Culture of New Zealand

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The Kiwi has become a New Zealand icon.

The culture of New Zealand is largely inherited from British, Oceanian and European customs, interwoven with Maori and Polynesian tradition. An isolated Pacific Island nation, New Zealand was comparatively recently settled by humans. Initially Māori only, then bicultural with colonial and rural values, now New Zealand has a cosmopolitan, multicultural culture that reflects its changing demographics, is conscious of the natural environment, and is an educated, developed Western society.

Māori culture has predominated for most of New Zealand's history of human habitation. Polynesians reached the islands of New Zealand about 1280. Over the ensuing centuries of Polynesian expansion and settlement, Māori culture developed from its Polynesian roots. Māori established separate tribes, built fortified villages (), hunted and fished, traded commodities, developed agriculture, arts and weaponry, and kept a detailed oral history. Regular European contact began from 1800, and British immigration proceeded rapidly, especially from 1855.

The colonists had a dramatic effect on the Māori, bringing Christianity, advanced technology, the English language, numeracy and literacy. In 1840 Māori leaders signed the Treaty of Waitangi, intended to enable the tribes to live peacefully with the colonists. However, after several incidents, the New Zealand wars broke out from 1845, with Māori suffering a loss of land, partly through confiscation, but mainly through widespread and extensive land sales. Māori retained their identity, mostly choosing to live separately from settlers and continuing to speak and write te reo Māori. With mass migration from Britain, a high Māori death rate and low life expectancy for Māori women, the indigenous population figure dropped between 1850 and 1930. From about 1860 Māori became the minority race in New Zealand. Māori culture has regained much of its lost influence as Māori have integrated into New Zealand society.

European New Zealanders (Pākehā), despite their location far from Europe, retained strong cultural ties to "Mother England".[1] These ties were weakened by the demise of the British Empire and loss of special access to British meat and dairy markets. Pākehā began to forge a separate identity influenced by their pioneering history, a rural lifestyle and New Zealand's unique environment. Pākehā culture became prevalent after the wars, but after sustained political efforts, biculturalism and the Treaty of Waitangi became part of the school curriculum in the late 20th century, to promote understanding between Māori and Pākehā.


New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates holidays during or close to the anniversaries of the founding dates of each province.[3] New Zealand has two national anthems of equal status; "God Save the Queen" and "God Defend New Zealand"[4]—the latter of which is often sung with alternating Māori and English verses.[5] Many citizens prefer to minimise ethnic divisions, simply calling themselves New Zealanders or Kiwis.

Māori culture[edit]

Main article: Māori culture

The Māori are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand (Aotearoa) who first arrived In New Zealand about 1280. They arrived from Eastern Polynesia, most likely the Society Islands. In 2014 demographers believe about 100-200 Polynesians migrants arrived at a similar time. Māori settled the islands and developed a distinct culture over several hundred years.




Europeans migrated to New Zealand in increasing numbers from 1855. Maori traditional penchant for war, especially between 1805 and 1842 during the Musket Wars and diseases introduced destabilized traditional Māori society. The Treaty of Waitangi 1840 formed the basis of the establishment of British rule over New Zealand. New Zealand became partly self-governing in 1852 with the establishment of its own Parliament. The most serious conflict between Maori and European settlers was between 1863 and 1864 which resulted in land being confiscated from the defeated tribes. However Māori sold most of their land after 1870 and continued to do so until the 1980s. From 1820 Maori entered a long period of cultural and numerical decline. However their population began to increase again from the late 19th century, and a cultural revival began in the 1960s, sometimes known as the Maori Renaissance.

Pākehā culture[edit]

Pakeha New Zealanders, c. 1906

Pākehā culture (usually synonymous with New Zealand European) derives mainly from that of the British, particularly English settlers who colonised New Zealand in the nineteenth century. Although it is recognisably related to British culture, it has always had distinct differences, and these have increased over time. Things which distinguish Pākehā culture from British culture include higher levels of egalitarianism and the idea that most people can do most things if they put their minds to it. Within Pākehā culture are sub-cultures derived from Irish, Italian and other European groups, as well as various non-ethnic subcultures.




