Middle kingdoms of India

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Middle kingdoms of India (or Classical India) refers to the political entities in India from the 3rd century BCE and the 13th century CE. This period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BC. The "Middle" period lasts for some 1,500 years, and ends in the 13th century, with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and the end of the Chalukya Cholas (Rajendra Chola III died 1279). The period is known as the classical period of India, during which India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the world controlling between one third and one fourth of the world's wealth.

The Northwest[edit]

The Mauryan Empire, during the 2nd century BC, became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The whole of north-west attracted a series of invaders between 200 BC and 300 AD. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians (Mlechhas). First the Satavahanas and later the Gupta Empire, both successor states to the Mauryan Empire, attempt to contain the expansions of the successive before eventually crumbling internally due pressure exerted by these wars.

The invading tribes were influenced by Buddhism which continued to flourish under the patronage of both the invaders and the Satavahanas and Guptas and provides a cultural bridge between the two cultures. Over time, the invaders became "Indianized" as they influence society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and are conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by both intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism as the new kingdoms straddle the Silk route.

The Indo-Scythian Sakas[edit]

Main articles: Indo-Scythians and Saka

The Indo-Scythians are a branch of Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and into parts of Western and Central India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last Western Satrap, Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE.

The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabul, Parthia and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included besides the Sakas[1] other allied tribes, such as the Medes,[2] Xanthii,[2][3] Massagetae, Getae,[4] Parama Kamboja Kingdom, Avars, Bahlika people, Rishikas and Parada Kingdom.

The Indo-Greeks[edit]

Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom

The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom[5]) covered various parts of the north-west and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings,[6] often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India early in the 2nd century BC; in this context the boundary of "India" is the Hindu Kush. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as Taxila[7] Pakistan's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala.[8] These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy's Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.


The Yavanas[edit]

Main article: Yona

The Yavanas or Yonas were described as living beyond Gandhara. There was another country mentioned in the epic as Parama Yona, in the far west of Yavana. This could be the Ionia of Greece, somehow related to Indian Ionians or Yavanas. The name Yavana could be the Sanskritized form of the name Ionia. Some believes that the name Ionia originated from the Sanskrit word Ayonija meaning one who born not from a (human) womb or people with extra ordinary origins. Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Hunas were sometimes described as Mlechhas. Sometimes along with them, the Madras, Kambojas, Kekeyas, Sindhus and Gandharas were included. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the Vedic culture, prevailed in the KuruPanchala Kingdoms.

The Indo-Parthians[edit]

Main article: Indo-Parthian Kingdom

With the rise of the Parthians, the Indus Valley was brought under the influence of Persia as they conquered the Indo-Scythians. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares around 20 BCE when he declared his Independence from the Parthians. The kingdom last only briefly until its conquest by the Kushans in the late 1st century CE, and was a loose framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence.

The Pahlavas[edit]

Main article: Pahlava

The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita. In some texts the Pahlavas are synonymous with the Pallavas, a dynasty of Southern India: While the Vayu Purana distinguishes between Pahlava and Pahnava, the Vamana Purana and Matsya Purana refer to both as Pallava. The Brahmanda Purana and Markendeya Purana refer to both as Pahlava or Pallava. Bhishama Parava of the Mahabharata does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas are said to be same as the Parasikas. According to P. Carnegy,[11] the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, that is the Parthian language. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of Parthava meaning 'Parthian'.[12] In a 4th-century BCE, Vartika of Katyayana mentions the Sakah-Parthavah demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-Parthians, probably by way of commerce.[13]

The Western Satraps[edit]

Main article: Western Satraps

The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (35–405) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Southern Sindh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states). Their state, or at least part of it, was called "Ariaca" according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. They were successors to the Indo-Scythians, and were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western" in contrast to the "Northern" Indo-Scythian satraps who ruled in the area of Mathura, such as Rajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.[14] Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy in his 2nd century Geographia still called them "Indo-Scythians".[15] Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years. The word Kshatrapa stands for satrap, and its equivalent in Persian Ksatrapavan, which means viceroy or governor of a province.

