Last updated
English: His Imperial Majesty's Reign
Score of "Kimigayo"

National anthem of Flag of Japan.svg  Japan
Lyrics waka poem,
Heian period (794–1185)
Music Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi (arranged by Franz Eckert, 1880)
Adopted1869 (music)
1870 (lyrics)
November 3, 1880 (music)
ReadoptedAugust 13, 1999
Audio sample
"Kimigayo" (instrumental)

"Kimigayo" ( 君が代 , Japanese pronunciation:  [kimiɡajo] ; "His Imperial Majesty's Reign") is the national anthem of Japan. The lyrics of "Kimigayo" are probably the oldest among the world's national anthems, and with a length of 32 characters, they are also the world's shortest. The lyrics are from a waka poem written by an unnamed author in the Heian period (794–1185), [1] and the current melody was chosen in 1880, replacing an unpopular melody composed by John William Fenton eleven years earlier. Its length of 11 measures is currently among the world's shortest. While the title "Kimigayo" is usually translated as "His Imperial Majesty's Reign", no official translation of the title or lyrics has been established in law. [2]


From 1888 to 1945, "Kimigayo" served as the national anthem of the Empire of Japan. When the Empire was dissolved following its surrender at the end of World War II, the State of Japan succeeded it in 1945. This successor state was a parliamentary democracy, and the polity therefore changed from a system based on imperial sovereignty to one based on popular sovereignty. However, the U.S. occupation forces allowed Emperor Hirohito to retain the throne and "Kimigayo" remained the de facto national anthem. The passage of the Act on National Flag and Anthem in 1999 recognized it as the official national and imperial anthem.


"Kimi" has been used either as a noun to indicate an emperor or one's lord (i.e., master) since at least the Heian period. [3] [4] For example, the protagonist Hikaru Genji (光源氏) of the Tale of Genji is also called "Hikaru no Kimi" or "Hikaru-gimi" (光の君 or 光君). But before the Nara period, the emperor was often called "opokimi" (great lord); so it is controversial whether or not the word "kimi" in "kimigayo" had meant emperor originally.

In the Kamakura period, "Kimigayo" was used as a festive song among samurai and then became popular among the people in the Edo period. In the later part of the Edo period, "Kimigayo" was used in the Ōoku (harem of Edo Castle) and Satsuma-han (now Kagoshima Prefecture) as a common festive new year song. In those contexts, "kimi" never meant the emperor but only the Tokugawa shōgun, the Shimazu clan as rulers of the Satsuma-han, guests of honor or all members of festive drinking party. After the Meiji Restoration, samurai from Satsuma-han controlled the Imperial Japanese government and they adopted "Kimigayo" as the national anthem of Japan. From this time until the Japanese defeat in World War II, "Kimigayo" was understood to mean the long reign of the emperor. With the adoption of the Constitution of Japan in 1947, the emperor became no longer a sovereign who ruled by divine right, but a human who is a symbol of the state and of the unity of the people. [5] The Ministry of Education did not give any new meanings for "Kimigayo" after the war; this allowed the song to mean the Japanese people. The Ministry also did not formally renounce the pre-war meaning of "Kimigayo". [6]

In 1999, during the deliberations of the Act on National Flag and Anthem, the official definition of Kimi or Kimi-ga-yo was questioned repeatedly. The first suggestion, which was given by Chief Cabinet Secretary Hiromu Nonaka, stated that kimi meant the "emperor as the symbol of Japan", and that the entire lyrics wish for the peace and prosperity of Japan. He referred to the new status of emperor as established in Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan as the main reason for these suggestions. [7] During the same session, Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi confirmed this meaning with a statement on June 29, 1999:


Parties opposed to the Liberal Democratic Party, which was in control of the government at the time Obuchi was prime minister, strongly objected to the government's meaning of kimi and "Kimigayo". From the Democratic Party of Japan, members objected, due to the lack of any historical ties to the meaning. The strongest critic was Kazuo Shii, the chairman of the Communist Party of Japan, who strongly claimed that "Japan" could not be derived from "Kimigayo", because the lyrics only mention wishing for the emperor to have a long reign. Shii also objected to the use of the song as the national anthem because for a democratic nation, a song about the emperor is not appropriate. [7]


