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Not to be confused with tetrahedroid.
For the academic journal, see Tetrahedron (journal).
Regular Tetrahedron
(Click here for rotating model)
Type Platonic solid
Elements F = 4, E = 6
V = 4 (χ = 2)
Faces by sides 4{3}
Conway notation T
Schläfli symbols {3,3}
h{4,3}, s{2,4}, sr{2,2}
Wythoff symbol 3 | 2 3
| 2 2 2
Coxeter diagram CDel node 1.pngCDel 3.pngCDel node.pngCDel 3.pngCDel node.png = CDel node h.pngCDel 4.pngCDel node.pngCDel 3.pngCDel node.png
CDel node h.pngCDel 2x.pngCDel node h.pngCDel 4.pngCDel node.png
CDel node h.pngCDel 2x.pngCDel node h.pngCDel 2x.pngCDel node h.png
Symmetry Td, A3, [3,3], (*332)
Rotation group T, [3,3]+, (332)
References U01, C15, W1
Properties Regular convex deltahedron
Dihedral angle 70.528779° = arccos(1/3)
Tetrahedron vertfig.png
(Vertex figure)
(dual polyhedron)
Tetrahedron flat.svg

In geometry, a tetrahedron (plural: tetrahedra or tetrahedrons) is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertex corners. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra and the only one that has fewer than 5 faces.[1]



Like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. It has two such nets.[1]

For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere (called the circumsphere) on which all four vertices lie, and another sphere (the insphere) tangent to the tetrahedron's faces.

Regular tetrahedron[edit]

A regular tetrahedron is one in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have been known since antiquity.

In a regular tetrahedron, not only are all its faces the same size and shape (congruent) but so are all its vertices and edges.

Five tetrahedra are laid flat on a plane, with the highest 3-dimensional points marked as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. These points are then attached to each other and a thin volume of empty space is left, where the five edge angles do not quite meet.

Regular tetrahedra alone do not tessellate (fill space), but if alternated with regular octahedra they form the alternated cubic honeycomb, which is a tessellation.

The regular tetrahedron is self-dual, which means that its dual is another regular tetrahedron. The compound figure comprising two such dual tetrahedra form a stellated octahedron or stella octangula.

Formulas for a regular tetrahedron[edit]

The following Cartesian coordinates define the four vertices of a tetrahedron with edge length 2, centered at the origin:

Another set of coordinates are based on an alternated cube or demicube with edge length 2. This form has Coxeter diagram CDel node h.pngCDel 4.pngCDel node.pngCDel 3.pngCDel node.png and Schläfli symbol h{4,3}. The tetrahedron in this case has edge length 22. Inverting these coordinates generates the dual tetrahedron, and the pair together form the stellated octahedron, whose vertices are those of the original cube.

Tetrahedron: (1,1,1), (1,−1,−1), (−1,1,−1), (−1,−1,1)
Dual tetrahedron: (−1,−1,−1), (−1,1,1), (1,−1,1), (1,1,−1)
Regular tetrahedron ABCD and its circumscribed sphere

For a regular tetrahedron of edge length a:

Face area
Surface area[2]
Height of pyramid[3]
Edge to opposite edge distance
Face-vertex-edge angle
(approx. 54.7356°)
Face-edge-face angle[2]
(approx. 70.5288°)
Edge central angle,[4][5] known as the tetrahedral angle
(approx. 109.4712°)
Solid angle at a vertex subtended by a face
(approx. 0.55129 steradians)
Radius of circumsphere[2]
Radius of insphere that is tangent to faces[2]
Radius of midsphere that is tangent to edges[2]
Radius of exspheres
Distance to exsphere center from the opposite vertex


For a regular tetrahedron with side length a, radius R of its circumscribing sphere, and distances from an arbitrary point in 3-space to its four vertices, we have[6]

Isometries of the regular tetrahedron[edit]

The proper rotations, (order-3 rotation on a vertex and face, and order-2 on 2 edges) and reflection plane (through 2 faces and one edge) in the symmetry group of the regular tetrahedron

The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron (see above, and also animation, showing one of the two tetrahedra in the cube). The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to half of those of a cube: those that map the tetrahedra to themselves, and not to each other.


