Great Lakeschain of deep, freshwater lakes in east-central North America comprising Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. They are one of the great natural features of the continent and of the Earth. Although Lake Baikal in Russia has a larger volume of water, the combined area of the Great Lakes—some 94,850 250 square miles (245244,660 106 square kilometres)—represents the largest surface of fresh water in the world, covering an area exceeding that of the United Kingdom. Their drainage basin of about 295,800 710 square miles (which includes the areas of the lakes themselves and their connecting waterways) extends approximately 690 miles from north to south and about 860 miles from Lake Superior in the west to Lake Ontario in the east. Except for Lake Michigan, the lakes provide a natural border between Canada and the United States, a frontier that was stabilized by a boundary-waters treaty of 1909. It is a source of pride for both countries that there are no fortifications or warships along the boundary.

Individually, the lakes rank among the 14 largest in the world (see Table). They played a central role in the European colonization and development of North America and for decades have attracted people and industry; Lakes Erie and Ontario and the southern portion of Lake Michigan are now ringed with large population concentrations. The lakes have not benefited from this development, however, and have been seriously affected by pollution. Concern over the fate of the lakes reached a high pitch in the late 20th century, with both the U.S. and the Canadian governments and individuals investigating methods for reversing the consequences of years of misuse of the lakes’ waters.

The Great Lakes form the western portion of the larger St. Lawrence hydrographic system. This system extends generally eastward from the St. Louis River in Minnesota (which flows into Lake Superior), through the lakes and the St. Lawrence River, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of St. Lawrence. For a discussion of the system east of Lake Ontario, see Saint Lawrence River and Seaway.

Physical features

The age of the Great Lakes is still not definitely determined. Estimates range from 7,000 to 32,000 years of age. Water began filling the glacially scoured basins as soon as the ice receded, some 14,000 years ago. It is generally accepted that Lake Erie reached its present level about 10,000 years ago, Lake Ontario about 7,000 years ago, and Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior some 3,000 years ago.

The present configuration of the Great Lakes basin is the result of the movement of massive glaciers through the mid-continent, a process that began about one million years ago during the Pleistocene Epoch. Studies of in the Lake Superior region indicate that a river system and valleys formed by water erosion existed before the Ice Age. The glaciers undoubtedly scoured these valleys, widening and deepening them and radically changing the drainage of the area.

The last glacial stage glaciation in North America is called the Wisconsin Glaciation because it advanced southward to what is now the southern border of the state of WisconsinGlacial Stage because it left many fresh landforms and sediments in that state. As the ice sheet melted and receded about 1814,000 years ago, the first segments of the Great Lakes were created. Lake Chicago, in what is now the southern Lake Michigan basin, and Lake Maumee, in present-day western Lake Erie and its adjacent lowlands, originally drained southward into the Mississippi River through the Illinois and Wabash drainages, respectively. As the ice retreat continued, Lake Maumee was drained into Lake Chicago through a valley that now contains the Grand River in Michigan. Eventually, drainage to the east and into the Atlantic Ocean was established, at one time down the valleys of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers and then along the course of the upper St. Lawrence River. At one high-water stage, the waters of the Huron and Michigan basin formed the one large Lake lake—Lake Algonquin. At the same time, Lake Duluth, in the western Lake Superior basin, also drained to the Mississippi.

The weight of the ice sheet exerted enormous pressures on the landmassEarth’s crust. As the ice sheet retreated, low-lying, glacially depressed areas, such as the region to the east of Georgian Bay, were exposed. About 10,000 years ago, the upper lakes evidently discharged through this area via the Ottawa River valley, and their levels were substantially reduced. After the weight of the ice was removed, the land (i.e., the outlet to the lakes) began to rise, closing off some outlets and changing allowing the water levels of the lakes to slowly rise. The largest postglacial lake, Nipissing, occupied the basins of Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Drainage through the Ottawa River valley ceased, and outflow from the upper lakes was established by way of the St. Clair and Detroit rivers into Lake Erie. Uplift has continued at a rate of about 1 foot (30 centimetres) every 100 years; this is evidenced by the drowned river mouths of western Lake Lakes Erie and Superior.

A wide range of rock types and deposits are found in the Great Lakes because of their broad area and glacial origin. The ancient rocks of the Canadian Shield cover part of the Superior and Huron basins, while younger Paleozoic sedimentary rocks make up the remainder of the basins. There are limestone outcrops and large deposits of sand and gravel, usually near shore. Glacial clays and organic sediments occur in the deep areas.



