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Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests or priestesses and are closely linked to religion or spirituality.[1] Many societies group their myths, legends, and history together, considering myths and legends to be true accounts of their remote past.[1][2][4][5] In particular, creation myths take place in a primordial age when the world had not achieved its later form.[1][6][7] Other myths explain how a society's customs, institutions, and taboos were established and sanctified.[1][7] There is a complex relationship between recital of myths and the enactment of rituals.

The term mythology may either refer to the study of myths in general, or a body of myths regarding a particular subject.[8] The study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato, and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists and later revived by Renaissance mythographers. Today, the study of myth continues in a wide variety of academic fields, including folklore studies, philology, psychology, and anthropology.[9] Moreover, the academic comparisons of bodies of myth are known as comparative mythology.

Since the term myth is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrative as a myth can be highly political: many adherents of religions view their religion's stories as true and therefore object to the stories being characterised as myths. Nevertheless, scholars now routinely speak of Jewish mythology, Christian mythology, Islamic mythology, Hindu mythology, and so forth. Traditionally, Western scholarship, with its Judeo-Christian heritage, has viewed narratives in the Abrahamic religions as being the province of theology rather than mythology. Meanwhile, identifying religious stories of colonised cultures, such as stories in Hinduism, as myths enabled Western scholars to imply that they were of lower truth-value than the stories of Christianity. Labelling all religious narratives as myths can be thought of as treating different traditions with parity.[10]


Ballads of bravery (1877) part of Arthurian mythology


Definitions of myth vary to some extent among scholars, though Finnish folklorist Lauri Honko offers a widely-cited definition:[11]


Scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways.[12][13][14] In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story,[15][16][17] popular misconception or imaginary entity.[18]

However, while myth and other folklore genres may overlap, myth is often thought to differ from genres such as legend and folktale in that neither are considered to be sacred narratives.[19][20] Some kinds of folktales, such as fairy stories, are not considered true by anyone, and may be seen as distinct from myths for this reason.[21][22][23] Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans,[1][2][3] while legends generally feature humans as their main characters.[1] However, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid.[24][25] Moreover, as stories spread between cultures or as faiths change, myths can come to be considered folktales, their divine characters recast as either as humans or demihumans such as giants, elves and faeries.[2][26][27] Conversely, historical and literary material may acquire mythological qualities over time. For example, the Matter of Britain (the legendary history of Great Britain, especially those focused on King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table)[28] and the Matter of France, seem distantly to originate in historical events of the 5th and 8th-centuries respectively, and became mythologised over the following centuries.

In colloquial use, the word myth can also be used of a collectively held belief that has no basis in fact, or any false story.[29] This usage, which is often pejorative,[30] arose from labelling the religious myths and beliefs of other cultures as incorrect, but it has spread to cover non-religious beliefs as well.[31] However, as commonly used by folklorists and academics in other relevant fields, such as anthropology, the term myth has no implication whether the narrative may be understood as true or otherwise.[32]


In present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths.[33] For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology, and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures.[34]



Key mythographers in the Classical tradition include:[36]

  • Ovid (43 BCE–17/18 CE), whose tellings of myths have been profoundly influential;
  • Fabius Planciades Fulgentius, a Latin writer of the late-5th to early-6th centuries, whose Mythologies (Latin: Mitologiarum libri III) gathered and gave moralistic interpretations of a wide range of myths;


Jeffrey G. Snodgrass (professor of anthropology at the Colorado State University[37]) has termed India's Bhats as mythographers.[38]


Because myth is sometimes used in a pejorative sense, some scholars have opted to use the term mythos instead.[34] However, mythos now more commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a "plot point" or to a body of interconnected myths or stories, especially those belonging to a particular religious or cultural tradition.[39] It is sometimes used specifically for modern, fictional mythologies, such as the world building of H. P. Lovecraft.


Mythopoeia (mytho- + -poeia, 'I make myth') was termed by J. R. R. Tolkien, amongst others, to refer to the "conscious generation" of mythology.[40][41] It was notoriously also suggested, separately, by Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg.



The word myth comes from Ancient Greek μῦθος (mȳthos),[42] meaning 'speech, narrative, fiction, myth, plot'. In Anglicised form, this Greek word began to be used in English (and was likewise adapted into other European languages) in the early 19th century, in a much narrower sense, as a scholarly term for "[a] traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining a natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events."[29][39]

In turn, Ancient Greek μυθολογία (mythología, 'story,' 'lore,' 'legends,' or 'the telling of stories') combines the word mȳthos with the suffix -λογία (-logia, 'study') in order to mean 'romance, fiction, story-telling.'[43] Accordingly, Plato used mythología as a general term for 'fiction' or 'story-telling' of any kind.

