Jenny Thomas, MD, MPH, IBCLC, FAAP,
 Understand normal breast growth and the ways
human milk is produced and regulated
 Understand the consequences of disruptions in this
normal physiology
 Incorporate this understanding in to the evaluation,
treatment and support of the mother with low milk
 Be able to recognize and support the mother with
perceived insufficient milk supply
 Timing of low supply
 Never had milk
 Has some but not enough
 Had plenty, now doesn’t
 Sick or not sick
J Hum Lact 1999 15: 339 Vicki Bodley and Diane Powers Progesterone Treatment for Luteal Phase Defect
Breast Development
Did you experience breast growth during pregnancy?
 Mammary ducts must grow into an adipose tissue pad if
morphogenesis is to continue. Only adipose stroma
supports ductal elongation. The mammary epithelium is
closely associated with the adipocyte-containing stroma
in all phases of development
 Estrogen is essential to mammary growth. Ductal growth
does not occur in the absence of ovaries The increase in
estrogen at puberty results in mammary development.
Although estrogen is essential, it is not adequate alone.
 Prolactin is necessary for full alveolar development.
Further, when prolactin is withdrawn, apoptosis of the
alveolar cells occurs.
 The exact location of the estrogen receptors in human
breasts is unclear. Estrogen receptors are not in the
proliferating cells and have not been located in the
stroma. Cells with estrogen receptors, however, secrete a
paracrine factor that is responsible for the proliferation of
ductal cells. This paracrine factor may hold the key to
understanding both normal and abnormal breast
 In addition to estrogen, the pituitary gland is necessary
for breast development. Growth hormone is important to
pubertal development and development of the terminal
end buds in the breast. Progesterone secretion brings
about the side branching of the mammary ducts.
Lawrence, Lawrence Breastfeeding: A guide For the medical profession
Breast Development
 Fetal life: epithelial bud sprouting
 Postnatal life: extensive branching morphogenesis
 Puberty: exponential epithelial outgrowth during; the fat
pad rapidly fills with epithelia to produce the adult
 Mature breast tissue: undergoes only minor changes,
largely dependent on the stage of the menstrual cycle.
 Late pregnancy: prominent differentiation, ultimately
becoming competent for functional lactation .
Breast Development
 Early breast development is regulated by
endogenous hormones—
 mainly estrogen, which promotes growth of the ducts
 progesterone, which promotes lobuloalveolar
 The mammary gland is also an autocrine/paracrine
tissue, producing and responding to hormones
produced by its own cells.
Annual Reviews
 Then we need the pregnant breast to create the ducts,
lobules and supporting structures to create milk.
 These are created by prolactin, progesterone and
chorionic gonadotropin.
 Breast growth in pregnancy, unlike puberty, has
little to do with estrogen.
Lawrence, Lawrence , Breastfeeding: A Guide For the Medical Profession, 7th edition
Potential Abnormalities
 Failure to develop any part of the breast structure
(congenital anomalies)
 Acquired breast abnormality
 Usually iatrogenic .
 Chest wall trauma in premature infants when chest
tubes are inserted.
 Biopsy in prepubertal girls may remove vital tissues.
 Cutaneous burns to the chest wall may result in
scaring and breast deformity.
 Other trauma
This woman had an implant to correct the asymmetry, so not all histories of
implants are benign.
Environmental influences
 Environmental exposures and endogenous signals
may affect endocrine organs as well as tissues near
the mammary gland (like fat)
 Can then send altered messages through the vascular
system, culminating in altered mammary gland
 Mammary tissue may also be a direct target of
environmental exposures; epithelia, fibroblasts, fat
cells, and inflammatory cells express unique and
shared receptors that are targets for environmental
Health risk as adults associated with premature puberty
Accelerated skeletal maturation and short adult height
Early sexual interests; risk-taking behaviors such as smoking, using alcohol and
drugs, engaging in unprotected sex
Psychosocial and behavioral difficulties
Obesity and eating disorders
Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance
Cardiovascular disease and hypertension
Increased breast and reproductive cancers
Polycystic ovarian syndrome
Suzanne E. Fenton, Casey Reed, and Retha R. Newbold
Perinatal Environmental Exposures Affect Mammary Development, Function, and Cancer Risk in Adulthood Annual
Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology Vol. 52: 455-479
Delayed MG development
Delayed /Altered Breast Development
Bisphenol A
Dioxin or TCDD
High-fat diet (PUFA)
Ziracin™ (antibacterial)
Perinatal Environmental Exposures Affect Mammary Development, Function, and Cancer Risk in Adulthood Annual Review of
Pharmacology and Toxicology Vol. 52: 455-479
Regulation of
Do you have any ongoing medical problems?
