Annotated classificationKingdom PlantaeMulticellular , photosynthetic , eukaryotic organisms containing chlorophylls a and b and carotenoids and forming true starch; chlorophyll contained in stacks of membranes (grana) within chloroplasts; cellulosic cell walls; aerial tissues covered with a waxy cuticle and provided with openings (stomata) in the epidermis bordered by two guard cells and serving in gas exchange; alternation of generations with multicellular gametangia and sporangia and possessing a multicellular embryo stage; motile sperm, when present, with whiplash flagellum; sperm with a microtubular cytoskeleton; cell division associated with the dispersal of the nuclear membrane and the formation of a cell plate across the mitotic spindle (phragmoplast).Division BryophytaSmall, mostly nonvascular, archegoniate plants with a dominant , photosynthetic , free-living gametophyte; sporophyte has little or no chlorophyll and is dependent on gametophyte; biflagellate sperm.Class Musci (mosses)Gametophytes “leafy” and radially symmetrical, with leaves arising spirally from stemlike axis; leaves rarely notched or lobed, with thickened “midrib”; many chloroplasts per leaf cell; gametophyte with multicellular rhizoids; sporophytes with complex spore-containing capsule with peristome and operculum, columella, and stomata present , but elaters absent; between 10,000 and 14,000 species; representative genera include Polytrichum, Mnium, Funaria, and Sphagnum. Class Hepaticae (liverworts)Gametophytes either “leafy” or dorsiventrally flattened (strap-shaped) and thalloid; leafy forms with leaves in 3 rows, 2 lateral and 1 below; leaves usually notched or lobed, with thickened midrib lacking; gametophytes with unicellular rhizoids; many chloroplasts per cell; sporophytes ephemeral, surrounded by gametophytic tissue, lacking opercula, peristome, stomata, and columella; elaters mixed with spores in capsule; capsule opening into 4 or more valves; between 6,000 and 9,000 species; representative genera include Porella, Frullania, Marchantia, Conocephalum, and Riccia.Class Anthocerotae (hornworts)Gametophyte thalloid, with a single , large chloroplast per cell, mucilage cavities present; sporophytes persistent, erect (hornlike), photosynthetic, arising from upper surface of gametophyte, possessing stomata, columella, basal meristem, and pseudoelaters opening by 2 valves but lacking an operculum; representative genus, Anthoceros.Division Lycophyta (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts)Vascular plants; sporophyte differentiated into stem, leaf, and root; leaves spirally arranged on stem, of the microphyll type; sporangia borne on upper (adaxial) surface of leaves (sporophylls), one sporangium per sporophyll; vascular tissue basically forming a central core in stem (protostelic); homosporous or heterosporous; ligulate (having basal , leaflike protuberances) or eligulate; strobili (cones) present or lacking; all living genera with primary growth only; gametophytes subterranean or surface-dwelling; motile sperm; about 5 living genera and between 600 and 1,000 species; representative genera include Lycopodium, Selaginella, and Isoetes.Division Psilotophyta (whisk ferns)Vascular plants; sporophyte lacking roots and often leaves; stems with small enations, dichotomously branched; vascular tissue forming a central core in stem (protostelic); sporangia fused into synangiate structure, apparently terminal on short stem; homosporous; gametophytes subterranean, with motile sperm; representative genus, Psilotum.Division Equisetophyta or Sphenophyta (horsetails, scouring rushes)Vascular plants; sporophyte differentiated into stem, leaf, and root; stems ribbed and jointed, monopodial; minute leaves whorled at the nodes; vascular tissue organized into bundles; sole living genus with primary growth only; sporangia borne on specialized stalks (sporangiophores) in strobili; homosporous; gametophytes photosynthetic, surface-dwelling; motile sperm; 1 genus, Equisetum.Division Pteridophyta or Filicophyta (ferns)Vascular plants; sporophyte differentiated into stem (rhizome), roots, and leaves (fronds); leaves entire or, more often, divided; arrangement of vascular tissue in stem variable, primary growth only; sporangia usually clustered into sori, often located on the under (abaxial) surface of sporophylls; mostly homosporous; gametophytes (prothallia) either subterranean and nongreen or, more commonly, surface-dwelling and photosynthetic; sperm motile; between 9,000 and 12,000 species; representative genera include Pteridium, Polypodium, Polystichum, Adiantum, and Cyathea.Division Cycadophyta (cycads)Palmlike , gymnospermous plants with typically short, thick, unbranched aerial trunks, sometimes subterranean, and large, divided leaves; leaves usually thick and leathery; cones present, often large and terminal on the stem; pollen (male) and seed (female) cones borne on separate plants; gametophytes reduced, not free-living; sperm motile (flagellated) , but brought taken to vicinity of egg by a pollen tube; 10 genera and about 120 species; representative genera include Zamia and Cycas.Division Ginkgophyta (ginkgoes)Gymnospermous plants; tall , much-branched tree with well-developed cylinder of wood; resin ducts present; xylem with tracheids only; stem differentiated into long shoots and short spur shoots; simple , fan-shaped leaves with open dichotomous venation terminate short shoots; leaves deciduous; sexes on separate trees; distinct cones lacking; gametophytes reduced, not free-living; sperm motile (flagellated); mature seeds with fleshy, foul-smelling outer region; 1 living species, Ginkgo biloba.Division Coniferophyta (conifers)Gymnospermous plants; mostly trees with abundant xylem composed of tracheids only; resin ducts present; leaves simple, needlelike, scalelike, with a single vein or, less commonly, strap-shaped with multiple veins; reproduction by well-defined cones; seeds exposed on ovuliferous scales; gametophyte generation reduced, microscopic, not free-living; sperm nonmotile, transported to egg by pollen tube; approximately 50 to 55 genera and between 550 and 575 species; representative genera include Pinus, Abies, Sequoia, Taxodium, Juniperus, Cupressus, and Agathis.Division Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)Diverse and unusual group of 3 gymnospermous genera; growth habits of all 3 are atypical among gymnosperms in possessing vessel elements in the xylem and reproductive structures that are somewhat flowerlike; gametophytes reduced as in other gymnosperms; sperm nonmotile; extant genera Gnetum, Ephedra, and Welwitschia.Division Magnoliophyta (flowering plants, angiosperms)Vascular plants, xylem typically with vessel elements; reproduction by flowers; ovules or young seeds enclosed by female reproductive structure (carpel); gametophyte generation extremely reduced, consisting of only a few cells; archegonia and antheridia lacking; nonmotile sperm transported to egg by pollen tube; pollen transported to specialized receptive surface (stigma) on carpel; double fertilization, one sperm uniting with the egg to form a zygote, another fusing with the polar nuclei to form the primary endosperm nucleus; nutritive tissue of seed triploid endosperm; seeds enclosed by mature ovary that ripens into a fruit; approximately 230,000 species worldwide, more than 300 families.Class Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledonae; dicots)Angiosperms with 2 seedling leaves (cotyledons); leaves with reticulate (net) venation; stem with vascular bundles arranged in a ring, each bundle with a functional vascular cambium; secondary growth common; flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5; pollen typically tricolpate (3 germinal apertures) or some derived type; about 165,000 species.Class Liliopsida (Monocotyledonae; monocots)Angiosperms with 1 seedling leaf (cotyledon); leaves with parallel venation; stem with scattered vascular bundles; bundles without a functional vascular cambium; secondary growth typically absent; flower parts in multiples of 3; pollen typically have a single germinal aperture; approximately 50,000 to 55,000 species; representative types include grasses, orchids, palms, and lilies.
Critical appraisal