The Greek term mythología was then borrowed into Late Latin, occurring in the title of Latin author Fulgentius' 5th-century Mythologiæ to denote what we now call classical mythology—i.e., Greco-Roman etiological stories involving their gods. Fulgentius' Mythologiæ explicitly treated its subject matter as allegories requiring interpretation and not as true events.[44]

The Latin term was then adopted in Middle French as mythologie. Whether from French or Latin usage, English adopted the word mythology in the 15th century, initially meaning 'the exposition of a myth or myths,' 'the interpretation of fables,' or 'a book of such expositions'. The word is first attested in John Lydgate's Troy Book (c. 1425).[45][47][48]

From Lydgate until the 17th or 18th century, mythology was used to mean a moral, fable, allegory or a parable, or collection of traditional stories,[45][50] understood to be false. It came eventually to be applied to similar bodies of traditional stories among other polytheistic cultures around the world.[45]

Thus the word mythology entered the English language before the word myth. Johnson's Dictionary, for example, has an entry for mythology, but not for myth.[53] Indeed, the Greek loanword mythos[55] (pl. mythoi) and Latinate mythus[57] (pl. mythi) both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830.[60]

Meanings in Ancient Greece

The term μῦθος (mȳthos) appears in the works of Homer and other poets of Homer's era, in which the term had several meanings: 'conversation,' 'narrative,' 'speech,' 'story,' 'tale,' and 'word.'[61]

Similar to the related term λόγος (logos), mythos expresses whatever can be delivered in the form of words. These can be contrasted with Greek ἔργον (ergon, 'action,' 'deed,' or 'work').[61] However, the term mythos lacks an explicit distinction between true or false narratives.[61]

In the context of Ancient Greek theatre, mythos referred to the myth, narrative, plot, and the story of a play.[62] According to David Wiles, the Greek term mythos in this era covered an entire spectrum of different meanings, from undeniable falsehoods to stories with religious and symbolic significance.[62]




Bruce Lincoln has called attention to the apparent meaning of the terms mythos and logos in the works of Hesiod. In Theogony, Hesiod attributes to the Muses the ability to both proclaim truths and narrate plausible falsehoods (i.e., falsehoods which seem like real things).[64] The verb used for narrating the falsehoods in the text is legein, which is etymologically associated with logos. There are two variants in the manuscript tradition for the verb used to proclaim truths. One variant uses gerusasthai, the other mythesasthai. The latter is a form of the verb mytheomai ('to speak,' 'to tell'), which is etymologically associated with mythos.[64] In the Works and Days, Hesiod describes his dispute with his brother Perses. He also announces to his readers his intention to tell true things to his brother. The verb he uses for telling the truth is mythesaimen, another form of mytheomai.[64]

Lincoln draws the conclusion that Hesiod associated the "speech of mythos" (as Lincoln calls it) with telling the truth. While he associated the "speech of logos" with telling lies, and hiding one's true thoughts (dissimulation).[64] This conclusion is strengthened by the use of the plural term logoi (the plural form of logos) elsewhere in Hesiod's works. Three times the term is associated with the term seductive and three times with the term falsehoods.[64] In his genealogy of the gods, Hesiod lists logoi among the children of Eris, the goddess personifying strife. Eris' children are ominous figures, which personify various physical and verbal forms of conflict.[64]

Interpreting myths

Comparative mythology



A number of commentators have argued that myths function to form and shape society and social behaviour. Eliade argued that one of the foremost functions of myth is to establish models for behavior[66][67] and that myths may provide a religious experience. By telling or reenacting myths, members of traditional societies detach themselves from the present, returning to the mythical age, thereby coming closer to the divine.[4][67][68]


Pattanaik defines mythology as "the subjective truth of people communicated through stories, symbols and rituals."[70] He says, "Facts are everybody's truth. Fiction is nobody's truth. Myths are somebody's truth."[71]


One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of historical events.[72][73] According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborate upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gain the status of gods.[72][73] For example, the myth of the wind-god Aeolus may have evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds.[72] Herodotus (fifth-century BCE) and Prodicus made claims of this kind.[73] This theory is named euhemerism after mythologist Euhemerus (c. 320 BCE), who suggested that Greek gods developed from legends about human beings.[73][74]


