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The term caliphate "dominion of a caliph ('successor,')," (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa, Turkish: Halife ) refers to the first system of government established in Islam, and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah (nation). In theory, it is a constitutional republic[1] (see Constitution of Medina), which means that the head of state, the Caliph, and other officials are representatives of the people and must govern according to an existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over citizens.

It was initially led by Muhammad's disciples as a continuation of the political system the prophet established, known as the 'rashidun caliphates'. It represented the political unity, not the theological unity of Muslims as theology was a personal matter. A "caliphate" is also a state which implements such a governmental system.

Sunni Islam stiplulates that the head of state, the caliph, should be selected by Shuraelected by Muslims or their representatives.[2] Followers of Shia Islam believe the caliph should be an imam descended in a line from the Ahl al-Bayt. After the Rashidun period until 1924, caliphates, sometimes two at a single time, real and illusory, were ruled by dynasties. The first dynasty was the Umayyad. This was followed by the Abbasid, the Fatimid, and finally the Ottoman Dynasty.




The caliph was often known as Amir al-Mu'minin (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Believers". Muhammad established his capital in Medina, and after he died it remained the capital for the Rashidun period. At times in Muslim history there have been rival claimant caliphs in different parts of the Islamic world, and divisions between the Shi'a and Sunni communities.

According to Sunni Muslims, the first caliph to be called Amir al-Mu'minin was Abu Bakr Siddique, followed by Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib also were called by the same title, while the Shi'a consider Ali to have been the first truly legitimate caliph, although they concede that Ali accepted his predecessors, because he eventually sanctioned Abu-Bakr.[4]

The rulers preceding these first four did not receive this title by consensus, and as it was turned into a monarchy thereafter.

After the first four caliphs, the Caliphate was claimed by dynasties such as the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, and for relatively short periods by other, competing dynasties in al-Andalus, North Africa, and Egypt. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially abolished the last Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, and founded the Republic of Turkey, in 1924. The Kings of Morocco still label themselves with the title Amir al-Mu'minin for the Moroccans, but lay no claim to the Caliphate.


Rashidun, 632–661

Islamic caliphate


Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor (Wali) of Syria, became one of Ali's challengers and after Ali's death managed to overcome the other claimants to the Caliphate. Muawiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty.


Umayyads, 7th–8th centuries

The Caliphate, 622–750
  Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622–632
  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632–661
  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750




The Caliphate in Hispania



Abbasids, 8th–13th centuries




Fatimids, 10th–12th centuries

Map of the Fatimid Caliphate also showing cities

The Fatimid Caliphate or al-Fātimiyyūn (Arabic الفاطميون) was a Shi'a dynasty that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, Sicily, Malta and the Levant from 5 January 909 to 1171. The caliphate was ruled by the Fatimids, who established the Egyptian city of Cairo as their capital. The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate[citation needed]. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were also Shia Ismaili Imams, hence, they had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims.

Shadow Caliphate, 13th–16th centuries

1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid house was installed as caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the newly formed Mamluk Sultanate three years later; however, this line of caliphs had generally little authority although some Abbasid rulers had the actual rule over the Mamluk Sultans. Later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate. Thus, the title continued into the early 16th century.

Ottomans, 16th–20th century

Ottoman postage stamps



The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea, were lost to the Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leader of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty: in return Russia became the official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory. This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power.


Sokoto, 19th century

The Sokoto Caliphate was an Islamic spiritual community in Nigeria, led by the Sultan of Sokoto, Sa’adu Abubakar. Founded during the Fulani Jihad in the early 19th century, it was one of the most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa prior to European conquest and colonization. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power.

Ahmadiyya Caliphate, 1908-Present

A stamp issued by Ghana to mark the centenary of the establishment of the Ahmadiyya Caliphate in 2008.