Cultural borrowing and adaptation[edit]

Māori borrowing from Pākehā culture[edit]

Since the arrival of Europeans, Māori have been receptive adopters of most aspects of Pākehā culture. From the 1830s many Māori nominally converted to Christianity and in the process learned to read and write, by the late nineteenth century New Zealand when formal schooling finished for most at 12, Māori were as likely to be literate as Pākehā. A number of religions, such as Pai Marire and Ringatu, arose in the nineteenth century, blending Māori tradition and Christianity.


After the defeat of rebel Maori who attempted to establish a renegade state in the King Country, the adoption of Pākehā culture became less of a free choice as Pākehā began to outnumber Māori. Parliament to passed legislation affecting Māori, such as the Native Schools Act (1867) which required English to be the dominant medium of instruction for Māori children although this was weakly enforced.[10] Maori generally supported this progressive move. The majority of Māori encouraged their children to learn the English language and Pākehā ways of life to function economically and socially. From the 1880s a small number of western educated graduates emerged from Maori colleges such as Te Aute. Men such as Pomare, Ngata and Buck believed that further adopting Pakeha culture would advance Maori in New Zealand. Together they formed the Young Maori Party which was very influential in starting improved health and education for Maori. All believed to some extent in redeveloping an interest in Maori arts and craft.[11] Ngata went on to become a leading New Zealand politician and acting Prime Minister. Māori traditional culture became less critical in normal everyday life as advanced western technology- electricity, lights telegraphy, roads, mass production radio, aeroplanes and refrigeration[12] made most aspects of Maori culture redundant but was still practiced at events such as tangi(funerals).[13] From the early twentieth century and especially from the 1970s, Māori activists began to protest against Eurocentrism and demanded equal recognition for their own culture.


Pākehā borrowing from Māori culture[edit]

A multi-ethnic All Black squad perform a haka.

Since the late nineteenth century, Pākehā have used Maori cultural practices when they required something distinctive. The most famous example of this is the haka of the All Blacks, a Māori posture dance which is performed before international rugby matches (there are many non-Māori Polynesian All Blacks, thus making this a multi-ethnic borrowing). However Pākehā artists such as Colin McCahon and Gordon Walters have also incorporated Māori motifs into their art, and a number of early Pākehā writers used Māori themes and topics in an effort to create an authentically New Zealand literature.[14] The tourist industry has also made heavy use of Māori culture in an effort to present tourists with distinctly New Zealand experiences and items. Many Pākehā in other countries use an aspect of Māori culture to express their New Zealandness. An example of this is the mass haka which takes place in Parliament Square in London every Waitangi Day. Although Māori are generally involved, most participants are Pākehā.[15]

For many years Pākehā did not consult Māori over the use of their culture, and Māori generally did not protest loudly unless a symbol was being used in a particularly inappropriate way. From the 1970s, Māori increasingly began to object to Pākehā use of their culture, especially when this use was disrespectful. One example of this is the "haka party attack" of 1979. University of Auckland engineering students had a tradition of performing a mock haka at graduation. After pleas from Māori students to discontinue the practice were ignored, a group assaulted the engineering students. They were later charged with assault but defended by Māori elders who testified that the engineers' haka was deeply offensive.[16] Most Pākehā are now more respectful of Māori culture and often consult Māori before using Māori cultural forms. However, despite some attempts to copyright cultural intellectual property this does not always occur and forms are still sometimes used in inappropriate ways.

Some Pākehā have been deeply involved in the revival of otherwise lost Māori arts. In the performance of traditional Māori musical instruments Richard Nunns has earned wide respect, as have the contributions made by many academics, for example, Dame Anne Salmond in the area of traditional rituals of encounter, or Mervyn McLean in the analysis of traditional song. Maori history has mainly been written by Pakeha authors such as Michael King, James Belich and Paul Moon. Traditionally Maori were reluctant to reveal their tribal knowledge to Europeans for fear of being mocked or considered barbaric, and also a belief in keeping tribal secrets. When Kingitanga Maori allowed Michael King to write the biography of "Princess" Te Puea, because of his sensitivity to Maori, they still withheld material that would not show her in a good light.