Empire of Japan (1868–1945)

Sazare-Ishi pebbles are believed to grow into boulders in some legends. A photo taken at Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto. Shimogamo-Sazareishi-M1641.jpg
Franz Eckert's notes, presented to the Meiji-Tenno in 1880 (cover design by Curt Netto). Curt-Netto-Japanese-National-Hymn-Coverdesign-1880.jpg

The lyrics first appeared in the Kokin Wakashū , a poetry anthology published in ca.920, as an anonymous poem. The poem was included in many anthologies, and was used in a later period as a celebration song of a long life by people of all social statures. Unlike the form used for the current national anthem, the poem originally began with "Waga Kimi wa" ('my lord') instead of "Kimiga Yo wa" ('my lord's reign'). [9] The first lyrics were changed during the Kamakura period, while the rest of the lyrics stayed the same. Because the lyrics were sung on formal occasions, such as birthdays, there was no sheet music for it until the 19th century. [7]

In 1869, John William Fenton, a visiting Irish military band leader, realized there was no national anthem in Japan, and suggested to Iwao Ōyama, an officer of the Satsuma Clan, that one be created. Ōyama agreed, and selected the lyrics. [10] The lyrics may have been chosen for their similarity to the British national anthem, due to Fenton's influence. [11] After selecting the anthem's lyrics, Ōyama then asked Fenton to create the melody. After being given just two [12] to three weeks to compose the melody and only a few days to rehearse, Fenton debuted the anthem before the Japanese Emperor in 1870. [11] This was the first version of "Kimigayo". This was discarded because the melody "lacked solemnity", according to the Japanese government [13] although others believe it is because the melody was actually "unsingable" for the Japanese. [14] However, this version is still performed annually at the Myōkōji temple in Yokohama, where Fenton served as a military band leader. Myōkōji serves as a memorial to him. [10]

In 1880, the Ministry of the Imperial Household adopted a new melody composed by Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi. The composer is often listed as Hiromori Hayashi, who was their supervisor and Akimori's father. Akimori was also one of Fenton's pupils. [11] Although the melody is based on a traditional mode of Japanese court music, it is composed in a mixed style influenced by Western hymns, and uses some elements of the Fenton arrangement. [15] The German musician Franz Eckert applied the melody with Western style harmony, creating the second and current version of "Kimigayo". The government formally adopted "Kimigayo" as the national anthem in 1888 and had copies of the music and lyrics sent overseas for diplomatic ceremonies. [16] By 1893, "Kimigayo" was included in public school ceremonies due to the efforts of the then Ministry of Education. [7]

At the turn of the 20th century, "Kimigayo" was beginning to be closely associated with the idea of honoring the Emperor. It was also associated as a part of Japanese education. However, opinions expressed in an Osaka paper in 1904 calls "Kimigayo" a song for the imperial family and not the state as a whole. [17] Uchimura Kanzo, a Christian leader in Japan, stated at the turn of the 20th century that "Kimigayo" is not the anthem of Japan by saying the song's purpose is to praise the emperor. According to Kanzo, a national anthem should express the feelings of the people, and not of the divine emperor. [18] The Japanese were not familiar with "Kimigayo" as the anthem until there was a surge of celebrations after victories in the First Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. Previously, papers were critical of fellow Japanese who could not sing "Kimigayo" properly at ceremonies overseas. [16]

During World War II, the Japanese Empire ordered that schoolchildren, both from its homeland and its colonies, were to sing the "Kimigayo" anthem and salute Emperor Hirohito every morning.