The regular tetrahedron has 24 isometries, forming the symmetry group Td, [3,3], (*332), isomorphic to the symmetric group, S4. They can be categorized as follows:

  • T, [3,3]+, (332) is isomorphic to alternating group, A4 (the identity and 11 proper rotations) with the following conjugacy classes (in parentheses are given the permutations of the vertices, or correspondingly, the faces, and the unit quaternion representation):
    • identity (identity; 1)
  • reflections in a plane perpendicular to an edge: 6

Orthogonal projections of the regular tetrahedron[edit]

The regular tetrahedron has two special orthogonal projections, one centered on a vertex or equivalently on a face, and one centered on an edge. The first corresponds to the A2 Coxeter plane.

Orthogonal projection
Centered by Face/vertex Edge
Image 3-simplex t0 A2.svg 3-simplex t0.svg
[3] [4]

Cross section of regular tetrahedron[edit]

A central cross section of a regular tetrahedron is a square.

The two skew perpendicular opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron define a set of parallel planes. When one of these planes intersects the tetrahedron the resulting cross section is a rectangle.[7] When the intersecting plane is near one of the edges the rectangle is long and skinny. When halfway between the two edges the intersection is a square. The aspect ratio of the rectangle reverses as you pass this halfway point. For the midpoint square intersection the resulting boundary line traverses every face of the tetrahedron similarly. If the tetrahedron is bisected on this plane, both halves become wedges.

A tetragonal disphenoid viewed orthogonally to the two green edges.

This property also applies for tetragonal disphenoids when applied to the two special edge pairs.

Spherical tiling[edit]


Uniform tiling 332-t2.png Tetrahedron stereographic projection.svg
Orthographic projection Stereographic projection

Other special cases[edit]

Tetrahedral subgroup tree.png
Tetrahedral symmetry subgroup relations
Tetrahedron symmetry tree.png
Tetrahedral symmetries shown in tetrahedral diagrams

An isosceles tetrahedron, also called a disphenoid, is a tetrahedron where all four faces are congruent triangles. A space-filling tetrahedron packs with congruent copies of itself to tile space, like the disphenoid tetrahedral honeycomb.

In a trirectangular tetrahedron the three face angles at one vertex are right angles. If all three pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are perpendicular, then it is called an orthocentric tetrahedron. When only one pair of opposite edges are perpendicular, it is called a semi-orthocentric tetrahedron. An isodynamic tetrahedron is one in which the cevians that join the vertices to the incenters of the opposite faces are concurrent, and an isogonic tetrahedron has concurrent cevians that join the vertices to the points of contact of the opposite faces with the inscribed sphere of the tetrahedron.

Isometries of irregular tetrahedra[edit]

The isometries of an irregular (unmarked) tetrahedron depend on the geometry of the tetrahedron, with 7 cases possible. In each case a 3-dimensional point group is formed. Two other isometries (C3, [3]+), and (S4, [2+,4+]) can exist if the face or edge marking are included. Tetrahedral diagrams are included for each type below, with edges colored by isometric equivalence, and are gray colored for unique edges.

Tetrahedron name Edge
Schön. Cox. Orb. Ord.
Regular Tetrahedron Regular tetrahedron diagram.png
Four equilateral triangles
It forms the symmetry group Td, isomorphic to the symmetric group, S4. A regular tetrahedron has Coxeter diagram CDel node 1.pngCDel 3.pngCDel node.pngCDel 3.pngCDel node.png and Schläfli symbol {3,3}.
Triangular pyramid Isosceles trigonal pyramid diagram.png
An equilateral triangle base and three equal isosceles triangle sides
It gives 6 isometries, corresponding to the 6 isometries of the base. As permutations of the vertices, these 6 isometries are the identity 1, (123), (132), (12), (13) and (23), forming the symmetry group C3v, isomorphic to the symmetric group, S3. A triangular pyramid has Schläfli symbol {3}∨( ).
Mirrored sphenoid Sphenoid diagram.png
Two equal scalene triangles with a common base edge
This has two pairs of equal edges (1,3), (1,4) and (2,3), (2,4) and otherwise no edges equal. The only two isometries are 1 and the reflection (34), giving the group Cs, also isomorphic to the cyclic group, Z2.
[ ] * 2
Irregular tetrahedron
(No symmetry)
Scalene tetrahedron diagram.png
Four unequal triangles

Its only isometry is the identity, and the symmetry group is the trivial group. An irregular tetrahedron has Schläfli symbol ( )∨( )∨( )∨( ).