Borrowing from overseas[edit]

Both Māori and Pākehā have borrowed cultural forms and styles from other countries, particularly Britain and the United States. Most popular New Zealand music derives from Anglo-American styles, particularly rock music, hip-hop, electronic dance music and related subgenres. Although there is evidence of a "New Zealand style", many groups incorporate New Zealand themes into their work, so this style affects each genre differently. More recently however from the start of the 21st century Dub-step, Drum and Bass, Jungle Trance and related subgenres, derived from England, has been further developed by New Zealanders into a unique sound, exemplified by Salmonella Dub, Shapeshifter and many others.



New Zealand has three official languages: New Zealand English, Te Reo Māori (the Māori language), and New Zealand Sign Language.[17] In practice only English is widely used although major efforts have been made in recent years to nurture Te Reo. Numerous other languages are spoken in New Zealand due to its high racial diversity as a country.

New Zealand English[edit]


Te Reo Māori[edit]

An Eastern Polynesian language, Te Reo Māori, is closely related to Tahitian and Cook Islands Māori; slightly less closely to Hawaiian and Marquesan; and more distantly to the languages of Western Polynesia, including Samoan, Niuean and Tongan. The language went into decline in terms of use following European colonisation, but since the 1970s mildly successful efforts have been made to reverse this trend. These include the granting of official language status through the Māori Language Act 1987,[17] a Māori language week and a Māori Television channel. The 2006 census found Te Reo to be spoken by 157,110 people, making it the most common language in New Zealand after English.

New Zealand Sign Language[edit]


Other languages[edit]




Visual arts[edit]

Main article: New Zealand art
A Māori tekoteko (carved human form) originating from Te Arawa

Pre-Colonial Māori visual art had two main forms: carving and weaving. Both recorded stories and legends and also had religious roles.


Performing arts[edit]

Kapa haka[edit]

A kapa haka performer





Main article: Music of New Zealand
Lorde as part of the 2014 Lollapalooza lineup

New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[19][20] Hip-hop is popular and there are small but thriving live music, dance party and indie music scenes. Reggae is also popular within some communities, with bands such as The Herbs, Katchafire, 1814, House Of Shem, Unity Pacific all reflecting their roots, perspectives and cultural pride and heritage through their music.

A number of popular artists have gone on to achieve international success including Lorde,[21] Split Enz, Crowded House, OMC, Bic Runga, Kimbra, Ladyhawke, The Naked and Famous, Fat Freddy's Drop, Savage, Flight of the Conchords, and Brooke Fraser.

New Zealand has a national orchestra and many regional orchestras. A number of New Zealand composers have developed international reputations. The most well-known include Douglas Lilburn,[22] John Psathas,[23] Jack Body,[24] Gillian Whitehead,[25] Jenny McLeod,[26] Gareth Farr,[27] Ross Harris,[28] and Martin Lodge.[29]


Main article: New Zealand humour



New Zealand children and young adult's author Margaret Mahy, July 2011.




Futuna Chapel, Karori, Wellington.

Pre-Colonial native Māori religion was polytheistic. One of its major features was tapu (sacred and/or forbidden), which was used to maintain the status of chiefs and tohunga (priests) and also for purposes such as conserving resources. Some of the earliest European settlers in New Zealand were Christian missionaries, mostly from the Church of England but also from Protestant denominations and the Catholic Church. From the 1830s onwards, large numbers of Māori converted. Throughout the nineteenth century a number of movements emerged which blended traditional Māori beliefs with Christianity. These included Pai Marire, Ringatu, and in the early twentieth century, Ratana. They typically centred on a prophet-leader. These churches continue to attract a substantial following; according to the 2013 census, 50,565 people are Ratana believers, and another 16,419 are Ringatu. 1,689 people stated that they followed Māori religion. Many Māori members of mainstream churches, and those with no particular religion, continue to believe in tapu, particularly where the dead are concerned, although not to the same extent as their ancestors.

Percentages of people reporting affiliation with Christianity at the 2001, 2006 and 2013 censuses; there has been a steady decrease over twelve years.