The Ahmadiyya a heterodox messianic offshoot community of Islam, believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate established after the passing of the community's founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, is the re-establishment of the Rashdin Caliphate, as prophesized by Muhammad.[8] The current successor to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad is Khalifatul Masih V, Mirza Masroor Ahmad residing in London, England.[9]

The Ahmadiyya Community was founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, India, who claimed to be the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, the one awaited by followers of all major religions. After his demise in 1908, his first successor, Maulvi Hakeem Noor-ud-Din became head of the community and assumed the title of Khalifatul Masih (Caliph). The line of successors continues to this day to Khalifatul Masih V Mirza Masroor Ahmad, residing in London, England. From its outset, the Ahmadiyya Community has been viewed as heretical by mainstream Muslim groups due to the founder's claim to prophethood. Muslims hold the view that Muhammad was the final prophet and no apostle can come after him. This has been reiterated in the Qur'an that he is the seal of the prophets. Ahmadis however call themselves Muslims and claim to practice Islam in its pristine form.

Although the Ahmadiyya Caliphate is not recognized by mainstream Islam, the community continues to operate under this structure, with the Khalifa having overall authority for all religious and organizational matters. According to Ahmadis, it is not essential for a Khalifa to be the head of a state, rather the spiritual and religious significance of the Khalifatul Masih is emphasized. Ahmadis believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate is the re-establishment of the Rashidun Caliphate (The Rightly Guided Calphs).[10]

Khilafat Movement, 1920

In the 1920s, the Khilafat Movement, a movement to defend the Ottoman Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in what is now Pakistan. It was particularly strong in British India, where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders included Maulana Mohammad Ali, his brother Shawkat Ali, and Abul Kalam Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it worked in alliance with Hindu communities and was supported by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee.[11][12] However, the movement lost its momentum after the arrest or flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organization.

End of the Caliphate, 1924



Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries.

Religious basis











Nafi'a reported saying:








The Sahaba of Muhammad



Upon this Abu Bakr replied:


Then he got up and addressed the Muslims.[14][15][16][17][18][19][page needed]

It has additionally been reported[20] that Abu Bakr went on to say on the day of Al-Saqifa:



Imam Ali whom the Shia revere said:[21]


The sayings of Islamic scholars

Al-Mawardi says:[22]


Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (Al-Nawawi) says:[23]


Ahmad al-Qalqashandi says:[24]

It is forbidden to appoint two leaders at the same time.

Ibnu Hazm says:[25]


Al-sha’rani says:[26]


Al-Qadhi Abdul-Jabbar (he is a Mu’tazela scholar), says:[27]

It is forbidden to give the oath to more than one.

Al-Joziri says:[28]


The Shia schools of thought and others expressed the same opinion about this[29][30][31][32] However, the Shia school of thought believe that the leader (Imam) must not be appointed by the islamic ummah, but must be appointed by God.

Al-Qurtubi said in his Tafsir[33] of the verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph"[34] that:


Al-Qurtubi also said:

The Khilafah is the pillar upon which other pillars rest

An-Nawawi said:[35]


Al-Ghazali when writing of the potential consequences of losing the Caliphate said:[36]


Ibn Taymiyyah said[37][page needed]:


Re-establishment of the Caliphate

Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For the vast majority of Muslims the caliph as leader of the ummah, "is cherished both as memory and ideal"[38] as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally,"[39] though "not an urgent concern" compared to issues such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[38]

However, though many Muslims would like to re-establish the Caliphate, according to Hadith the Caliphate will be followed by the arrival of the Promised Messiah and Imam Mahdi:



Ahmadiyya View

The first era of Caliphate mentioned in the above saying of Muhammad is commonly accepted by Muslims as that of the Rashidun. The second era mentioned is thought by Ahmadis to be that of the Ahmadiyya Caliphate.

