﻿ Trade union : définition de Trade union et synonymes de Trade union (anglais)

   Publicité ▼

définition - Trade union

trade union (n.)

1.An association of employees, usually not limited to a single company, formed to protect or improve incomes and working conditions by collective bargaining with employers or employer organisations.

2.(British)an organization of employees formed to bargain with the employer"you have to join the union in order to get a job"

trade union


définition (complément)

voir la définition de Wikipedia

   Publicité ▼

synonymes - Trade union

trade union (n.) (British)

brotherhood, union, labor union  (American), trades union  (British)

dictionnaire analogique


labor union[Classe]

(trade union)[Thème]

trade union[ClasseHyper.]

trade union (n.)

trade union (n.) [British]

trade union (n.)

   Publicité ▼


Trade union

  Labour union demonstrators surrounded by soldiers during the 1912 Lawrence textile strike in Lawrence, Massachusetts.

A trade union (British English), labour union (Canadian English) or labor union (American English) is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as higher pay, increasing the number employees an employer hires, and better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and file members) and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining) with employers. The most common, but by no means only, purpose of these organisations is "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment".[1]



Over the last three hundred years, trade unions have developed into a number of forms. Aside from collective bargaining, activities vary, but may include:

  • Political activity: Trade unions may promote legislation favourable to the interests of their members or workers as a whole. To this end they may pursue campaigns, undertake lobbying, or financially support individual candidates or parties (such as the Labour Party in Britain) for public office. In some countries (e.g., the Nordic countries and the Philippines), trade unions may be invited to participate in government hearings about educational or other labour market reforms.



The origins of unions' existence can be traced from the 18th century, where the rapid expansion of industrial society drew women, children, rural workers, and immigrants to the work force in numbers and in new roles. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organised in fits and starts throughout its beginnings,[1] and would later be an important arena for the development of trade unions. Trade unions as such were endorsed by the Catholic Church towards the end of the 19th century. Pope Leo XIII in his "Magna Carta"—Rerum Novarum—spoke against the atrocities workers faced and demanded that workers should be granted certain rights and safety regulations.[2] Industries like textile mills and railways companies had started in India in the latter half of the 19th century.

  Origins and early history

Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed.[3] Medieval guilds existed to protect and enhance their members' livelihoods through controlling the instructional capital of artisanship and the progression of members from apprentice to craftsman, journeyman, and eventually to master and grandmaster of their craft. A trade union might include workers from only one trade or craft, or might combine several or all the workers in one company or industry. These things varied from region to region, based on the specific industrialisation path taken in the place in question.[4]


Since the publication of the History of Trade Unionism (1894) by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, the predominant historical view is that a trade union "is a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment."[1] A modern definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics states that a trade union is "an organisation consisting predominantly of employees, the principal activities of which include the negotiation of rates of pay and conditions of employment for its members."[5]









The prevalence of unions in various countries can be assessed using the measure “union density”. The definition of union density is “the proportion of paid workers who are union members”.[6] Thus, union density provides a rough picture of union membership only; it does not account for the circumstance that in some countries, also many persons under education, many unemployed persons, many retired persons and/or many persons who had to leave work due to occupational injuries may also be union members. (In some countries, such groups of persons may be strongly motivated to maintain union members if, e.g., educational, unemployment, retirement and/or even disability benefits are in part or totally union-administered.)

Trade union density figures are provided below for countries in every continent on the globe:[7][8][9]




Government opposition to Trade unionism in the United Kingdom was a major factor in economic crises during the 1960s and in particular the 1970s, culminating some would argue in the Winter of Discontent of late 1978 and early 1979, when a significant percentage of the nation's public sector workers went on strike. By this stage, some 12,000,000 workers in the United Kingdom were trade union members. However, the election of the Conservative Party led by Margaret Thatcher at the general election in May 1979, at the expense of Labour's James Callaghan, saw substantial trade union reform which saw the level of strikes fall, but also the level of trade union membership fall.