The Kushans[edit]

Main article: Kushan Empire

The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) originally formed in Bactria on either side of the middle course of the Oxus River or Amu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; during the 1st century CE, they expanded their territory to include the Punjab and much of the Ganges basin, conquering a number of kingdoms across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the process.[16][17] The Kushans conquered the central section of the main Silk Routes and, therefore, had control of the overland trade between India, Persia, China and the Roman Empire.

The Indo-Sassanid Kushanshahs[edit]

Main article: Indo-Sassanid

The rise of a new Persian dynasty, the Sassanids saw them exert their influence into the Indus region and conquer lands from the Kushans setting up the Kushanshahs around 240 AD. They were to maintain their influence in the region until they were overthrown by the rising Caliphate. Afterwards they were displaced in 410 CE by the invasions of the Indo-Hephthalites.

The Hephthalite Hunas[edit]

Main articles: Huna (people), Hephthalite and White Hun
Billon drachm of the Huna King Napki Malka (Afghanistan/ Gandhara, c. 475–576).

The Hephthalite were another Central Asian nomadic tribe to invade. They are also linked to the Yuezhi who founded the Kushan Empire. From their capital in Bamiyan, Afghanistan they extended their rule across the Indus and Northern India thereby pressuring the collapse of the Gupta Empire. They were eventually defeated by the Sassanid Empire in alliance with other Turkic tribes.

The Rais[edit]

Main article: Rai Dynasty

The Rai Dynasty of Sindh were patrons of Buddhism even though they also established a huge temple of Shiva in present-day Sukkur, derived from original Shankar, close to their capital in Alor.[18] This is consistent with the historical accounts from the times of Emperor Ashoka and Harsha because Indian monarchs never sponsored a state religion and usually patronized more than one faith. The influence of the Rai state exdended from Kashmir and Kannauj in the east, Makran and Debal (Karachi) port in the west, Surat port in south, Kandahar, Sistan, Suleyman, Ferdan and Kikanan hills in the north.

The Gandharan Kambojas[edit]

Main articles: Gandhara and Kambojas

The Gandhara Satrapy became an independent kingdom based from Afghanistan and vied with the Tang dynasty, Tibet, the Islamic Caliphate and Turkic tribes for domination in the region.

The Shahis[edit]

Main article: Shahi

The Shahi, Sahi or Shahiya dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.[19] The kingdom was known as Kabul-shahan or Ratbel-shahan from (565–670 CE) when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura (also known as Hund) [20] for its new capital. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the north-western areas of the Indian sub-continent. It was used by Achaemenids,[21] Sakas,[22] Kushanas,[23] Hunas,[24] Bactrians,[25] by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul [26] and Gilgit.[27] In Persian form, the title appears as Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam, Shao of the Kushanas and the Ssaha of Mihirakula (Huna chief).[28] The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title Shah-in-shahi ("Shaonano shao") in imitation of Achaemenid practice.[29] The Shahis of Kabul/Gandhara are generally split up into two eras—the Buddhist-Shahis and the Hindu-Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 AD.

The Gangetic Plains and Deccan[edit]


The Satavahanas[edit]

Main article: Satavahana

The Sâtavâhana Empire started out as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire but declared independence with its decline. They were the first Indic rulers to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed and are known for their patronage of Buddhism resulting in Buddhist monuments from Ellora to Amaravati. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Gangetic plains to the southern tip of India.

They had to compete with the Sungas and then the Kanvas of Magadha to establish their rule. Later they had to contend in protecting their domain from the incursions of Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas weakened them and the empire split into smaller states.

The Mahameghavahana dynasty[edit]

The Mahameghavahana dynasty (c. 250s BC to 400s AD) was an ancient ruling dynasty of Kalinga after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The third ruler of the dynasty, Kharavela, conquered much of India in a series of campaigns at the beginning of the common era.[31] Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under Khārabēḷa's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against states of Magadha, Anga, Satavahanas and the South Indian regions of Pandyan Empire (modern Andhra Pradesh) and expanded Kaḷinga as far as the Ganges and the Kaveri.


