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  • 1. CHAPTER VIII. COMPOSTINGA. IntroductionIn economically developing countries, constraints related to economics, technology, and qualifiedpersonnel have narrowed the choice of acceptable solid waste management, treatment, anddisposal options. Viable options include minimisation, recycling, composting, incineration, andsanitary landfilling. Composting is the option that, with few exceptions, best fits within thelimited resources available in developing countries. A characteristic that renders compostingespecially suitable is its adaptability to a broad range of situations, due in part to the flexibility ofits requirements. As a result, there is a composting system for nearly every situation; i.e., simplesystems for early stages of industrial development to relatively complex, mechanised systems foradvanced industrial development.The compost option affords the many advantages of biological systems: lower equipment andoperating costs; in harmony with the environment; and results in a useful product. On the otherhand, composting is sometimes attributed with disadvantages often associated with biologicalsystems -- namely, a slow reaction rate and some unpredictability. Regarding the attributeddisadvantages, slow reaction rate may be justified, in that retention times are in terms of weeksand months. However, the attribution of unpredictability is not justified. If all conditions areknown, applied, and maintained, the course of a given process will be predictable.Among the major prerequisites for successful composting are a satisfactory understanding andapplication of the basic principles of the process. Without this understanding, inadequacies ofdesign and operation are practically inevitable. An understanding of the biology rests upon aknowledge of the basic principles of the process. Such a knowledge enables a rational evaluationof individual compost technologies and utilisation of those technologies. An obvious benefit ofthe knowledge is the ability to select the system most suited to an intended undertaking. Anaccompanying benefit is the ability to critically evaluate claims made on behalf of candidatesystems.B. DefinitionsTwo definitions of composting are presented. The first is a definition in the strict sense of theterm, which differentiates composting from all other forms of decomposition. The second one isan ecological definition.B1. DEFINITION in the strict senseA definition that distinguishes composting from other biological processes is: “Composting is the biological decomposition of biodegradable solid waste under controlled predominantly aerobic conditions to a state that is sufficiently stable for nuisance-free storage and handling and is satisfactorily matured for safe use in agriculture”.The terms and phrases that collectively differentiate composting from other decompositionprocesses are: “biological decomposition”, “biodegradable”, “under controlled predominantlyaerobic conditions”, “sufficiently stable”, and “matured”. The phrase “biological decomposition”implies that the decomposition is accomplished by living organisms. “Biodegradable” refers tothe substrate and it requires that the substance be susceptible to decomposition attack by certainliving organisms, e.g., bacteria and fungi. Such substances are organic compounds formed eitherby living organisms or by way of chemical synthesis (e.g., halogenated hydrocarbons). 197
  • 2. Decomposition of synthetic organics generally involves the activity of certain microorganismsunder special conditions. The phrase “under controlled predominantly aerobic conditions” has atwofold significance: 1) it differentiates composting from the random biological decompositionthat takes place in nature (e.g., open dump, forest, field, etc.); and 2) it distinguishes compostingfrom anaerobic digestion (biogasification). The criterion for “stable” is safe and nuisance-freestorage. The criterion for “sufficiently mature” is oriented to use in agriculture.B2. ECOLOGICAL definitionAn “ecological definition” is as follows: “Composting is a decomposition process in which the substrate is progressively broken down by a succession of populations of living organisms. The breakdown products of one population serve as the substrate for the succeeding population. The succession is initiated by way of the breakdown of the complex molecules in the raw substrate to simpler forms by microbes indigenous to the substrate”.C. Active organismsMesophilic and thermophilic bacteria and fungi are the predominant organisms during the initialand the active stages of the compost process. The bacteria can be morphologically grouped intothe “bacteria proper” and “filamentous” bacteria. In reality, the filamentous bacteria simply are“branched” bacteria, and are members of the actinomycetes. Usually the actinomycetes do notappear in sizeable numbers until the close of the high-temperature active stage of the compostprocess. Coincidentally with their appearance is a rapid disappearance of cellulose and lignin.Although some nitrogen-fixing bacteria may be present, conditions are not conducive to nitrogenfixation [23].The onset of the stabilisation stage of the process is attended by the appearance of saprophyticmacroflora. Sources of nutrients for the macroflora are inactive microflora and the decomposingwastes. The more minute forms (e.g., paramecium, amoeba, rotifers) are the first to appear.Eventually, larger forms such as snails and earthworms become numerous. Among theearthworms are Lumbricuse terestris, L. rubellus, and Eisenia foetida [24,25]. The compost massis fairly advanced by the time the earthworms make their appearance. Of course, the earthwormscan be deliberately introduced successfully at some prior time, perhaps even in the relativelyearly stages [25].The claimed potential benefits from the utilisation of earthworms in composting have led to thepromotion of vermiculture.C1. VERMICULTUREIn the discussion of vermiculture, it is important to keep in mind that earthworms constitute theend product of vermiculture; and that worm castings are a residue. The castings make up the“compost product” to which the vermiculture proponents refer. Among the numerous benefitsclaimed for vermiculture are the following: 1) increased particle size reduction, 2) enrichment ofthe compost product by earthworm nitrogenous excretions, 3) increase in the carbon and nutrientexchange brought about by the enhanced interaction between microflora and macroflora, and4) the superiority of earthworm castings to the conventional compost product.Not all of the species of earthworms are suitable for vermiculture (the production of protein andcastings). Among the species that can be used in captivity are those commonly known as the redcalifornian (Eisenia foetida). Initially, this type of earthworm was selected in order to increase 198
  • 3. the quantity of substrate that would be ingested and thus increase the amount of castings thatwould be produced. Unfortunately, the results of these attempts were not very positive and effortswere diverted toward improving the fertility of the species as well as to try to increase itslifespan.Each adult earthworm of the californian species measures between 6 and 8 cm in length andabout 3 to 4 mm in diameter. The average weight is about 1 g. This species can live up to 6 years.The principal component of an earthworm is water; it constitutes between 70% and 95% of itsweight. The remainder (between 5% and 30%) is primarily protein. The composition of anearthworm on a dry-weight basis is as follows: protein between 53% and 72%, grease between1% and 17%, and minerals between 9% and 23%.Vermiculture can be carried out on a small scale. The basic production module typically hasabout 60,000 earthworms, which can be placed in an area of about 2 m long by 1 m wide, knownas a bed. The substrate is placed on the worms at a depth of 15 to 25 cm. Depending upon theclimatic conditions, the bed can be protected by means of a simple roof. Similar to any biologicalprocess, earthworms will seek favourable conditions. Consequently, the beds must be carefullymanaged to provide the earthworms with optimum conditions, especially nutrients, humidity(70% to 80%), and temperature (20° to 25°C). In addition, there are certain regimes for feeding(adding the substrate to) the beds to achieve optimum growth and degradation of the organicmatter.Estimates indicate that a basic module of 60,000 earthworms can produce on the order of 800 kgof humus in three months.Although the earthworms produced in the process constitute a low level source of proteins, theyalso contain a major fraction of the heavy metal contaminants in the substrate. The reason is thetendency of the worms to store the contaminants in their tissue.Although vermiculture merits careful consideration, it does have serious limitations and demandscareful control, particularly in large-scale systems (i.e., larger than 10 Mg/day). Furthermore,there are situations in which conditions required for their culture may not be achievable. Theprocess has potential in small-scale systems for the treatment of relatively homogenoussubstrates.C2. INOCULUMSThe utility of inoculums in compost practice is open to many questions that could well beconsidered objections. Obviously, the utility of an inoculum is proportional to the extent of theneed to compensate for a lack of indigenous population of microorganisms and macroorganismsto decompose (compost) the substrate. Characteristically, most wastes encountered in compostpractice have such an indigenous population, and inoculation would be unnecessary. On the otherhand, inoculation would be useful with wastes that either lack an indigenous population or haveone that is deficient. Examples of such wastes are pharmaceutical manufacturing wastes, wastesthat have been sterilised or pasteurised, and wastes that are homogeneous in composition(sawdust or wood chips, rice hulls, petroleum wastes, etc.).If the need for an inoculum is indicated, one must be developed unless a suitable inoculum isavailable. As is shown by the discussion that follows, inoculum development is a difficultundertaking that requires highly qualified microbiologists who are thoroughly knowledgeableregarding the compost process. 199
  • 4. A serious difficulty is the fact that composting involves a dynamic succession of several groupsof microbes sequentially interacting with the substrate. The identification of thesemicroorganisms is the first step in the development, followed by delineation of the respectiveroles of the identified organisms. Accurate identification and appropriate assignment areparticularly difficult when mixed cultures are concerned. To be effective, the organisms in theinoculum must be able to successfully compete with organisms indigenous to the waste. Thecompetitive ability of introduced organisms is adversely affected by the repeated subculturinginvolved in culture maintenance.In conclusion, little is gained from the abundant indigenous population of microorganismscharacteristic of most inoculated wastes destined to be composted. Before being accepted, claimsfor an inoculum must be demonstrated to be valid by way of unbiased conducted tests ordemonstrations. Moreover, it should be noted that, generally, inoculated microbes do not competewell under practical conditions [26,27].If an inoculum or additional microorganisms are desired, decomposed horse manure, finishedcompost, or a rich and loamy soil can serve the purpose. All three materials contain an abundanceof microflora. A form of inoculation often used in compost practice is the “mass inoculation”,accomplished by recirculating a fraction of the final product, i.e., adding it to the incoming waste.Other than possibly improving the texture of the incoming waste, the efficacy of such a massinoculation is debatable.D. Process factorsIn addition to the presence of the needed organisms, major factors can be grouped into three maincategories -- namely, nutritional, environmental, and operational. The relative importance of anindividual factor is determined by its bearing on the proliferation and activity of the keyorganisms in the process. The key organisms determine the rate and extent of composting,because they have an enzymatic complex that permits them to attack, degrade, and utilise theorganic matter in raw waste. The other organisms can only utilise decomposition products(intermediates). Hence, the composting of a waste is the result of the activities of the previouslymentioned dynamic succession of different groups of microorganisms. In short, groups preparethe way for their successors.D1. NUTRITIONAL factorsA given nutrient in a waste can be utilised only to the extent that it is available to activemicrobes. Availability takes two forms -- namely, chemical and physical. A nutrient is chemicallyavailable to a microbe or group of microbes if it is a part of a molecule that is vulnerable to attackby the microbe or microbes. Usually, the attack, i.e., breakdown, is accomplished enzymaticallyby microbes that either possess the necessary enzyme or can synthesize it. Physical availability isinterpreted in terms of accessibility to microbes. Accessibility is a function of the ratio of mass orvolume to surface area of a waste particle, which in turn is determined by particle size.D1.1. Macronutrients and micronutrientsNutrients can be grouped into the categories “macronutrients” and “micronutrients”. Themacronutrients include carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and potassium(K). However, the required amounts of Ca and K are much less than those of C, N, and P.Because they are required only in trace amounts, they are frequently referred to as the “essentialtrace elements”. In fact, most become toxic in concentrations above trace. Among the essentialtrace elements are magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), and sulphur (S).Most trace elements have a role in the cellular metabolism. 200
