<SYSTEM_TASK:>
Given the following text description, write Python code to implement the functionality described below step by step
<END_TASK>
<USER_TASK:>
Description:
 Lecture 2
Step1:  Poking around
We have a nice smelling fresh repository.  We'll explore the repo from the Git point of view using Git commands.
log
Log tells you all the changes that have occured in this project as of now...
Step2:  Each one of these "commits" is an SHA hash. It uniquely identifies all actions that have happened to this repository previously.
Getting help with commands
If you ever need help on a command, you can find the git man pages by hyphenating git and the command name.
Try it!
Press the spacebar to scoll down and q to quit.
status
Status is your window into the current state of your project. It can tell you which files you have changed and which files you currently have in your staging area.
Step3:  Pay close attention to the text above. It says we are on the master branch of our local repository, and that this branch is up-to-date with the master branch of the upstream  repository or remote named origin. We know this as clone brings down a copy of the remote branch
Step4:  Notice that this file tells us about a remote called origin which is simply the github repository we cloned from. So the process of cloning left us with a remote. The file also tells us about a branch called master, which "tracks" a remote branch called master at origin. 
Finally I set us up with a .gitignore file hidden in the repository folder. It tells us what files to ignore when adding files to the index and comitting to the local repository. We use this file to ignore temporary data files and such when working in our repository. Folders are indicated with a / at the end, in which case, all files in that folder are ignored.
For example, one of the lines in the .gitignore file is *.so.  That line tells Git to ignore all files with the extension .so.
Note that the .gitignore file is specialized to the Python language.  Note too that when creating a GitHub repo, you are asked if you want to create a .gitignore file.  You don't have to create one, but it's a good idea.  Of course, you can always add one later if you so desire.
Step5:  Making changes
Ok! Enough poking around. Lets get down to business and add some files into our folder.
Now let's say that we want to add a new file to the project. The canonical sequence is "edit&ndash;add&ndash;commit&ndash;push".
Step6:  We've created a file in the working directory, but it hasn't been staged yet.
add
When you've made a change to a set of files and are ready to create a commit, the first step is to add all of the changed files to the staging area. That is what add is for. Remember that what you see in the filesystem is your working directory, so the way to see what's in the staging area is with the status command. This also means that if you add something to the staging area and then edit it again, you'll need to add the file to the staging area again if you want to remember the new changes.  See the Staging Modified Files section at Git - Recording Changes to the Repository.
Step7:  Now our file is in the staging area (Index) waiting to be committed.  The file is still not even in our local repository.
Instead of doing git add world.md you could use git add . in the top level of the repository. This adds all new files and changed files to the index, and is particularly useful if you have created multiple new files.  Of course, you should be careful with this because it's a little bit annoying if you decide that you didn't want to add a file.  I usually avoid this if I can, but sometimes it's the way to go.
commit
When you're satisfied with the changes you've added to your staging area, you can commit those changes to your local repository with the commit command. Those changes will have a permanent record in the repository from now on.
Every commit has two features you should be aware of
Step8:  The git commit -m... version is just a way to specify a commit message without opening a text editor.  The ipython notebook can't handle text editors.  Don't worry, you'll get to use a text editor in your homework. If you use a text editor you just say git commit.
Another nice command is to use git commit with the -a option
Step9:  We see that our branch, "master", has one more commit than the "origin/master" branch, the local copy of the branch that came from the upstream repository (nicknamed "origin" in this case). Let's push the changes.
push
The push command takes the changes you have made to your local repository and attempts to update a remote repository with them. If you're the only person working with both of these (which is how a solo GitHub project would work), then push should always succeed.
Step10:  You can go to your remote repo and see the changes!
Remotes and fetching from them
If you're working with other people, then it's possible that they have made changes to the remote repository between the time you first cloned it and now. push will fail. 
In our particular case of the playground repository, this is not going to happen, since you just cloned it and presumably havent invited anyone to collaborate with you on it.
However you can imagine that the original repository IACS-CS-207/playground, which you are now divorced from, has changed, and that you somehow want to pull those changes in.