Although religiously tolerant, Khārabēḷa patronised Jainism.[33][34] and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian Subcontinent but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. The main source of information about Khārabeḷa is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Hātigumphā inscription in a cave in the Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. According to the Hathigumpha inscription, he attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek king Demetrius to retreat to Mathura.[35]

Bharshiva Dynasty[edit]

Main article: Bharshiva Dynasty

Before Guptas, Bharshiva Kings ruled most of the Gangetic plains. They perform ten Ashvamedha Sacrifices on the banks of Ganga River .Samudragupta mention naga king in his Allahbad pillar .[36]

The Guptas[edit]

Main article: Gupta Empire

The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian Subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. 320 AD–550 AD).[37] This period is called the Golden Age of India[38] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[39] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.[40] The peace and prosperity created under Guptas leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[41]

The high points of this cultural creativity is seen in Gupta architecture, sculpture and painting.[42] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made advances in a variety of academic fields.[43] Science and political administration advanced during the Gupta era.[citation needed][clarification needed] Trade ties made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and both maritime and mainland Southeast Asia.


The Vakatakas[edit]

Main article: Vakataka


The Harsha Vardhana[edit]

Main article: Harsha

After the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the gangetic plains fractured into numerous small nations. Harsha of Kannauj was able to briefly bind them together under his rulership. Only a defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas (Pulakesi II) prevented him from expanding his reign south of the Narmada River. This unity did not last long beyond his reign and his empire fractured soon after his death in 647 AD.

The Gurjars[edit]

Main article: Gurjar

From 550 to 1018 AD, the Gurjars played a great part in history of Northern India nearly for 500 years.[45] Present day Rajasthan was under the rule of Gurjars for centuries with capital at Bhilmal (Bhinmal or Srimal), situated nearly 50 miles to the north west of Mount Abu.[45] The Gurjars of Bhilmal conquered Kannuaj on the Ganges at the beginning of the 9th century and transferred their capital to Kannuaj and founded an empire which at its peak was bounded on the east by Bihar, on the west by the lost river, the Hakra, and the Arabian Sea, on the North By the Himalaya and Sutlaj, and on the South by the Jumna and Narmada.[45] The region round Broach, which was offshoot of this kingdom, was also ruled by the Gurjaras of Nandipuri (or Nadol).[46]

The Vishnukundinas[edit]

Main article: Vishnukundina

The Vishnukundina Empire was an Indian dynasty that ruled over the Deccan, Odisha and parts of South India during the 5th and 6th centuries carving land out from the Vakataka Empire. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukya, Pulakesi II. Pulakesi appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern Chalukya dynasty.

The Maitrakas[edit]

Main article: Maitraka


The Gurjara Pratiharas[edit]

Main article: Gurjara Pratihara

The Gurjara Pratihara Empire (Hindi: गुर्जर प्रतिहार)[49] formed an Indian dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910), it rivaled the Gupta Empire in the extent of its territory.[50]



The Rajputs[edit]

Main article: Rajput


Katoch Dynasty[edit]

Main article: Katoch

The Katoch were a Hindu clan who rose to power across Trigarta Kingdom a region stretching from the Multan to Pinjore in North India around Satyuga (7000 BC) and ruled in Hindustan until 1948. The Katoch Dynasty having four sub clans (i)Jaswal (ii)Guleria (iii)Sibaia & (iv)Dadwal.

The Chauhans[edit]

Main article: Chauhan
Statue of Prithvi Raj Chauhan at Ajmer


The Chauhan Kingdom became the leading state in Northern India under King Prithviraj III (1165–1192), also known as Prithvi Raj Chauhan or Rai Pithora. Prithviraj III has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted and repelled the invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at the first Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including Mewar, assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armies fled[52][53] from Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battle of Tarain.

The Kachwaha[edit]

Main article: Kachwaha


The Paramaras[edit]

Main article: Paramara dynasty

The Paramara dynasty was an early medieval Indian dynasty who ruled over Malwa region in central India. This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c.800. The most significant ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja I who was a philosopher king and polymath. The seat of the Paramara kingdom was Dhara Nagari (the present day Dhar city in Madhya Pradesh state).[55]

The Solankis[edit]

Main article: Solanki
Modhera Sun Temple built by the Solankis.