Postwar Japan (1945–present)

1945 to 1999


Since 1999

The Act on National Flag and Anthem (Japan) as it appears in the Official Gazette on August 15, 1999 Guo Qi Ji biGuo Ge niGuan suruFa Lu .jpg


Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) decided to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and "Kimigayo" official symbols of Japan in 2000. His Chief Cabinet Secretary, Hiromu Nonaka, wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of the coronation of Akihito as Emperor. [22] This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official. In 1974, with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the 1973 oil crisis, Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka hinted at a law being passed legalizing both symbols. [23]


Before the vote, there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet. Waseda University professor Norihiro Kato stated that "Kimigayo" is a separate issue more complex than the Hinomaru flag. [25] Attempts to designate only the Hinomaru as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet. [26] The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22, 1999, by a 403 to 86 vote. [27] The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9. It was enacted into law on August 13. [28]


A photo taken on November 6, 2007, as "Kimigayo" was being played before a volleyball tournament in Osaka. Kimi ga Yo at volleyball tournament.jpg

The lyrics and musical notation of the anthem are given in the second appendix of the Act on National Flag and Anthem. As for the sheet music itself, it displays a vocal arrangement with no mention of tempo and all of the lyrics in hiragana. The anthem is composed in 4/4 (common time) in the Dorian mode. [29] The Act on National Flag and Anthem does not detail how one should show respect during performances of "Kimigayo". In a statement made by Prime Minister Obuchi, the legislation will not impose new regulations on the Japanese people when it comes to respecting the flag or anthem. [30] However, local government bodies and private organizations sometimes suggest or demand certain protocols be followed. For example, an October 2003 directive by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government required teachers to stand during the national anthem at graduation ceremonies. While standing, the teachers are required to sing "Kimigayo" while facing the Hinomaru. [31] United States military personnel are required by regulations to render honors with a hand salute, or when in civilian dress, to place their right hand over their heart when "Kimigayo", "The Star-Spangled Banner", or any other national anthem is performed. [32] The Act on National Flag and Anthem also does not dictate when or where "Kimigayo" should be played. The anthem, however, is commonly played at sporting events inside of Japan, or at international sporting events where Japan has a competing team. At sumō tournaments, "Kimigayo" is played before the awards ceremony. [13]

Public schools



Present-day perception

According to a survey conducted by TV Asahi, most Japanese people perceived "Kimigayo" as an important, yet a controversial song even before the passage of the Act on National Flag and Anthem in 1999. [38] However, a poll in the same year conducted by the Mainichi Shimbun found that most respondents opposed legislation making it the national anthem or felt the Diet should take more time in passing such a law. [39] Many Japanese students, who must sing the song at entrance and graduation ceremonies, say they cannot understand the old and obsolete language of the lyrics and are not educated on its historical uses. [40] Controversies surrounding the use of the anthem in school events still remain.







Rōmaji [13] Phonetic transcription (IPA)English translation [41]
Poetic English translation
by Basil Hall Chamberlain [42]






Kimigayo wa
Chiyo ni yachiyo ni
Sazare-ishi no
Iwao to narite
Koke no musu made

May your reign
Continue for a thousand, eight thousand generations,
Until the tiny pebbles
Grow into massive boulders
Lush with moss

Thousands of years of happy reign be thine;
Rule on, my lord, until what are pebbles now
By ages united to mighty rocks shall grow
Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.


Japan's national anthem is deemed the world's most controversial due to its post-war history. [43] Schools have been the center of controversy over both it and the national flag. [44] The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both "Kimigayo" and flag at events under their jurisdiction. The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs. [45] In 1999, several teachers in Hiroshima refused to put up the anthem while the Hiroshima Education Board demanded that they do so. As the tension arose between them, a vice-principal committed suicide. A similar incident in Osaka in 2010 also occurred, with 32 teachers refusing to sing the song in a ceremony. In 2011, nine more teachers joined the rebellion, along with another eight in 2012. [46] Hashimoto Toru, the mayor of Osaka, slated the teachers as "[i]t was good that criminals [teachers] who are intent on breaking the rules [of not singing the state anthem] have risen to the surface [public]". [47] Some have protested that such rules violate the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the "freedom of thought, belief and conscience" clause in the Constitution of Japan, [48] but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens. Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor Shintarō Ishihara and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the Hinomaru and "Kimigayo". [49] After earlier opposition, the Japan Teachers Union accepts the use of both the flag and national anthem; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system. [50]