At the height of the strikes, nearly 30,000,000 working days were lost in Britain during 1979, but that had fallen dramatically to some 5,000,000 during 1981 as a result of the Thatcher government's union reform policies. The number of working days lost in the country due to strikes rose sharply to more than 25,000,000 in 1984, though most of these were miners on strike, and from then on the number of working days lost in Britain due to strikes remained in the low millions.[10]

By the end of the 1980s, membership had fallen to just over 6,000,000—little more than half the level of a decade earlier—and it also counted against the Labour Party's hopes of regaining power, as its relationship with the trade unions had traditionally been seen as a strength but after the Winter of Discontent it was seen as a liability. Manufacturing, the main source of union strength in the United Kingdom, had shrunk by half during the early 1980s recession pushing unemployment from 1,500,000 to more than 3,000,000.[11]

Earlier in the 1970s, Conservative prime minister Edward Heath (elected in 1970) had attempted to reduce trade union powers due to the rising level of strikes across the country. However, he backed down with his stance against the unions following a backlash by the militant miners' union, which saw many of his own MPs turn against him. The strikes continued, and Heath responded by calling a snap election in February 1974. The election resulted in a hung parliament with the Tories having the most votes but Labour having slightly more seats, and failed attempts by Heath to form a coalition with the Liberals led to the resignation of his government and the return of Harold Wilson as prime minister of a minority Labour government, which gained a three-seat majority at a second election later in the year.[12]

After the Winter of Discontent and the subsequent fall of the Labour government, many corners of the public and media believed that the trade unions were running the Labour Party - an image which Neil Kinnock was keen to shake off after becoming party leader in 1983. By the time Labour returned to government in 1997 after 18 years in opposition, Tony Blair (leader since 1994) had abandoned the Labour policy of going back on Tory-led union reforms, as well as ending the commitment of nationalisation of industries and utilities.[13]

In the rest of Europe, in the wake of the neo-liberal turn in politics ushered in by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan, union membership has also been declining. As noted by the Federation of European Employers:

“Over the last twenty years there has been a widespread decline in trade union membership throughout most of western Europe. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, unionisation in many eastern European states has collapsed at an even more dramatic rate. In Poland, for example, today’s 14 % level of unionisation is in marked contrast to that of the Soviet-controlled era, when almost all workplaces were unionised. Most of those who remain trade union members in Poland work for former state-owned companies.

In only 8 out of the current 27 member states of the European Union (EU) are more than half of the employed population members of a trade union. In fact, the EU’s four most populated states all have modest levels of unionisation, with Italy at 30%, the UK 29%, Germany 27% and France at only 9%.

As a consequence, three out of every four people employed in the EU are now not members of a trade union. Furthermore, in every EU country outside Scandinavia (except Belgium), trade union membership is either static or continues to decline.”[14]

  Unions in the United States

  19th-century American unionism

In the early 19th century, many men from large cities put together the organisation which we now call the Trade Union Movement. Individuals who were members of unions at this time were skilled, experienced, and knew how to get the job done. Their main reasoning for starting this movement was to put on strikes. However, they did not have enough men to fulfil their needs and the unions which began this trendy movement collapsed quickly. The Mechanics’ Union Trade Association was the next approach to bring workers together. In 1827, this union was the first US labour organization which brought together workers of divergent occupations. This was "the first city-wide federation of American workers, which recognised that all labour, regardless of trades, had common problems that could be solved only by united efforts as a class."[15] This organisation took off when carpentry workers from Philadelphia went on strike to protest their pay wages and working hours. This union strike was only a premonition of what was to come in the future.

According to history.com:[16]





The work force was drastically impacted by the Civil War and the economy was thriving. Many workers gained employment because of this economic boom and unions increased greatly. "More than 30 national craft unions were established during the 1860s and early '70s."[16] One of the significant national craft unions to be formed during this time was the National Labor Union (NLU). It was created in 1866 and included many types of workers.[19] Although relatively short-lived, the NLU paved the way for future American unions. Following the decline of the NLU, the Knights of Labor became the leading countrywide union in the 1860s. This union did not include Chinese, and partially included black people and women.[20]

  Knights of Labor

The Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor (KOL) was founded in Philadelphia in 1869 by Uriah Stephens and six other men. The union was formed for the purpose of organizing the flyers, educating and directing the power of the industrial masses, according to their Constitution of 1878.[21] The Knights gathered people to join the Order who believed in creating "the greatest good to the greatest amount of people". The Knights took their set goals very seriously. Some of which consisted of "productive work, civic responsibility, education, a wholesome family life, temperance, and self-improvement."[22]