The Solanki were Hindu[56] The name Solanki comes from Chalukya the ancient Indian dynasty. During 543-566, Pulakesi I, established the kingdom at Vatapi (present-day Badami, Bagalkot District in North Karnataka of Karnataka).[57]


The Tanwars (Tomara)[edit]

Main article: Tanwar

The Tanwar dynasty flourished from the 8th to 12th century AD, ruling from Delhi. This dynasty claimed to be genelogical descendants of Chandra Vanshi Pandavas and ruled small principalities and villages till Anangpal Tuar - I in 8th century expanded and established Tomar rule at Indraprastha (Delhi), the place of abode of his ancestors. They ruled from modern-day Kannauj and Delhi and were later defeated by Gahadavala's at Kannauj and later by Chauhan's of Ajmer. The last Tomar King married his daughter to Chauhan ruling family and his maternal Grandson Prithviraj Chauhan was proclaimed his heir apparent. A total of 19 Tomar rulers ruled Thanesar (modern-day Haryana-Delhi). Jaipal Tuar was ruling at the time of Gaznavid invasion in the 10th century.[citation needed]

The Palas[edit]

Main article: Pala Empire
Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire





The Candras[edit]

Main article: Candra Dynasty


The Eastern Gangas[edit]

Main article: Eastern Ganga dynasty

The Eastern Ganga dynasty rulers reigned over Kalinga which consisted of the parts of the modern-day Indian states of Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh from the 11th century to the early 15th century.[58] Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modern Srimukhalingam in Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh bordering Odisha. Today they are most remembered as the builders of the Konark Sun Temple a World Heritage site at Konark, Odisha. It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264). During their reign (1078-1434) a new style of temple architecture came into being, commonly called as Indo-Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078–1147). He was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous Jagannath Temple of Puri in Odisha.


The Senas[edit]

Main article: Sena Empire


The Varmans[edit]


The Northeast[edit]

The Kamrup[edit]


The Varmans[edit]

The Varman dynasty was the first historical dynasty of the Kamrup Kingdom, established by Pushya Varman in the 4th century. The kingdom under the Varman rulers, especially under Kumar Bhaskar Varman, extended up to the Karatoya river in the west and Sadiya in the east and included the Sylhet division of present-day Bangladesh and Purnea. This dynasty ruled from their capital in the vicinity of Pragjyotishpura (Gauhati) till the middle of the 7th century.

Pushya Varman (350-374) named after Pushyamitra Sunga, became first ruler of Kamrup as founder ruler of Varman Dynasty. His son Samudra Varman (374-398), named after Samudragupta, was accepted as an overlord by many local rulers. Narayana Varman (494-518) and his son Bhuti Varman (518-542) offered the Ashwamedha; and as the Nidhanpur inscription of Bhaskar Varman avers, these expansions included the region of Chandrapuri visaya, identified with present-day Sylhet division. Thus, the small but powerful kingdom that Pushya Varman established grew in fits and starts over many generations of kings and expanded to include adjoining possibly smaller kingdoms and parts of Bangladesh covering most part of Eastern India, much larger area than modern Kamrup from which it initially begins. After the initial expansion till the beginning of Bhuti Varman's reign, the kingdom came under attack from Yasodharman (525-535) of Malwa, the first major assault from the west. Though it is unclear what the effect of this invasion was on the kingdom; that Bhuti Varman's grandson, Sthita Varman (566-590), enjoyed victories over the Gauda of Karnasuvarna and performed two aswamedha ceremonies suggests that the Kamarupa kingdom had recovered nearly in full. His son, Susthita Varman (590-600) came under the attack of Mahasenagupta of East Malwa. These back and forth invasions were a result of a system of alliances that pitted the Kamarupa kings (allied to the Maukharis) against the Gaur kings (allied with the East Malwa kings). Susthita Varman died as the Gaur invasion was on, and his two sons, Supratisthita Varman and Bhaskar Varman fought against an elephant force and were captured and taken to Gaur. They were able to regain their kingdom. Suprathisthita Varman's reign is given as 595-600, a very short period, at the end of which he died without an heir. Supratisthita Varman was succeeded by his brother, Bhaskar Varman (600-650), the most illustrious of the Varman kings who succeeded in turning his kingdom and invading the very kingdom that had taken him captive. Bhaskar Varman had become strong enough to offer his alliance with Harshavardhan just as the Thanesar king ascended the throne in 606 after the murder of his brother, the previous king, by Shashanka of Gaur. Harshavardhana finally took control over the kingless Maukhari kingdom and moved his capital to Kanauj. The alliance between Harshavardhana and Bhaskar Varman squeezed Shashanka from either side and reduced his kingdom, making Shasanka escaping to hills further south near modern Bengali-Orissan border. This decisive victory leads to takeover of most of Gauda kingdom by Bhaskar Varman. He issued the Nidhanpur copper-plate inscription from his victory camp in the Gaur capital Karnasuvarna (present-day Murshidabad, West Bengal) to replace a grant issued earlier by Bhuti Varman for a settlement in the Sylhet region of present-day Bangladesh.