During Pregnancy
 Human Placental Lactogen (HPL) and Progesterone
prevent milk release.
 Progesterone sensitizes mammary cells to the effects
of insulin
 Thyroid hormones increase sensitivity to prolactin
Normal Milk Production
 Secretory Differentiation
 Mammary epithelial cells differentiate into lactocytes
with the capacity to synthesize unique milk
constituents such as lactose.
 Needs a “lactogenic hormone complex” including
estrogen, progesterone, prolactin
Pang, Hartmann: initiation of human lactation: secretory differentiation
and secretory activation, J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 12: 211-221,
Normal Milk Production
 Secretory activation
 Initiation of copious milk secretion associated with
major change in many milk constituents
 Triggered by withdrawal of progesterone
 Requires prolactin, insulin and cortisol
Pang, Hartmann: initiation of human lactation: secretory differentiation
Lactogenic Hormone
 Estrogen in pregnancy helps increase prolactin.
 The creation of milk also needs insulin, to help
increase the number of supporting structures.
 Cortisol needs to be around to help with the
formation of alveoli.
Lactogenic Inhibition
 Breastmilk can be secreted by 16 weeks of gestation
 Milk secretion is held in check by progesterone and
human placental lactogen (HPL), both of which are
formed by the placenta.
 The receptors that help with making milk like both
prolactin and placental lactogen, but preferentially
bind HPL
Problems here: Immediate
 Several culprits:
 Hypoplastic (underdeveloped) breasts from puberty.
 Insufficient glandular tissue
 Poorly controlled diabetes which would affect insulin
and its actions.
 Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) where the body
doesn’t respond to insulin the way it’s supposed to.
 Problem with hormones that control prolactin. An
abnormality of any of them may impact supply.
What to do if there really is
“no milk”
If the answer to our breast growth question is “no” then
we might need to set some realistic expectations for
milk supply. If we didn’t create the structures, we’ll
have milk production issues.
Prolactin: mediates CNS regulation of milk secretion.
Influenced by rate of milk removal by infant.
Oxytocin: neuroendocrine
reflex that stimulates
myoepithelial cells,
which then force milk
into the ducts (MER)
Regulation of Oxytocin
 Store (probably create) prolactin in pituitary
secretory granules.
 Prolactin inhibited by dopamine-only substance to
be constantly inhibited
 Dopamine keeps the secretory granules full.
Catacholamines control dopamine.
 Suckling decreases dopamine, prolactin surges from
Arrows indicate prolactin
containing secretory granules
 Known component of breastmilk
 Made by the lactating breast.
 As a part of breastmilk, it exerts immunomodulating
effects in the newborn when it helps with
lymphocyte cell growth and function.
 Prolactin in milk also influences maturation of
gastrointestinal epithelium.
 The concentration of prolactin is highest in the first 3
days of life when it exerts crucial neuroendocrine
effects. These effects condition behavior responses in
later life.
 Prolactin can be affected by insulin, cortisol, thyroid
hormones, parathyroid hormones and growth
Reglan and Domperidone
 Interesting review from the Cochrane Database on &quot;Medications
for increasing milk supply in mothers expressing breastmilk for
their preterm hospitalized infants.&quot;
 Their criteria for study inclusion resulted in only finding 2
adequate studies, both of which used Domperidone and only
involved 59 mothers (so a small sample). They found that
prophylaxis with medication like Reglan didn't work. But that in
the 2 studies that used Domperidone:
 &quot;These studies showed a modest improvement in EBM volume over
were noted in these studies.
 These medications should only be considered in mothers who have
received full lactation support and are more than 14 days post
 delivery but have insufﬁcient EBM for their infants’ needs.”
Prolactin and Obesity
 The prolactin response to suckling is very important,
especially during the time of the transition to copious
milk production in the first week post-partum.
 Overweight and obese women (BMI&gt;26) had a lower
prolactin response to suckling during this critical time for
milk production.
 Many overweight/obese women stop breastfeeding early,
during this time of transition to more milk production likely due to this low prolactin response to suckling and
lack of increasing milk supply in those early days.
 Lactation support is critical for these moms and babies
because after day 7, the response to prolactin is the same
as non-obese women.
 Love hormone
 Sexual intercourse, Childbirth and Lactation
 Can be inhibited by adrenaline
 Stop labor until safer surroundings are found
 Inhibit MER until the pair can safely feed
 Oxytocin can be released under many circumstances
 Prolactin however is only released by stimulation of
the breast.
