Caspian Sea

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Caspian Sea
Caspian Sea from orbit.jpg
As captured by the MODIS on the orbiting Terra satellite
Type Endorheic, Saline, Permanent, Natural
Primary inflows

Volga River, Ural River, Kura River, Terek River

Historically: Amu Darya
Primary outflows Evaporation
Catchment area 3,626,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)[1]
Basin countries

Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan

Historically also Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan
Max. length 1,030 km (640 mi)
Max. width 435 km (270 mi)
Surface area 371,000 km2 (143,200 sq mi)
Average depth 211 m (690 ft)
Max. depth 1,025 m (3,360 ft)
Water volume 78,200 km3 (18,800 cu mi)
Residence time 250 years
Shore length1 7,000 km (4,300 mi)
Surface elevation −28 m (−92 ft)
Islands 26+ (see Island below)
References [1]
1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

The Caspian Sea (Azerbaijani: Xəzər dənizi, Kazakh: Каспий теңізі, Persian: دریای خزر Daryā-i Xazar, دریای مازندران Daryā-i Māzandarān‎, Russian: Каспийское море, Turkmen: Hazar deňizi) is the largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea.[2][3] The sea has a surface area of 371,000 km2 (143,200 sq mi) (not including Garabogazköl Aylagy) and a volume of 78,200 km3 (18,800 cu mi).[4] It is in an endorheic basin (it has no outflows) and is bounded to the northwest by Russia, to the west by Azerbaijan, to the south by Iran, to the southeast by Turkmenistan, and to the northeast by Kazakhstan.

The ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its saltiness and seeming boundlessness. It has a salinity of approximately 1.2%, about a third the salinity of most seawater.


The word Caspian is derived from the name of the Caspi (Persian: کاسپی‎), ancient people who lived to the south-west of the sea in Transcaucasia.[5] Strabo wrote that "to the country of the Albanians belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared".[6] Moreover, the Caspian Gates, which is the name of a region in Tehran province of Iran, is another possible piece of evidence that they migrated to the south of the sea. The Iranian city Qazvin shares the root of its name with that of the sea. In fact, the traditional Arabic name for the sea itself is, Bahr al-Qazwin (Sea of Qazvin).[7]

In classical antiquity among Greeks and Persians it was called the Hyrcanian Ocean.[8] In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern Iran, it is known as the Mazandaran sea (Persian: دریای مازندران‎). In Iran, it is also referred as Daryā-i Xazar sometimes.[9] Among Indians it was called Kashyap Sagar. In Turkic speaking countries it is known as the Khazar Sea. Old Russian sources call it the Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea (Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море) after the name of Khwarezmia.[10] Ancient Arabic sources refer to it as Baḥr Gīlān (بحر جیلان) meaning "the Gilan Sea".


Physical characteristics[edit]











Caspian Sea near Aktau, Mangistau region, Kazakhstan.


Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Thus levels in the Caspian sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic thousands of miles to the northwest. These factors make the Caspian Sea a valuable place to study the causes and effects of global climate change.[citation needed]


Environmental degradation[edit]


Various islands in the Caspian have suffered extensive environmental damage due to oil production.[21] Vulf, Azerbaijan has been affected by ecological damage because of the petrochemical industry. This has significantly decreased species of marine birds in the area.



Illustration of two Caspian tigers, extinct since 1970s.
Iran's Northern Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests are maintained by moisture captured from the Caspian sea and the Alborz mountain range of Iran, Gilan.

Sturgeon inhabit the Caspian Sea in great numbers, and yield roe (eggs) that are processed into caviar. Overfishing has depleted a number of the historic fisheries including the economic exhaustion of the tuna fishery.[22] In recent years overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that environmentalists advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers. However, the high price of sturgeon caviar allows fisherman to afford bribes to ensure the authorities look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective.[23] Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females.

The zebra mussel is native to the Caspian and the Black Sea, and has also been accidentally introduced and become an invasive species elsewhere.

The native range of the common carp extends to the Caspian Sea as well as the Black Sea and Aral Sea. Like the zebra mussel it also has become an invasive species where it has been introduced.




With an increase in the level of the Caspian Sea between 1994–96, there has been a large reduction in the number of habitats for rare species of aquatic vegetation. This has been attributed to a general lack of seeding material in newly formed coastal lagoons and water bodies.