In about 643, Yuan Chwang (Xuanzang/Hiuen Tsang) visited Bhaskar Varman's court and recorded details of his kingdom. Yuan Chwang mentioned the western border of the Kamarupa kingdom was the Karatoya river and eastern boundary as Dikkaravasini (Sadiya). At the end of this visit, Bhaskar Varman accompanied Yuan Chwang to Kanauj, and participated in a religious assembly and a festival at Prayaga (Allahabad) with Harshavardhana, spending more than a year away from his own kingdom. Assembly was participated by eighteen vassal kings, while Bhaskar Varman impersonated as "Brahma", Harsha kept himself the subordinate position of "Indra". It seems Bhaskar Varman maintained relations with China. He recounted to Yuan Chwang a Chinese song about the Jin dynasty which became very popular in his kingdom. In 648 A.D after the death of Harshavardhana, Wang-Hiuen-ts'oe was sent on a mission to India with Tsiang Cheu-jenn as his second in command was helped by Bhaskar Varman, according to a Chinese account. Bhaskar Varman, also called Kumar, or Shri Kumar, was a bachelor king and died without an heir.

The Mlechchhas[edit]

The Mlechchha dynasty succeeded the Varman dynasty and ruled to the end of the 10th century. They ruled from their capital in the vicinity of the Harrupeshwara {Tezpur}. The rulers were aboriginals, though their lineage from Narakasura was constructed to accord legitimacy to their rule. According to historical records, there were ten rulers in this dynasty. The Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa was followed by the Pala kings.


The Palas[edit]

The Pala dynasty of Kamarupa succeeded the Mlechchha dynasty, ruled from its capital at Durjaya (North Gauhati). Dynasty reigned till the end of the 12th century. Brahma Pala (900-920), was founder Pala dynasty (900–1100 A.D) of Kamarupa. Dynasty ruled from its capital Durjaya, modern-day North Guwahati. The greatest of the Pala kings, Dharma Pala had his capital at Kamarupa Nagara, now identified with North Guwahati. Ratna Pala was another notable sovereign of this line. Records of his land-grants have been found at Bargaon and Sualkuchi, while a similar relic of Indra Pala, has been discovered at Guwahati. Pala dynasty come to end with Jaya Pala (1075-1100).[59]

The Twipra[edit]


The Deccan plateau and South[edit]


In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-13th centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of South Asia. Three features commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period.


Peninsular India was involved in an 8th-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556–757), the Pallavas (300–888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas (753-973). Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms.






The Sangam Era Kingdoms[edit]

South India in Sangam Age

Farther south were three ancient Tamil states - Chera (on the west), Chola (on the east), and Pandya (in the south) —. They were involved in internecine warfare seeking regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as important Indian kingdoms beyond the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient Tamil literature, known as Sangam (academy) works, provides much useful information about life in these kingdoms in the era 300 BC to 200 AD.