Lake Superior, bordered by Ontario, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, is the northernmost and westernmost lake and can be considered the headwater of the system. It is the deepest lake (mean depth 487 483 feet [148 147 metres]), lies at an altitude of 600 feet above sea level, and discharges into Lake Huron through the St. Marys River at an average rate of 75,600 cubic feet (2,141 cubic metres) per second. The tremendous volume of this lake (its deepest point is 732 feet below sea level) means that it has a retention time of 191 years.

Lake Michigan lies south of Lake Superior and is bordered by the Upper and Lower peninsulas of Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin. It has a mean depth of 276 279 feet. The average water level is 579 577 feet above sea level, and its waters flow northward into Lake Huron through a deep gorge at the Straits of Mackinac at 47,800 cubic feet per second.

Lake Huron lies at the same altitude as Lake Michigan and is slightly larger. Its mean depth, however, is only 195 feet. It is bounded by Ontario and Michigan. The average outflow is 183,000 cubic feet per second through the St. Clair River, the shallow basin of Lake St. Clair, and the Detroit River to Lake Erie.

Lake Erie is bordered by Ontario, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and lower Michigan. It is the shallowest of the Great Lakes, with a mean depth of 62 feet. The basin slopes from west to east with depths of 24 feet and 210 feet, respectively. It lies at an altitude of 570 569 feet, and its waters discharge at an average flow of 202,000 cubic feet per second. The natural course of the outflow is along the Niagara River and includes a rapid plunge over Niagara Falls before the waters reach Lake Ontario. Some water is diverted from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario via the Welland Canal.

Lake Ontario has the smallest surface area of the system. It has, however, the second greatest mean depth—283 feet. It lies between Ontario and New York, at an altitude of 245 243 feet, and discharges into the St. Lawrence River at an average rate of 242,000 cubic feet per second.

Hydrology and climate

The Great Lakes watershed is not a closed hydrologic system. Humans have created direct and indirect diversions of water out of the watershed and use water consumptively; the great majority of consumptive water loss leaves the system as steam from cooling towers at power plants. However, water is directly diverted out of the basin into canals at Chicago, where the water enters the Des Plaines River and Illinois River watersheds. Almost equally balancing this out-diversion is a diversion of water into the basin from the Hudson Bay watershed through Long Lake and the Ogoki River into Lake Superior. These diversions and consumptive uses may affect water levels on the Great Lakes and in so doing, indirectly affect the potential for hydroelectric-power production at Niagara Falls. Water levels are also a concern for shoreline property owners, as high levels cause beach erosion and low levels raise concerns for shipping and pleasure-craft operation along the shores. Water levels on the Great Lakes are monitored by the International Joint Commission of the United States and Canada.

The lakes ultimately receive their water supply from precipitation, which increases from west to east and from north to south. The average annual precipitation in the Lake Superior basin is 30 inches (760 millimetres), in Lakes Huron and Michigan it is 31 inches, and in Lakes Erie and Ontario it is 34 and 36 inches, respectively. Between 65 and 85 percent of the annual precipitation is lost by evaporation, with the largest proportion occurring on Lake Erie (Erie receives most of its water from Lake Huron). Some water enters Lake Superior from the Hudson Bay drainage system via the Long Lake–Ogoki River diversion, while water drains out of Lake Michigan through the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal and the Chicago River diversion.

The lakes greatly modify the climate of the surrounding region. They absorb a large quantity of heat in the warmer months, which is then lost to the atmosphere during the colder months. This causes cooler summers and warmer winters . Precipitation than would otherwise occur in the region. Wintertime precipitation is substantially higher along the eastern shores of the lakes, creating a snowbelt that afflicts Erie, PennPa., Buffalo, N.Y., Traverse City, Mich., and similarly situated cities. Severe storms can occur over the lakes, particularly in late fall and early winter. Winds can reach gale force and generate waves 10 feet or more in height. Large areas of the surface waters freeze during winter, although open patches usually remain in the centres of the lakes.

Lake levels generally vary about one to two feet throughout the year, the highest levels occurring in mid-summer and the lowest in late winter and early spring. There are small tides of about two inches, but they are relatively unimportant. Seiches—harmonic oscillations of the lakes—are caused by such atmospheric disturbances as winds or differences in barometric pressure. They have resulted in water piling up temporarily on one side, or end, of the lakes and have caused differences in the water level between Buffalo, N.Y., and Toledo, Ohio, on Lake Erie, as high as 13 feet or more. Currents are highly variable, they respond quickly to wind changes, and their direction is determined by the rotation of the Earth and the shape of the lake basins.