That's where the next two commands come in.
remote
We have seen so far that our repository has one "remote", or upstream repository, which has been identified with the word origin, as seen in .git/config. We now wish to add another remote, which we shall call course, which points to the original repository we forked from. We want to do this to pull in changes, in case something changed there.  This is the kind of thing you will do all the time in this course.  Remember, in the first lecture we set up an upstream remote and today we pulled in changes from the upstream remote to your local repository.
Step11:  Notice that the master branch only tracks the same branch on the origin remote. We havent set up any connection with the course remote as yet.
Now lets figure out how to get changes from an upstream repository, be it our origin upstream that a collaborator has pushed to, or another course remote to which one of the teaching staff has posted a change.
fetch
Let's say a collaborator has pushed changes to your shared upstream repository while you were editing. Their local repository and the upstream repository now both contain their changes, but your local repository does not. To update your local repository, you run fetch.
But what if you've committed changes in the meantime? Does your local repository contain your changes or theirs? The answer is that it contains a record of both, but they are kept separate. Remember that git repositories are not copies of your project files. They store all the contents of your files, along with a bunch of metadata, but in its own internal format.
Let's say that you and your collaborator both edited the same line of the same file at the same time in different ways. On your respective machines, you both add and commit your different changes, and your collaborator pushes theirs to the upstream repository. When you run fetch, git adds a record of their changes to your local repository alongside your own. These are called branches, and they represent different, coexisting versions of your project. The fetch command adds your collaborator's branch to your local repository, but keeps yours as well.
Step12:  A copy of a new remote branch has been made.  To see this, provide the -avv argument to git branch.
Step13:  Indeed, the way git works is by creating copies of remote branches locally. Then it just compares to these "copy" branches to see what changes have been made.
Sometimes we really do want to merge the changes.  In this case, we want to merge the change from remotes/course/master. Eventually, we'll consider a case where you want to simply create another branch yourself and do things on that branch.
merge
Having multiple branches is fine, but at some point, you'll want to combine the changes that you've made with those made by others. This is called merging.
There are two general cases when merging two branches
Step14:  We seem to be ahead of our upstream-tracking repository by 2 commits..why?
Step15:  Aha
<ASSISTANT_TASK:>
Python Code:
%%bash
cd /tmp
rm -rf playground #remove if it exists
git clone https://github.com/dsondak/playground.git
%%bash
ls -a /tmp/playground
Explanation: Lecture 2: Version Control with Git
This tutorial is largely based on the repository:
git@github.com:rdadolf/git-and-github.git
which was created for IACS's ac297r course by Robert Adolf. Most of the credit goes to him.
It has been edited for cs109 and for various versions of cs207.
Version control is a way of tracking the change history of a project. Even if you have never used a version control tool, you've probably already done it manually: copying and renaming project folders ("paper-1.doc", "paper-2.doc", etc.) is a form of version control.
Git is a tool that automates and enhances a lot of the tasks that arise when dealing with larger, longer-living, and collaborative projects. It's also become the common underpinning to many popular online code repositories, GitHub being the most popular.
We'll go over the basics of git, but we should point out that a lot of talented people have given git tutorials, and we won't do any better than they have. In fact, if you're interested in learning git deeply and have some time on your hands, I suggest you stop reading this and instead read the Git Book. Scott Chacon and Ben Straub have done a tremendous job, and if you want to understand both the interfaces and the mechanisms behind git, this is the place to start.
Table of Contents
Lecture 2: Version Control with Git
Why should you use version control?
Git Basics
Common Tasks in the version control of files.
Forking a repository
Cloning a repository
Poking around
Making changes
Remotes and fetching from them
Git habits
Why should you use version control?
If you ask 10 people, you'll get 10 different answers, but one of the commonalities is that most people don't realize how integral it is to their development process until they've started using it. Still, for the sake of argument, here are some highlights:
 You can undo anything:  Git provides a complete history of every change that has ever been made to your project, timestamped, commented, and attributed. If something breaks, you always have the choice of going back to a previous state.
 You won't need to keep undo-ing things:  One of the advantages of using git properly is that by keeping new changes separate from a stable base, you tend to avoid the massive rollbacks associated with constantly tinkering with a single code.
 You can identify exactly when and where changes were made:  Git allows you to pinpoint when a particular piece of code was changed, so finding what other pieces of code a bug might affect or figuring out why a certain expression was added is easy.