 The 4th intercostal nerve is responsible for taking the
information about suckling to the brain.
Problems with regulation
and production
 So low milk supply issues here could come from
insulin issues (again)
 Disorders of regulation of cortisol, thyroid
hormones, parathyroid hormones and growth
Problems with regulation
and production
 Fourth intercostal nerve damage:
 Previous trauma (car accidents, biopsies…)
 other breast/thoracic surgery
 Breast reduction surgery
 Removes the nipple entirely
 If the mother has areolar sensation, we have a chance
of achieving a milk supply, maybe not a full one
 Setting realistic expectations
Problems with regulation
and production
 Dopamine- agonists
 ADHD meds
 Wellbutrin
 Cause some decrease in supply because they increase
dopamine, and therefore may decrease prolactin.
Problems with regulation
and production
 Continue to treat the underlying illness
 If starting a new anti-depressant, Wellbutrin is not a
good choice.
 If the mother has had good results with Wellbutrin,
no need to switch the medication
Problems with regulation
and production
 Oxytocin suppression
 Tigers
 Define “tiger” however you’d like, but stress of any
sort can inhibit the milk ejection reflex.
 Alcohol
First Several days
First hours
 The placenta comes out and with it progesterone levels drop
way down.
 With progesterone gone, milk synthesis increases.
 Then we need insulin, prolactin and cortisol to continue
 So, the milk secretion in the first few days is an endocrine
process, not &quot;demand and supply” until the 3rd or 4th day,
when milk supply drops if the milk is not removed from the
 The baby still needs to nurse frequently and with a correct
latch, get skin-to-skin and all those good things, but
 Process here is endocrine, so it’s very, very unusual for a
mother to have “nothing.”
 Colostrum can be secreted without the baby’s help.
Timing- First Few Days
 Poor supply
 Retained placental fragments.
 Depo-provera as a contraceptive.
 Poor insulin regulation
 insulin dependent or gestational diabetes ,PCOS
 delay in the transition to a larger milk supply.
 C-sections may cause a delay in transitioning to a larger
milk supply.
 Post-partum heavy bleeding falls into this section as well.
 Confidence rotting
 Not understanding normal newborn behavior
First Few Days
 Problem solving
 Depo:
 We have no idea who will have a drop in supply because
of that Depo injection.
 Suggest progestin only pill that you can stop if it drops
 Insulin
 Continue metformin
After the first few days
How’s the latch?
After the First Few Days
 Now we have demand and supply.
 We need a good latch.
 The more milk out, the more you get
After the First Few Days
 Poor supply
Any number of latch issues
Other baby anatomical issues like cleft lip and palate.
 Birth weight
 Bilirubin
 Blood sugars
 Confidence
Perceived Insufficient Milk
 Do, or do not. There is no try.
 Misperception of actual milk supply
 Mothers are supplementing and weaning because
they feel as if they have &quot;no milk&quot; or &quot;I can't satisfy
Perceived Insufficient Milk
 Is as important as Star Wars.
 It's a cultural phenomenon. It's everywhere.
 It's marketed, and grosses lots of money.
 And the story is passed down from generation to
Perceived Insufficient Milk
 About 35% -80% of women cite perceived
insufficient milk supply as a reason for weaning.
 Other authors go as high as 80%.
 The most common reasons for the perception that a
mother's body can't make enough milk for her baby:
 Lack of confidence
 She can't satisfy your baby- lack of understanding
normal newborn behavior at the breast
 Crying
Perceived Insufficient Milk
 Lack of social support
 one study put the blame squarely on the mother-inlaw's disapproval.
 Marketing practices of infant formula companies
 Non-evidence-based maternity care practices
 Maybe &quot;I don't have enough milk&quot; is a socially
acceptable way to stop breastfeeding.
Health risk as adults associated with premature puberty
Accelerated skeletal maturation and short adult height
drugs, engaging in unprotected sex
Psychosocial and behavioral difficulties
Obesity and eating disorders
Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance
Cardiovascular disease and hypertension
Increased breast and reproductive cancers
Polycystic ovarian syndrome
Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology Vol. 52: 455-479
After Breastfeeding is
Going Well
 Work, pumping
 Contraception
 Depression
 Baby sleeping longer
 Pregnancy
 Oversupply- never established a good latch
 New medications
Supplementation not
 Sleepy infant with fewer than 8-12 feedings in the
first 24-48 hrs with less than 7% weight loss and no
sign of illness
 An awake baby is a hungry baby
 Increased skin to skin can help encourage more
frequent feeding
Supplementation not
 The healthy, term, AGA infant with bilirubin levels
less than 18 after 72 hours of age when the baby is
feeding well and stooling and the weight loss is less
than 7%.