The Knights of Labor worked as a secret fraternal society until 1881. The union grew slowly until the economic depression of the 1870s, when large numbers of workers joined the organisation.[23] The Knights only permitted certain groups of individuals into their Order which promoted social division amongst the people around them. Bankers, speculators, lawyers, liquor dealers, gamblers, and teachers were all excluded from the union. These workers were known as the "non-producers" because their jobs did not entail physical labour. Factory workers and business men were known as the "producers" because their job constructed a physical product. The working force producers were welcomed into the Order. Women were also welcome to join the Knights, as well as black workers by the year 1883.[24] However, Asians were excluded. In November 1885, the Knights of a Washington city pushed to get rid of their Asian population. The knights were strongly for the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 because it greatly helped them deteriorate the Asian community. "The Act required the few non-labourers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to immigrate. But this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not labourers because the 1882 act defined excludables as ‘skilled and unskilled labourers and Chinese employed in mining.’ Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law." [25]


Although Asians were not welcomed in the union, black workers who joined the union brought a large number of blacks into the white labour movement. In 1886, the Union exceeded 700,000 members, 60,000 of them black. The Knights were told that they "broke the walls of prejudice"; the "color line had been broken and black and white were found working in the same cause.

  American Federation of Labor

The American Federation of Labor (AFL),founded by Samuel Gompers, was established due to the vexation of many Knights who parted from the KOL. Many Knights joined the AFL because they set themselves apart from the KOL. The KOL "tried to teach the American wage-earner that he was a wage-earner first and a bricklayer, carpenter, miner [...] after. This meant that the Order was teaching something that was not so in the hope that sometime it would be.’ But the AFL affiliates organised carpenters as carpenters, bricklayers as bricklayers, and so forth, teaching them all to place their own craft interests before those of other workers."[26]



The diversity in the AFL faltered when many of the black members were excluded. Gompers only wanted skilled workers representing his union and many black people were not considered skilled. The AFL claimed to not exclude the black members because of their race but because they were not qualified for the part. "So as long as wages rose, and they did, hours fell, and they did, security increased, and it appeared to, the AFL could grow fat while neglecting millions of labourers doomed to lives of misery and want."[26] Even black workers considered skilled enough to fit the part were generally excluded from the Union. The AFL conducted literacy tests which had the effect of excluding immigrants and blacks. Regardless of black members being excluded, the AFL was the most prevalent union federation in America before the mid-1940s. The union was composed of over 10 million members before it combined with the Congress of Industrial Organization (CIO).

  Congress of Industrial Organizations

The CIO was put forth by Mr. John Kamau when troubles with the AFL persisted, after the death of Gompers in 1924. Many members of the union requested that they switch the rules which were laid out by Gompers. They wanted to support inexperienced workmen rather than only focusing on experienced workers of one occupation. John L. Lewis was the first member of the AFL to act upon this issue in 1935. He was the founder of the Committee for the Industrial Organization which was an original union branched from the AFL. The Committee for the Industrial Organization transformed into the Congress of Industrial Organization. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) encompassed the largest sustained surge of worker organisation in American history.[28] In the 1930s, the CIO grabbed many of their member’s attention through victorious strikes. In the 1935, employees of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company formed their own union called the United Rubber Workers. The Rubber Workers went on strike in 1936 to protest an increase in product with lower pay wages. "There were forty-eight strikes in 1936 in which the strikers remained at their jobs for at least one day; in twenty-two of these work stoppages, involving 34,565 workers, the strikers stayed inside the plants for more than twenty-four hours."[29] This tactic was called a "sit-down" strike which entailed workers to stop doing their job and sit in their place of employment. During these strikes, business owners were unable to bring in new workers to replace the ones who were on strike because they were still in their seats at the factory. This was unlike any strikes in the past. Before this time, workers showed their fury by leaving their factory and standing in picket lines. Walter Reuther was in control of the union at this time and moved forward to higher roles during 1955.