In 2006, Katsuhisa Fujita, a retired teacher in Tokyo, was threatened with imprisonment and fined 200,000 yen (roughly 2,000 US dollars) after he was accused of disturbing a graduation ceremony at Itabashi High School by urging the attendees to remain seated during the playing of the national anthem. [51] At the time of Fujita's sentence, 345 teachers had been punished for refusing to take part in anthem related events, though Fujita is the only man to have been convicted in relation to it. [52] On September 21, 2006, the Tokyo District Court ordered the Tokyo Metropolitan Government to pay compensation to the teachers who had been subjected to punishment under the directive of the Tokyo Board of Education. The then Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi commented, "It is a natural idea to treat the national anthem importantly". The ruling was appealed by the Metropolitan Government. [53] From October 23, 2003 to 2008, 410 teachers and school workers were punished for refusing to stand and sing the anthem as ordered by school principals. [54] Teachers can also be punished if their students do not stand while "Kimigayo" is played during school ceremonies. [48]


Outside of the school system, there was a controversy regarding "Kimigayo" soon after the passage of the 1999 law. A month after the law's passage, a record containing a performance of "Kimigayo" by Japanese rock musician Kiyoshiro Imawano was removed by Polydor Records from his album Fuyu no Jujika. Polydor did not want to attract harassment from far-right groups. In response, Imawano re-released the album through an independent label with the track in question. [56]

See also

Related Research Articles

March of the Volunteers National anthem of the Peoples Republic of China

The "March of the Volunteers" is the national anthem of the People's Republic of China Unlike most previous Chinese state anthems, It is written entirely in the vernacular, rather than in Classical Chinese.

Himno Nacional Mexicano National anthem of Mexico

The "Mexican National Anthem", also known by its incipit "Mexicans, at the cry of war", is the national anthem of Mexico. The anthem was first used in 1854. The lyrics of the national anthem, which allude to historical Mexican military victories in the heat of battle and including cries of defending the homeland, were composed by poet Francisco González Bocanegra after a Federal contest in 1853. Later, in 1854, he asked Jaime Nunó to compose the music which now accompanies González's poem. The national anthem, consisting of ten stanzas and a chorus, effectively entered into use on September 16, 1854.

Flag of Japan National flag

The national flag of Japan is a rectangular white banner bearing a crimson-red circle at its center. This flag is officially called Nisshōki, but is more commonly known in Japan as Hinomaru. It embodies the country's sobriquet: Land of the Rising Sun.

Aegukga National anthem of South Korea

"Aegukga", often translated as "The Patriotic Song", is the national anthem of Republic of Korea. It was adopted in 1948, the year the country was founded. Its music was composed in the 1930s and arranged most recently in 2018; its lyrics date back to the 1890s. The lyrics of "Aegukga" were originally set to the music of the Scottish song "Auld Lang Syne" before Ahn Eak-tai composed a unique melody specifically for it in 1936. Before the founding of South Korea, the song's lyrics, set to the music of "Auld Lang Syne", was sung, as well as during Korea under Japanese rule by dissidents. The version set to the melody composed by Ahn Eak-tai was adopted as the national anthem of the Korean exile government, which existed during Korea's occupation by Japan from the early 1910s to the mid-1940s.

Cup of Solid Gold first official national anthem of China

The "Cup of Solid Gold", adopted by the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) on 4 October 1911, was the first official national anthem of China. The title wishes for the stability of the "golden cup," a ritual instrument that symbolized the empire. Six days after the anthem was adopted, however, the Wuchang Uprising took place and quickly led to the fall of the Qing. The "Cup of Solid Gold" was never performed publicly.