Islamist call




The Muslim Brotherhood advocates pan-Islamic unity and implementing Islamic law. Founder Hassan al-Banna wrote about the restoration of the Caliphate.[42]

One transnational group whose ideology is based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state is Hizb ut-Tahrir (literally: "party of liberation"). It is particularly strong in Central Asia and Europe and is growing in strength in the Arab world. It is based on the claim that Muslims can prove that God exists[43] and that the Qur'an is the word of God.[44][45] Hizb-Ut-Tahrir's stated strategy is a non-violent political and intellectual struggle.

In South-East Asia, groups such as Jemaah Islamiyah aim to establish a Caliphate stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea, and from the Philippines to Java.


One of the clearly stated goals of the terrorist group al-Qaeda is the re-establishment of a caliphate.[46] Bin Laden has called for Muslims to "establish the righteous caliphate of our umma."[47] Al-Qaeda chiefs released a statement in 2005, under which, in what they call "Phase five" there will be "an Islamic state, or caliphate." [48] Al Qaeda recently named its Internet newscast from Iraq "The Voice of the Caliphate."[49] According to author Lawrence Wright, Ayman al-Zawahiri (Bin Laden's mentor and Al-Qaida No.2 in command), once "sought to restore the caliphate...which had formally ended in 1924 following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire but which had not exercised real power since the thirteenth century." Once the caliphate re-established, Zawahiri believed, Egypt would become a rallying point for the rest of the Islamic world, leading the jihad against the West. "Then history would make a new turn, God willing," Zawahiri later wrote, "in the opposite direction against the empire of the United States and the world’s Jewish government."[50]



A prominent private British think-tank named the Quilliam Foundation was set up to oppose Islamism and the call to re-establish a Caliphate.

Political system

Electing or appointing a Caliph




Sunni belief


Shi'a belief



Shia group of Ismaili/ Fatimid/ Dawoodi Bohra believe in Imamate principle mentioned above, but they need not be ruler. To safe guard divine authority of Allah the "Din", from politics of World "Duniya" the 'external World', they have instituted office of Dai al-Mutlaq even from the era of their 21st Imam Tayyab (1130 AD), under juridiction of Suleyhid Queen, as Imam was under seclusion. In the twelver shia also many Imams were not ruler ,and they sacrificed much to upheld "Din".

Take the case of Imam Hasan, After Ali, Imam Hasan was his successor. It is told that there was power struggle between Imam Hasan and Muawwia ,finally agreement reached between them. As Hasan was more interested in safeguarding Islam, he has kept the 'Din' with him and sacrificed Caliphate to Muawwia. One thing is very clear that Imamat need not have power of ruler , but there cannot be two representative of Allah at one moment,hence to have two Imam at a time is ruled out. Even a small organization have clear hierarchy, a clear cut single line of downward delegation, how come the almighty organisation of Allah be governed in anarchy.

The same was philosophy of Fatimid, and same being literally followed by Dawoodi Bohra's Dai in absence and on behalf of their hidden Imam.This is the result that Bohra have unity amongst them all over the world. There is universal brotherhood amongst them, a same culture, same habits of living, togetherness for the cause of Islam and same time dedication to the land they live. This was the Islam and Fatimid's true dream, and the Fatimid/Dawoodi Bohra seems champion to this cause.There is quotation from web;

"...All five of us had different nationality passports. 1 Kenyan, 1 British, 1 Yemeni, 1 Indian passport issued in Egypt & another Indian passport issued in Nairobi. The Jordanian Immigration officer did not have to be explained why such a mixed group. He knew & he smilingly made a statement, that was actually a stunner. He jokingly said, “Why don’t you have a Bohra Passport? It will make things so much more easier for you, & us too.”