Caspian sea (Bahr ul-Khazar). Ibn Hawqal
Caspian Sea map from 1747

The earliest human remains around the Caspian sea are from Dmanisi dating back to around 1.8 Ma and yielded a number of skeletal remains of Homo erectus or Homo ergaster. More later evidence for human occupation of the region come from a number of caves in Georgia and Azerbaijan such as Kudaro and Azykh Caves. There is evidence for Lower Palaeolithic human occupation at south of Caspian from western Alburz. These are Ganj Par and Darband Cave sites. Neanderthal remains also have been discovered at a cave site in Georgia. Discoveries in the Huto cave and the adjacent Kamarband cave, near the town of Behshahr, Mazandaran south of the Caspian in Iran, suggest human habitation of the area as early as 11,000 years ago.[24][25]


In 1950 the construction of Main Turkmen Canal was started under the orders of Joseph Stalin. The waterway, which would be used for shipping not irrigation, would run from Nukus on the Amu-Darya to Krasnovodsk on the Caspian Sea thus connecting the Amu-Darya and the Aral Sea to the Caspian. However the project was abandoned soon after the death of Stalin. The project was dropped in favor of the Qaraqum Canal, which runs on a more southerly route but does not reach the Caspian.[28]





Oil extraction[edit]

Oil pipelines in the Caspian region. September 2002.




Political issues[edit]

Many of the islands along the Azerbaijani coast continue to hold significant geopolitical and economic importance because of the potential oil reserves found nearby. Bulla Island, Pirallahı Island, and Nargin - which was used as a former Soviet base and is the largest island in the Baku bay, all hold oil reserves. Ashuradeh is situated on the easternmost end of Miankaleh peninsula to the north east of Gorgan Bay, near the Iranian coast. It was separated from the peninsula after islanders created a channel.

The oil in the Caspian basin is estimated to be worth over US $12 trillion.[citation needed] The sudden collapse of the USSR and subsequent opening of the region has led to an intense investment and development scramble by international oil companies. In 1998 Dick Cheney commented that "I can't think of a time when we've had a region emerge as suddenly to become as strategically significant as the Caspian."[29]


Much controversy currently exists over the proposed Trans-Caspian oil and gas pipelines. These projects would allow western markets easier access to Kazakh oil, and potentially Uzbek and Turkmen gas as well. The United States has given its support for the pipelines. Russia officially opposes the project on environmental grounds. Analysts note that the pipelines would bypass Russia completely, thereby denying the country valuable transit fees, as well as destroying its current monopoly on westward-bound hydrocarbon exports from the region.[30] Recently both Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have expressed their support for the Trans-Caspian Pipeline.[31]

Disclosed US diplomatic cables by WikiLeaks revealed that BP covered up a gas leak and blowout incident in September 2008 at a gas field under production in the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshi area of the Azerbaijan Caspian Sea.[32][33]

International disputes[edit]



The status of the Caspian Sea[34] is the key problem. There are three major considerations affected by the Caspian Sea status: access to mineral resources (oil and natural gas), access for fishing and access to international waters (through Russia's Volga river and the canals connecting it to the Black Sea and Baltic Sea). Access to the Volga River is particularly important for the landlocked states of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. This matter is of course sensitive to Russia, because this potential traffic will move through its territory (albeit onto the inland waterways). If a body of water is labeled as Sea then there would be some precedents and international treaties obliging the granting of access permits to foreign vessels. If a body of water is labeled merely as lake then there are no such obligations. Environmental issues are also somewhat connected to the status and borders issue.

It should be mentioned that Russia got the bulk of the former Soviet Caspian military fleet (and also currently has the most powerful military presence in the Caspian Sea). Some assets were assigned to Azerbaijan. Kazakhstan and especially Turkmenistan got a very small share because they lack major port cities.

According to a treaty signed between Iran (Persia) and the Soviet Union, the Caspian Sea is technically a lake and it is to be divided into two sectors (Persian and Soviet), but the resources (then mainly fish) would be commonly shared. The line between the two sectors was to be seen as an international border in a common lake, like Lake Albert. Also the Soviet sector was sub-divided into administrative sectors of the four littoral republics.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union not all of the newly independent states assumed continuation of the old treaty. At first Russia and Iran announced that they would continue to adhere to the old treaty.