C1 [ ]+ 1 1
Disphenoids (Four equal triangles)
Tetragonal disphenoid Tetragonal disphenoid diagram.png
Four equal isosceles triangles

It has 8 isometries. If edges (1,2) and (3,4) are of different length to the other 4 then the 8 isometries are the identity 1, reflections (12) and (34), and 180° rotations (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23) and improper 90° rotations (1234) and (1432) forming the symmetry group D2d. A tetragonal disphenoid has Coxeter diagram CDel node h.pngCDel 2x.pngCDel node h.pngCDel 4.pngCDel node.png and Schläfli symbol s{2,4}.

Rhombic disphenoid Rhombic disphenoid diagram.png
Four equal scalene triangles

It has 4 isometries. The isometries are 1 and the 180° rotations (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23). This is the Klein four-group V4 or Z22, present as the point group D2. A rhombic disphenoid has Coxeter diagram CDel node h.pngCDel 2x.pngCDel node h.pngCDel 2x.pngCDel node h.png and Schläfli symbol sr{2,2}.

D2 [2,2]+ 222 4
Generalized disphenoids (2 pairs of equal triangles)
Digonal disphenoid Digonal disphenoid diagram2.png
Digonal disphenoid diagram.png
Two pairs of equal isosceles triangles
. This gives two opposite edges (1,2) and (3,4) that are perpendicular but different lengths, and then the 4 isometries are 1, reflections (12) and (34) and the 180° rotation (12)(34). The symmetry group is C2v, isomorphic to the Klein four-group V4. A digonal disphenoid has Schläfli symbol { }∨{ }.
Phyllic disphenoid Half-turn tetrahedron diagram.png
Half-turn tetrahedron diagram2.png
Two pairs of equal scalene or isosceles triangles


C2 [2]+ 22 2

General properties[edit]


The volume of a tetrahedron is given by the pyramid volume formula:

where A0 is the area of the base and h is the height from the base to the apex. This applies for each of the four choices of the base, so the distances from the apexes to the opposite faces are inversely proportional to the areas of these faces.

For a tetrahedron with vertices a = (a1, a2, a3), b = (b1, b2, b3), c = (c1, c2, c3), and d = (d1, d2, d3), the volume is 1/6|det(ad, bd, cd)|, or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a simply connected graph. This can be rewritten using a dot product and a cross product, yielding


where a, b, and c represent three edges that meet at one vertex, and a · (b × c) is a scalar triple product. Comparing this formula with that used to compute the volume of a parallelepiped, we conclude that the volume of a tetrahedron is equal to 1/6 of the volume of any parallelepiped that shares three converging edges with it.

The absolute value of the scalar triple product can be represented as the following absolute values of determinants:

 or  where  is expressed as a row or column vector etc.


 where  etc.

which gives

where α, β, γ are the plane angles occurring in vertex d. The angle α, is the angle between the two edges connecting the vertex d to the vertices b and c. The angle β, does so for the vertices a and c, while γ, is defined by the position of the vertices a and b.

Given the distances between the vertices of a tetrahedron the volume can be computed using the Cayley–Menger determinant:

where the subscripts i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} represent the vertices {a, b, c, d} and dij is the pairwise distance between them – i.e., the length of the edge connecting the two vertices. A negative value of the determinant means that a tetrahedron cannot be constructed with the given distances. This formula, sometimes called Tartaglia's formula, is essentially due to the painter Piero della Francesca in the 15th century, as a three dimensional analogue of the 1st century Heron's formula for the area of a triangle.[8]

Heron-type formula for the volume of a tetrahedron[edit]

If U, V, W, u, v, w are lengths of edges of the tetrahedron (first three form a triangle; u opposite to U and so on), then[9]


Volume divider[edit]

A plane that divides two opposite edges of a tetrahedron in a given ratio also divides the volume of the tetrahedron in the same ratio. Thus any plane containing a bimedian (connector of opposite edges' midpoints) of a tetrahedron bisects the volume of the tetrahedron[10][11]:pp.89–90

Non-Euclidean volume[edit]

For tetrahedra in hyperbolic space or in three-dimensional spherical geometry, the dihedral angles of the tetrahedron determine its shape and hence its volume. In these cases, the volume is given by the Murakami–Yano formula.[12] However, in Euclidean space, scaling a tetrahedron changes its volume but not its dihedral angles, so no such formula can exist.