In the classification above, only the major divisions and classes of living plants are listed, and a number of entirely extinct divisions are omitted. The classification outlined is somewhat conservative but is one that best conforms to available data and has gained wide acceptance.

Biological classifications were initially mechanical or “artificial”; that is to say, they had no basis in evolution. This was followed by a period of “natural system” construction, whereby plants were grouped together on the basis of their overall similarities or differences, using as many characteristics as possible. Contemporary systems of biological classification are phylogenetic, which means that various plants are arranged together because they are thought to be related by descent from a common ancestor. As more evidence is accumulated, it is to be expected that classifications also will change to accommodate this additional molecular evidence has become available, classifications have changed to accommodate the new information.

At the turn of the 19th century, the plant kingdom was frequently divided into two major groups, the cryptogamia (algae, fungi, bryophytes, and ferns) and the phanerogamia (gymnosperms and angiosperms). Subsequently, it was common practice among systematic botanists to group all vascular plants together under a single division, Tracheophyta. In contrast, all of the major individual groups of plants are now most often elevated to divisional rank, a view that interprets the individual major groups to be less closely related to one another than previously believed. Difficult and complex questions still exist in the definition and circumscription of certain groups. Although it is convenient to treat the Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts) as a single division, some authorities prefer to recognize three or five separate divisions for these plants, each representing an independent evolutionary lineage. Furthermore, the The phylogenetic relationships, if any, of the bryophytic plants with primitive vascular plants remains remain unclear. The treatment of the Psilotophyta is controversial. Although the group is here recognized as a separate division of lower vascular plants, some botanists prefer to include the group it among the ferns (FilicophytaPteridophyta). The flowering plants have classically been recognized as composed of two distinct classes; however, the origin of each class and the phylogenetic relationships of their component taxa have yet to be satisfactorily resolved.