 Git forces teams to face conflicts directly:  On a team-based project, many people are often working with the same code. By having a tool which understands when and where files were changed, it's easy to see when changes might conflict with each other. While it might seem troublesome sometimes to have to deal with conflicts, the alternative&mdash;not knowing there's a conflict&mdash;is much more insidious.
Git Basics
The first thing to understand about git is that the contents of your project are stored in several different states and forms at any given time. If you think about what version control is, this might not be surprising: in order to remember every change that's ever been made, you need to store a record of those changes somewhere, and to be able to handle multiple people changing the same code, you need to have different copies of the project and a way to combine them.
You can think about git operating on four different areas:
The working directory is what you're currently looking at. When you use an editor to modify a file, the changes are made to the working directory.
The staging area is a place to collect a set of changes made to your project. If you have changed three files to fix a bug, you will add all three to the staging area so that you can remember the changes as one historical entity. It is also called the index. You move files from the working directory to the index using the command git add.
The local repository is the place where git stores everything you've ever done to your project. Even when you delete a file, a copy is stored in the repo (this is necessary for always being able to undo any change). It's important to note that a local repository doesn't look much at all like your project files or directories. Git has its own way of storing all the information, and if you're curious what it looks like, look in the .git directory in the working directory of your project. Files are moved from the index to the local repository via the command git commit.
When working in a team, every member will be working on their own local repository. An upstream repository allows everyone to agree on a single version of history. If two people have made changes on their local repositories, they will combine those changes in the upstream repository. In our case this upstream repository is hosted by github. This need not be the case; SEAS provides git hosting, as do companies like Atlassian (bitbucket). This upstream repository is also called a remote in git parlance. The standard github remote is called the origin: it is the repository which is given a web page on github. One usually moves code from local to remote repositories using git push, and in the other direction using git fetch.
You can think of most git operations as moving code or metadata from one of these areas to another.
Common Tasks in the version control of files.
Forking a repository
Forking a repository done on github. On github, go to the url https://github.com/IACS-CS-207/playground. Click the "Fork button on the upper right side. 
Forking brings a repository into your own namespace. Its really a cloning process (see below), but its done between two "remotes" on the server. In other words it creates a second upstream repository on the server, called the origin.
The forking process on github will ask you where you want to fork the repository. Choose your own github id.
In my case I will choose @dsondak, as in the screenshot above. In this tutorial, wherever you see dsondak, substitute your own github id.
The forking procedure leaves me with my own repository, dsondak/playground.
Cloning a repository
Now that we have a fork of the IACS-CS-207/playground repository, let's clone it down to our local machines.
clone
Cloning a repository does two things: it takes a repository from somewhere (usually an upstream repository) and makes a local copy (your new local repository), and it creates the most recent copy of all of the files in the project (your new working directory). This is generally how you will start working on a project for the first time.
Cloning a repository depends a lot on the type of repository you're using. If you're cloning out of a directory on the machine you're currently on, it's just the path to the &lt;project&gt;.git file.
NOTE:  From this point on, you will see cells containing code.  You should type those commands into your terminal.
WARNING!  The code in the following cells is always preceeded by a combination of the following commands:
1. %%bash and 
2. cd /tmp or cd /tmp/playground.
DO NOT type any of those commands into your terminal.  They are used only in the notebook environment!
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git log
Explanation: Poking around
We have a nice smelling fresh repository.  We'll explore the repo from the Git point of view using Git commands.
log
Log tells you all the changes that have occured in this project as of now...
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git status
Explanation: Each one of these "commits" is an SHA hash. It uniquely identifies all actions that have happened to this repository previously.
Getting help with commands
If you ever need help on a command, you can find the git man pages by hyphenating git and the command name.
Try it!
Press the spacebar to scoll down and q to quit.
status
Status is your window into the current state of your project. It can tell you which files you have changed and which files you currently have in your staging area.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
cat .git/config
Explanation: Pay close attention to the text above. It says we are on the master branch of our local repository, and that this branch is up-to-date with the master branch of the upstream  repository or remote named origin. We know this as clone brings down a copy of the remote branch:  origin/master represents the local copy of the branch that came from the upstream repository (nicknamed origin in this case). Branches are different, co-existing versions of your project. Here we have encountered two of them, but remember there is a third one in the repository we forked from, and perhaps many more, depending on who else made these forks.  We'll have much more to say about branches later in this lecture or the next lecture.