  • 5. The substrate is the source of the essential macronutrients and micronutrients. Even though anelement of uncertainty is introduced into an operation, economic reality dictates that a wasteconstitute most or all of the substrate in compost practice. Any uncertainty is due to variation inthe availability of some nutrients to the microbes. Variation in availability, in turn, arises fromdifferences in resistance of certain organic molecules to microbial attack. Variations in resistancelead to variations in rate at which the process advances. Examples of resistant materials are lignin(wood) and chitin (feathers, shellfish exoskeletons), and several forms of cellulose.D1.2. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratioThe carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) is a major nutrient factor. Based on the relative demands forcarbon and nitrogen in cellular processes, the theoretical ratio is 25:1. The ratio is weighted infavour of carbon, because uses for carbon outnumber those for nitrogen in microbial metabolismand the synthesis of cellular materials. Thus, not only is carbon utilised in cell wall or membraneformation, protoplasm, and storage products synthesis, an appreciable amount is oxidised to CO2in metabolic activities. On the other hand, nitrogen has only one major use as a nutrient --namely, as an essential constituent of protoplasm. Consequently, much more carbon than nitrogenis required. The ratios encountered in waste management vary widely. Generally, the ratio ishigher than 8 to 10 parts available carbon to 1 part available nitrogen (the emphasis on“available” should be noted). In compost practice, it is on the order of 20:1 to 25:1. The generalexperience is that the rate of decomposition declines when the C:N exceeds that range. On theother hand, nitrogen probably will be lost at ratios lower than 20:1. The loss could be due to theconversion of the surplus nitrogen into ammonia-N. The high temperatures and pH levelscharacteristic of composting during the active stage could induce the volatilisation of theammonia.In a developing country, an unfavourably high C:N can be lowered by adding a nitrogenous wasteto the compost feedstock. If economics permit, it also can be lowered by adding a chemicalnitrogen fertiliser, such as urea or ammonium sulphate. Conversely, a carbonaceous waste can beused to elevate a low C:N. The nitrogen contents and the carbon-to-nitrogen ratios of variouswastes and residues are listed in Table VIII-1.D1.3. Carbon and nitrogen analysesAmong the several useful analytical methods available for determining nitrogen content, thevenerable standard Kjeldahl method continues to be both practical and useful.Carbon determination is rendered difficult in a developing country by the need for expensiveanalytical equipment and an appreciable skill on the part of the analyst. Obtaining arepresentative sample within the very small size limits specified by current methods is anextremely difficult task, especially when dealing with a waste as heterogeneous as is solid waste.A “stop-gap” approach suitable for composting in solid waste management is an estimation basedon a formula developed in the 1950s [1]. The formula is as follows: 100 % ash % carbon = 1 .8 201
  • 6. Table VIII-1. Nitrogen content and C:N of various wastes and residues Waste Nitrogen C:N Activated sludge 5 6 Blood 10 to 14 3.0 Cow manure 1.7 18 Digested sewage sludge 2 to 6 4 to 28 Fish scraps 6.5 to 10 5.1 Fruit wastes 1.5 34.8 Grass clippings 3 to 6 12 to 15 Horse manure 2.3 25 Mixed grasses 214 19 Nightsoil 5.5 to 6.5 6 to 10 Non-legume vegetable wastes 2.5 to 4 11 to 12 Pig manure 3.8 4 to 19 Potato tops 1.5 25 Poultry manure 6.3 15 Raw sewage sludge 4 to 7 11 Sawdust 0.1 200 to 500 Straw, oats 1.1 48 Straw, wheat 0.3 to 0.5 128 to 150 Urine 15 to 18 0.8According to one report [28], values determined by way of the formula were within 2% to 10% ofthose obtained in the laboratory studies.In situations in which carbon and nitrogen analyses are not feasible, a workable assumption canbe made on the basis of the substrate composition. The assumption is that if the ratio of green (incolour) raw waste (or of food preparation wastes, or of fresh manure) to dry, non-green waste isvolumetrically about 1 to 4, the C:N will be within a “permissible” range.D1.4. Particle sizeThe size of particles in the waste is a nutrient-related factor, because the waste is the substrate incomposting and the substrate is the source of nutrients. The relation to nutrition is the effect ofsize of the individual particles on the physical availability of nutrients, i.e., accessibility to thenutrients. As was stated earlier, particle size determines the ratio of mass-to-surface and, hence,amount of a particle’s mass that is exposed to microbial attack. Inasmuch as the ratio increaseswith decrease in size, the rate of decomposition (composting) theoretically should increase withdecrease in particle size. However, the theoretical increase does not always materialise inpractice. The failure may be due to one or more factors. For example, the physical nature of thesubstrate may impose constraints in terms of minimum permissible size. The permissibleminimum size is the one at which any further reduction would adversely affect the compostprocess. Ultimately, the criterion for determination of minimum permissible size is the ability toestablish a substrate porosity that is consistent with necessary aeration.Porosity is largely a function of the structural strength of the particle material. Structurally strong,crush-resistant waste materials, such as wood, straw, and paper, remain porous at very small 202
  • 7. particle sizes. An appropriate particle size range for such wastes is about 1.5 to 7 cm. A suitableparticle size for individual wood chips is about 1 cm in thickness and 2 to 5 cm in width. Particlesizes suitable for fibrous materials and woody trimmings (yard debris) are from about 5 to 10 cm.If the individual branches and twigs are less than 1 cm in diameter, the particle sizes may besomewhat larger. The minimum permissible particle size of soft materials tends to be large,because excessively size-reduced soft materials tend to compact into an amorphous mass that haslittle or no porosity. Thus, the minimum permissible particle size for fresh plant debris, freshvegetables, and kitchen wastes could be as much as 15 cm, and even larger with softer materials.Fresh green residues such as lettuce and ripe fruits (e.g., papaya and mangoes) require little or nosize reduction.Unless they are intermixed with an abundance of bedding material, animal manures do notrequire size reduction. Any size reduction needed would be determined by the characteristics ofthe bedding material.In a developing country, there are economic and technological obstacles to the size reduction ofwastes intended for composting. Size reduction is usually accomplished with a shredder orgrinder, which is a large, expensive piece of equipment. A possible alternative might be to relyupon some form of tumbling to accomplish the relatively limited tearing, breaking, andmaceration that would be required. The tumbling could be done by way of a rotating drum orcylinder.D2. ENVIRONMENTAL factorsThe principal environmental factors that affect the compost process are temperature, pH,moisture, and aeration. The significance of environmental factors with respect to the compostprocess is the fact that individually and collectively they determine the rate and extent ofdecomposition. Consequently, rate and extent of decomposition are proportional to the degreethat each nutritional and environmental factor approaches optimum. A deficiency in any onefactor would limit rate and extent of composting -- in other words, the deficient factor is alimiting factor. It is important to keep in mind that the ultimate limiting factor is the geneticmakeup of the various microbial populations.D2.1. TemperatureAlthough convincing arguments can be made with respect to the advantages of thermophilic vs.mesophilic composting, the question has become moot in compost practice. The reason is that innormal practice, composting begins at ambient temperature (mesophilic range) and progresses toand through a thermophilic phase, followed by a descent to the mesophilic level. The process willfollow this course unless preventive measures are imposed.The compost process is more or less seriously adversely affected at temperatures above 65°C.The reason is that microorganisms characterised by a spore-forming stage do so at temperaturelevels higher than 65°C. Unless they are thermophilic, other microorganisms either lapse into aresting stage or are killed. Consequently, the current practice is to resort to operationalprocedures designed to avoid temperatures higher than about 60°C.D2.2. pH levelThe pH level of the composting mass typically varies with the passage of time, as is indicated bythe curve in Figure VIII-1. As the figure demonstrates, the level usually drops somewhat at theonset of the compost process. However, it soon begins to rise to levels as high as pH 9.0. Theinitial drop reflects the synthesis of organic acids. The acids serve as substrates for succeeding 203
  • 8. microbial populations. The subsequent rise, in turn, reflects the utilisation of the acids by themicrobes.Because the pH level reached in the initial descent is not inhibitory to most microbes, buffering isunnecessary and could have adverse consequences. For example, the use of lime (Ca(OH)2) couldresult in a loss in NH3-N at the relatively elevated temperatures and pH levels that occur ascomposting progresses. Nevertheless, the addition of lime may be advantageous in some cases.The addition improves the physical condition of the composting mass, perhaps partly by servingas a moisture absorbent. Furthermore, some researchers report that the addition of lime could beof use in the composting of fruit wastes [2], because the initial drop in pH level often is sharperwhen fruit wastes are composted. 10 9 8 pH 7 6 5 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time (days)Figure VIII-1. Variation of pH as a function of time in compostingD2.3. Moisture contentAn important characteristic of MSW composting is the close relationship between moisturecontent and aeration -- particularly in windrow composting. The basis of the relationship is thefact that the principal source of the oxygen required by the microbial populations is the airentrapped in the voids (interstices) between the substrate particles. Diffusion of ambient oxygeninto the composting mass is relatively minor in terms of meeting the microbial oxygen demand.Inasmuch as the interstices also contain the free moisture in the mass, a balance must be struckbetween moisture content and available oxygen. For convenience, this balance may berepresented by the term “permissible moisture content”. Thus, the maximum permissible moisturecontent would be that level above which insufficient oxygen would be available for meeting theoxygen demand, and a state of anaerobiosis would develop. Figure VIII-2 indicates the relationbetween moisture content and air (i.e., oxygen).Among the physical characteristics of the substrate that affect permissible moisture content is the“structural strength” of the particles that make up the substrate. Structural strength determinesparticulate susceptibility to deformation and compaction.Moisture content is somewhat less critical to aeration in the applications that involve the use ofin-vessel compost systems, in which the waste is mechanically, and more or less continuously,agitated. Nevertheless, factors other than interstitial limitations may impose an upper permissible 204
  • 9. moisture content in those systems. The limitation arises from a general tendency of material tomat, clump, or form balls. This tendency increases progressively to the point at which a slurry isformed. The range of the moisture levels at which these problems appear coincides with that ofmost upper permissible moisture content levels.The importance of keeping the moisture content of the substrate above 40% to 45% is oftenoverlooked in compost practice. It is important because moisture content is inhibitory at lowerlevels, and all microbial activity ceases at 12%. Air (O2) Particle Interstices WaterFigure VIII-2. Enlarged illustration of the relationship between air, water, andinterstices in compostingD3. AERATIOND3.1. Aerobic vs. anaerobic compostingOriginally, anaerobic composting was considered to be a viable alternative to aerobiccomposting, and strong arguments were made in its favour. One such argument was the supposedminimisation of nitrogen loss; another was a better control of emissions. The reality is that thesesupposed advantages never seemed to materialise. Even had these advantages materialised, theywould not be sufficient to compensate for the demonstrated disadvantages of the anaerobic mode.Doubts about the effectiveness of anaerobic composting began to escalate, and by the end of the1960s, anaerobic composting generally was considered as an unacceptable alternative. Recently,the trend has been to regard composting as being an entirely aerobic process. However, it is nowbeginning to be recognised that a transient anaerobic phase is essential in the destruction of 205