The Great Lakes have bicarbonate-rich waters, the alkalinity of which ranges from 46 parts per million of carbonates in Lake Superior to 113 parts per million in Lake Michigan. Because Lake Huron is fed by both Superior and Michigan, its chemical content lies in the middle of the range. Alkalinity then increases slightly as the waters flow into and through Lakes Erie and Ontario. The high carbonate content of the waters is because of the abundance of limestone and dolomite rocks in the basin.

The overall chemical composition of the lakes does not differ greatly from that of other large bodies of fresh water. Limestone in the Lake Michigan basin supplies large amounts of calcium and magnesium to the system, while sodium concentrations are greater than those of magnesium in Erie and Ontario. Although chemical distribution is relatively uniform in any one lake, concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen are greatest along the shores, in bays and harbours, and especially near urban centres.

During the 20th century, concentrations of most chemicals have increased significantly in all the lakes except Superior. Chloride, sodium, and sulfate have increased considerably in Lakes Erie, Michigan, and Ontario. Chloride concentrations have increased almost four times over levels reported in 1900, and limited data for Lake Erie indicate that nitrogen concentrations increased fivefold and phosphorus threefold in 30 years. Special importance is attached to these nutrients because they stimulate growth of algae, and their increased concentrations reflect the process of nutrient enrichment called eutrophication.

Plant and animal life

Diatoms—microscopic algae with glasslike shells of silica—are the major forms of algae, although green and blue-green algae are abundant during the summer in Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Michigan. Copepods and cladocerans, microscopic crustaceans, are important in the animal forms of plankton. Most abundant during the spring months in the upper lakes, plankton reaches two peaks of abundance—spring and fall—in the lower lakes and in the more productive waters of the upper lakes.

The organisms living on the bottom in shallow waters are the same kinds of snails, clams, worms, mayflies, and caddisflies found in most small lakes. The deep waters, however, are the realm of some organisms that are found only in the deep, cold lakes of the northern latitudes. These include the delicate opossum shrimp, the deepwater scud (a crustacean), two types of copepods, and the deepwater sculpin (a spiny, large-headed fish). During the 1980s two nonindigenous creatures—the spiny water flea (a crustacean) and the zebra mussel (a mollusk)—gained access to the lakes and established large populations. Both have threatened the food web of native species, and the zebra mussel has become a nuisance by clogging water-intake pipes, covering spawning reefs, and fouling boat hulls.

The fish community of the lakes and tributaries includes representatives of most families of North American fishes. Lake trout, whitefish, salmon, and lake herring have always been important in the lakes, while perch, walleye, bass, and catfish are abundant in the shallow, warmer waters. The fish population has changed drastically over the past century. By 1880 the damming and pollution of tributaries had caused the elimination of Atlantic salmon and the restriction of whitefish. At the same time, lake sturgeon were purposely overfished, and carp were introduced. Smelt entered Lake Michigan in 1927 and in a short time had spread throughout the lakes; however, since the early 1980s their populations have dwindled dramatically. The predatory sea lamprey migrated into the upper lakes and established spawning populations in the 1930s, causing the collapse of the lake trout populations in Lakes Huron and Michigan by the early 1950s. Other large predators also were drastically reduced in numbers by the sea lamprey. Consequently, when the alewife migrated into the upper lakes between 1931 and 1954, it met little competition and predation and soon became the most abundant species. Alewives are of little commercial value, however, and have caused costly sanitary operations when, periodically, millions of them die and are washed up to rot on the beaches. A major international program to control the sea lamprey reduced its population substantially; and during the 1960s lake trout were reintroduced when it appeared that the sea lamprey was under control. Coho and chinook salmon were introduced both to provide a sports fishery and to control the alewife. Among the accidently introduced species, the small, perchlike ruffe preys on the eggs of native fishes, while the bottom-dwelling round goby competes for food and habitat with indigenous species.

Herring and ring-billed gulls and terns are the most common birds; small islands are important nesting grounds for them. The lakes are important as wintering areas for ducks such as the scaup and the old-squaw duck, and a diversity of shorebirds and songbirds migrate through the region during the spring and fall. Various places along the shoreline, such as Point Pelée (Ontario) in Lake Erie and Whitefish Point (Michigan) in Lake Superior, are favoured locations for bird-watching.