Branches represent a snapshot of the project by someone at some particular point in time. In general you will only care about your own branches and those of the "parent" remotes you forked/cloned from.
Configuration Information is stored in a special file config, in a hidden folder called .git in your working directory. (The index and the local repository are stored there as well...more on that in  a bit.)  Note: Hidden files and directories are preceded by a dot.  The only way to see them is to type ls -a where the a option tells the ls command to list hidden files and directories.
A few special files and directories
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
cat .gitignore
Explanation: Notice that this file tells us about a remote called origin which is simply the github repository we cloned from. So the process of cloning left us with a remote. The file also tells us about a branch called master, which "tracks" a remote branch called master at origin. 
Finally I set us up with a .gitignore file hidden in the repository folder. It tells us what files to ignore when adding files to the index and comitting to the local repository. We use this file to ignore temporary data files and such when working in our repository. Folders are indicated with a / at the end, in which case, all files in that folder are ignored.
For example, one of the lines in the .gitignore file is *.so.  That line tells Git to ignore all files with the extension .so.
Note that the .gitignore file is specialized to the Python language.  Note too that when creating a GitHub repo, you are asked if you want to create a .gitignore file.  You don't have to create one, but it's a good idea.  Of course, you can always add one later if you so desire.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
echo '# Hello world!' > world.md
git status
Explanation: Making changes
Ok! Enough poking around. Lets get down to business and add some files into our folder.
Now let's say that we want to add a new file to the project. The canonical sequence is "edit&ndash;add&ndash;commit&ndash;push".
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git add world.md
git status
Explanation: We've created a file in the working directory, but it hasn't been staged yet.
add
When you've made a change to a set of files and are ready to create a commit, the first step is to add all of the changed files to the staging area. That is what add is for. Remember that what you see in the filesystem is your working directory, so the way to see what's in the staging area is with the status command. This also means that if you add something to the staging area and then edit it again, you'll need to add the file to the staging area again if you want to remember the new changes.  See the Staging Modified Files section at Git - Recording Changes to the Repository.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git commit -m "Hello world file to make sure things are working."
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git status
Explanation: Now our file is in the staging area (Index) waiting to be committed.  The file is still not even in our local repository.
Instead of doing git add world.md you could use git add . in the top level of the repository. This adds all new files and changed files to the index, and is particularly useful if you have created multiple new files.  Of course, you should be careful with this because it's a little bit annoying if you decide that you didn't want to add a file.  I usually avoid this if I can, but sometimes it's the way to go.
commit
When you're satisfied with the changes you've added to your staging area, you can commit those changes to your local repository with the commit command. Those changes will have a permanent record in the repository from now on.
Every commit has two features you should be aware of:
1. The first is a hash. This is a unique identifier for all of the information about that commit, including the code changes, the timestamp, and the author.  We saw this already when we used git log earlier. 
2. The second is a commit message. This is text that you can (and should) add to a commit to describe what the changes were.
Good commit messages are important!
Commit messages are a way of quickly telling your future self and your collaborators what a commit was about. For even a moderately sized project, digging through tens or hundreds of commits to find the change you're looking for is a nightmare without friendly summaries.
By convention, commit messages start with a single-line summary, then an empty line, then a more comprehensive description of the changes.
This is an okay commit message. The changes are small, and the summary is sufficient to describe what happened.
This is better. The summary captures the important information (major shift, direct vs. helper), and the full commit message describes what the high-level changes were.
This. Don't do this.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git branch -av
Explanation: The git commit -m... version is just a way to specify a commit message without opening a text editor.  The ipython notebook can't handle text editors.  Don't worry, you'll get to use a text editor in your homework. If you use a text editor you just say git commit.
Another nice command is to use git commit with the -a option:  git commit -a.  Note that git commit -a is shorthand to stage and commit a file which is already tracked all at once.  It will not stage a file that is not yet tracked!
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git push
git status
Explanation: We see that our branch, "master", has one more commit than the "origin/master" branch, the local copy of the branch that came from the upstream repository (nicknamed "origin" in this case). Let's push the changes.
push
The push command takes the changes you have made to your local repository and attempts to update a remote repository with them. If you're the only person working with both of these (which is how a solo GitHub project would work), then push should always succeed.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git remote add course https://github.com/IACS-CS-207/playground.git
cat .git/config
Explanation: You can go to your remote repo and see the changes!