Historical Chinese anthems

Historical Chinese anthems comprise a number of Chinese official and unofficial national anthems composed during the early 20th century.

National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China Alternative anthem of the Republic of China (Taiwan)

The National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China, also unofficially known as the "National Banner Song", is a patriotic song typically played during the raising and lowering of the flag of the Republic of China. Domestically, the flag anthem is typically played immediately following the National Anthem of the Republic of China during flag ceremonies. It is also played at international sporting events such as the World Baseball Classic and Olympic Games, where Taiwan participates officially under the name of Chinese Taipei. The song is thus considered to be effectively a secondary national anthem; Republic of China nationals and other ROC supporters stand when it is performed and salute it as they would salute the national anthem.

Franz Eckert German composer

Franz Eckert was a German composer and musician who composed the harmony for Japan's national anthem, "Kimigayo" and the national anthem of the Korean Empire, "Aegukga".

Act on National Flag and Anthem Japanese law ratified in 1999

The Act on National Flag and Anthem, abbreviated as 国旗国歌法, is a law that formally established Japan's national flag and anthem. Before its ratification on August 13, 1999, there was no official flag or anthem for Japan. The nisshōki (日章旗) flag, commonly referred to as the hinomaru (日の丸), had represented Japan unofficially since 1870; "Kimigayo" (君が代) had been used as Japan's de facto anthem since 1880.

Japan Teachers Union, abbreviated Nikkyōso, is Japan's largest and oldest labor union of teachers and school staff. The union is known for its critical stance against the conservative Liberal Democratic Party government on such issues as Kimigayo, the Flag of Japan, and the screening of history textbooks since its near continuous one-party rule since 1945. It is affiliated to the trade union confederation Rengo. It had 290,857 members as of December 2009.

National anthem of the Korean Empire

The "Patriotic Hymn of the Great Korean Empire" was the national anthem of Korea during the 1900s. It was the first and only national anthem of a unified Korean state to date.

The National Anthem of Manchukuo was one of the many national symbols of independence and sovereignty created to foster a sense of legitimacy for Manchukuo in both an effort to secure international diplomatic recognition and to foster a sense of nationalism among its inhabitants.

Majulah Singapura National anthem of Singapore

Majulah Singapura is the national anthem of Singapore. Composed by Zubir Said in 1958 as a theme song for official functions of the City Council of Singapore, the song was selected in 1959 as the island's anthem when it attained self-government. Upon full independence in 1965, Majulah Singapura was formally adopted as Singapore's national anthem. By law, the anthem must be sung with Malay lyrics, but there are authorised translations of the lyrics of the anthem in Singapore's three other official languages: English, Mandarin Chinese and Tamil.

Association of Shinto Shrines

The Association of Shinto Shrines is a religious administrative organisation that oversees about 80,000 Shinto shrines in Japan. These shrines take the Ise Grand Shrine as the foundation of their belief.

The Praise the Dragon Flag is a semi-official national anthem of China, as well as a military and an imperial anthem. It shares the same tune with Tune of Li Zhongtang, the semi-official anthem of the Qing Dynasty from 1896 to 1906.

The Song to the Auspicious Cloud was the title of two historical national anthems of the Republic of China. The first version was composed in 1896 by Jean Hautstont, a Belgian composer and esperantist, and was in use from 1913 to 1915 as a provisional anthem. The second version, composed by Xiao Youmei, was in use from 1921 to 1928 as an official national anthem. The lyrics of both songs were based on Commentary of Shang Shu (尚書大傳) written by Fu Sheng in 200–100 BCE.

Hiromori Hayashi was a Japanese composer credited with composing the Japanese national anthem "Kimigayo".

John William Fenton was an Irish musician of Scottish descent and the leader of a military band in Japan at the start of the Meiji period. He is considered "the first bandmaster in Japan" and "the father of band music in Japan." Fenton is best known for having initiated the process through which Kimi ga yo came to be accepted as the national anthem of Japan.

