN|978-2-251-00476-1}}
* Sappho and the Greek Lyric Poets. Translated by Willis Barnstone. Schoken Books Inc., New York, 1988. {{ISBN|978-0-8052-0831-3}}
External links
{{sisterlinks|dQ212872|ccategory:Alcaeus|sAuthor:Alcaeus of Mytilene|nno|wiktno|vno|voyno|mno|mwno|speciesno|qno|bno}}
{{wikisourcelang|el|Αλκαίος ο Μυτιληναίος|Ἀλκαῖος ὁ Μυτιληναῖος }}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Alcaeus}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1117}}
* [http://www.blackcatpoems.com/a/alcaeus.html Poems by Alcaeus]&nbsp;– English translations
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514091618/http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/Images2/cciv243.Alcaeus.html A. M. Miller, Greek Lyric'':]&nbsp;– Alcaeus, many fragments
* [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/ancient-greece/alcaeus.asp Alcaeus Bilingual Anthology (in Greek and English, side by side)]
{{Lyric poets}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:620s BC births
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:6th-century BC deaths
Category:Year of death unknown
Category:Nine Lyric Poets
Category:Aeolic Greek poets
Category:Ancient Greek political refugees
Category:Ancient Mytileneans
Category:Poets from ancient Lesbos
Category:6th-century BC Greek people
Category:6th-century BC poets | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcaeus | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.323337 |
1578 | Alcamenes | thumb|Herm of Hermes, Roman copy of a late 5th century BC original, the forefront inscription states the herm was made by Alcamenes and dedicated by Pergamios, Istanbul Museums.
Alcamenes () was an ancient Greek sculptor of Lemnos and Athens, who flourished in the 2nd half of the 5th century BC. He was a younger contemporary of Phidias and noted for the delicacy and finish of his works, among which a Hephaestus and an Aphrodite of the Gardens were conspicuous.
Pausanias says that he was the author of one of the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. also refers to a statue of Ares by Alcamenes that was erected on the Athenian agora, which some have related to the Ares Borghese. However, the temple of Ares to which he refers had only been moved from Acharnes and re-sited in the Agora in Augustus's time, and statues known to derive from Alcamenes' statue show the god in a breastplate, so the identification of Alcamenes' Ares with the Ares Borghese is not secure.
At Pergamum there was discovered in 1903 a Hellenistic copy of the head of the Hermes "Propylaeus" of Alcamenes. As, however, the deity is represented in a Neo-Attic, archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original artist.
It is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, in which he must almost certainly have taken a share under the direction of Phidias. He is said to be the most eminent sculptor in Athens after the departure of Phidias for Olympia, but enigmatic in that none of the sculptures associated with his name in classical literature can be securely connected with existing copies.
Notes
References
Julius Sillig, Dictionary of the artists of antiquity; 1837
Andrew Stewart, One hundred Greek Sculptors : Their Careers and Extant Works
Sir Charles Waldstein, Alcamenes and the establishment of the classical type in Greek art; 1926
External links
Scholars Resource: Works by Alkamenes
Perseus Digital Library: Alcamenes
Herma by Alcamenes - Uni Graz
Category:Pergamene sculpture
Category:5th-century BC Greek sculptors
Category:Ancient Athenian sculptors
Category:Ancient Lemnos
Category:Metics in Classical Athens
Category:People from Lemnos
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcamenes | 2025-04-05T18:25:42.326370 |
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