Remotes and fetching from them
If you're working with other people, then it's possible that they have made changes to the remote repository between the time you first cloned it and now. push will fail. 
In our particular case of the playground repository, this is not going to happen, since you just cloned it and presumably havent invited anyone to collaborate with you on it.
However you can imagine that the original repository IACS-CS-207/playground, which you are now divorced from, has changed, and that you somehow want to pull those changes in.
That's where the next two commands come in.
remote
We have seen so far that our repository has one "remote", or upstream repository, which has been identified with the word origin, as seen in .git/config. We now wish to add another remote, which we shall call course, which points to the original repository we forked from. We want to do this to pull in changes, in case something changed there.  This is the kind of thing you will do all the time in this course.  Remember, in the first lecture we set up an upstream remote and today we pulled in changes from the upstream remote to your local repository.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git fetch course
Explanation: Notice that the master branch only tracks the same branch on the origin remote. We havent set up any connection with the course remote as yet.
Now lets figure out how to get changes from an upstream repository, be it our origin upstream that a collaborator has pushed to, or another course remote to which one of the teaching staff has posted a change.
fetch
Let's say a collaborator has pushed changes to your shared upstream repository while you were editing. Their local repository and the upstream repository now both contain their changes, but your local repository does not. To update your local repository, you run fetch.
But what if you've committed changes in the meantime? Does your local repository contain your changes or theirs? The answer is that it contains a record of both, but they are kept separate. Remember that git repositories are not copies of your project files. They store all the contents of your files, along with a bunch of metadata, but in its own internal format.
Let's say that you and your collaborator both edited the same line of the same file at the same time in different ways. On your respective machines, you both add and commit your different changes, and your collaborator pushes theirs to the upstream repository. When you run fetch, git adds a record of their changes to your local repository alongside your own. These are called branches, and they represent different, coexisting versions of your project. The fetch command adds your collaborator's branch to your local repository, but keeps yours as well.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git branch -avv
Explanation: A copy of a new remote branch has been made.  To see this, provide the -avv argument to git branch.
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git merge course/master
git status
Explanation: Indeed, the way git works is by creating copies of remote branches locally. Then it just compares to these "copy" branches to see what changes have been made.
Sometimes we really do want to merge the changes.  In this case, we want to merge the change from remotes/course/master. Eventually, we'll consider a case where you want to simply create another branch yourself and do things on that branch.
merge
Having multiple branches is fine, but at some point, you'll want to combine the changes that you've made with those made by others. This is called merging.
There are two general cases when merging two branches:
1. First, the two branches are different but the changes are in unrelated places
2. Second, the two branches are different and the changes are in the same locations in the same files.
The first scenario is easy. Git will simply apply both sets of changes to the appropriate places and put the resulting files into the staging area for you. Then you can commit the changes and push them back to the upstream repository. Your collaborator does the same, and everyone sees everything.
The second scenario is more complicated. Let's say the two changes set some variable to different values. Git can't know which is the correct value. One solution would be to simply use the more recent change, but this very easily leads to self-inconsistent programs. A more conservative solution, and the one git uses, is to simply leave the decision to the user. When git detects a conflict that it cannot resolve, merge fails, and git places a modified version of the offending file in your project directory. This is important: the file that git puts into your directory is not actually either of the originals. It is a new file that has special markings around the locations that conflicted. We shall not consider this case yet, but will return to dealing with conflicts soon.
Lets merge in the changes from course/master: (The next 2-3 inputs only make sense if IACS-CS-207/playground master is edited in-between.)
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git log -3
Explanation: We seem to be ahead of our upstream-tracking repository by 2 commits..why?
End of explanation
%%bash
cd /tmp/playground
git push
git status
Explanation: Aha: one commit came from the course upstream, and one was a merge commit. In the case you had edited the README.md at the same time and comitted locally, you would have been asked to resolve the conflict in the merge (the second case above).
These changes are only on our local repo.  We would like to have them on our remote repo.  Lets push these changes to the origin now.
End of explanation
<END_TASK>