Some theories propose that myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: Apollo represents the sun, Poseidon represents water, and so on.[73] According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: Athena represents wise judgment, Aphrodite desire, and so on.[73] Müller supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature and gradually came to be interpreted literally. For example, a poetic description of the sea as "raging" was eventually taken literally and the sea was then thought of as a raging god.[75]


Some thinkers claimed that myths result from the personification of objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshiped natural phenomena, such as fire and air, gradually deifying them.[76] For example, according to this theory, ancients tended to view things as gods, not as mere objects.[77] Thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, giving rise to myths.[78]

Myth-ritual theory

According to the myth-ritual theory, myth is tied to ritual.[79] In its most extreme form, this theory claims myths arose to explain rituals.[80] This claim was first put forward by Smith,[81] who argued that people begin performing rituals for reasons not related to myth. Forgetting the original reason for a ritual, they account for it by inventing a myth and claiming the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth.[82] Frazer argued that humans started out with a belief in magical rituals; later, they began to lose faith in magic and invented myths about gods, reinterpreting their rituals as religious rituals intended to appease the gods.[83]

History of the academic discipline


Ancient Greece

Myths and legends of Babylonia and Assyria (1916)

The critical interpretation of myth began with the Presocratics.[85] Euhemerus was one of the most important pre-modern mythologists. He interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events, though distorted over many retellings.

Sallustius divided myths into five categories:[86]

  • theological;
  • physical (or concerning natural law);
  • animistic (or concerning soul);
  • material; and
  • mixed, which concerns myths that show the interaction between two or more of the previous categories and are particularly used in initiations.



European Renaissance

This panel by Bartolomeo di Giovanni relates the second half of the Metamorphoses. In the upper left, Jupiter emerges from clouds to order Mercury to rescue Io.[88][89]


Nineteenth century



Nature mythology

One of the dominant mythological theories of the latter 19th century was nature mythology, the foremost exponents of which included Max Müller and Edward Burnett Tylor. This theory posited that "primitive man" was primarily concerned with the natural world. It tended to interpret myths that seemed distasteful to European Victorians—such as tales about sex, incest, or cannibalism—as being metaphors for natural phenomena like agricultural fertility.[92] Unable to conceive impersonal natural laws, early humans tried to explain natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, thus giving rise to animism.

According to Tylor, human thought evolved through stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas.[93] Müller also saw myth as originating from language, even calling myth a "disease of language." He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages. Anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were eventually taken literally, leading to the idea that natural phenomena were in actuality conscious beings or gods.[75] Not all scholars, not even all 19th-century scholars, accepted this view, however: Lucien Lévy-Bruhl claimed that "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind and not a stage in its historical development."[94] Recent scholarship, noting the fundamental lack of evidence for "nature mythology" interpretations among people who actually circulated myths, has likewise abandoned the key ideas of "nature mythology."[95][92]

Myth and ritual

James George Frazer saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law. this idea was central to the "myth and ritual" school of thought.[96] According to Frazer, humans begin with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When they realize applications of these laws do not work, they give up their belief in natural law in favor of a belief in personal gods controlling nature, thus giving rise to religious myths. Meanwhile, humans continue practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally, humans come to realize nature follows natural laws, and they discover their true nature through science. Here again, science makes myth obsolete as humans progress "from magic through religion to science."[83] Segal asserted that by pitting mythical thought against modern scientific thought, such theories imply modern humans must abandon myth.[97]

Twentieth century


The earlier 20th century saw major work developing psychoanalytical approaches to interpreting myth, led by Sigmund Freud, who, drawing inspiration from Classical myth, began developing the concept of the Oedipus complex in his 1899 The Interpretation of Dreams. Jung likewise tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung asserted that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he called archetypes. He believed similarities between the myths of different cultures reveals the existence of these universal archetypes.[98]

The mid-20th century saw the influential development of a structuralist theory of mythology, led by Lévi-Strauss. Strauss argued that myths reflect patterns in the mind and interpreted those patterns more as fixed mental structures, specifically pairs of opposites (good/evil, compassionate/callous), rather than unconscious feelings or urges.[99] Meanwhile, Bronislaw Malinowski developed analyses of myths focusing on their social functions in the real world. He is associated with the idea that myths such as origin stories might provide a "mythic charter"—a legitimisation—for cultural norms and social institutions.[100] Thus, following the Structuralist Era (c. 1960s–1980s), the predominant anthropological and sociological approaches to myth increasingly treated myth as a form of narrative that can be studied, interpreted, and analyzed like ideology, history, and culture. In other words, myth is a form of understanding and telling stories that are connected to power, political structures, and political and economic interests.