  • 10. halogenated hydrocarbons by way of composting. This need, combined with conservation ofnitrogen, may be sufficient for a transient anaerobic phase to merit serious consideration.As compared to anaerobic composting, aerobic composting has several potential advantages.Among them are the following: 1) decomposition proceeds more rapidly, 2) temperature levelsthat are lethal to pathogens are attained, and 3) the number and intensity of objectionableemissions are sharply reduced. The emission of some objectionable odours is an inevitableaccompaniment of waste treatment and disposal. The extent and intensity of the odours can besignificantly ameliorated in aerobic composting by fully satisfying the oxygen demand of theactive microbial populations by the institution of an appropriate aeration program. Emissions canalso be controlled by capturing the gases of decomposition from the composting mass andtreating them in chemical and/or biological gas treatment systems, which reduces the intensity ofthe objectionable emissions.D3.1.1. Aeration ratesThe rate of aeration at which a composting mass remains aerobic (i.e., satisfies the microbialoxygen demand) is a function of the nature and structure of the components of the waste and ofthe aeration method. For example, the oxygen demand of a large and active population,composting a mass of easily decomposed material, obviously would surpass the demand of asparser and less vigorous population acting upon a refractory material.The accurate calculation of a specific proper aeration rate is a difficult undertaking. The difficultyarises from problems in the acquisition of realistic data with the use of available techniques andequipment. The diversity of data reported in the literature is exemplified by the results obtained inthe following investigations.One of the early investigations [3,4] involved forcing air at various rates into a rotating drum andmeasuring the oxygen content of the exiting air. Although the experimental conditions did notjustify a determination of the total oxygen demand of the material, the experimental results didindicate the rate of O2 uptake. The respiratory quotient was found to be 1, i.e., CO2 produced ÷O2 consumed = 1.0.In another phase of the same investigation, the investigator’s concern was about relation of O2uptake to principal environmental factors. One of the observations was the not surprising one thatrate of uptake increased in proportion to proximity to the optimum level of a factor. For example,the O2 uptake increased from 1 mg/g volatile matter at 30°C to 5 mg/g at 63°C [4]. On the otherhand, O2 uptake declined in proportion to extent of departure from optimum levels.The variability is further illustrated by results obtained by other investigators in later years. Thefollowing are three examples of these investigations:1. In one investigation, it was found that O2 requirements ranged from 9 mm3/g/hr for ripe compost to 284 mm3/g/hr with fresh compost serving as the substrate [5].2. In another investigation, it was found that oxygen demand ranged from 900 mg/g/hr on day-1 of composting to 325 mg/g/hr on day-24 [6].3. Uptakes observed in this investigation [7] were 1.0 mg O2/g volatile solids/hr at a temperature of 30°C and a moisture content of 45%; and 13.6 mg/g/hr at a temperature of 45°C and a moisture content of 56%. 206
  • 11. Inasmuch as results obtained by these and other investigators characteristically demonstrated thatO2 uptake depends upon intensity of microbial activity, it should, therefore, decline with increasein stability of the composting mass, i.e., as the mass approaches maturity.D3.1.2. Prediction of oxygen demandThe full potential oxygen demand cannot be predicted solely upon the basis of amount of carbonthat is to be oxidised. The reason stems from the impossibility of arriving at a precise estimate ofO2 requirement on the basis of the carbon content of the waste, inasmuch as some carbon isconverted into bacterial cellular matter and some is in a form sufficiently refractory to render itscarbon inaccessible to the microbial attack. For purposes of preliminary design of an in-vesselsystem and a forced-air windrow system, an input air-flow rate of 530 to 620 m3/Mg waste maybe assumed [3]. Aeration rates used in the final design should be based on O2 consumption, asdetermined by way of early experimentation in which the waste to be composted serves assubstrate. With turned windrow systems, the findings would be in terms of frequency of turning.An indication of the O2 concentrations as a function of depth in a turned windrow may be gainedfrom Figure VIII-3.In the experimentation and subsequent designing, it should be kept in mind that all malodoursemitted from a composting mass are not necessarily a consequence of anaerobiosis. The fact isthat some decomposition intermediates and the substrate itself may be malodorous. Moreover,even if complete elimination were possible, accomplishing it in a composting mass larger thanabout one cubic meter would be technologically and economically unfeasible. 1.8 1.5 1.2 Height (m) 0.9 Wind: 3 to 6 m/sec Ambient Temp.: 31°C 0.6 0.3 15 0 10 5 -1.8 -1.5 -1.2 -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 Width from Centre Line (m)Figure VIII-3. Oxygen concentrations (%) within compost windrowD4. OPERATIONAL parametersD4.1. Monitoring the processThe identification and evaluation of pertinent operational parameters and their bearing on thecompost process are essential elements in the development of an effective monitoring program.The attainment of these elements and understanding of their underlying principles can be greatlyfacilitated by a thorough knowledge of the sequence of events that takes place during the compostprocess when all conditions are satisfactory. Certain features of the course of the compost processcan fill this role and serve as parameters in the monitoring of system performance. Three 207
  • 12. prominent features are: 1) temperature rise and fall, 2) changes in physical characteristics (odour,appearance, texture), and 3) destruction of volatile solids.D4.1.1. Temperature rise and fallA typical temperature change as a function of time is presented in Figure VIII-4. As is indicatedby the curve in the figure, the temperature of the material to be composted begins to rise shortlyafter the establishment of composting conditions, i.e., after the material has been windrowed orhas been placed in a reactor unit. The initial change in temperature parallels the incubation stageof the microbial populations. If conditions are appropriate, this stage is succeeded by a more orless exponential rise in temperature to 60° to 70°C. The exponential character of the temperaturerise is a consequence of the breakdown of the easily decomposable components of the waste (e.g.,sugars, starches, and simple proteins). It is during this period that the microbial populationsincrease exponentially in population size. The temperature remains at this level (plateaus) over aperiod of time that is determined by the system used and the nature of the waste. Thereafter, thetemperature begins to drop gradually until it reaches the ambient level. 70 60 Temperature (°C) 50 40 30 20 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 Time (days)Figure VIII-4. Typical temperature variations in a compost pileThe duration of the high-temperature plateau may be prolonged if the substrate is largelyrefractory, or if conditions are less than satisfactory. It should be noted that the magnitude orintensity of the rise is much reduced if the wastes have a significant concentration of inertmaterial. Such a condition would be indicated by a low volatile solids concentration (e.g., tertiarymunicipal sludge). In these cases, the temperature level probably would be lower, i.e., in the 50°to 60°C range. If any other condition is less than satisfactory, the results would also be aprolonging of the duration and a reduction of the level of the high-temperature plateau.Bacterial activity becomes less intense and the resulting temperature drops after the readilydecomposable components have been degraded, and only the more refractory componentsremain. Consequently, it may be assumed in routine compost practice that by the time thetemperature has descended to ambient or a few degrees above, the more biologically unstablecomponents have been stabilised and, therefore, the material is sufficiently composted for storageor for utilisation. 208
  • 13. Although heat generated in the compost process is a result of microbial metabolism, theaccumulation of the heat energy also depends upon the effectiveness of the insulation provided bythe composting mass. In short, the characteristic rise in the temperature is a measure of the heatgenerated in microbial metabolism and retained within the composting mass. Thus, two factorsare responsible for the temperature rise -- namely, heat generated by the microbial population andthe effectiveness of the thermal insulation provided by the compost mass and by any cover orcontainer enclosing the mass. Effectiveness of the insulation is partly a function of the size of thecomposting mass. In areas in which the ambient temperature is higher than about 8° to 10°C, theminimum volume for heat accumulation is about 1 m3.The maturation stage or phase is indicated by the onset of a persistent decline in temperature andother indicators of microbial activity despite the absence of limiting factors, i.e., maintenance ofoptimum conditions. In short, it coincides with the approaching completion of the compostprocess and resulting increase in stability. Past experience indicates that the compost mass can besafely used or stored after the temperature has finally dropped to about 40°C.D4.1.2. Changes in physical characteristicsD4.1.2.1. AppearanceProvided that the process is progressing satisfactorily, the composting mass gradually darkensand the finished product usually has a dark grey or brownish colour.D4.1.2.2. OdourAn assortment of odours replaces the original odour of the substrate within a few days after thestart of the process. If the substrate is MSW, the original odour is that of raw garbage. If theprocess is advancing satisfactorily, the succeeding odours probably could be collectivelydescribed as “faint cooking”. However, if conditions are unsatisfactory (e.g., anaerobiosis), thepredominant odour would be that of putrefaction. If the C:N of the substrate is lower than about20:1 and the pH is above 7.5, the odour of ammonia could become predominant. An earthy aromais characteristic of the curing and maturing stages.D4.1.2.3. Particle sizeBecause of abrasion by the other particles and of maceration, the particle size of the substratematerial becomes smaller. Additionally, decomposition renders fibres brittle and causesamorphous material to become somewhat granular.D4.1.3. Volatile solids destructionExtent and rate of volatile solids destruction are major operational parameters. Changes in thiscategory include destruction of volatile matter, altered molecular structure, and increasedstability. One of the more important causes of these changes is the destruction of some substratevolatile solids (i.e., organic matter) accomplished by bio-oxidation to CO2. Inasmuch ascomposting is a controlled biodegradation process in which complex substances are reduced tosimpler forms, complex molecular structures are replaced by molecules of a simpler structure.Molecules that are partially or completely impervious (refractory) tend to remain unchanged.This combination of volatile solids destruction and conversion of complex molecular structure tosimpler forms constitutes an increase in stability of the substrate organic matter. 209
  • 14. D4.2. Parameter utilisationThe role of operational parameters in the diagnosis and remediation of process malfunctionscomplements their monitoring function. Illustrative examples of the dual role are given in thesucceeding paragraphs.The following example pertains to the temperature parameter: It may justifiably be assumed thatsome condition is less than satisfactory or even inhibitory if the temperature of the mass to becomposted does not begin to rise or rises extremely slowly after the material is windrowed orplaced in a reactor. In such a situation, it is highly probable that the underlying problem either isthat the moisture content of the mass is excessively high or that it is excessively low. Aproliferation of malodours would be symptomatic of excessive moisture. Conversely, the absenceof all odours would be indicative of an excessively low moisture content. A possible cause notrelated to moisture could be an unfavourably high C:N. The difficulty with that diagnosis is thefact that some increase in temperature would be detectable even though the C:N were high. A pHlevel lower than approximately 5.5 or higher than about 8.5 could be a third possibility.A high moisture content can be remedied by adding a bulking material. An alternative is tointensify aeration. Aeration not only supplies needed oxygen, it also evaporates moisture.Addition of water is the obvious remedy for a low moisture content. A high C:N can be loweredby enriching the substrate with a highly nitrogenous waste (sewage sludge; poultry, pig, or sheepmanure). Lime may be used to raise a pH level. Doing so, however, leads to the difficulties citedin the discussion on pH.An abrupt, sharp change in an operational parameter is symptomatic of an unfavourabledevelopment. Thus, an unplanned interruption of the exponential rise in temperature wouldindicate the development of an inhibitory situation such as excessive moisture in a windrow or anaeration malfunction in an in-vessel reactor. Either inadequate aeration or insufficient moisturecould account for an unscheduled slowing of the exponential temperature rise or shortening of theduration of the high-temperature plateau.Malodours are indicators of an O2 deficiency, often brought about by an excess of moisture in thesubstrate. If excessive moisture is not the cause, the deficiency could be due to an inadequateaeration system or program. Inasmuch as malodours usually are associated with anaerobiosis, theolfactory sense can serve as a monitoring device, albeit somewhat crude. However, a moreeffective, and more costly, approach is to rely upon especially designed O2 measuringinstruments. With an in-vessel system, the O2 of “input” air obviously should be greater than thatof the discharge air stream.D4.3. Measurement of stabilityThe search for an economical and technologically practical test for degree of stability beganalmost simultaneously with the recognition of composting as a waste treatment alternative.Consequently, many tests and techniques have been and continue to be proposed. The problem isthat the tests have one or more deficiencies that diminish their utility. For example, tests that arebased on superficial changes in physical characteristics involve a high degree of subjectivity andthe unreliability often associated with subjectivity. This is illustrated by the confusion of thetemporary stability imparted by a very low moisture content.A far more frequently encountered deficiency is the lack of universality in terms of applicablevalues. Lack of universality is illustrated by a test that is based on the concentration of volatilesolids. The fallacy arises from the assumption that all materials containing volatile solids degradewith equal rapidity or are equally biodegradable. This deficiency, lack of universality, and other 210