In Eisenhower’s telephone broadcast to the United States he acknowledged the impact union members had made to better the nation and one of these impacts was "the development of the American philosophy of labour."[30] Eisenhower states three principles which he feels apply to the philosophy of labour. The first principles states that: "the ultimate values of mankind are spiritual; these values include liberty, human dignity, opportunity and equal rights and justice."[30] Eisenhower was stating that every individual deserves a job with decent compensation, practical hours, and good working conditions that leave them feeling fulfilled. His second principle speaks of the economic interest of the employer and employee being a mutual prosperity.[30] The employers and employees must work together in order for there to be the greatest amount of wealth for all. Workers have a right to strike when they feel their boundaries are being crossed and the best way for the employer to fix the employees unhappiness is to come to a mutual agreement. His last principle which he preached stated: "labour relations will be managed best when worked out in honest negotiation between employers and unions, without Government’s unwarranted interference."[30] Eisenhower was saying that when both parties cooperate and act in mature fashion, it will be easier to work out situations and a better outcome will result because of it. Once he was done delivering the speech, everyone across the U.S. knew of the new AFL-CIO whose "mission [was] to bring social and economic justice to our nation by enabling working people to have a voice on the job, in government, in a changing global economy and in their communities."[31]

This new alliance is made up of 56 nationwide and intercontinental labour unions. The unions which are a part of this alliance are composed of 2.5 million working Americans and 8.5 million other affiliated members. These members do not fall under one job title but they are very diversely spread out among the working area. Their jobs go from doctors to truck drivers and painters to bankers. The mission of these workers and the AFL-CIO "is to improve the lives of working families—to bring economic justice to the workplace and social justice to our nation. To accomplish this mission we will build and change the American labour movement."[32] The AFL-CIO also has many goals which coincide with their mission:

We will build a broad movement of American workers by organizing workers into unions. We will build a strong political voice for workers in our nation. We will change our unions to provide a new voice to workers in a changing economy. We will change our labour movement by creating a new voice for workers in our communities.

The association was willing to go to any extent to help out their employers which is why the membership was so high. Members started to slowly disappear after 25 successful years of a steady membership. Starting out with 16 million members in 1955 and dropping down to 13 million by 1984 is a significant loss. This loss of members is in large part due to the 1957 removal of the Teamsters’ Union who were long time members of the AFL. The Teamsters’ were involved in organized crime and manipulating employers with strong force. The Teamsters’ philosophy was to



The AFL-CIO also lost many members due to financial struggles in the United States. During the late 20th century the U.S. dollar began to oscillate due to rivalry with foreign countries and their currencies. This affects global trafficking and results in job loss for American citizens. The issues between the United States and foreign countries cannot be resolved by Eisenhower’s third principle, which entailed honest negotiations. Consequently, the association has been dynamically supportive in administration policies which deal with global trafficking, the production of goods, and many other issues, which are optimistic policies that will add to an established financial system.


In the United States there are a total of 15.4 million union members, "11 million of whom belong to unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO."[34] This number has grown rapidly since the beginning of the union movement because today, all individuals with different occupations are welcomed to join unions. "Today's unions include manufacturing and construction workers, teachers, technicians and doctors—and every type of worker in between. No matter what you do for a living, there's a union that has members who do the same thing."[34] Educating union members about issues that shape lives of functioning families on a daily basis is one of the AFL-CIO’s policies. They give them confidence to have their voices heard for political purposes. They also prioritize in


The AFL-CIO is very supportive of political issues and they show their concern[POV? ] by giving out information about existing political issues to families. This information is spread by volunteers and activists and includes where all the candidates stand on the issues.


Labour unions emerged in Japan in the second half of the Meiji period as the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization.[35] Until 1945, however, the labour movement remained weak, impeded by lack of legal rights,[36] anti-union legislation,[35] management-organized factory councils, and political divisions between “cooperative” and radical unionists.[37] In the immediate aftermath of the Second World War, the US Occupation authorities initially encouraged the formation of independent unions.[36] Legislation was passed that enshrined the right to organize,[38] and membership rapidly rose to 5 million by February, 1947.[36] The organization rate, however, peaked at 55.8% in 1949 and subsequently declined to 18.2% (2006).[39] The labour movement went through a process of reorganization from 1987 to 1991[40] from which emerged the present configuration of three major labour union federations, Rengo, Zenroren, and Zenrokyo along with other smaller national union organizations.