The economy

Early interest in the lakes was stimulated by the easy transportation route that they offered into the heartland of the continent. The value of the extensive forests and fertile land in the region was soon realized, and lumbering and agriculture became important. Large coalfields and deposits of iron, copper, salt, limestone, and other minerals were found along or near the extensive shorelines. The combination of these vast resources with a plentiful water supply naturally favoured the development of huge industries and large metropolitan areas around the Great Lakes. Major urbanized areas include a band that extends from Milwaukee, Wis., through Chicago and around southern Lake Michigan; a band that stretches southward from Detroit, Mich., and then continues along the southern shore of Lake Erie; and the Toronto-Hamilton area on the northern shore of Lake Ontario.


Although most of the virgin pine forests in the basin were felled by 1910, the growing of timber is remains important and is supported by both federal and state governments. About half of the land in the counties bordering the lakes in the United States is devoted to farming, while nearly one-third of that in the bordering Canadian counties provinces is under agriculture. The major crops raised are corn (maize), soybeans, wheat, animal fodder, and fruits and vegetables; pork, beef, and dairy products are produced as well.

The ranges around Lake Superior—such as the Mesabi in Minnesota—were once Minnesota and the Marquette in Michigan—are a major source of iron ore for the United States. Peak production occurred in 1953, when almost 100 million net tons were produced. The large deposits of rich ores have since been depleted, but low-grade taconite ores can are now be efficiently processed into iron-ore pellets. Lake Superior’s Keweenaw Peninsula is was once a major source of copper, although ; sources outside of the lakes are now relatively more important. Sand dunes along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan are valued for their beauty and as a source of clean sand for industry.

Of major importance is the water supply that the lakes provide for bordering industries and municipalities. Hydroelectric generating stations exist on the St. Marys, Niagara, and St. Lawrence rivers. Numerous thermalcoal- and nuclear-powered generating plants around the lakes utilize lake water for cooling.

Industry and transportation

The industry of the lakes region is highly diversified. The large steel mills in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Ontario and the automobile industry centred in the Detroit area produce a large proportion of the continent’s steel and motor vehicles. Nonetheless, many more workers are employed in the service industry.

Most of the total shipping tonnage includes iron ore, coal, grain, and grain limestone for lake ports, but some tonnage is shipped overseas through the St. Lawrence Seaway. The Welland Canal allows passage around Niagara Falls from Lake Ontario into Lake Erie, and the channels and locks in the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie have made Lake Superior accessible to ships up to 800 feet in length.

Fishing and recreation

Commercial fishing was once a primary industry on the lakes, but the decline of the more desirable species led to its collapse. A limited amount of commercial fishing is still carried on, however, for species such as whitefish. Emphasis has switched to sport fishing based on coho and chinook salmon, lake trout, walleye, and rainbow trout; this has grown into a major industry.

The value of the lakes for a broad spectrum of recreational activities is inestimable. Powerboating and sailing have become popular activities, and numerous marinas have been built. Many miles of high-quality, sandy beaches stretch along the lake shores. State, provincial, federal, and county lands offer hundreds of camping, picnicking, and park areas for a thriving tourist industry.

Human impact on the lakes

The multiple uses of the lakes are often conflicting. The shipping and hydroelectric-power industries favour higher water levels, for example, but property owners along the shoreline find that high levels increase erosion of the shoreline. Conservationists believe that the diversion of treated sewage away from the lakes, such as is being done at Chicago and various other cities, is the best solution for maintaining the quality of the lake waters. Regardless of the approach that is taken, it is clear that changes have occurred in the plant and animal life of the lakes and that these changes have been related to increases in the content of introduced chemicals, depletion of dissolved oxygen in some places, and the accumulation of sewage sludge on lake bottoms near urban areas.

Significant changes first became noticeable in about 1900 and paralleled the buildup of human population around the lakes. Misuse of the lakes became all too apparent and was perhaps most clearly dramatized by the growing number of beaches that were closed after 1950 because of pollution; but the less obvious accumulation of toxic substances in wildlife, especially fish and fish-eating birds, had much more serious implications. It came to be realized that pollution could affect either directly or indirectly all uses—raising the cost of water treatment, killing valuable fish species or rendering other species unfit to eat, and adversely affecting the tourist industry and the value of shoreline property. Since the 1970s a major cooperative effort at pollution control has been undertaken by authorities in Canada and the United States, and this has resulted in improved water quality and the resurgence of some fish populations.