  • 15. deficiencies are rapidly disappearing due to refinements in analytical procedures and advances inanalytical technology. Unfortunately, these advances involve the services of highly qualifiedpersonnel and the use of very expensive equipment.A list of tests that have been used to determine stability would include low C:N; final drop intemperature; self-heating capacity; redox potential [12]; oxygen uptake [13]; growth of thefungus Chaetomium gracilis [13]; the potassium permanganate test [21]; the starch test [14]; andthe lipid test [23,29-31]. A sampling of these and other representative tests and their associatedanalytical procedures is made and discussed in the paragraphs that follow.D4.3.1. Low C:NPossession of a C:N lower than 20:1 is not necessarily indicative of stability; and, hence, is notsuitable as a measure of stability or maturity. The C:N of fresh manures (without bedding)usually is lower than 20:1.D4.3.2. Drop in temperatureIn one of the earliest tests, the criterion for attainment of stability is the final and irrevocable dropin the temperature of the composting mass. The specification is based upon the fact that the dropis due to the depletion of readily decomposed (unstable) material. This parameter has theadvantage of being universal in its application; the course of the temperature (i.e., shape of thetemperature curve) rise and fall remains the same qualitatively, regardless of the nature of thematerial being composted. Although it is reliable, it is time-consuming, lacks universallyapplicable specifications, and depends upon degree of self-heating capacity [10]. Nevertheless,the test is fully satisfactory for application in developing countries and for small- and medium-scale operations in industrialised regions.D4.3.3. Self-heating capacityThe test, self-heating capacity, is a variation of the final drop in temperature parameter [10]. Theconduct of this test involves the insertion of samples in Dewar flasks. The flasks are swathed inseveral layers of cotton wadding or other insulating material. The swathed flasks are placed in anincubator. Degree of stability is indicated by the extent of subsequent rise in temperature. Themethod has the universality of the final drop in temperature parameter. Its disadvantage is thelength of time involved, in that it may require several days to reach completion. Nevertheless, itis simple, relatively inexpensive, and satisfactory for use in a developing country.D4.3.4. Degree of oxidationThe criterion of another measure of stability is the breadth of the difference between thepercentage of decomposable material in the feedstock and that in the sample being tested. Themeasure of decomposability was the concentration of oxidizable matter. Accordingly, the methodwas designed to determine the amount of decomposable, i.e., oxidizable, material in arepresentative sample [11]. The rationale for the test is that the difference between theconcentrations of decomposable material in the raw waste and that in the sample to be tested isindicative of the degree of stability of the latter. The basic procedure involved in the test is thedetermination of amount of oxidizing reagent used in the analysis. Because stability incomposting is a matter of extent of oxidation, the amount of oxidizable material in a product is ameasure of its degree of stability. In the conduct of the test, the sample is treated with potassiumdichromate solution in the presence of sulphuric acid. The treatment brings about theconsumption of a certain amount of the dichromate that had been added in excess to oxidize 211
  • 16. organic matter. The oxidizing reagent remaining at the end of the reaction is back titrated withferrous ammonium sulphate and the amount of dichromate used up is determined.The amount of decomposable organic matter can be determined with the use of the followingformula: DOM = (mL)(N)(1- T/S) 1.34where:• DOM = decomposable organic matter in terms of wt % of dry matter,• mL = millilitres of dichromate solution,• N = the normality of potassium dichromate,• T = the quantity of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution for back-titration in millilitres, and• S = the amount of ferrous ammonium sulphate for blank test in millilitres.Quantitatively resistant organic matter is equal to the difference between the total weight lost inthe combustion and that degraded in the oxidation reaction.The basis for oxidation-reduction potential as a test for maturity [12] is the apparent rise inoxidation-reduction potential that accompanies increase in mineralization of the organic matter.The increase is brought about by microbial activity made possible by the presence ofdecomposable material. The presence of decomposable material results in an intensification ofmicrobial activity and, hence, an accompanying increase in oxygen uptake; which, in turn, leadsto a drop in the oxidation-reduction potential. One researcher [12] states that stability has beenreached if the oxidation-reduction potential of the core zone of a windrow is <50 mV lower thanthat of its outer zone. Obviously, this standard is not applicable to in-vessel composting. Animportant shortcoming of the oxidation-reduction potential is the test’s lack of accuracy and itsvulnerability to interfering factors.D4.3.5. Fungus growthThe effect of maturity of the substrate upon the rate of growth and upon the development offruiting bodies of the fungus Chaetomium gracilis is the basis of another measurement ofmaturity [13]. The test involves the culturing of the fungus upon a solid nutrient medium thatcontains pulverised compost. On the 12th day of incubation at 37°C, the fruiting bodies of thefungus are counted. Supposedly, the number of fruiting bodies diminishes with an increase inmaturity. The utility of the test is gravely reduced by the lengthy test time, as well as thedependence upon analysts who are skilled and knowledgeable in mycological procedures.D4.3.6. Starch testAnother potential test, known as the starch test, is based upon the assumption that theconcentration of starch in the substrate declines with destruction of organic matter i.e., increase instability [14]. The rationale is that inasmuch as starch is a readily decomposable, and hence,unstable ingredient of all wastes, its decomposition should increase the stability of a waste.Therefore, a fully matured compost should contain no starch. Consequently, starch concentrationis an indication of stability. 212
  • 17. The determination of starch concentration involves the formation of a starch-iodine complex inan acidic extract of the compost material. Difficulty in the avoidance of false results combineswith the absence of universally applicable values to detract from the utility of the starch test.D4.3.7. Oxygen consumption/carbon dioxide evolutionThe level of O2 consumed or of CO2 evolved by microorganisms during decomposition of organicmatter is a measure of stability of the material. High unit rates of utilisation of O2 and,consequently, of production of CO2 indicate substantial availability of decomposable matter inthe substrate to microbial attack, i.e., the material is not biologically stable. Stability of thesubstrate is indicated when the unit rate of O2 consumption or of CO2 formation approaches a lowvalue. There is no definitive endpoint of microbial metabolic activity because metabolic rategradually decreases as the material is decomposed. Consequently, the results of analyses ofreference materials, practical experience, or both are required to judge the degree of stability ofthe tested material.Collectively, tests that measure consumption of O2 or production of CO2 fall under the generalcategory of respirometry. Several organisations have promulgated respirometry tests, includingthe following:• “Standard Test Method for Determining the Stability of Compost by Measuring Oxygen Consumption, D5975”, American Society for Testing and Materials;• “Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate, Test Methods for the Examination of Composting and Compost (TMECC), 5.08-A”, US Composting Council; and• “Carbon dioxide Evolution Rate (TMECC), 5.08-B”, US Composting Council.Additionally, various researchers have reported developing and using methods of respirometryfor measuring oxygen required for composting [37,38].E. TechnologyE1. PRINCIPLESCompost technology has three important functions, the first of which is “pre-processing”. Pre-processing consists of the preparation or processing of a raw waste such that it constitutes asuitable substrate for the compost process. The waste of concern in this section of the book is theorganic fraction of municipal solid waste. The second function is the conduct of the compostprocess. The third function is the preparation of the compost product for safe and nuisance-freestorage and/or the upgrading of the product so as to enhance its utility and marketability.E2. EQUIPMENTThe principal role of equipment is to provide an economically and technologically feasible set ofoptimum environmental conditions or factors for the microbes. Ranking high in the set of factorsis the oxygen availability supplied by aeration of the composting mass. Recognition of thisimportance is reflected by the emphasis placed upon the development of effective aeration in thedesign of compost equipment, reactors, and procedures.Air in the space between the particles of the composting material (interstitial air) is the source ofoxygen for the active microbial populations. However, oxygen in ambient air that impinges uponthe outer surface (surface air layer) may also constitute a significant source in some compost 213
  • 18. systems. Thus, oxygen availability generally is largely a function of the porosity of thecomposting mass.As decomposition progresses, interstitial oxygen and oxygen in the surface air layer areconsumed in the respiration carried on by the active microbes and are replaced by the CO2generated in the respiration. Unless interstitial air and surface air now devoid of oxygen arereplaced by fresh air with its oxygen content intact, anaerobic conditions soon prevail.Consequently, aeration equipment must be designed such that interstitial air and surface layer airare renewed at a rate such that O2 is always available.Renewal of the oxygen supply can be accomplished by physically rearranging the particles(agitation). Agitation establishes new interstices and surface air layers and an accompanyinginfusion of oxygen.Agitation can be accomplished either by tumbling or by stirring, or by a combination of the two.Tumbling is done by way of lifting particles and then allowing them to fall or drop. In windrowcomposting, tumbling occurs in the “turning” of the composting material. Tumbling isaccomplished in some in-vessel systems by way of dropping the composting mass from one floorto another or from one conveyor belt to a lower one. A slowly rotating drum or cylinder equippedwith interior vanes is used for accomplishing tumbling in a group of in-vessel systems. In systemsinvolving stirring, movement is primarily sideways (horizontal), and tumbling is practically non-existent.In several compost systems, the particles remain stationary and only the interstitial air isexchanged more or less continuously. The exchange consists of removing interstitial air saturatedwith CO2 and replacing it with fresh air. Surface air also is continuously exchanged. Theexchange is accomplished by forcing fresh air into, and simultaneously exhausting spent air from,the composting mass. Appropriately, systems involving such an exchange are termed “forced-airsystems”. The effectiveness of a forced-air system is determined by both the rate and the extent towhich the forced air is uniformly distributed throughout the entire composting mass.E3. BIOFILTERSAs mentioned previously in the chapter, the composting process generates odours as a byproductof the process. The types and intensities of the odours are a strong function of the types offeedstocks, compost process design, and operating conditions that are employed at the facility.Since the odours generated can be bothersome or otherwise a nuisance to the public, the controlof odours generated by sources within composting facilities is an important design considerationif the facility is to be located near human populations. Factors that determine the intensity of theodours at offsite locations include chemical composition and intensity of the odours generated atthe facility, local meteorological conditions (e.g., atmospheric stability and wind velocity), anddistance to the nearest sensitive human receptor. Sources of odour include but are not limited tothe raw feedstocks, actively composting material, and unstabilized compost storage piles.Biofiltration is an effective method of treating and lessening the intensity of the odours generatedfrom the processing of organic materials [35]. Currently, most of the aerated-pile compostingfacilities in the United States are relying on the application of biofilters for odour control. Inaddition, the majority of these facilities utilise traditional, above-ground biofilter units. Recenttrends in the industry indicate that other designs, such as the application of agitated beds, the useof roll-off containers, and the use of other types of enclosures, may be incorporated into thedesigns. 214