During these 40 years, the primary aim of the labour unions was not to benefit the workers, but to carry out the state's economic policy under their cosy relationship with the ruling party. This economic policy, which peaked in the 1950-60s with the so called Mexican Miracle, saw rising incomes and rising standards of living. Only a minor part went to the workers, while the primary beneficiaries had been the wealthy.[41]

In the 1980s, Mexico began to follow the Washington Consensus, and sell off state industries (railroad, telecommunication) to private industries. The new owners had an antagonist attitude towards unions, and the unions, accustomed to the comfortable relationship with the state, were not prepared to fight back. A movement of new unions began to emerge with a more independent model, while the old institutionalised unions had become very corrupt, violent and gangster led. From the 1990s, the new model of independent unions prevailed, and a number of them were represented by the National Union of Workers.[41]

Current old institutions like the Oil Workers Union and the National Education Workers Union (Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educacion) are sordid demonstrations of how the use of government benefits are not being applied to improve the quality in the investigation of the use of oil or the basic education in Mexico as long as their leaders show publicly that they are living wealthly and in the case of the Teachers Union represented by Elba Esther Gordillo, they are not allowing government to input a way to evaluate and improve the knowledge of the Mexican teachers allowing to incompetent elements to use those places to escalate in the Union or to avoid the responsibility for they were hired.


ABC Waterfront Dispute.ogv
  A video retrospective from the ABC on one of Australia's largest disputes in recent years, the 1998 Australian waterfront dispute.

Supporters of Unions, such as the ACTU or Australian Labor Party, often credit trade unions with leading the labour movement in the early 20th century, which generally sought to end child labour practices, improve worker safety, increase wages for both union workers and non-union workers, raise the entire society's standard of living, reduce the hours in a work week, provide public education for children, and bring other benefits to working class families.[42]

  Structure and politics


Unions may organize a particular section of skilled workers (craft unionism, traditionally found in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the USA[4]), a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism, traditionally found in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Netherlands, the UK and the USA[43]), or attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism, found in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Germany, Finland, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, and the USA[44]). These unions are often divided into "locals", and united in national federations. These federations themselves will affiliate with Internationals, such as the International Trade Union Confederation. However, in Japan, union organisation is slightly different due to the presence of enterprise unions, i.e. unions that are specific to a specific plant or company. These enterprise unions, however, join industry-wide federations which in turn are members of Rengo, the Japanese national trade union confederation.[45]




Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggle. Social Unionism encompasses many unions that use their organisational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation favourable to their members or to workers in general. As well, unions in some countries are closely aligned with political parties.



Some research, such as that conducted by the ACIRRT,[49] argues that unionized workers enjoy better conditions and wages than those who are not unionized.



  Shop types



In Britain, also previous to this EU jurisprudence, a series of laws introduced during the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher's government restricted closed and union shops. All agreements requiring a worker to join a union are now illegal. In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 outlawed the closed shop, and the union shop was deemed illegal by the Supreme Court.[46]

  Diversity of international unions

Union law varies from country to country, as does the function of unions. For example, German and Dutch unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in corporate boards and co-determination than have unions in the United States.[52] Moreover, in the United States, collective bargaining is most commonly undertaken by unions directly with employers, whereas in Austria, Denmark, Germany, or Sweden, unions most often negotiate with employers associations.

Concerning labour market regulation in the EU, Gold (1993)[53] and Hall (1994)[54] have identified three distinct systems of labour market regulation, which also influence the role that unions play:






Beyond the classification listed above, unions' relations with political parties vary. In many countries unions are tightly bonded, or even share leadership, with a political party intended to represent the interests of working people. Typically this is a left-wing, socialist, or social democratic party, but many exceptions exist, including some of the aforementioned Christian unions.[4] In the United States, by contrast, although it is historically aligned with the Democratic Party, the union movement is by no means monolithic on that point; this is especially true among the individual "rank and file" members. For example, the International Brotherhood of Teamsters has supported Republican Party candidates on a number of occasions and the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) endorsed Ronald Reagan in 1980. In Britain the union movement's relationship with the Labour Party frayed as party leadership embarked on privatisation plans at odds with what unions see as the worker's interests. However, it has strengthened once more after the Labour party's election of Ed Milliband who beat his brother David Milliband, to become leader of the party after Ed secured the trade unions votes. Additionally, in the past there, was been a group known as the Conservative Trade Unionists or CTU. A group formed of people who sympathized with right wing Tory policy but were Trade Unionists.