Study and exploration

The Great Lakes region was inhabited for centuries by numerous American Indian peoples. With the colonization and expansion of European peoples in North America, the lakes became an integral part of the exploration and development of the continent. It was once speculated that Vikings explored the region in the 14th century—based on the discovery of a broken sword, an ax, and a shield boss near Nipigon Lake, Ont., and a rune stone at Kensington, Minn.—but it is much more likely that the first Europeans entered the region in 1535, when the French explorer Jacques Cartier traveled up the St. Lawrence River to the site of modern Montreal in his search for a route to the Orient. The Huron Indians told him of the great seas lying beyond, but the upper St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario were controlled by the Iroquois, who were unfriendly to the Europeans. Consequently, further exploration by another leading French explorer of North America, Samuel de Champlain, followed the course of the Ottawa River, Lake Nipissing, and the French River to Georgian Bay. He reached Lake Huron in 1615 and is credited with being the first European to see the Great Lakes. In 1634 Jean Nicolet—dispatched by Champlain to seek a route to China—led an expedition into Lake Michigan and down the length of Green Bay to the Fox River, where he encountered the Winnebago Indians. Other French explorers, including René-Robert Cavelier, Lord de La Salle, explored the lakes, made peace with the Indians, and established early settlements.

Three major conflicts affected the history and development of the Great Lakes. The French and Indian War (1754–63)—a struggle between the French and British to gain control of rich fur-producing lands—concluded with the cession of Canada to England. The main consequences of the American Revolution (1775–83) for the Great Lakes region were the migration of thousands of loyalists to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario and the establishment of the present international boundary between the United States and Canada. During the War of 1812, Lake Erie was the site of a major naval battle.

Although several of the early explorers recorded observations of short-term fluctuations in water levels in early geographic writings, the first purely scientific expedition on the Great Lakes was not carried out until 1848. It was led by the Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz and concentrated on studies of the north shore of Lake Superior. Water-level gauges were established in all the lakes by 1860, and all waters were charted by 1882. Studies of plant and animal life began in the 1870s, and the first study of lake currents was conducted in the early 1890s. Research on the lakes since 1900 largely has been in response to a sequence of crises. The collapse of the lake-herring fishing industry in the 1920s resulted in two major studies of Lake Erie. The invasion of the sea lamprey in the 1930s and concern over lake pollution and eutrophication since World War II has led to international research and cooperation for mitigative measures. Since 1980 additional research has been stimulated by concerns over shoreline erosion and the possible effects of global climatic change.

Jack L. Hough, Geology of the Great Lakes (1958), provides information on the lakes’ geologic origin. A summary of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the Great Lakes, with an account of early research in the field, is offered in Alfred M. Beeton and David C. Chandler, “The St. Lawrence Great Lakes,” in David G. Frey (ed.), Limnology in North America (1963), pp. 535–558. A thorough, scientifically advanced treatise on the geologic evolution of the Great Lakes, focusing on glaciation, is provided in P.F. Karrow and P.E. Calkin, Quaternary Evolution of the Great Lakes (1984). Harlan Hatcher and Erich A. Walter, A Pictorial History of the Great Lakes (1963), surveys early exploration, shipping, and settlement in the region. Useful background information on the region is found in Lee Botts et al., The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book (1987); and R.A. Assel et al., Great Lakes Ice Atlas (1983). A history of ecological changes in the basin and their effect on the lakes is presented in William Ashworth, The Late, Great Lakes (1986). Theodora E. Colborn et al., Great Lakes, Great Legacy? (1990), discusses the Great Lakes as an ecosystem, changes in the lakes’ environment, and institutional arrangements for dealing with these problems. The region’s economic situation is assessed in Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago and Great Lakes Commission, The Great Lakes Economy (1985), a compendium of data on resources and industry, and The Great Lakes Economy: Looking North and South (1991), an interpretive analysis. Noel M. Burns, Erie: The Lake That Survived (1985), discusses the environmental and economic degradation of the lake and its environs and the signs of rehabilitation. Also useful is Great Lakes Science Advisory Board, Report (biennial), which includes summaries of health, societal, and education issues related to pollution and toxic chemicals.