  • 19. During the 1990s and continuing to this day, the proliferation of green waste compostingfacilities in the United States and organic composting facilities in Europe has contributed to closescrutiny of odour generation and control from composting facilities. Research and developmenthas been concentrated on biofilter design and performance [35,36].The most common biofilter medium consists of a mixture of compost and wood chips. In somecases, other materials such as peat, lime, bark mulch, or sand may be added. The type andcharacteristics of the filter medium have a direct impact on the effectiveness of the filter, as wellas on its lifespan. Medium selection also depends upon the concentration of odorous compoundsin the gaseous stream and on the porosity of the mixture that comprises the medium. Porosity, inturn, has a direct impact on the pressure drop and, thus, the power requirements for operating thesystem and its ability to support a microbial population.A biofilter can be constructed as follows: the gases to be treated are conveyed to a network ofperforated pipes. The pipes are placed at the bottom of the bed to serve as the air distributionsystem. A 45-cm layer of round, washed stones is placed over the perforated piping. In order toprevent clogging of the perforations and to allow the upward migration of the gases, a filter layeris placed on top of the stones. One alternative that is commonly used in composting facilities inthe United States is the application of geotextiles. Proper functioning of geotextiles depends uponthe size of openings in the fabric. After the geotextile (or any other type of filter) is in place, a100- to 120-cm layer of filter medium is placed on top. The filter medium should be properlyselected in order to perform according to specifications. In some cases, an additional 30-cm layerof a different filter medium is placed on top of the previous layer. The effectiveness andefficiency of the filter medium depend upon the following parameters: temperature, moisturecontent, C:N, nutrient content, and others.The temperature of the material in the biofilter is affected by ambient conditions, as well as bythe flow rate, humidity, and temperature of the gas being treated. Several designers areconsidering other approaches for lowering the inlet temperature of the gas from thermophilic tomesophilic levels. Some of these approaches include dilution with building air or outside air, orscrubbing with water. The levels of dilution must be properly calculated because the dilutions canlead to additional power requirements for the fans without achieving the necessary temperaturedecline.In order to maintain a desired population of microorganisms in the biofilter, it is necessary tokeep the moisture content in the range of 50% to 55%. Moisture content can be controlled bymeans of humidifiers in the piping or by the installation of spray nozzles over the beds. Moistureaddition must be carefully designed in order to maintain the desired moisture levels and, at thesame time, prevent the generation of free “leachate” and clogging of the open spaces in the bedand in the piping.The C:N and nutrient content contribute to the maintenance of the microbial populationresponsible for treating the exhaust gases. These parameters are dealt with through proper mediaselection.Other parameters that exert an impact on the performance of a biofilter include: porosity, fieldcapacity, and particle size distribution. Porosity and moisture distribution can be corrected byperiodically agitating the beds. The biofilter medium will eventually reach a point beyond whichits efficiency for odour removal drops substantially and should be replaced. Although the actualreplacement point of the medium will vary and will depend upon local conditions and type ofmaterials used, operators should generally plan on replacing the material at two- to three-yearintervals. 215
  • 20. E4. SYSTEM selection decision factorsApplication of appropriate decision factors is essential not only to the rational selection of systemand equipment but also to the successful implementation of an entire compost enterprise.Practical experience has demonstrated the genuine utility of the general principles and decisionfactors discussed in this section.A basic and exceedingly valuable principle is that complexity does not ensure success,particularly because complexity does not beget efficiency of process. Product quality is notnecessarily improved by complexity. More importantly, the economics of composting allow verylittle margin for complexity. Thus, any reduction in the time requirement that might be gainedfrom increased complexity would not be sufficient to warrant the additional expense involved.Conceivably, it would be possible to design a reactor such that a product could be producedwithin the detention times of one or two days. An example of such an approach would be to makean ultra-fine slurry of the waste and then subject the slurry to the activated sludge processconventionally used in wastewater treatment [22]. However, the capital and operating costs ofsuch a setup would be economically prohibitive.Among the other key decision factors is one directly related to economics. Simply stated, theselected system must be adaptable to the economic and work force conditions of the locale inwhich it is to be used. This factor would render thoroughly inadvisable the selection of even amoderately automated system by a non-industrialised country in which there would be an excessof labour and that almost certainly would lack the necessary economic and qualified personnelresources.An important guiding decision factor is one that is related to the evaluation of prospectivesystems to operate an automated system. Such an evaluation should take into consideration thetendency of some vendors to make unrealistic claims of superior performance regardingacceleration of the process, magnification of efficiency, or production of a superior product.Claims regarding process time should account for all stages of the compost process -- namely,incubation, active (high temperature and curing), and maturing. Ideally, an evaluation wouldinclude firsthand observation of a candidate system while it is in operation. It is essential that theobservation and evaluation be made by an individual or individuals who are thoroughlyconversant with composting as well as with solid waste management. Moreover, the compostproduct should be sampled and inspected directly at the compost facility on the day it isproduced.Finally, being a biological process, composting is subject to the limitations characteristic of allbiological systems. Thus, the rapidity at which a process progresses and the extent to whichdecomposition proceeds under optimum substrate, environmental, and operating conditions areultimately functions of the genetic makeup of the active microbial populations. As a result,further sophistication of reactors and/or equipment could not bring about further advances inrapidity and extent of decomposition.F. Types of compost systemsCompost systems currently in vogue can be classed into two broad categories -- namely,“windrow” and “in-vessel”.F1. WINDROW systemsAs one would suspect, the designation “windrow systems” reflects the distinguishing feature ofsuch systems -- namely, the use of windrows. Windrow systems can be mechanised to a 216
  • 21. considerable extent and may even be partially enclosed. Two versions of windrow systems arepracticed at present -- namely, static (stationary) and turned. As was mentioned in the section,Aeration, the principal difference between the “static” version and the “turned” version is the factthat in the static version, aeration is accomplished without disturbing the windrow; whereas withthe “turned” version, aeration involves tearing down and rebuilding the windrow.A windrow composting process involves the following principal steps: 1) incorporation of abulking agent into the waste if an agent is required (e.g., biosolids), 2) construction of thewindrow and aeration arrangement, 3) the composting process, 4) screening of the compostedmixture to remove reusable bulking agent and/or to meet specifications, 5) curing, and 6) storage.F1.1. Static windrowThe two principal versions of the static pile are: “passive” and “forced-air”. Despite thedistinction between the two designations, the terms static pile and forced aeration often are usedinterchangeably in current literature.F1.1.1. Passive aerationIn keeping with the accepted meaning of the word “passive”, the windrow is allowed to remainundisturbed and aeration is a function of natural phenomena. The method or approach does notinvolve the intervention of mechanical equipment (e.g., fans or turning equipment).Consequently, it would seem to be a method of aeration well suited to a developing nation.In passive aeration, convection is the principal moving force whereby external air enters thewindrowed material and displaces CO2, although some oxygen may enter the outer layer of awindrow by way of diffusion. Theoretically, the intervention of mechanical equipment forinjecting air would not be required. Convection arises from the existence of an imbalancebetween the temperature of the interior of the windrowed composting mass and that of theambient (external) air layer, differences in concentrations of oxygen, and from the flow of airover the windrows.In some cases, units have been incorporated in the designs to promote convection and airmovement. The designs usually take the form of chimneys and vents inserted into the compostingmass. For instance, in the People’s Republic of China, a system of composting that relies onpassive aeration has been used. In the system, organic matter to be treated (in the observed cases,it was organic matter from refuse and nightsoil) is mixed. The mixture is piled to a height ofapproximately 15 to 20 cm. Subsequently, four timbers having a diameter of about 6 to 8 cm areplaced horizontally on top of the mixture in the shape of “#”. The timbers are placed about 1 mapart. At the points where the timbers cross, four vertical timbers (or bamboo poles) are erected.After this, waste is piled until the windrow reaches a height of approximately 1 m. The entirewindrow is then covered with mud (see Figure VIII-5). Once the mud has dried, the timbers areremoved. According to representatives of the municipality visited (Tianjin), it takes about 3weeks during the summer and about 4 weeks during the winter for the compost process to becompleted. The designers of the system claimed several advantages, including: 1) achievement ofhigh temperatures in the composting mass, 2) achievement of a relatively even temperaturedistribution, and 3) minimum release of odours. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of such designs,and of convection in general with respect to the maintenance of aerobiosis throughout thecomposting mass, leaves much to be desired. The problem is the inadequate lateral movement ofair. 217
  • 22. Figure VIII-5. Example of passive aeration used in the Peoples Republic of ChinaF1.1.2. Forced-air aerationThe designation “forced-air aeration” reflects the fact that aeration involves either mechanicallyforcing air up (positive pressure) or mechanically pulling it down (negative pressure) through theundisturbed composting mass. The forced-air version was introduced and studied in the late1950s [15]. However, appreciable attention was not accorded it until the 1970s. Despite apractical demonstration of its utility in the composting of dairy cattle manure [8], the primaryreason for the renewal of interest was the ready adaptability of the method to the treatment ofsewage sludge [16,32].An attractive feature of the suction (negative pressure) mode of forced aeration is the ability topass the exiting air through an emission treatment device. Such a device could be a biologicalfilter consisting of a mass of stable organic matter. The application of a biofilter to controlgaseous emissions from composting facilities is a very appropriate solution for developingcountries. Alternative devices may incorporate modifications of technology conventionally usedin treating combustion emissions.In the absence of an excessively high moisture content, aerobic conditions can be maintained at asatisfactory level in a static windrow, despite periodic brief interruptions of aeration. (A safe 218