Supplementation not
 The infant who is fussy at night or constantly feeding
for several hours.
 The tired or sleeping mother
Jessie is a 28 year old mother of two who just returned
to work. She is pumping every four hours and getting
about 3 ounces of milk (total) each times she pumps.
She had a “great supply” when she was at home with
her son, but since going back to work, her supply is
decreasing. She would like a prescription for
Leanna is a 35 year old first time mother who was able
to conceive after the use of metformin and clomid. She
stopped both drugs after conception. She had drops of
colostrum for the first few days after delivery, but feels
as though her milk isn’t coming in. What can she do?
Robin is a 24 year old first time mom who had an
uncomplicated pregnancy and birth. She has some
milk production but notices a marked discrepancy
between the production of her right and left breast. In
fact, the left breast is “not producing any milk.”
Katie has a 4 month old daughter. Their nursing
relationship was going fine until it abruptly changed
about 1 week ago. Now the baby is crying all the time,
there are less wet diaper, the stool is thicker and mom is
confused as to what happened. She recently has a
Mirena IUD placed, but understood that an IUD would
be a safe form of contraception during lactation.
Mrs. Thomas
Mrs. Thomas is a 24 year old first time mother who comes in for evaluation of low milk supply.
The 7week old baby had gained weight well until the last 2 weeks when the mother noticed less
wet diapers and a decrease in the volume she was able to pump.
Prior to this visit with you, she had been evaluated by a lactation consultant. At a visit 1 week
ago, pre and post-feeding weights showed low transfer of milk, but no nipple trauma. Her son
now has a coordinated suck and swallow, asymmetric latch with a wide angle of the jaw. The
mother holds the infant in a neutral position with the head slightly extended. The mother had
been healthy prior to the pregnancy, had no pregnancy complications and had an
unremarkable labor and delivery. Her breast exam was normal.
Mrs. Thomas
Mother’s concerns:
 The baby never seems satisfied unless he is
breastfeeding, otherwise, he is crying
 Her in-laws, who recently arrived to help
 with the baby, have encouraged her to stop
 breastfeeding because he seems so unhappy
 She doesn’t think the baby likes her
 She isn’t sleeping well
 She feels as if she has already failed as a mother
Mrs. Thomas
Probing questions:
What factors might contribute to the change in milk
How might you counsel this mother? Her
What are some ways to help this mother
increase her milk supply?
Kassidy is a 3 day old exclusively breastfed girl, born at
term after an induced vaginal delivery. The baby
nursed well in the delivery room within an hour after
delivery. She has been feeding every 3 hours since.
The baby’s last stool, about 18 hours ago, was black and
tarry. The baby and mother have the same blood type.
A bedside transcutaneous bilirubin measurement at 24
hours of age places the baby in the “high intermediate”
Mother’s concerns:
•Her nipples are cracked and bleeding
•Her breasts are soft and it doesn’t seem as
though her milk has “come in” yet
•The baby has lost weight
•The baby does not seems as alert as she was
the day before
Brady is a 7month old boy brought in by his mother 1 month late for his 6month well visit and his pediatrician has concerns about his growth. He
receives well child care through a clinic at his mother’s workplace. His weight,
consistently plotted on the CDC Growth Chart, has decreased from the 75th
percentile at 4 months of age to the 10th percentile at this visit. He is being
referred for an evaluation of failure to thrive.
Background Information: He is the second child for these parents. He was born
at term after a vaginal delivery and uncomplicated pregnancy. He has been
exclusively breastfed, with initiation of solid foods at around 6 months of age.
His mother feels as if her milk supply is adequate and has experienced no
change in the volume of breast milk. She is able to pump while at work. He
has started solid food and has no feeding difficulties. He has met all
developmental milestones. He has maintained his height and head
circumference. He has had no vomiting, diarrhea or irritability. His mother is
64 inches tall. His father is 69 inches tall.
Mother’s Concerns:
She originally didn’t have any, but has become concerned due to the attention being paid
to her son’s weight
She is curious about the richness of her milk
She would like to know what supplements either she or her son should be taking
 Is this baby’s growth pattern abnormal?
 How do the CDC Growth Charts differ from the WHO Child Growth Standards?
 What advice would you give this mother?
 What other questions should you ask, and what physical findings should you look
 before making a diagnosis?
 What do you think about the referral for failure to thrive?
 Would you provide any additional nutritional guidance?
Growth reference
Survey of population of US
Birth weight data from those states that include that info
on the birth certificate
How kids in the US are growing
Weight for age healthy bf