These approaches contrast with approaches, such as those of Joseph Campbell and Eliade, which hold that myth has some type of essential connection to ultimate sacred meanings that transcend cultural specifics. In particular, myth was studied in relation to history from diverse social sciences. Most of these studies share the assumption that history and myth are not distinct in the sense that history is factual, real, accurate, and truth, while myth is the opposite.


The 20th century saw rapid secularisation in Western culture. This made Western scholars more willing to analyse narratives in the Abrahamic religions as myths; theologians such as Rudolf Bultmann argued that a modern Christianity needed to demythologize;[102] and other religious scholars embraced the idea that the mythical status of Abrahamic narratives was a legitimate feature of their importance.[97] This, in his appendix to Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, and in The Myth of the Eternal Return, Eliade attributed modern humans’ anxieties to their rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred.[citation needed]

The Christian theologian Conrad Hyers wrote:[103]


Twenty-first century

Both in 19th-century research, which tended to see existing records of stories and folklore as imperfect fragments of partially lost myths, and in 20th-century structuralist work, which sought to identify underlying patterns and structures in often diverse versions of a given myth, there had been a tendency to synthesise sources to attempt to reconstruct what scholars supposed to be more perfect or underlying forms of myths. From the late 20th century, however, researchers influenced by postmodernism tended instead to argue that each account of a given myth has its own cultural significance and meaning, and argued that rather than representing degradation from a once more perfect form, myths are inherently plastic and variable.[104] There is, consequently, no such thing as the 'original version' or 'original form' of a myth. One prominent example of this movement was A. K. Ramanujan's essay "Three Hundred Ramayanas".[105][106]


Modern mythology

1929 Belgian banknote, depicting Ceres, Neptune and caduceus


Although myth was traditionally transmitted through the oral tradition on a small scale, the film industry has enabled filmmakers to transmit myths to large audiences via film.[109] In Jungian psychology myths are the expression of a culture or society’s goals, fears, ambitions and dreams.[110]