  • 23. moisture content is one within a range of 40% to 55%.) Because of its dependence upon severalvariable factors, the specific requisite rate of air input for a particular operation should bedetermined experimentally [19,20]. The following example provides a tentative indication ofrates that could be encountered. The example assumes a 17-m windrow containing about 73 Mgof biosolids. For this setup, an adequate timing sequence would involve forcing air into the pile at16 m3/hr for 5 to 10 minutes at 15-minute intervals. This particular rate was based upon anassumed need of about 4 L/sec/Mg of dry biosolids.F1.1.3. Design and constructionThe basic arrangement of a static windrow system is shown in Figure VIII-6. The construction ofa static windrow conventionally proceeds as follows: A loop of perforated pipe, 10 to 15 cm indiameter, is installed on the compost pad. The loop is oriented longitudinally and is centred suchthat it will be under the highest part of the windrowed mass. Short-circuiting of air is avoided byadjusting the length of the pipes such that they end about 2 to 3 m short of the edges of thewindrow. Non-perforated pipe is used for connecting the loop with a blower. The installed loop iscovered with a layer of bulking material or finished compost. This “foundation” layer shouldcover the entire area to be occupied by the windrow. The foundation layer facilitates themovement and makes possible a uniform distribution of air during the course of the compostprocess. Due to its absorption potential, it can lessen seepage from the windrow by absorbingexcess moisture. Construction of the windrow is then completed by stacking upon the foundationlayer the material destined to be composted. The completed windrow should have theconfiguration shown in Figure VIII-6. Suggested dimensions of a constructed pile are: length,indeterminate; width (at the base), about 4.6 m; and height, about 2.3 m. Usually, the constructedwindrow is covered with a 0.3 to 0.4 m layer of matured (finished) compost. The covering layerserves as insulation; it ensures the attainment of high-temperature levels that are lethal topathogens throughout the composting mass and, thereby, accomplishes a more complete pathogen“kill”.The “extended aerated pile” is a forced-air version of a “continuous culture”. It is anadvantageous approach when large amounts of material are involved. An extended aerated pile isbegun by constructing on day-1 a pile in the manner described in the preceding paragraphs.However, only one side and the two ends of the pile are blanketed with insulating cover material -- leaving one side exposed. To minimise emission of malodours, the exposed side is lightlycovered with a shallow layer of mature compost. On each succeeding day thereafter, an additionalloop of piping and accompanying windrow and its appropriate covering are added. 219
  • 24. Composting with Forced Aeration Exhaust Fan Screened Compost Woodchips and Sludge Perforated Pipe Water Trap for Condensates Filter Pile Screened Composta Piping under pile is perforated for air distribution.Figure VIII-6. Schematic diagram of an aerated pile, showing location of aeration pipeaEach day’s addition is installed immediately adjacent to the preceding day’s loop. Proceduresclosely akin to those followed in constructing the day-1 pile also are followed in constructingeach day’s addition. This procedure is repeated over the succeeding days. After 21 days, themanifestation of this program is an elongated windrow. Continuity is achieved through theremoval of day-1 (pile-1) material and replacing it with new (fresh) material. Such an exchange ismade on each succeeding day. In short, finished product (compost) is removed twenty-one daysafter the construction of pile-1. (If the material is not sufficiently composted, the removal may bedelayed to the extent deemed necessary.) If it is sufficiently matured, day-2 material is removedon the 22nd day and is replaced with fresh material. A similar exchange is made on the 23rd day.Daily exchanges are made until all piles are reconstituted. Thereafter, the external manifestationis an elongated pile from one end of which an increment of material is removed and is replacedby adding a comparable increment of fresh material to the opposite end of the pile. In effect,continuity is attained and maintained; and the residence time is 21 days.An important advantage of the extended approach is a substantial reduction in spatialrequirements. With respect to wastewater solids (biosolids), the land area needed for a single-pilecompost system, together with area involved with runoff collection, storage, and administration,amounts to approximately 1 ha per 7 to 11 Mg (dry wt) of biosolids processed.F1.1.4. Evaluation of the static pile approachBecause its capital cost is largely site-specific, it is difficult to arrive at a generally applicablecapital cost for static pile composting. Modest equipment requirements and cost apparentlyrender the static pile economically attractive. The problem is that the method is sufficientlysatisfactory only with wastes that have a granular texture, that have relatively uniform particlesize, and in which the size of the particles is less than 3 or 4 cm. Otherwise, there is a tendency ofanaerobic pockets to develop in substrates that are characterised by a wide diversity of overlylarge particle sizes. This tendency is a consequence of the resulting uneven distribution andmovement of air through the composting mass (channelling). 220
  • 25. F1.2. Turned windrowThe current consensus is that the turned windrow approach antedates the forced-air (static)approach. As was stated earlier, a distinguishing characteristic of the turned windrow is theaccomplishment of aeration by way of the periodic turning of the windrowed material, i.e.,tearing down and reconstructing the windrow.Although the ultimate reason for the turning process is the accomplishment of aeration, turningdoes simultaneously fulfil other beneficial functions. It periodically exposes all parts of thecomposting mass to the interior of the pile, i.e., to the zones of highly active microbial activity. Italso may further the reduction of particle size. Turning accelerates loss of water from thecomposting mass. This is beneficial if the moisture content is unfavourably high; conversely, it isdisadvantageous when the moisture level is unfavourably low.F1.2.1. Windrow constructionConventionally, windrows are roughly conical in cross section. However, certain conditions maydictate a variation from the conventional shape. If a variation is indicated, it should be one thatbest fits the situation. A loaf-shape, characterised by a flattened top, would be appropriate for dry,windy periods because the ratio of exposed surface area-to-volume would be less than it would bewith other configurations. However, a flat top would be a drawback during rain or snow. Ifturning is done by machine, the configuration and dimensions of the windrow are functions of thedesign of the turning machine.To avoid compaction, the height of the windrow should not exceed 2.3 m.F1.2.2. Turning space requirementThe total space involved in the turning process can be significantly large. The area requirement isparticularly large if turning is done manually. At the other extreme, the area requirement isminimal with certain types of mechanical turning.According to the logistics of turning indicated by the diagram in Figure VIII-7, from 2 to 2.5times the area occupied by the original pile is required for manually turning a single day’s input.The second day’s manual turning returns the pile to its original position. The double spacerequirement for each day’s increment continues until the material is sufficiently composted.Figure VIII-7. Process for turning windrows manually or with front-end loaderThe spatial requirement for mechanised turning is a function of the type of machine utilised forthe operation. Thus, the turning space required by a certain type of machine can be quite small.Machines of this type usually are designed to straddle the windrow. As the machine advances, ittears down the straddled windrow and directly reforms the composting mass into a new windrow. 221
  • 26. Consequently, the turning space involved is only slightly more than that occupied by the originalwindrow. The additional space is that which is needed for positioning the machine.The turning space required with machines that do not straddle the windrow is comparable to thatneeded in manual turning. The reason is that the position of the reconstructed windrow is adjacentto that of the torn-down windrow.F1.2.3. Windrow reconstructionObviously, windrow reconstruction in the turning process should be done such that pathogensthat may be present in the composting mass are destroyed. Moreover, the reconstruction shouldpromote uniform decomposition. Pathogen destruction and uniform decomposition can beaccomplished by reconstructing the torn-down windrow such that material in the outer layer ofthe torn-down pile is in the interior of the reconstructed windrow. Certain circumstances, e.g.,design of the turning machine, could make it unfeasible to reverse positions at every turning,which could be compensated for somewhat by an increase in frequency of turning. For example,the frequency could be adjusted to 2 or 3 turnings per day.F1.2.4. Turning frequencyIdeally, the turning frequency should be such that: 1) sufficient O2 always is available to meetoxygen demand, and 2) all pathogens are destroyed. Nevertheless, economic and technologicalrealities may compel a compromise between the practical and the ideal.With respect to meeting oxygen demand, turning frequency depends upon the available porevolume. Available pore volume is a function of the porosity of the pile and its moisture content.Pore volume, in turn, depends upon the structural strength of the windrowed particles andconsequent ability to retain pore integrity. Therefore, the drier the material and the firmer thestructure of the particles, the less frequent will be the indicated turning.A variable factor regarding turning frequency is the rate of decomposition desired by theoperator. The bearing of this factor on turning frequency is by way of the effect of aeration onrate of decomposition. Until another factor becomes limiting, rate of decomposition increaseswith intensification of aeration, and intensification increases with increase in turning frequency.Practical experience [9,17,20] indicates that rate of composting can be accelerated through theestablishment of two sets of conditions. The first set involves the use of a substrate in which:1) sufficient microbial nutrients are readily available; 2) a bulking material, such as dry grass, dryleaves, wood chips, sawdust, or paper, is used; and 3) moisture content is on the order of 60%.The second set of conditions calls for a turning schedule according to which the first turning takesplace on the third day following the institution of compost conditions and four subsequentturnings, i.e., one every other day. After the fourth turning, the frequency need be only once eachfour or five days. Both sets of conditions most likely would exclude MSW and biosolidscomposting.Increasing the frequency of turning, e.g., one turn per day, often can lessen the emission ofputrefactive odours, inasmuch as such odours are symptomatic of anaerobiosis. A once-per-dayturning regimen also can promote the loss of excess moisture from a windrow.F1.2.5. Manual turningManual turning is a very appropriate approach in small-scale operations in any location butparticularly applicable in areas where there is a surplus of unskilled labourers. The most practical 222
  • 27. tool for use in manual turning is the pitchfork (trinche). There are some key factors that should bekept in mind when piles are to be turned manually.1. The height of the pile should not exceed that of the typical labourer.2. Sufficient space must be incorporated in the design such that a new pile can be formed in the process of aeration.3. During rebuilding of the pile, material from the outside layers of the original pile should be carefully placed in the interior of the newly formed pile. Since it is not always convenient to turn the pile in such manner, in practice, supervisors should aim at trying to place material from the exterior of the pile in the interior of the new piles as often as possible during the course of the composting process. If this ideal situation cannot be achieved, the deficiency can be compensated by increasing the frequency of turning (e.g., from two times per week to three times per week).4. The new pile should be reconstructed such that the composting material is not compacted as to impede some air circulation.Based on the authors’ experiences, a motivated labourer can turn approximately 8 to 10 Mg oforganic matter per 8-hr day. In practice, manual turning has been employed in compostingprograms processing on the order of 20 to 30 Mg of organic matter per day. It is important toemphasise that if manual turning is to be employed, the workers must be carefully trained on thecomposting process and on safety procedures. In addition, the workers must be provided withsafety equipment such as dust masks, boots, gloves, and uniforms. The composting facility shouldbe equipped with a first-aid kit, as well as with bathrooms and showers.F1.2.6. Turning equipment for windrowsWhen manual turning is not feasible, some form of mechanised turning must be used. Formspresently available can be conveniently classified into two broad categories: 1) machinesspecifically designed to turn windrowed compost material, and 2) machines designed to moveearth. Machines in the first category are often termed “mechanised turners”.F1.2.6.1. Mechanised turnersCurrently, several types of mechanised turners are available. Serious obstacles to the acquisitionof the machines are the relatively high capital and operating costs associated with the machines.The magnitude of these costs very frequently places the acquisition beyond the economic andtechnological resources of most developing nations and small operations in industrialisedcountries. In situations in which sufficient financial and technological resources are at hand, thescale of the operation must justify the expenditure.Several types of mechanical turners are on the market. The machines differ among themselves indegree of effectiveness and durability. Capacities vary with the model of machine; with somemodels the capacity may be on the order of 1,000 Mg/hr, with other models it may be as much as3,000 Mg/hr. Prices range from about US$20,000, to more than US$180,000, FOB.F1.2.6.2. Conventional earth moving machinesExamples of conventional earth moving machines that are used for constructing and turningwindrows include the bulldozer, front-end bucket loader, and backhoe ditch digger. The objectionto the use of such equipment is the tendency to compact the composting material, to inadequately 223