"....We .. people .. do not have a nation .. treated like a single nationality, do not have a kingdom, but are treated royally. From Japan in the East to he West Coast of USA, .. have a common bond, a unique culture, a common language, a standard calendar, a uniform code of conduct that..defines the rights & the wrongs, one goal, one platform & one base of knowledge..Our geographic existence might be checkered, but the entire mosaic of our community is a beautiful picture of harmony, painted by a divine hand,..Our Tryst with destiny begins & ends in the same spiritual allegiance,..loyal to the country reside in,.. contributing to..socio-economic progress and prosperity of the country, .. peace loving community,..and yet in spite of all diversities, we are one. What really makes us..special? We have a Maula, ..given us an identity, .. no other government in the world can provide."[54]

Majlis al-Shura: Parliament






Accountability of rulers





Rule of law

The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability[55]






During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the Caliphate understood that real incentives were needed to increase productivity and wealth and thus enhance tax revenues. A social transformation took place as a result of changing land ownership [58] giving individuals of any gender,[59] ethnic or religious background the right to buy, sell, mortgage, and inherit land for farming or any other purpose. Based on the Quran, signatures were required on contracts for every major financial transaction concerning agriculture, industry, commerce, and employment. Copies of the contract were usually kept by both parties involved.[58]


Ibn Abbas reported that the Messenger of Allah said: "All Muslims are partners in three things- in water, herbage and fire." (Narrated in Abu Daud, & Ibn Majah)[60] Anas added to the above hadith, "Its price is Haram (forbidden)."[citation needed]


Aside from similarities to socialism, early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[61] since an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism developed between the 8th and 12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[62] A vigorous monetary economy developed based on the circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of previously independent monetary areas. Business techniques and forms of business organization employed during this time included early contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[63] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[64] trusts (waqf), startup companies,[65] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[66] and lawsuits.[67] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[68][69] Many of these concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[63]


The demographics of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant aspects from other agricultural societies, including a decline in birth rates as well as a change in life expectancy. Other traditional agrarian societies are estimated to have had an average life expectancy of 20 to 25 years,[70] while ancient Rome and medieval Europe are estimated at 20 to 30 years.[71] The life expectancy of Islamic society diverged from that of other traditional agrarian societies, with several studies on the lifespans of Islamic scholars concluding that members of this occupational group enjoyed a life expectancy between 69 and 75 years.[72] Such studies have given the following estimates for the average lifespans of religious scholars at various times and places: 72.8 years in the Middle East, 69–75 years in 11th century Islamic Spain,[73] 75 years in 12th century Persia,[74] and 59–72 years in 13th century Persia.[75] However, Maya Shatzmiller considers these religious scholars to be a misleading sample who are not representative of the general population.[76] Conrad I. Lawrence estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population.[77]

The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of classical Athens in the 4th century BC,[78] and later, China after the introduction of printing from the 10th century.[79] One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under Nizam al-Mulk in the 11th century.[80] Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China,[81] which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society, thus papermaking technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of Afro-Eurasia) from an oral to scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to typographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet.[82] Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study and memorization of the Qur'an, flourishing commercial activity, and the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah educational institutions.[83]