Distance between the edges[edit]

Any two opposite edges of a tetrahedron lie on two skew lines, and the distance between the edges is defined as the distance between the two skew lines. Let d be the distance between the skew lines formed by opposite edges a and bc as calculated here. Then another volume formula is given by

Properties analogous to those of a triangle[edit]

The tetrahedron has many properties analogous to those of a triangle, including an insphere, circumsphere, medial tetrahedron, and exspheres. It has respective centers such as incenter, circumcenter, excenters, Spieker center and points such as a centroid. However, there is generally no orthocenter in the sense of intersecting altitudes.[13]

Gaspard Monge found a center that exists in every tetrahedron, now known as the Monge point: the point where the six midplanes of a tetrahedron intersect. A midplane is defined as a plane that is orthogonal to an edge joining any two vertices that also contains the centroid of an opposite edge formed by joining the other two vertices. If the tetrahedron's altitudes do intersect, then the Monge point and the orthocenter coincide to give the class of orthocentric tetrahedron.

An orthogonal line dropped from the Monge point to any face meets that face at the midpoint of the line segment between that face's orthocenter and the foot of the altitude dropped from the opposite vertex.

A line segment joining a vertex of a tetrahedron with the centroid of the opposite face is called a median and a line segment joining the midpoints of two opposite edges is called a bimedian of the tetrahedron. Hence there are four medians and three bimedians in a tetrahedron. These seven line segments are all concurrent at a point called the centroid of the tetrahedron.[14] The centroid of a tetrahedron is the midpoint between its Monge point and circumcenter. These points define the Euler line of the tetrahedron that is analogous to the Euler line of a triangle.

The nine-point circle of the general triangle has an analogue in the circumsphere of a tetrahedron's medial tetrahedron. It is the twelve-point sphere and besides the centroids of the four faces of the reference tetrahedron, it passes through four substitute Euler points, one third of the way from the Monge point toward each of the four vertices. Finally it passes through the four base points of orthogonal lines dropped from each Euler point to the face not containing the vertex that generated the Euler point.[15]

The center T of the twelve-point sphere also lies on the Euler line. Unlike its triangular counterpart, this center lies one third of the way from the Monge point M towards the circumcenter. Also, an orthogonal line through T to a chosen face is coplanar with two other orthogonal lines to the same face. The first is an orthogonal line passing through the corresponding Euler point to the chosen face. The second is an orthogonal line passing through the centroid of the chosen face. This orthogonal line through the twelve-point center lies midway between the Euler point orthogonal line and the centroidal orthogonal line. Furthermore, for any face, the twelve-point center lies at the midpoint of the corresponding Euler point and the orthocenter for that face.

The radius of the twelve-point sphere is one third of the circumradius of the reference tetrahedron.

There is a relation among the angles made by the faces of a general tetrahedron given by [16]

where αij is the angle between the faces i and j.

Geometric relations[edit]

A tetrahedron is a 3-simplex. Unlike the case of the other Platonic solids, all the vertices of a regular tetrahedron are equidistant from each other (they are the only possible arrangement of four equidistant points in 3-dimensional space).



(+1, +1, +1);
(−1, −1, +1);
(−1, +1, −1);
(+1, −1, −1).

This yields a tetrahedron with edge-length 22, centered at the origin. For the other tetrahedron (which is dual to the first), reverse all the signs. These two tetrahedra's vertices combined are the vertices of a cube, demonstrating that the regular tetrahedron is the 3-demicube.

The volume of this tetrahedron is one-third the volume of the cube. Combining both tetrahedra gives a regular polyhedral compound called the compound of two tetrahedra or stella octangula.

The interior of the stella octangula is an octahedron, and correspondingly, a regular octahedron is the result of cutting off, from a regular tetrahedron, four regular tetrahedra of half the linear size (i.e., rectifying the tetrahedron).