  • 28. agitate and aerate it, or both. This is especially true when a bulldozer is employed. Almostcertainly, objectionable odours will be generated. Although the performance of these types ofequipment as compost turners is far from satisfactory, it can be acceptable if the machines areused carefully by knowledgeable operators.The conventional rototiller has been used with considerable success for turning relatively smallamounts of compost material (i.e., less than a few Mg per day). The rototiller is a relatively smallpiece of equipment designed to till garden soil. Turning with the use of a rototiller is done in foursteps:1. tear down the pile or windrow;2. spread the material to form a 30- to 60-cm layer;3. rototill (“agitate”) the compost mass, i.e., pass the machine back and forth through the layered mass; and4. reform the pile or windrow.F1.3. Site preparationSite preparation involves a number of activities: A surface is provided that can satisfactorilyaccommodate all phases of the operation; and provision is made for the collection and treatmentof leachate and for the diversion of runoff. In desert regions, a windbreak is erected to shieldwindrows from drying winds and, thereby, avoid excessive loss of moisture by way ofevaporation. In situations characterised by moderate to heavy rainfall, roofing is provided toshelter the windrows, particularly during the active and early maturing stages.With respect to surface, windrows should be kept on a paved surface throughout the time theymust be worked, i.e., until the material is ready to be stored. A paved surface is necessary becauseit: 1) facilitates materials handling, 2) enables control of leachate and diversion of runoff, and3) prevents migration of fly larvae to surrounding areas. The only paving materials suitable foroperations that involve the use of a mechanical turner are asphalt and concrete. The weight of amechanical turner makes it essential that the machine be operated on a surface that provides afirm footing. Only asphalt pavement and concrete pavement furnish such a surface. Foroperations that do not involve the use of a mechanical turner, the list of suitable paving(surfacing) materials expands to include not only concrete and asphalt, but also packed gravel,crushed stone, and thoroughly compacted soil. However, compacted soil is only marginallysuitable because turning and ancillary traffic are seriously impeded when the soil becomes wet,such as during periods of rainfall.F1.4. Windrow facilityAn idealised version of a windrow compost installation is one that would be housed in a shelter.The shelter would be provided with the ventilation equipment needed to control and treat gaseousemissions. Windrows would be turned by means of an automatic turning machine. Maturationcould take place either within the shelter or outside.Plastic particles and similar contaminants in the compost product can be removed by way ofscreening. Inasmuch as the screen oversize consists mainly of plastics, it is removed immediately.The tendency of plastics to be concentrated in the oversize stream is due to the low density ofplastics combined with their characteristically two-dimensional shape and, of course, theirtendency to be oversize in terms of screen opening size. 224
  • 29. Should the finished product contain glass particles, a second stage of size reduction can beincluded into the process. The degree of size reduction used in the process, particularly indeveloping countries, must be carefully evaluated since size reduction is an energy- andmaintenance-intensive process.F1.5. Economic considerationsThe many variations between approaches to windrow composting render it difficult to formulategeneralisations regarding the economics of the process. The only exception can be stated asfollows: It can justifiably be expected that either turned or static windrow composting would beless costly than in-vessel composting. Current versions of windrow composting differ amongthemselves with respect to size, degree of mechanisation, and process. An example of the effectof the differences is the wide spread between the economics involved in a few-Mg per dayoperation and those of a several-hundred Mg per day facility.The cost of the mechanical turner is a major item in the economics of medium- to large-scaleoperations. If a shelter is provided, it need not be elaborate; it should, nevertheless, includeprovisions for the control and treatment of problem emissions such as malodours and dust.Shelters would be particularly important if the facility is built relatively close to residential orcommercial areas. Reported costs for composting MSW, manures, and biosolids range fromUS$30 to US$60 per Mg.F1.6. ConstraintsAside from economics and political and sociological constraints, the principal constraints onwindrow composting are either of public health or of environmental origin. The presence ofhuman excrement or of the remains of diseased animals in the compost substrate generates apotentially serious public health constraint, depending upon the degree to which temperaturelevels that are lethal to pathogens are reached and maintained. The problem is that it frequentlyhappens that lethal temperatures do not entirely pervade a windrow; this is especially true for theoutermost layers. Another problem is the likely recontamination of already sterilised material byunsterile material during the turning operation. However, such recontamination can becompensated considerably by increasing the frequency of turning.The almost inevitable emission of odours, despite the establishment of a preventive regimen,constitutes a serious environmental constraint. This constraint and proposed methods ofalleviating it are discussed in another section. However, it should be emphasised that theinevitability of malodour emission is characteristic of most systems that involve the handling andprocessing of community wastes.The relatively long process times and the attendant greater area requirements frequently areconstrued as constituting a constraint on windrow composting. This constraint is not necessarily adisadvantage in that, as was explained earlier, rapid composting is an advantage either when landarea is a critical factor, or when in-vessel composting is involved. The rationale in the latter caseis that cost savings through reduction of the monetary expenditure on land acquisition can beused to partially or entirely compensate the cost of the in-vessel reactor.F2. IN-VESSEL reactorsGoals underlying the design of an in-vessel reactor are to: 1) accelerate the compost processthrough the maintenance of conditions that are optimum for the microbes active in composting,and 2) minimise or eliminate adverse impacts upon the ambient environment. 225
  • 30. Excepting for minor variations, current reactors commonly have these characteristics: 1) thedesign of each reactor represents a relatively minor deviation from other reactors in a comparablecategory; and 2) various methods or combinations of them are used to aerate the compostingmass, some more successfully than others. The aeration design usually calls for one or more ofthe following features: forced aeration, stirring, and tumbling. Forced aeration is employed tosome extent in most in-vessel reactors. Stirring is accomplished by rotating ploughs or augersthrough the composting mass. Tumbling can be accomplished by dropping the compostingmaterial from one level to a lower level (from belt to belt, or floor to floor). Another mechanismfor tumbling is a rotating horizontal drum equipped with internal, horizontally-oriented vanes.F2.1. Examples of proprietary in-vessel reactorsThere are many types of in-vessel systems that have been used over the years. A few of thesesystems are described in this section.F2.1.1. Dano drumDano reactors have been on the market since the 1940s [33]. The Dano reactor typifies thehorizontal drum category. As such, its distinguishing feature is a long, almost horizontal, drumthat is three or more meters in diameter and is rotated at about 2 rpm. Severe economicconstraints restrict residence time in the drum to the active stage of the process. Therefore,maturation takes place outside the drum and involves windrow composting. It is highly doubtfulthat a Dano facility would be within the economic and technological resources of mostdeveloping countries. Not only are Dano reactors expensive in terms of capital expenditures, theyalso involve high operational and maintenance costs.F2.1.2. Other horizontal drum systemsThe design of the Eweson system differs from that of the Dano system in that its drum is dividedinto compartments such that the residence time can be varied throughout the drum. The systemused in the Ruthner System and the PLM-BIAS systems are two additional versions of the drumdesign [18]. Although some of these systems are no longer being marketed at the time of thiswriting, an example of an operating Eweson-type drum is shown in Figure VIII-8. 226
  • 31. Courtesy: Ms. Antje VorreiterFigure VIII-8. Example of Eweson drum design (Western Australia)F2.1.3. Naturizer systemThe original Naturizer system exemplifies the tumbling floor approach. The system involves theuse of two vertical silos positioned side-by-side. Each silo has three floors. The distinctive featureof the silos is the use of floors that consist of V-shaped troughs placed side-by-side. Transfer ofthe compost mass from an upper floor to the one immediately below is accomplished by invertingthe upper-floor troughs. A conveyor belt dumps processed wastes on the top floor of the first silo.The wastes are retained on this floor over a 24-hr period. At the end of the period, the compostingmass is dropped to the middle floor on which it is held over a second 24-hr period, and then isdumped upon the bottom floor. After having been size reduced, the composting mass is thentransferred to the top floor of the second silo, where the routine is repeated. Thus, the totalretention time in the tandem silos is six days. Following discharge from the second silo, thematerial is windrowed and allowed to mature over a one- to two-month period.F2.1.4. “Metro”- or channel-typeMetro- or channel-type in-vessel systems combine forced aeration with tumbling. The systeminvolves the use of an elongated, horizontal open channel or reactor, equipped with a perforatedbottom and a mobile agitator designed to tumble the contents of the channel (see Figure VIII-9).(Typically, the agitator is some version of the travelling endless belt or a rotating drum.) Thesetypes of systems are also sometimes called “aerated, agitated bed” systems. In addition to thatbrought about by tumbling the composting material, aeration includes the forcing of air into the 227
  • 32. composting mass by way of the perforations in the floor of the trough. It is likely that through asuitable adjustment in the frequency of the passage of the agitator through the trough contents, itwould be possible to eliminate the forced-air feature without adversely affecting systemperformance. An exception would be the use of forced air as a means of controlling temperature.Courtesy: CalRecovery, Inc.Figure VIII-9. Metro- or channel-type system, showing channels and agitator at leftcentreThe compost operation cycle begins with the discharge of size-reduced waste into the tank andsubsequent passage of the travelling agitator though the wastes. Simultaneously, air is forcedthrough the material. The agitator is passed through the mass on the order of once each day. Theresidence time recommended by the vendor is six days. Thereafter, the material is windrowed forone to two months. There are currently several systems on the market that utilise designs similarto those of the Metro system.F2.1.5. Fairfield reactorThe Fairfield reactor is representative of in-vessel systems characterised by the use of stirring,combined with forced-air injection, to accomplish aeration. The reactor consists of an opencylindrical tank in which is installed a set of screws (“augers” or “drills”), which are hollow andare perforated at their edges. The set is supported by a bridge attached to a central pivotingstructure. The reactor is shown in Figure VIII-10. The bridge with its collection of augers isslowly rotated. The augers are turned as the arm rotates. Air is discharged from the perforationsand into the composting material as the screws are forced through the material. Residence timevaries. If the time is less than two or three weeks, the material must be windrowed in order toattain stability. 228
  • 33. Courtesy: CalRecovery, Inc.Figure VIII-10. Fairfield reactorF2.2. EconomicsIntuitively, one would surmise that the economics of in-vessel systems in a developing countrywould be less favourable than those for windrow composting. In the early 1970s, capital costs forcompost plants in the United States were on the order of US$15,000 to US$20,000/Mg of dailycapacity; and operational costs were US$10 to US$15/Mg. In the late 1990s, capital costs were inthe range of US$40,000 to US$100,000/Mg of daily capacity; and operational costs have variedbetween US$30 and US$60/Mg. A common failing in estimating and predicting capital,maintenance, and operational costs is the tendency to hold down apparent cost by basing the costsupon underdesigned equipment and underestimated labour requirements. Other factors toconsider in making a comparative evaluation of in-vessel systems were discussed in the section,Technology.G. Marketing and distribution of compostG1. POTENTIAL marketsThe benefits of using compost as a soil amendment are well documented. Compost increases theorganic content of the soil and can improve its texture, its nutrient content, and its water retentionand aeration capacities. Because of the utility of compost, it can be used in a variety ofapplications. Examples of such uses include [34]:• Agriculture -- food and non-food crops, and sod farms• Landscaping -- commercial properties and grounds maintenance• Nurseries -- potted plants, bare root planting, and forest seedling crops• Public agencies -- highway landscaping, recreational areas, other public property 229