Famous caliphs

See also


  1. ^ Lecker, Michael (2008), "The ‘Constitution of Medina’: Muhammad's First Legal Document", Journal of Islamic Studies 19 (2): 251–253, doi:10.1093/jis/etn021. 
  2. ^ a b c d e Gharm Allah Al-Ghamdy
  4. ^ Lexic Orient.com
  6. ^ Mufti M. Mukarram Ahmed Encyclopaedia of Islam, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 2005, ISBN 8126123397 p. 316
  7. ^ John Esposito (1992) p.36
  8. ^ Ahmad, Rafi. "The Islamic Khilafat – Its Rise, Fall, and Re-emergence". http://www.alislam.org/egazette/updates/the-islamic-khilafat-its-rise-fall-and-re-emergence/. Retrieved March 8, 2011. 
  9. ^ "Hadhrat Mirza Masroor Ahmad, Khalifatul Masih V". The Review of Religions. http://www.reviewofreligions.org/1772/editorial-68/. Retrieved March 9, 2011. 
  10. ^ "The Ahmadiyya Khalifat". http://www.alislam.org/topics/khilafat/. Retrieved March 5, 2011. 
  11. ^ The Khilafat Movement
  12. ^ The Statesman
  13. ^ Masnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Mishkat, Chapter Al-Anzar Wal Tahzir
  14. ^ "As-Sirah" of Ibn Kathir
  15. ^ "Tarikh ut-Tabari" by at-Tabari
  16. ^ "Siratu Ibn Hisham" by Ibn Hisham
  17. ^ "As-Sunan ul-Kubra" of Bayhaqi
  18. ^ "Al-fasil-fil Milal" by Ibnu Hazim
  19. ^ "Al-A’kd Al-Farid" of Al-Waqidi
  20. ^ "as-Sirah" of Ibnu Ishaq
  21. ^ Nahj-ul-Balagha (part 1 page 91)
  22. ^ Al-ahkam Al-Sultaniyah page 9
  23. ^ Mughni Al-Muhtaj, volume 4, page 132
  24. ^ Subul Al-Asha, volume 9, page 277
  25. ^ Al-Muhalla, volume 9, page 360
  26. ^ Al-Mizan, volume 2, page 157
  27. ^ Al-Mughni fi abwab Al-Tawheed, volume 20, page 243
  29. ^ Al-Fasl Fil-Milal, volume 4, page 62
  30. ^ Matalib Ulil-Amr
  31. ^ Maqalat Al-Islamyin, volume 2,page 134
  33. ^ Tafseer ul-Qurtubi 264/1
  34. ^ [Qur'an 002:030]
  35. ^ Sharhu Sahih Muslim page 205 vol 12
  36. ^ al Iqtisaad fil Itiqaad page 240
  37. ^ Siyaasah Shariyyah – chapter: 'The obligation of adherence to the leadership'
  38. ^ a b Washington Post, Reunified Islam: Unlikely but Not Entirely Radical, Restoration of Caliphate resonates With Mainstream Muslims.
  39. ^ Andrew Hammond, Middle East Online.
  40. ^ Reunified Islam
  43. ^ William Lane Craig, Professor Mackie and the Kalam Cosmological Argument.
  44. ^ Search Results for " harunyaya.com "
  45. ^ [1][dead link]
  46. ^ www.fas.org
  47. ^ Interview Oct 21, 2001, from bin Laden Message to the World, Verso, 2005, p.121
  48. ^ Al-Qaeda chiefs reveal world domination design
  49. ^ Washington Post
  50. ^ Wright, 46
  52. ^ The Muslim Brotherhood And Copts, Historical Perspective
  53. ^ Campus Radicals – Hizb-ut Tahrir
  54. ^ http://hikmah.ekhwan.com/index.php/category/the-world/ The beauty of being a dawoodi bohra
  55. ^ Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681
  56. ^ (Weeramantry 1997, pp. 132 & 135)
  57. ^ Noah Feldman (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2008-10-05. 
  59. ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 263.
  60. ^ Chaudhry, Muhammad Sharif (2003). "Fundamentals of Islamic Economic System: Public Ownership". MuslimTents.com. http://www.muslimtents.com/shaufi/b16/b16_19.htm#II-%20Public%20Ownership. Retrieved 9 December 2010. 
  71. ^ "Life expectancy (sociology)", Encyclopædia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-340119/life-expectancy, retrieved 2010-04-17, "In ancient Rome and medieval Europe the average life span is estimated to have been between 20 and 30 years." 
  78. ^ Andrew J. Coulson, Delivering Education, Hoover Institution, p. 117, http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817928928_105.pdf, retrieved 2008-11-22, "Reaching further back through the centuries, the civilizations regarded as having the highest literacy rates of their ages were parent-driven educational marketplaces. The ability to read and write was far more widely enjoyed in the early medieval Islamic empire and in fourth-century-B.C.E. Athens than in any other cultures of their times." 


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