The above embedding divides the cube into five tetrahedra, one of which is regular. In fact, five is the minimum number of tetrahedra required to compose a cube.



However, several irregular tetrahedra are known, of which copies can tile space, for instance the disphenoid tetrahedral honeycomb. The complete list remains an open problem.[17]

If one relaxes the requirement that the tetrahedra be all the same shape, one can tile space using only tetrahedra in many different ways. For example, one can divide an octahedron into four identical tetrahedra and combine them again with two regular ones. (As a side-note: these two kinds of tetrahedron have the same volume.)


A law of sines for tetrahedra and the space of all shapes of tetrahedra[edit]





Three angles are the angles of some triangle if and only if their sum is 180° (π radians). What condition on 12 angles is necessary and sufficient for them to be the 12 angles of some tetrahedron? Clearly the sum of the angles of any side of the tetrahedron must be 180°. Since there are four such triangles, there are four such constraints on sums of angles, and the number of degrees of freedom is thereby reduced from 12 to 8. The four relations given by this sine law further reduce the number of degrees of freedom, from 8 down to not 4 but 5, since the fourth constraint is not independent of the first three. Thus the space of all shapes of tetrahedra is 5-dimensional.[18]

Law of cosines for tetrahedra[edit]

Let be the points of a tetrahedron. Let be the area of the face opposite vertex and let be the dihedral angle between the two faces of the tetrahedron adjacent to the edge .

The law of cosines for this tetrahedron,[19] which relates the areas of the faces of the tetrahedron to the dihedral angles about a vertex, is given by the following relation:

Interior point[edit]

Let P be any interior point of a tetrahedron of volume V for which the vertices are A, B, C, and D, and for which the areas of the opposite faces are Fa , Fb , Fc , and Fd. Then[20]:p.62,#1609

For vertices A, B, C, and D, interior point P, and feet J, K, L, and M of the perpendiculars from P to the faces,[20]:p.226,#215


Denoting the inradius of a tetrahedron as r and the inradii of its triangular faces as ri for i= 1, 2, 3, 4, we have[20]:p.81,#1990

with equality if and only if the tetrahedron is regular.


The sum of the areas of any three faces is greater than the area of the fourth face.[20]:p.225,#159

Integer tetrahedra[edit]

There exist tetrahedra having integer-valued edge lengths, face areas and volume. One example has one edge of 896, the opposite edge of 990 and the other four edges of 1073; two faces have areas of 436800 and the other two have areas of 47120, while the volume is 62092800.[21]:p.107

A tetrahedron can have integer volume and consecutive integers as edges, an example being the one with edges 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 and volume 48.[21]:p. 107

Related polyhedra and compounds[edit]

A regular tetrahedron can be seen as a triangular pyramid.

A regular tetrahedron can be seen as a degenerate polyhedron, a uniform digonal antiprism, where base polygons are reduced digons.

A regular tetrahedron can be seen as a degenerate polyhedron, a uniform dual digonal trapezohedron, containing 6 vertices, in two sets of colinear edges.

A truncation process applied to the tetrahedron produces a series of uniform polyhedra. Truncating edges down to points produces the octahedron as a rectified tetrahedron. The process completes as a birectification, reducing the original faces down to points, and producing the self-dual tetrahedron once again.

This polyhedron is topologically related as a part of sequence of regular polyhedra with Schläfli symbols {3,n}, continuing into the hyperbolic plane.

The tetrahedron is topologically related to a series of regular polyhedra and tilings with order-3 vertex figures.




Numerical analysis[edit]

An irregular volume in space can be approximated by an irregular triangulated surface, and irregular tetrahedral volume elements.

In numerical analysis, complicated three-dimensional shapes are commonly broken down into, or approximated by, a polygonal mesh of irregular tetrahedra in the process of setting up the equations for finite element analysis especially in the numerical solution of partial differential equations. These methods have wide applications in practical applications in computational fluid dynamics, aerodynamics, electromagnetic fields, civil engineering, chemical engineering, naval architecture and engineering, and related fields.