Flag of China National flag

The flag of China, officially the National Flag of the People's Republic of China and also often known as the Five-starred Red Flag, is a Chinese red field charged in the canton with five golden stars. The design features one large star, with four smaller stars in a semicircle set off towards the fly. It has been the national flag of China since the foundation of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949.

National Anthem Ordinance

The National Anthem Ordinance is an ordinance of Hong Kong intended to criminalise "insults to the national anthem of China". It is a local law in response to the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the National Anthem. Chinese Communist Party General Secretary Xi Jinping made a speech regarding the national anthem legislation in early 2017. The ordinance commenced on 12 June 2020.


  1. "Japan – Kimigayo". Archived from the original on 2011-12-27. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
  2. "Elementary schools face new mandate: Patriotism, 'Kimigayo'". The Japan Times Online. Kyodo News. 2008-03-29. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
  3. 新村出記念財団(1998). A dictionary of language 『広辞苑』 ("Kōjien"), 5th edition. Published by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers.
  4. 君が代の源流. Furuta's Historical Science Association (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2013-05-29. Retrieved 2008-05-10. "Inside "Kimigayo"". Furuta's Historical Science Association. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
  5. Michael Williams; Graham Humphrys, eds. (2003). Citizenship Education and Lifelong Learning: Power and Place. Nova Biomedical Books. p. 126. ISBN   978-1-59033-863-6.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Itoh, Mayumi (July 2001). "Japan's Neo-Nationalism: The Role of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo Legislation". Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper. 79. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  8. The House of Representatives (1999-06-29). "Info of the minutes of the plenary session No.41 of the House of Representatives in the 145th Diet term". National Diet Library (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2008-04-11. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
  9. Goodman, Neary 1996 , p. 78
  10. 1 2 Aura Sabadus (2006-03-14). "Japan searches for Scot who modernised nation". The Scotsman. Published by Johnston Press Digital Publishing. Archived from the original on 2012-12-16. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
  11. 1 2 3 Colin Joyce (2005-08-30). "Briton who gave Japan its anthem". Published by Telegraph Media Group Limited. Archived from the original on December 16, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
  13. 1 2 3 "National Flag and Anthem" (PDF). Web Japan. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2000. Retrieved 2009-12-11.
  14. Marshall, Alex (2016). Republic or Death! Travels in Search of National Anthems. London: Windmill Books. p. 104. ISBN   978-0-09-959223-5. Fenton's effort was overhauled in 1880 because it turned out to be completely unsingable if you were Japanese – 'Japanese is not a tonal language, but it has its highs and lows, and he got it completely wrong, 'Professor Kazuo Fukushima, the director of Japan's Music Historiography Research Institute, told me – but after the rework it grew in prominence, especially as Japan's ruling elite tried to create a modern country...
  15. Hermann Gottschewski: "Hoiku shōka and the melody of the Japanese national anthem Kimi ga yo", in: Journal of the Society for Research in Asiatic Music (東洋音楽研究), No. 68 (2003), pp. 1–17. Published by The society for Research in Asiatic Music Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine
  17. Goodman, Neary 1996 , p. 79
  19. Goodman, Neary 1996 , p. 81
  20. Goodman, Neary 1996 , p. 82
  21. Aspinall 2001 , p. 126
  22. 1 2 Itoh 2003 , pp. 209–10
  23. Goodman, Neary 1996 , pp. 82–83
  24. "国旗国歌法制化についての民主党の考え方" [The DPJ Asks For A Talk About the Flag and Anthem Law] (in Japanese). Democratic Party of Japan. 1999-07-21. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