In 2013, the number of people who affiliated with a Christian denomination (including Māori Christian) decreased to 1,906,398 (48.9% of all people who stated their religious affiliation), down from 2,082,942 (55.6%) in 2006.[30] Affiliation to non-Christian religions has increased since the 2006 census. As of 2013, the number of Hindus numbered 88,919, Muslims 46,149 and Sikhs 19,191. The number and proportion of people indicating they had no religion increased between 2006 and 2013.[30] In 2013, more than 2 in 5 people (41.9 percent) reported they had no religion. 1,635,345 New Zealanders identified with no religion at the 2013 census.[30]

Class in New Zealand[edit]

Main article: Class in New Zealand

Māori hierarchies[edit]


The 'classless society'[edit]






Main article: Overseas experience






National stereotypes[edit]

The kiwi male[edit]

The stereotypical New Zealand male is essentially a pioneer type: he is perceived to be rural, unintellectual, strong, unemotional, democratic, has little time for high culture, good with animals (particularly horses) and machines, and is able to turn his hand to nearly anything. This type of man is often presumed to be a unique product of New Zealand's colonial period but he shares many similarities with the stereotypical American frontiersman and Australian bushman. New Zealand men are supposed to still have many of these qualities, even though most New Zealanders have lived in urban areas since the late nineteenth century. This has not prevented New Zealanders seeing themselves (and being seen) as essentially country people and good at the tasks which country life requires.[37]

The hard man: New Zealand men have often been stereotyped as strong, unemotional and prone to violence.[38] For many years this was seen as a good thing, and was best embodied by All Black Colin Meads. Voted 'New Zealand player of the century' by New Zealand Rugby Monthly magazine, Meads was the second All Black to be sent off the field, and once played a match with a broken arm. Although he was known to assault other players during games, this was generally approved of as 'enforcement' of the 'spirit of the game'.[39] He was also a supporter of sporting contact with apartheid South Africa. In recent decades the macho attitude has been both criticised and reviled as dangerous both to men who embody it and those around them. It has been blamed for New Zealand's culture of heavy drinking and its high male suicide rate.[40] However it still has its supporters, with some commentators claiming that the All Blacks do not have enough 'mongrel'.[41]



Social conservatism and progressiveness[edit]


In contrast to this, New Zealand has a history of some very conservative social policies. Most notably, from World War One until 1967 pubs were required by law to close at 6pm.[42] Until the 1980s most shops were banned from opening on weekends, and until 1999 alcoholic beverages could not be sold on Sundays, known as blue law.


Attitudes to authority[edit]

As in most countries, many in New Zealand distrust politicians. This was particularly the case from the 1970s to the 1990s. During this period governments were seen as being autocratic and unresponsive to the will of the people. Prime Minister Robert Muldoon (1975–84), Finance Minister Ruth Richardson (1990–93) and many members of the Fourth Labour Government (1984–1990) were particularly disliked. This, and two elections in which one party lost the overall popular vote but still won the election through winning a majority of the seats, led New Zealanders to reform the electoral system, changing from the First Past the Post to the mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) system following two referenda in 1992 and 1993. New Zealand retained MMP after a third referendum to evaluate the progress of electoral reform in New Zealand in 2011. The Bill of Rights Act 1990 provides an unentrenched bill of rights, but New Zealand does not have an elaborated written constitution as yet. There is also a small movement for republicanism in New Zealand but most New Zealanders still support the system of constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of New Zealand.

Despite this, most New Zealanders display faith in their democracy, with New Zealand being rated the second least corrupt nation in the world.[44] Turnout for parliamentary elections is typically above 80%, which is very high by international standards and occurs despite the absence of any law requiring citizens to vote. However local government elections have much lower turnout figures, with an average of 53% in 2007.[45]

New Zealanders, both those of Pākehā and Māori roots, have also been noted as very individualistic people, who take intrusion very personally, especially when it occurs onto private land (but also sometimes in a wider sense). According to psychologists, this is rooted respectively in the 'frontier' image of the European settler culture, but also mirrored amongst the Māori, for whom land holds a lot of spiritual value in addition to its commercial use.[46]

Attitudes to multiculturalism[edit]



Main article: New Zealand cuisine

Māori cuisine[edit]