After the old Soviet Union split into fifteen nations, including Caspian Sea neighbors Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan, Iran has called for an equal division of the Caspian Sea among the five countries: Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and Russia. If this division does not come to pass, then Iran intends to recognize only its old treaty (between Iran and Russia) and will challenge Russia to divide its 50% share among the three littoral states – Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan – over a more friendly position toward the West and the U.S., such as opening of U.S. interest section in Tehran.[citation needed][clarification needed]

Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan announced that they do not consider themselves parties to this treaty.

Later[clarification needed] followed some proposals for common agreement between all littoral states about the status of the sea:

  • Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan insisted that the sectors should be based on the median line, thus giving each state a share proportional to its Caspian coastline length. Also the sectors would form part of the sovereign territory of the particular state (thus making them international borders and also allowing each state to deal with all resources within its sector as it wishes unilaterally).
  • Iran insisted that the sectors should be such that each state gets a 1/5 share of the whole Caspian Sea. This was advantageous to Iran, because it has a proportionally smaller coastline.
  • Russia proposed a somewhat compromising solution: the seabed (and thus mineral resources) to be divided along sectoral lines (along the two above-described variants), the surface (and thus fishing rights) to be shared between all states (with the following variations: the whole surface to be commonly shared; each state to receive an exclusive zone and one single common zone in the center to be shared. The second variant is deemed not practical, because of the small size of the whole sea).[citation needed]

Current situation[edit]

Caspian sea, Azerbaijan.

Russia, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have agreed to a solution about their sectors. There are no problems between Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, but the latter is not actively participating, so there is no agreement either. Azerbaijan is at odds with Iran over some oil fields that the both states claim. There have been occasions where Iranian patrol boats have opened fire at vessels sent by Azerbaijan for exploration into the disputed region. There are similar tensions between Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan (the latter claims that the former has pumped more oil than agreed from a field, recognized by both parties as shared). Less acute are the issues between Turkmenistan and Iran. Regardless, the southern part of the sea remains disputed.

  • Russia and Kazakhstan signed a treaty, according to which, they divide the northern part of the Caspian Sea between them into two sectors along the median line. Each sector is an exclusive zone of its state. Thus all resources, seabed and surface are exclusive to the particular state.
  • Russia and Azerbaijan signed a similar treaty regarding their common border.
  • Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan signed a similar treaty regarding their common border.
  • Iran does not recognize the bilateral agreements between the other littoral states. Iran continues to insist on a single multilateral agreement between all five littoral states (as the only way to achieve 1/5 share).
  • The position of Turkmenistan is unclear.

After Russia adopted the median line sectoral division and the three treaties already signed between some littoral states this is looking like the realistic method for regulating the Caspian borders. The Russian sector is fully defined. The Kazakhstan sector is not fully defined, but is not disputed either. Azerbaijan's, Turkmenistan's and Iran's sectors are not fully defined. It is not clear if the issue of Volga-access to vessels from Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan is covered by their agreements with Russia and also what the conditions are for Volga-access for vessels from Turkmenistan and Iran.[citation needed]

The Caspian littoral States meeting in 2007 signed an agreement that bars any ship not flying the national flag of a littoral state from entering Caspian waters.[35]

Cross-border inflow[edit]

UNECE recognizes several rivers that cross international borders which flow into the Caspian Sea.[36] These are:

River Countries
Atrek River IR, TM
Kura River AM, AZ, GE, IR, TR
Ural River KZ, RU
Samur River AZ, RU
Sulak River GE, RU
Terek River GE, RU





The ferries are mostly used for cargo, with only the Baku – Aktau and Baku – Turkmenbashi also allowing passengers.




See also[edit]



  4. ^ Lake Profile: Caspian Sea. LakeNet.
  5. ^ Caspian Sea in Encyclopædia Britannica.
  12. ^ Comparable evaporite beds underlie the Mediterranean.
  18. ^ Caspian Sea frozen at Azerbaijani coast
  23. ^ a b Fishing Prospects. (2007-01-14)
  24. ^ "Major Monuments". Retrieved on 2012-05-20.
  25. ^ Safeguarding Caspian Interests. (2006-11-26)
  26. ^ a b The Development of the Oil and Gas Industry in Azerbaijan SOCAR
  32. ^ Tim Webb. "WikiLeaks cables: BP suffered blowout on Azerbaijan gas platform | World news". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-03-26. 
  35. ^ Russia Gets Way In Caspian Meet.
  36. ^ "Drainage basing of the Caspian Sea". 

External links[edit]