  26. "国旗・国歌法案、衆院で可決 民主党は自主投票" [Flag and Anthem Law Passed by the House, DPJ Free Vote] (in Japanese). Democratic Party of Japan. 1999-07-22. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
  27. "第１４５回国会 本会議 第４７号" (in Japanese). National Diet Library. 1999-07-22. Archived from the original on 2012-07-14. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
  28. "議案審議経過情報: 国旗及び国歌に関する法律案" (in Japanese). House of Representatives. 1999-08-13. Archived from the original on 2011-03-23. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
  29. 国旗及び国歌に関する法律
  31. Editorial staff (2004-04-07). "Editorial: Coercion can't foster respect". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times . Retrieved 2007-12-19.
  32. Trevor M. Carlee (2005-02-18). "Corps places hand over heart for national anthem". Okinawa Marine. From United States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
  33. 1 2 Goodman, Neary 1996 , pp. 81–83
  34. Trevor 2001 , p. 78
  35. "学習指導要領における国旗及び国歌の取扱い" [Handling of the flag and anthem in the National Curriculum] (in Japanese). Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education Secretariat. 2001-09-11. Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
  36. "小学校学習指導要領解説社会編，音楽編，特別活動編" [National Curriculum Guide: Elementary social notes, Chapter music Chapter Special Activities] (in Japanese). Ministry of Education. 1999. Archived from the original on 2006-03-19.
  37. Aspinall 2001 , p. 125
  38. "国旗・国歌法制化について" [About the Law of the Flag and Anthem]. Asahi Research (in Japanese). TV Asahi. 1999-07-18. Archived from the original on 2008-05-23. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  39. "Flag-anthem law no end to controversy". Japan Times. Japan Times. 1999-07-09. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
  40. "'Kimigayo' controversy leaves students indifferent, confused". Japan Times. Japan Times. 1999-07-09. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
  43. Marshall, Alex (2016). Republic or Death! Travels in Search of National Anthems. London: Windmill Books. pp. 99–100. ISBN   978-0-09-959223-5. All anthems stir up controversy at some point...But no matter how heated such controversies get, none comes close to that around Kimigayo. It's a conflict that's been going on in Japan's schools for over 70 years. Teachers have lost jobs because of it. They've received death threats because of it. Parents have been left dazed by it, worrying about their children's future. And yes, Toshihiro Ishikawa committed suicide because of it.
  44. Weisman, Steven R. (1990-04-29). "For Japanese, Flag and Anthem Sometimes Divide". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-02.
  45. McCurry, Justin (2006-06-05). "A touchy subject". Guardian Unlimited. The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
  46. "8 Osaka teachers to be punished for refusal to sing national anthem". Japan Today. Japan Today. Retrieved February 25, 2012.
  47. "Teachers Who Refused To Sing National Anthem Face Punishment". japanCRUSH. Beth. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  48. 1 2 Grossman; Lee, Wing On; Kennedy§first3=Kerry (2008). Citizenship Curriculum in Asia and the Pacific. Springer. p. 85. ISBN   978-1-4020-8744-8 . Retrieved 2010-10-12.
  49. "Ishihara's Hinomaru order called legit". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times. 2006-01-05. Retrieved 2007-12-04.
  50. Heenan 1998 , p. 206
  51. Kyodo News (2006-05-24). "Feature: Upcoming verdict on retired teacher draws attention". Kyodo News On The Web. Published by Kyodo News. Archived from the original on 2006-06-18. Retrieved 2006-07-29.
  52. "Japanese teacher fined for anthem protest". The Taipei Times . AFP. 2006-05-31. Retrieved 2010-10-14.
  54. "2 teachers punished for refusing to stand up, recite 'Kimigayo'". Kyodo News. Japan Today. 2008-05-24. Archived from the original on 2009-10-15. Retrieved 2010-10-14.
  56. McClure, Steve (1999-09-25). "Polydor Censors Japanese Rocker". Billboard Magazine. Billboard. p. 73. Retrieved 2009-08-25.
Preceded by
National anthem of Japan
Succeeded by
Preceded by
National anthem of Taiwan
Succeeded by
"Three Principles of the People"
Preceded by
"National anthem of the Korean Empire"
National anthem of Korea
Succeeded by
(1948–present, in South Korea)
(1948–present, in North Korea)