  Many union members were illegally fired during the 1980s in the United States due to government opposition to unions.[56]


In the United States, the outsourcing of labour to Asia, Latin America, and Africa has been partially driven by increasing costs of union partnership, which gives other countries a comparative advantage in labour, making it more efficient to perform labour-intensive work there.[58] Milton Friedman, Nobel economist and advocate of laissez-faire capitalism, sought to show that unionisation produces higher wages (for the union members) at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will tend to decline in non-unionized industries.[59]

Trade unions have been said to have ineffective policies on racism and sexism, such that a union is justified in not supporting a member taking action against another member. This was demonstrated by the 1987 judgment in the Weaver v NATFHE case in the UK, in which a black Muslim woman brought a complaint of workplace racist harassment against a co-trade unionist. The court found that the union, had it offered assistance to the plaintiff, would be in violation of its duty to protect the tenure of the accused member, and this judgment remains the precedent for cases in which union members who make complaints to the employer of racist or sexist harassment against member(s) of the same union cannot obtain union advice or assistance; this applies irrespective of the merit of the complaint.[60]

  International unionisation

The largest trade union federation in the world is the Brussels-based International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), which has approximately 309 affiliated organisations in 156 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 166 million. The ITUC is a federation of national trade union centres, such as the AFL-CIO in the United States and the Trades Union Congress in the United Kingdom. Other global trade union organisations include the World Federation of Trade Unions.


  Union publications


Another source of union news is the Workers Independent News, a news organisation providing radio articles to independent and syndicated radio shows in the United States.