The Cheras[edit]

Main article: Chera Empire



The Kalabhras[edit]

Main article: Kalabhras


The Kadambas[edit]

Main article: Kadambas
Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli



The Western Gangas[edit]

Main article: Western Gangas




The Badami Chalukyas[edit]

Main article: Chalukya Empire

The Chalukya Empire, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas.[60][61] [62][63][64] They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration.[65][66] In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakesi I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power.[67] During the rule of Pulakesi II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634,[68][69] proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakesi II.[70][71][72][73][74]

Badami Cave Temples No 3. (Vishnu)

These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakesi II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of Bengal in present day Odisha. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakesi II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River.[75] Pulakesi II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.[76][77] Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors.[78] However, the continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat,[79] conquered and plundered the capital of Pulakesi II who may have died in battle.[79][80] A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.[81][82][83][84] He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.[85]

The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind.[86] More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.[87] The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments.[86] Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them. [88] [89] Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.[90]

The Pallavas[edit]

Main article: Pallava Empire


The Eastern Chalukyas[edit]

Main article: Eastern Chalukyas



The Pandyas[edit]

Main article: Pandyan Empire


The Rashtrakutas[edit]

Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire
Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE.

In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).[96][97] Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district).[98][99] Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.[100][101][102][103][104]

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha.[105] The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains.[106] Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.[107] The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River.[108] Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.[109][110][111] The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace loving nature,[109] he has been compared to emperor Ashoka.[112] The rule of Indra III in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.[113] Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south.[114]

An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world.[115] Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise.[116] The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.[117] While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement.[118] In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[119]

The Western Chalukyas[edit]

In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated.[120][121] Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific.[103][122][123][124] Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973.[125][126][127] This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari RiverKrishna River doab region in Vengi. Somesvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats[128][129] while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions.[130] For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).[131]

Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art.

In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas.[132] His fifty year reign was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".[133] His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently.[132] Some of the well known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri.[134] At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history.[135][136] Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.[137][138] With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra).[139] Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.[140] Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital Kalyani.[141] His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.[142]

The Yadavas[edit]

Main article: Yadava dynasty


The Kakatiyas[edit]

Main article: Kakatiya dynasty

The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now telangana, India from 1083 to 1323. They were one of the great Telugu kingdoms that lasted for centuries.

The Kalachuris[edit]

Main article: Kalachuri
Sangamanatha temple at Kudalasangama, North Karnataka


The earliest known Kalachuri family (550–620 AD) ruled over northern Maharashtra, Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area.[143]

Southern Kalachuris (Kannada: ದಕ್ಷಿಣ ಕಲಚೂರಿ) (1130–1184) at their peak ruled parts of the Deccan extending over regions of present day North Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 AD. They traced their origins to Krishna who was the conqueror of Kalinjar and Dahala in Madhya Pradesh. It is said that Bijjala a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over Karnataka. He wrested power from the Chalukya king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 AD, the Chalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from the socio-religious movement point of view; a new sect called the Lingayat or Virashaiva sect was founded during these times.[143] A unique and purely native form of Kannada literature-poetry called the Vachanas was also born during this time. The writers of Vachanas were called Vachanakaras (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita's Chennabasavapurana, Dharani Pandita's Bijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni's Bijjalarayapurana were also written.


The Hoysalas[edit]

Main article: Hoysala Empire
Shilabalika, Chennakeshava temple, Belur.

The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region).[144] In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu.[145][146] Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas).[144][147][148][149][150][151] With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), Shatpadi (seven line) etc. became widely accepted.[103][152][153][154] The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas,[155] culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu.[156] Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116.[157][158] Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi).[159] The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital.[145] This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.[160][161]

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in 1343.[162] This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in the Tungabhadra region in present day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital.[163]

The Cholas[edit]

Main article: Chola Empire
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 CE


The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples. Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is an UNESCO Heritage Site under "Great Living Chola Temples."[164] Another example is the Chidambaram Temple in the heart of the temple town of Chidambaram.

See also[edit]