The ammonium ion is tetrahedral

The tetrahedron shape is seen in nature in covalently bonded molecules. All sp3-hybridized atoms are surrounded by atoms (or lone electron pairs) at the four corners of a tetrahedron. For instance in a methane molecule (CH
) or an ammonium ion (NH+
), four hydrogen atoms surround a central carbon or nitrogen atom with tetrahedral symmetry. For this reason, one of the leading journals in organic chemistry is called Tetrahedron. The central angle between any two vertices of a perfect tetrahedron is arccos(−1/3), or approximately 109.47°.[5][22]

Water, H
, also has a tetrahedral structure, with two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs of electrons around the central oxygen atoms. Its tetrahedral symmetry is not perfect, however, because the lone pairs repel more than the single O–H bonds.

Quaternary phase diagrams in chemistry are represented graphically as tetrahedra.

However, quaternary phase diagrams in communication engineering are represented graphically on a two-dimensional plane.

Electricity and electronics[edit]

Main articles: Electricity and Electronics

If six equal resistors are soldered together to form a tetrahedron, then the resistance measured between any two vertices is half that of one resistor.[23][24]

Since silicon is the most common semiconductor used in solid-state electronics, and silicon has a valence of four, the tetrahedral shape of the four chemical bonds in silicon is a strong influence on how crystals of silicon form and what shapes they assume.


Main article: Game

The Royal Game of Ur, dating from 2600 BC, was played with a set of tetrahedral dice.

Especially in roleplaying, this solid is known as a 4-sided die, one of the more common polyhedral dice, with the number rolled appearing around the bottom or on the top vertex. Some Rubik's Cube-like puzzles are tetrahedral, such as the Pyraminx and Pyramorphix.

The net of a tetrahedron also makes the famous Triforce from Nintendo's The Legend of Zelda franchise.

Color space[edit]

Main article: Color space

Tetrahedra are used in color space conversion algorithms specifically for cases in which the luminance axis diagonally segments the color space (e.g. RGB, CMY).[25]

Contemporary art[edit]

Main article: Contemporary art

The Austrian artist Martina Schettina created a tetrahedron using fluorescent lamps. It was shown at the light art biennale Austria 2010.[26]

It is used as album artwork, surrounded by black flames on The End of All Things to Come by Mudvayne.

Popular culture[edit]

Stanley Kubrick originally intended the monolith in 2001: A Space Odyssey to be a tetrahedron, according to Marvin Minsky, a cognitive scientist and expert on artificial intelligence who advised Kubrick on the HAL 9000 computer and other aspects of the movie. Kubrick scrapped the idea of using the tetrahedron as a visitor who saw footage of it did not recognize what it was and he did not want anything in the movie regular people did not understand.[27]

In Season 6, Episode 15 of Futurama, named "Möbius Dick", the Planet Express crew pass through an area in space known as the Bermuda Tetrahedron. Many other ships passing through the area have mysteriously disappeared, including that of the first Planet Express crew.

In the 2013 film Oblivion the large structure in orbit above the Earth is of a tetrahedron design and referred to as the Tet.


Main article: Geology

The tetrahedral hypothesis, originally published by William Lowthian Green to explain the formation of the Earth,[28] was popular through the early 20th century.[29][30]

Structural engineering[edit]

A tetrahedron having stiff edges is inherently rigid. For this reason it is often used to stiffen frame structures such as spaceframes.


At some airfields, a large frame in the shape of a tetrahedron with two sides covered with a thin material is mounted on a rotating pivot and always points into the wind. It is built big enough to be seen from the air and is sometimes illuminated. Its purpose is to serve as a reference to pilots indicating wind direction.[31]

Tetrahedral graph[edit]

Tetrahedral graph
3-simplex t0.svg
Vertices 4
Edges 6
Radius 1
Diameter 1
Girth 3
Automorphisms 24
Chromatic number 4

The skeleton of the tetrahedron (the vertices and edges) form a graph, with 4 vertices, and 6 edges. It is a special case of the complete graph, K4, and wheel graph, W4.[32] It is one of 5 Platonic graphs, each a skeleton of its Platonic solid.