  See also




  2. ^ "Rerum Novarum: Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on Capital and Labor". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum_en.html. Retrieved July 27, 2011. 
  3. ^ Kautsky, Karl (April 1901). "Trades Unions and Socialism". International Socialist Review 1 (10). http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1901/04/unions.htm. Retrieved July 27, 2011. 
  5. ^ "Trade Union Census". Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/0/9FCBBF538897395ACA2570EC001A6CED?OpenDocument. Retrieved July 27, 2011. 
  6. ^ Johnson, S., 2004. An empirical examination of union density in six countries: Canada, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, the United States and Venezuela. Washington, DC, USA: Inter-American Development Bank, Research Network Working Paper £R-487, p.5, available at: http://www.iadb.org/res/publications/pubfiles/pubR-487.pdf.
  8. ^ Hall-Jones, P., 2010. Unionism and Economic Performance. Internet article & statistics. Available at: http://www.newunionism.net/library/member%20contributions/news/Unionism%20and%20Economic%20Performance.htm
  9. ^ OECD, 2010. Statistics on Trade Union Density. Paris, France: OECD.stat Extracts Web¬site [online]. Available at: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=UN_DEN.
  10. ^ "Thatcher years in graphics". BBC News. November 18, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/4446012.stm. 
  11. ^ Wilenius, Paul (5 March 2004). "Enemies within: Thatcher and the unions". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/3067563.stm. Retrieved July 27, 2011. 
  12. ^ [1]
  13. ^ "1989: Labour's union U-turn". BBC News. December 18, 1989. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/18/newsid_2538000/2538439.stm. 
  14. ^ Web page of the Federation of European Employers. http://www.fedee.com/labour-relations/trade-unions-in-europe.
  15. ^ Foner, Philip S. (1972). History of the Labor Movement in the United States Vol 1: From the Colonial Times to the Founding of the American Federation of Labor. New York: Intl Publishers Co. ISBN 978-0-7178-0091-9. 
  16. ^ a b Trade Unions in the United States. 2008. Retrieved April 1, 2009.
  17. ^ Panic of 1837. America's Story from America's Library. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
  18. ^ Lincoln, Abraham (1911). Ida Minerva Tarbell. ed. Selections from the Letters, Speeches, and State Papers of Abraham Lincoln. Ginn. p. 77. http://books.google.com/books?id=yNMVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  19. ^ Ayers, Edward L. et al.. American Passages: A History of the United States. Vol. 1. Harcourt. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-495-05015-5. 
  20. ^ Kennedy, David; Lizabeth Cohen, Thomas Bailey (2006). The American Pageant (Thirteenth Edition ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 
  21. ^ 1997. "Knights of Labour constitution of 1878." Knights of Labour Constitution of 1878 1, no. 1: 1. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Retrieved February 24, 2009.
  22. ^ Fink, Leon. Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labour and America Politics. United States of America: the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 1983.
  23. ^ "Knights of Labour." The History Channel website (accessed Feb 24, 2009).
  24. ^ "Knights of Labor." Columbia Encyclopedia . Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Retrieved February 24, 2009.
  25. ^ Chinese Exclusion Act (1882). 1989. Retrieved March 31, 2009.
  26. ^ a b Dubofsky, Melvyn (2000). We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Abridged ed. ed.). Urbana [u.a.]: Univ. of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06905-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=DmAer6Nz75kC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=Knights+of+Labor+competition+with+AFL&source=bl&ots=-k3A0t8rN6&sig=Xt1W6THNjgswcbTwsHoWszrlqa4&hl=en&ei=rrHbSfXBFJvqlQfFrfiUCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPP1,M1. 
  27. ^ Definition of "small business" Dictionary.com (2009). Retrieved April 6, 2009.
  28. ^ Zieger, Robert H. (1995). The CIO: 1935-1955 ([Nachdr.]. ed.). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4630-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=ghy45fyXYyoC. 
  29. ^ Fine, Sidney (1979). Sit-Down: The General Motors Strike of 1936-1937 (4. [Dr.] ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-32948-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=0TkupxD2njcC&pg=PA123&dq=Rubber+Strike+of+1936. 
  30. ^ a b c d Eisenhower, Dwight D. (December 5, 1955) 245 - Telephone Broadcast to the AFL-CIO Merger Meeting in New York City. The American Presidency Project. Retrieved April 16, 2009.
  31. ^ Union Facts. 2009. Retrieved April 7, 2009.
  32. ^ a b What We Stand for: Mission and Goals of the AFL-CIO. 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2009.
  33. ^ The Teamster History. International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Retrieved April 20, 2009.
  34. ^ a b c Union Facts. 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2009.
  35. ^ a b Nimura, K. The Formation of Japanese Labor Movement: 1868-1914 (Translated by Terry Boardman). Retrieved 11 June 2011
  37. ^ Weathers, C. (2009). Business and Labor. In William M. Tsutsui (Ed.), A Companion to Japanese History (pp. 493-510). Chichester, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
  41. ^ a b c Dan La Botz US supported economics spurred Mexican emigration, pt.1, interview at The Real News, May 1, 2010
  42. ^ History of the ACTU. Australian Council of Trade Unions.
  43. ^ ibid.
  44. ^ ibid.
  45. ^ ibid.
  46. ^ ibid.
  47. ^ ICFTU press release—regarding Cambodia.
  48. ^ Amnesty International report 23 September 2005—fear for safety of SINALTRAINAL member José Onofre Esquivel Luna
  49. ^ "Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training report.". Acirrt.com. http://www.acirrt.com/pubs/Trainingwagesupdate.pdf. Retrieved 2011-07-27. 
  50. ^ See the website of the Danish discount union "Det faglige Hus" at http://www.detfagligehus.dk/ (website in Danish)
  52. ^ Bamberg, Ulrich (June 2004). "The role of German trade unions in the national and European standardisation process". TUTB Newsletter 24-25. http://hesa.etui-rehs.org/uk/newsletter/files/BTS012EN_12-15.pdf. Retrieved July 27, 2011. 
  54. ^ Hall, M., 1994. Industrial relations and the social dimension of European Integration: Before and after Maastricht, pp.281-331 in Hyman, R. & Ferner A., eds.: New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations, Basil Blackwell Publishing
  55. ^ Wagtmann, M.A. (2010): Module 3, Maritime & Port Wages, Benefits, Labour Relations. International Maritime Human Resource Management textbook modules. Available at: https://skydrive.live.com/?cid=f90c069a3e6bb729&id=F90C069A3E6BB729%21107#cid=F90C069A3E6BB729&id=F90C069A3E6BB729%21182
  56. ^ Bernstein, Aaron (May 23, 1994). "Why America Needs Unions But Not the Kind It Has Now". BusinessWeek. http://www.businessweek.com/archives/1994/b337360.arc.htm. 
  57. ^ Card David, Krueger Alan. (1995). Myth and measurement: The new economics of the minimum wage. Princeton, NJ. Princeton University Press.
  58. ^ Kramarz, Francis (2006-10-19). "Outsourcing, Unions, and Wages: Evidence from data matching imports, firms, and workers". http://www.eco.uc3m.es/temp/agenda/wage102006.pdf. Retrieved 2007-01-22. 
  59. ^ Friedman, Milton (2007). Price theory ([New ed.], 3rd printing ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-202-30969-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=EhcI5-D9wREC&pg=PA164. 
  60. ^ "The Legal Ferret.net" Retrieved on 22 December 2008.