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  2. ^ a b Cunningham (1888), p. 33.
  3. ^ Barstow (1928), reprint 1985, pp. 105-135, 63, 155, 152, 145.
  4. ^ Latif (1984), p. 56.
  5. ^ As in other compounds such as "French-Canadian", "African-American", "Indo-European" etc..., the area of origin usually comes first, and the area of arrival comes second, so that "Greco-Indian" is normally a more accurate nomenclature than "Indo-Greek". The latter however has become the general usage, especially since the publication of Narain's book "The Indo-Greeks".
  13. ^ Agarwala (1954), p. 444.
  15. ^ Ptolemy, Geographia, Chap 7
  16. ^ Hill (2009), pp. 29, 31.
  17. ^ Hill (2004)
  19. ^ Shahi Family. Encyclop¿dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop¿dia Britannica Online. 16 October 2006 [1].
  21. ^ Darius used titles like "Kshayathiya, Kshayathiya Kshayathiyanam" etc.
  22. ^ Sakas used titles like "Sahi and Sahanusahi".
  23. ^ The Kushanas used the grandiloquent title like "daivaputra-sahi.sahanu.sahi", "Shaonano shao" & "Shao".
  24. ^ The Hunas had the title " Shâhi" .
  25. ^ Title "Shahi" appears on Indo-Bactrian coins.
  29. ^ India, A History, 2001, p 203, John Keay.
  30. ^ "Kharavela". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 June 2012
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  63. ^ Thapar (2003), p328
  65. ^ Considerable number of their records are in Kannada (Kamath 2001, p67)
  67. ^ Sen (1999), p360
  69. ^ Kamath (2001), p59
  70. ^ Keay (2000), p169
  71. ^ Sen (1999), pp361–362
  72. ^ Kamath (2001), pp59–60
  75. ^ Keay (2000), p170
  76. ^ Kamath (2001), pp58
  77. ^ Ramesh 1984, p76
  78. ^ From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p60)
  80. ^ Sen (1999), p362
  81. ^ Thapar (2003), p331, p345
  82. ^ Sastri (1955) p140
  83. ^ Ramesh (1984), pp159–160
  84. ^ Sen (1999), p364
  85. ^ Ramesh (1984), p159
  86. ^ a b Hardy (1995), p65–66
  90. ^ Kamath (2001), p68
  91. ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 91–92
  95. ^ http://www.whatsindia.org
  96. ^ From the Rashtrakuta inscriptions (Kamath 2001, p57, p64)
  100. ^ Altekar (1934), pp411–413
  103. ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p68, p17–21
  104. ^ Reu (1933), pp37–38
  106. ^ Chopra (2003), p90, part1
  107. ^ Keay (2000), p199)
  108. ^ Kamath 2001, p76
  109. ^ a b Chopra (2003), p91, part1
  110. ^ Kavirajamarga in Kannada and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit (Reu 1933, p38)
  111. ^ Kamath (2001), p90
  112. ^ Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
  114. ^ Chopra (2003), p92–93, part1
  115. ^ Reu (1933), p39
  118. ^ Keay (2000), p200
  119. ^ Vijapur, Raju S. "Reclaiming past glory". Deccan Herald. Spectrum. Retrieved 2007-02-27. 
  120. ^ Chopra (2003), p137, part1
  122. ^ Sen (1999), p. 393
  125. ^ From the 957 and 965 records (Kamath 2001, p101)
  126. ^ Sastri 1955, p162
  128. ^ Ganguli in Kamath 2001, p103
  129. ^ Sastri (1955), p167–168
  130. ^ Kamath (2001), p104
  132. ^ a b Chopra (2003), p139, part1
  133. ^ Thapar, 2003, pp 468–469
  134. ^ Chopra (2003), p139, part 1
  136. ^ Sastri (1955), p6
  138. ^ Kamath (2001), p107
  139. ^ From the 1142 and 1147 records, Kamath (2001), p108
  141. ^ Chopra (2003), p140, part1; Kamath (2001) p109
  142. ^ a b Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani.
  143. ^ a b Sen (1999), p498
  144. ^ a b Sen (1999), p499
  146. ^ B.L. Rice in Kamath (2001), p123
  147. ^ Keay (2000), p251
  148. ^ Thapar (2003), p367
  149. ^ Kamath (2001), p123
  150. ^ Natives of south Karnataka (Chopra, 2003, p150 Part1)
  152. ^ Kamath (2001), pp132–134
  153. ^ Sastri (1955), p359, p361
  154. ^ Sastri (1955), p427
  155. ^ Sen (1999), pp500–501
  156. ^ Foekema (1996), p14
  157. ^ Kamath (2001), p124
  159. ^ B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p126
  160. ^ Keay (2000), p252
  161. ^ Sen (1999), p500
  163. ^ Great Living Chola Temples.


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