  • 34. • Residences -- home landscaping and gardening• Other -- land reclamation and landfill coverThe quality of the compost dictates which types of uses are appropriate. For example, nurseriesrequire a high-quality product; whereas, a lesser quality material would be suitable for landreclamation or landfill cover. Product quality is a function of a number of factors, including thetypes and characteristics of the feedstock material; the design and operation of the compostingfacility; and the post-processing, if any, that is employed to upgrade the product. Examples ofpost-processing activities include shredding, screening, nitrogen addition, and bagging.The agriculture industry is the largest potential market for compost, especially in economicallydeveloping countries, although it can be difficult to penetrate. Factors that can militate against theuse of compost in agriculture, as well as in other market segments, include: shortage of readilyavailable, reasonably priced compost; unawareness of the general utility of the product;indifference; difficulty in applying the material; and cultural or other bias against the use ofproducts generated from waste.G2. SELLING priceNot all of the considerations that normally should enter into the determination of a suitableselling price of a commodity are applicable to the compost product. One such exception is thefact that the selling price need not fully defray the monetary cost of producing the product, thereason being that composting is a service in that it is a viable option in the treatment and disposalof organic wastes. Because of its role as a service, composting need not generate a revenue. Onthe other hand, practicality dictates that the cost of utilising the service should be competitivewith other options, e.g., landfill and incineration. Obviously, the competitiveness of thecomposting option would benefit from revenue derived from the sale of the product. As of theearly 2000s, the prevailing selling price of biosolids and yard waste composts in the United Statesis on the order of US$7 to US$25/Mg. In developing countries, the price of compost is on theorder of US$5/Mg.Competitiveness is enhanced by the fact that composting is a resource recovery activity,characterised by a formidable array of environmental credits.Despite the many benefits inherent in the compost option, the establishment of the selling price ofthe compost product is subject to certain important constraints. One such constraint is the sharplimitation exerted by the economics of the farming industry upon chemical fertilisers andinorganic additives. This, in turn, exerts a dampening effect on the establishment of the sellingprice of compost.In the establishment of policies regarding the value of organic amendments, local, regional, andnational governing bodies in developing nations should be aware that continued soil fertilitydepends upon maintenance of the soil’s organic content. Inasmuch as this maintenance is bestdone through the use of the compost product, lowering of the product’s selling price throughsubsidisation might be justifiable. However, this justification is not valid if the product isdestined solely for landscaping and cultivation of ornamentals, unless such use is the maintenanceand care of public grounds and recreational areas. 230
  • 35. G3. MARKET developmentAs is true with other products, development of a market for compost involves instilling inpotential users an awareness of the utility of the product. Additionally, it often is necessary toovercome existing inertia and bias.In this section, the discussion of market development consists of a description and explanation ofa plan conceived in, and formulated for, an agriculturally-oriented community situated in anelevated (about 2,600 m), semi-arid rural region. Corn (Zea maiz) is the principal agriculturalcrop. The soil is in dire need of organic matter. The proposed plan has the attractive feature ofoffering a program that adapts education to the promotion of the compost product.The project plan calls for a cooperative undertaking in which a city and a farmers’ cooperativeare the active parties. An important component of the planned undertaking is arecycling/composting endeavour. According to the plan, the city would embark upon a resourcerecovery program in which it would process its wastes (MSW) such that reusable materials wouldbe separated and removed, leaving a compostable residue. This residue would be delivered to theparticipating farmers’ cooperative. The cooperative would then compost the material on sitescontrolled by the group. The compost product would be distributed among its members for use ontheir individual farms. Figure VIII-11 depicts a similar type of demonstration preformed jointlyby the authors and a rural farm cooperative in an Eastern European country.Courtesy: CalRecovery, Inc.Figure VIII-11. Compost Demonstration and market development project performedat a rural farm cooperativeA key feature of the plan is the combined education/promotion program, designed to convince thefarmers regarding the utility of the compost product in crop production. Consequently, theprogram would be in the form of a demonstration of the beneficial effect of compost on cropproduction. 231
  • 36. According to local, experienced government agriculturalists, the first step in such a demonstrationshould be to encourage leading members of the farmers’ cooperative to test the product on theirfarms. The leaders’ participation would be valuable, if not essential, because they have earned therespect of their fellow farmers by virtue of demonstrated superiority in farming and in theconduct of farm affairs. In the first year of the demonstration, the leaders would be supplied withcompost at no cost. To the extent permitted by circumstances, the leaders would use the compostin the conduct of scientific tests under the guidance of agricultural agents. The rationale ofrelying upon leaders to conduct the tests is obvious -- if the leaders are convinced as to the utilityof the product, it should require no great effort to convince the other farmers.The objectives of the tests were to be threefold:1. to arrive at a determination of the extent to which chemical fertiliser requirements (NPK) could be met by the compost;2. to demonstrate an increase in crop yield solely attributable to the addition of compost; and3. to demonstrate an increase in water-holding capacity of the soil and the resulting enhancement of efficiency of irrigation water utilisation. (This benefit is a strong motivational factor, because of an unavoidable dependence in the region upon irrigation water. Hence, required expenditure for water is a significant element in a farmer’s budget.)It should be noted that the experimental plan did not include provisions for “control plots”, i.e.,plots in which compost serves as the only source of NPK. The omission was deliberate for a verypractical reason -- extreme scarcity of land available to individual farms in the project regionprecluded farmers in that region from exposing themselves to any risk that could result in adiminution of a normal crop yield. Not surprisingly, no participant would be willing to include acontrol plot.G4. PRODUCT distribution and transportHaving developed the market demand essential to the viability of a compost enterprise, logically,the next step is to devise and establish an effective and efficient distribution system. To be botheffective and efficient, the distribution system must be such that the greatest number ofconsumers has ready access to the product at the lowest cost. Among the key considerations indevising an ideal, or at least, satisfactory system is the minimisation of haul distance between thepoint of production and the consumer. This factor derives its importance from the fact thattransport cost is a decisive element in the magnitude of the eventual monetary burden to be borneby the consumer. Ultimately, transport cost is largely a function of distance.A variety of strategies have been developed whereby required haul distance can be manipulated.One of the strategies calls for the production facility to be located centrally. The advisability ofthis strategy is a function of the relative advantages of centralised production facilities versusscattered production facilities. Greater economies of scale can be achieved with centralisedproduction. However, transportation costs also would usually be expected to increase. Thereduction of potential economies of scale characteristic of widely scattered facilities iscompensated by a reduction in haul costs. Finally, in a developing country, economy of scaledoes not have the high degree of significance that it does in an industrialised country.If the compost facilities are scattered, distribution would best be accomplished by having theindividual consumer take delivery at the facility, inasmuch as no great distances would beinvolved. On the other hand, if a sizeable central facility is involved, the indicated course wouldbe to establish a system of outlets at which prospective consumers could take delivery. 232
  • 37. The mechanics of distribution are as diverse as the variety of possible situations.H. References1. “Second Interim Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Utilization of Organic Wastes”, New Zealand Engineering, 6(1-12), November/December 1951.2. “Composting Fruit and Vegetable Refuse: Part II”, Investigations of Composting as a Means for Disposal of Fruit Waste Solids, Progress Report, National Canners Association Research Foundation, Washington, DC, USA, August 1964.3. Schulze, K.F., “Rate of Oxygen Consumption and Respiratory Quotients During the Aerobic Composting of Synthetic Garbage”, Compost Science, 1:36, Spring 1960.4. Schulze, K.F., “Relationship Between Moisture Content and Activity of Finished Compost”, Compost Science, 2:32, Summer 1964.5. Chrometzka, P., “Determination of the Oxygen Requirements of Maturing Composts”, International Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Information Bulletin 33, August 1968.6. Lossin, R.D., “Compost Studies: Part III. Measurement of the Chemical Oxygen Demand of Compost”, Compost Science, 12:12-31, March/April 1971.7. Regan, R.W. and J.S. Jeris, “A Review of the Decomposition of Cellulose and Refuse”, Compost Science, 11:17, January/February 1970.8. Senn, C.L., “Role of Composting in Waste Utilization”, Compost Science, 15(4):24-28, September/October 1974.9. Golueke, C.G., Composting, Rodale Press, Inc., Emmaus, Pennsylvania, USA, 1972.10. Niese, G., “Experiments to Determine the Degree of Decomposition of Refuse by Its Self- Heating Capability”, International Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Information Bulletin 17, May 1963.11. Rollé, G. and E. Orsanic, “A New Method of Determining Decomposable and Resistant Organic Matter in Refuse and Refuse Compost”, International Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Information Bulletin 21, August 1964.12. Möller, F., “Oxidation-Reduction Potential and Hygienic State of Compost from Urban Refuse”, International Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Information Bulletin 32, August 1968.13. Obrist, W., “Enzymatic Activity and Degradation of Matter in Refuse Digestion: Suggested New Method for Microbiological Determination of the Degree of Digestion”, International Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Information Bulletin 24, September 1965.14. Lossin, R.D., “Compost Studies”, Compost Science, 11:16, November/December 1970.15. Wylie, J.S., “Progress Report on High-Rate Composting Studies”, Engineering Bulletin, Proceedings of the 12th Industrial Waste Conference, Series No. 94, May 1957. 233
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  • 39. 31. Savviozzi, A., R. Riffaldi, R. Levi-Minzi, “Compost Maturity Analysis”, Compost Production, Quality, and Use, ed. M. de Bertoldi, M.P. Ferranti, P. L’Hermite, and F. Zucconi, 359-367 pp., Elsevier Applied Sciences, London, England, 1987.32. Biosolids Composting, Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, Virginia, 187 pp., 1995.33. Golueke, C.G., “Composting Refuse at Sacramento, California”, Compost Science, 1(3), Autumn 1960.34. Eggerth, L.L., “Compost Marketing Trends in the United States”, The Science of Composting, Part 2, proceedings of May 1995 International Conference on The Science of Composting, sponsored by European Commission and University of Udine, Bologna, Italy, 1996.35. Park, K.J., M.H. Choi, and J.H. Hong, “Control of Composting Odour Using Biofiltration”, Compost Science & Utilization, 10(4):356-362, Autumn 2002.36. Lau, A.K., M.P. Bruce, and R.J. Chase, “Evaluating the Performance of Biofilters for Composting Odour Control”, Journal of Environmental Science & Health, A31(9):2247- 2271, 1996.37. Lasaridi, K.E. and E.I. Stentiford, “A Simple Respirometric Technique for Assessing Compost Stability”, Water Resources, 32:3717-3723, 1998.38. Chica, A., et al., “Determination of the Stability of MSW Compost Using a Respirometric Technique”, Compost Science & Utilization, II(2):169-175, Spring 2003. 235