  Further reading

  • The Government of British Trade Unions: A study of Apathy and the Democratic Process in the Transport and General Worker Union by Joseph Goldstein[1]
  • European Commission, Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion (2010): Industrial Relations in Europe 2010. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/social/keyDocuments.jsp?type=0&policyArea=0&subCategory=0&country=0&year=0&advSearchKey=IRIE&mode=advancedSubmit&langId=en
  • The Early English Trade Unions: Documents from Home Office Papers in the Public Record Office by A. Aspinall[2]
  • Magnificent Journey: The Rise of the Trade Unions, by Francis Williams[3]
  • Trade Unions by Allan Flanders[4]
  • Trade Union Government and Administration in Great Britain by B C Roberts[5]
  • Union Power: The Growth and Challenge in Perspective by Claud Cockburn[6]
  • Directory of Employer's Associations, Trade Unions, Joint Organisations—No author and produced in paperback[7]
  • The History of the TUC (Trades Union Congress) 1868–1968: A pictorial Survey of a Social Revolution—Illustrated with Contemporary Prints, Documents and Photographs, edited by Lionel Birch[8]
  • Clarke, T.; Clements, L. (1978). Trade Unions under Capitalism. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. ISBN 0-391-00728-9. 
  • Phil Dine (2007). State of the Unions: How Labor Can Strengthen the Middle Class, Improve Our Economy, and Regain Political Influence, McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-148844-0
  • Charles A. Orr, "Trade Unionism in Colonial Africa" Journal of Modern African Studies, 4 (1966), pp. 65–81


  1. ^ First published by George Allen and Unwin Ltd (London) in 1952, and subject of reprints—Foreword by Arthur Deakin
  2. ^ Published by Batchworth Press (London) in 1949
  3. ^ First published by Odhams Press (London) in 1954
  4. ^ First published by Hutchinson (London) in 1952 and reprinted several times
  5. ^ First published by The School of Economics/Bell and Sons (London) in 1956 and reprinted
  6. ^ First published by William Kimber in 1976 (London) ISBN 0-7183-0113-7
  7. ^ published by HMSO (Her Majesty's Stationery Office) on 1986 ISBN 113612508
  8. ^ Published in large paperback by Hamlyn/General Council of Trade Union Congress in 1968 with a foreword by George Woodcock

  External links

United States


Toutes les traductions de Trade union

Contenu de sensagent

  • définitions
  • synonymes
  • antonymes
  • encyclopédie

  • definition
  • synonym

   Publicité ▼

dictionnaire et traducteur pour sites web



Essayer ici, télécharger le code;

Solution commerce électronique

Augmenter le contenu de votre site


Parcourir les produits et les annonces

Obtenir des informations en XML pour filtrer le meilleur contenu.

Indexer des images et définir des méta-données

Fixer la signification de chaque méta-donnée (multilingue).

Renseignements suite à un email de description de votre projet.

Jeux de lettres

Les jeux de lettre français sont :
○   Anagrammes
○   jokers, mots-croisés
○   Lettris
○   Boggle.





Dictionnaire de la langue française
Principales Références

L'encyclopédie française bénéficie de la licence Wikipedia (GNU).


Changer la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions.


5527 visiteurs en ligne

calculé en 0,187s

Je voudrais signaler :
section :
une faute d'orthographe ou de grammaire
un contenu abusif (raciste, pornographique, diffamatoire)
une violation de copyright
une erreur
un manque
merci de préciser :