See also


  2. ^ a b c d Simpson, Jacqueline, and Steve Roud, eds. 2003. "Myths." In A Dictionary of English Folklore. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191726644.
  4. ^ a b Eliade 1998, p. 23.
  5. ^ Pettazzoni 1984, p. 102.
  6. ^ Dundes 1984, p. 1.
  7. ^ a b Eliade 1998, p. 6.
  8. ^ "myth | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  12. ^ Dundes 1984, p. 147.
  13. ^ Doty 2004, pp. 11–12.
  14. ^ Segal 2015, p. 5.
  15. ^ Kirk 1984, p. 57.
  16. ^ Kirk 1973, p. 74.
  17. ^ Apollodorus 1976, p. 3.
  20. ^ Bascom 1965, p. 7.
  21. ^ Bascom 1965, pp. 9, 17.
  22. ^ Eliade 1998, pp. 10–11.
  23. ^ Pettazzoni 1984, pp. 99–101.
  24. ^ Kirk 1973, pp. 22, 32.
  25. ^ Kirk 1984, p. 55.
  26. ^ Doty 2004, p. 114.
  27. ^ Bascom 1965, p. 13.
  29. ^ a b c "Myth." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020. § 2.
  31. ^ Eliade, Mircea. 1967. Myths, Dreams and Mysteries. pp. 23, 162.
  32. ^ Winzeler, Robert L. 2012. Anthropology and Religion: What We Know, Think, and Question. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 105–06.
  33. ^ Kirk 1973, p. 8.
  35. ^ "Mythography." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
  36. ^ Chance, Jane. 1994–2000. Medieval Mythography, 2 vols. Gainesville.
  37. ^ Horton, Katie (3 August 2015). "Dr. Snodgrass editor of new blog series: Bioculturalism". Colorado State University. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  38. ^ Snodgrass, Jeffrey G. (2004). "Hail to the Chief?: The Politics and Poetics of a Rajasthani 'Child Sacrifice'". Culture and Religion. 5 (1): 71–104. doi:10.1080/0143830042000200364. ISSN 1475-5629. OCLC 54683133.
  39. ^ a b c "mythos, n." 2003. In Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  40. ^ "Mythopoeia." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 31 May 2020.
  41. ^ See also: Mythopoeia (poem); cf. Tolkien, J. R. R. [1964] 2001. Tree and Leaf; Mythopoeia; The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-710504-5.
  43. ^ "-logy, comb. form." In Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1903.
  45. ^ a b c "mythology, n.." Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.
    "More wonderful Þan I can expresse,
    "Schewed hym silf in his appearance,
    "Liche as he is discriued in Fulgence,
    "In Þe book of his methologies..."[46]
  48. ^ Harper, Douglas. 2020. "Mythology." Online Etymology Dictionary.
  51. ^ Johnson, Samuel. "Mythology" in A Dictionary of the English Language: In which the Words are Deduced from their Originals, and Illustrated in their Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers to which are Prefixed a History of the Language and an English Grammar, p. 1345. W. Strahan (London), 1755.
  53. ^ Johnson's Dictionary, for example, has entries for mythology,[51] mythologist, mythologize, mythological, and mythologically [52]
  61. ^ a b c Anderson (2004), p. 61
  63. ^ a b c Wiles (2000), p. 12
  65. ^ Littleton 1973, p. 32.
  66. ^ Eliade 1998, p. 8.
  67. ^ a b Honko 1984, p. 51.
  68. ^ Eliade 1998, p. 19.
  69. ^ Barthes 1972.
  70. ^ Sinha, Namya (4 July 2016). "No society can exist without myth, says Devdutt Pattanaik". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  71. ^ Shaikh, Jamal (8 July 2018). "Interview: Devdutt Pattanaik" Facts are everybody's truth. Fiction is nobody's truth. Myths are somebody's truth"". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  72. ^ a b c Bulfinch 2004, p. 194.
  73. ^ a b c d e f Honko 1984, p. 45.
  74. ^ "Euhemerism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.
  75. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 20.
  76. ^ Bulfinch 2004, p. 195.
  77. ^ Frankfort et al. 2013, p. 4.
  78. ^ Frankfort et al. 2013, p. 15.
  79. ^ Segal 2015, p. 61.
  80. ^ Graf 1996, p. 40.
  81. ^ Meletinsky 2014, pp. 19–20.
  82. ^ Segal 2015, p. 63.
  83. ^ a b Frazer 1913, p. 711.
  84. ^ Guy Lanoue, Foreword to Meletinsky, p. viii.
  85. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 1.
  86. ^ "On the Gods and the World." ch. 5; See: Collected Writings on the Gods and the World. Frome: The Prometheus Trust. 1995.
  88. ^ "The Myth of Io". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
  90. ^ a b Shippey, Tom. 2005. "A Revolution Reconsidered: Mythography and Mythology in the Nineteenth Century." Pp. 1–28 in The Shadow-Walkers: Jacob Grimm’s Mythology of the Monstrous, edited by T. Shippey. Tempe, AZ: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. pp. 4–13.
  91. ^ Segal 2015, pp. 3–4.
  92. ^ a b McKinnell, John. 2005. Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend. Cambridge: Brewer. pp. 14-15.
  93. ^ Segal 2015, p. 4.
  95. ^ Dorson, Richard M. 1955. "The Eclipse of Solar Mythology." Pp. 25–63 in Myth: A Symposium, edited by T. A. Sebeok. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  96. ^ Segal 2015, pp. 67–68.
  97. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 3.
  98. ^ Boeree.
  99. ^ Segal 2015, p. 113.
  100. ^ Birenbaum, Harvey. 1988. Myth and Mind. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. pp. 152–53.
  102. ^ Bultmann, Rudolf. 1958. Jesus Christ and Mythology. New York: Scribner.
  103. ^ Hyers 1984, p. 107.
  104. ^ For example: McKinnell, John. 1994. Both One and Many: Essays on Change and Variety in Late Norse Heathenism, (Philologia: saggi, ricerche, edizioni 1, edited by T. Pàroli). Rome.
  105. ^ Ramanujan, A. K. 1991. "Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts on Translation." Pp. 22–48 in Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia, edited by P. Richman. Berkeley: University of California Press. ark:13030/ft3j49n8h7/
  106. ^ Ramanujan, A. K. [1991] 2004. "Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas." Pp. 131–60 in The Collected Essays of A. K. Ramanujan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-566896-4.
  107. ^ For example: Dowden, Ken. 1992. The Uses of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge.
  110. ^ Indick, William (2004). "Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero". Journal of Media Psychology.
  112. ^ Corner 1999, pp. 47–59.


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