3-simplex t0 A2.svg
3-fold symmetry

See also[edit]


  1. ^ a b Weisstein, Eric W. "Tetrahedron". MathWorld. 
  2. ^ a b c d e f Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald; Regular Polytopes, Methuen and Co., 1948, Table I(i)
  3. ^ Köller, Jürgen, "Tetrahedron", Mathematische Basteleien, 2001
  4. ^ "Angle Between 2 Legs of a Tetrahedron", Maze5.net
  5. ^ a b Valence Angle of the Tetrahedral Carbon Atom W.E. Brittin, J. Chem. Educ., 1945, 22 (3), p 145
  6. ^ Park, Poo-Sung. "Regular polytope distances", Forum Geometricorum 16, 2016, 227-232. http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2016volume16/FG201627.pdf
  7. ^ Sections of a Tetrahedron
  8. ^ "Simplex Volumes and the Cayley-Menger Determinant", MathPages.com
  9. ^ Kahan, William M.; "What has the Volume of a Tetrahedron to do with Computer Programming Languages?", pp. 16–17
  10. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Tetrahedron." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Tetrahedron.html
  11. ^ Altshiller-Court, N. "The tetrahedron." Ch. 4 in Modern Pure Solid Geometry: Chelsea, 1979.
  12. ^ Murakami, Jun; Yano, Masakazu (2005), "On the volume of a hyperbolic and spherical tetrahedron", Communications in Analysis and Geometry, 13 (2): 379–400, ISSN 1019-8385, MR 2154824 
  13. ^ Havlicek, Hans; Weiß, Gunter (2003). "Altitudes of a tetrahedron and traceless quadratic forms" (PDF). American Mathematical Monthly. 110 (8): 679–693. doi:10.2307/3647851. JSTOR 3647851. 
  14. ^ Leung, Kam-tim; and Suen, Suk-nam; "Vectors, matrices and geometry", Hong Kong University Press, 1994, pp. 53–54
  15. ^ Outudee, Somluck; New, Stephen. The Various Kinds of Centres of Simplices (PDF). Dept of Mathematics, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. 
  16. ^ Audet, Daniel (May 2011). "Déterminants sphérique et hyperbolique de Cayley-Menger" (PDF). Bulletin AMQ. 
  17. ^ Senechal, Marjorie (1981). "Which tetrahedra fill space?". Mathematics Magazine. Mathematical Association of America. 54 (5): 227–243. doi:10.2307/2689983. JSTOR 2689983 
  18. ^ Rassat, André; Fowler, Patrick W. (2004). "Is There a "Most Chiral Tetrahedron"?". Chemistry: A European Journal. 10 (24): 6575–6580. doi:10.1002/chem.200400869 
  19. ^ Lee, Jung Rye (June 1997). "The Law of Cosines in a Tetrahedron". J. Korea Soc. Math. Educ. Ser. B: Pure Appl. Math. 
  20. ^ a b c d Inequalities proposed in “Crux Mathematicorum, [1].
  21. ^ a b Wacław Sierpiński, Pythagorean Triangles, Dover Publications, 2003 (orig. ed. 1962).
  22. ^ "Angle Between 2 Legs of a Tetrahedron" – Maze5.net
  23. ^ Klein, Douglas J. (2002). "Resistance-Distance Sum Rules" (PDF). Croatica Chemica Acta. 75 (2): 633–649. Retrieved 2006-09-15. 
  24. ^ Záležák, Tomáš (18 October 2007); "Resistance of a regular tetrahedron" (PDF), retrieved 25 Jan 2011
  25. ^ Vondran, Gary L. (April 1998). "Radial and Pruned Tetrahedral Interpolation Techniques" (PDF). HP Technical Report. HPL-98-95: 1–32. 
  26. ^ Lightart-Biennale Austria 2010
  27. ^ "Marvin Minsky: Stanley Kubrick Scraps the Tetrahedron". Web of Stories. Retrieved 20 February 2012. 
  28. ^ Green, William Lowthian (1875). Vestiges of the Molten Globe, as exhibited in the figure of the earth, volcanic action and physiography. Part I. London: E. Stanford. OCLC 3571917. 
  29. ^ Holmes, Arthur (1965). Principles of physical geology. Nelson. p. 32. 
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External links[edit]

Fundamental convex regular and uniform polytopes in dimensions 2–10
Regular polygon Triangle Square p-gon Hexagon Pentagon
Uniform polyhedron Tetrahedron OctahedronCube Demicube DodecahedronIcosahedron
Topics: Polytope familiesRegular polytopeList of regular polytopes and compounds