Putting down a hāngi (earth oven)

Māori cuisine was historically derived from that of tropical Polynesia, adapted for New Zealand's colder climate. Key ingredients included kūmara (sweet potato), fern root, taro, birds and fish. Food was cooked in hāngi (earth ovens) and roasted, and in geothermal areas was boiled or steamed using natural hot springs and pools. Various means of preserving birds and other foods were also employed. Māori were one of the few peoples to have no form of alcoholic beverage.[citation needed]

Following the arrival of British settlers, Māori adopted many of their foods, especially pork and potatoes, the latter of which transformed the Māori agricultural economy. Many traditional food sources became scarce as introduced predators dramatically reduced bird populations, and forests were cleared for farming and timber. Traditional seafoods such as toheroa and whitebait were over-harvested. Present day Māori cuisine is a mixture of Māori tradition, old fashioned English cookery, and contemporary dishes. In everyday life the two foods of Māori origin are "the boil up" (boiled up left over food meat and vegetable scraps sometimes thickened with flour), and the hāngi which is associated with special occasions.[49]

Pākehā cuisine[edit]

Pavlova, a popular New Zealand dessert, garnished with cream and strawberries.



Other cuisines[edit]



See also[edit]


  1. ^ Laugesen, Ruth (11–17 July 2009). "Past tense". New Zealand Listener. 219 (3609). Archived from the original on 8 August 2009. Retrieved 7 April 2013. 
  3. ^ "Government and nation – National holidays". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. 3 March 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2010. 
  4. ^ "God Save the Queen" is also an official anthem but is rarely sung
  5. ^ "Government and nation – National anthems". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. 3 March 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2010. 
  8. ^ "Sad our icon even has a price". New Zealand Herald. 
  9. ^ "Rugby, racing and beer - week to remember for Whitelock family". New Zealand Herald. 10 February 2012. 
  10. ^ Auditor General of NZ. Part 3 . Historical and Current Context of Maori Education.
  11. ^ NZ History. Part 3. Maori and Pakeha relations.1900-1945.
  12. ^ Te Ara. The NZ Encyclopedia. Story: Economic Development. p6 Refrigeration, Dairying and the Liberal Boom.
  13. ^ 7th Joint Conference of "Preservation of Ancient Cultures--" G. Harmsworth.
  15. ^ See also Hei-tiki#Current popularity.
  17. ^ a b c "Government and nation – Official languages". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. 3 March 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2010. 
  18. ^ All language statistics from Statistics New Zealand website:
  20. ^ Southgate, William (September 1977). "Current Developments in New Zealand music". Composers Association of New Zealand newsletter: 25–27. 
  21. ^ "Lorde's 'Royals' Reigns On Hot 100 for Eighth Week". 
  22. ^ > "Story: Lilburn, Douglas Gordon". 
  23. ^ "John Psathas composer profile". 
  24. ^ "Jack Body composer profile". 
  25. ^ "Gillian Whitehead composer profile". 
  26. ^ "Jenny McLeod composer profile". 
  27. ^ > "Gareth Farr composer profile". 
  28. ^ > "Ross Harris composer profile". 
  29. ^ > "Martin Lodge composer profile". 
  30. ^ a b c "2013 Census QuickStats about culture and identity". Statistics New Zealand. 
  32. ^ "Political values and the ‘Kiwi’ way of life", Te Ara
  33. ^ "Does NZ still cut down tall poppies?", 18 Mar 2013, Adrien Taylor,
  36. ^ NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade website:
  38. ^ Phillips, pp.81–130
  39. ^ Colin Meads at
  40. ^ Phillips, pp.261–89
  42. ^ "The 'six o'clock swill' – Sports and leisure – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Retrieved 30 September 2015. 
  43. ^ "Impact - 1981 Springbok tour - NZHistory, New Zealand history online". Retrieved 30 September 2015. 
  44. ^ Transparency International Website Rankings for 2008 Archived March 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  47. ^ "Background — Ministry of Justice, New Zealand". Retrieved 30 September 2015. 
  48. ^
  49. ^ Maori hangi: Guide to how to make a Hangi.

External links[edit]