Soleil et chair ("Sun and Flesh" in English) is a poem written by Arthur Rimbaud in May 1870, the work, while being unmistakably Rimbaud, nevertheless exhibits the influence that both Romanticism and Latin writers such as Titus Lucretius Carus, ( 15 October 99 BC – c. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher,and been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system which was formalised from 1834 by who?
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Soleil et chair Soleil et chair ("Sun and Flesh" in English) is a poem written by Arthur Rimbaud in May 1870. The work, while being unmistakably Rimbaud, nevertheless exhibits the influence that both Romanticism and Latin writers such as Horace, Virgil, and Lucretius had on his early style. It takes the tone of a hymn to the sun and earth—with overt sexual overtones—which periodically lapses into a lament of the abyss that now separates Man from Nature. Throughout, double entendres figure widely, often providing the sexual innuendos. The poem, which consists of four sections, is written in Alexandrines, or 12-syllable lines—typical to French verse in the same way that iambic pentameter is to English. In spite of its relatively classical form, the direct nature of its venereal themes sounds shockingly modern to even today's reader; moreover, the sheer creativity of Rimbaud's imagery would seem to presage his later refinement of this stylistic trait, which has since earned him the title of Visionary.
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Lucretius Titus Lucretius Carus ( ; 15 October 99 BC – c. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the didactic philosophical poem "De rerum natura" about the tenets and philosophy of Epicureanism, and which is usually translated into English as "On the Nature of Things". Lucretius has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system which was formalised from 1834 by C. J. Thomsen.
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Juvenal Decimus Iūnius Iuvenālis ] , known in English as Juvenal , was a Roman poet active in the late first and early second century AD. He is the author of the collection of satirical poems known as the "Satires". The details of the author's life are unclear, although references within his text to known persons of the late first and early second centuries AD fix his earliest date of composition.
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Joseph de Jouvancy Joseph de Jouvancy (also Jouvency; Latinised Josephus Juvencius) (September 14, 1643 – May 29, 1719 Rome ) was a French poet, pedagogue, philologist, and historian.
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Laurent de Premierfait Laurent de Premierfait (c. 1370 – 1418) was a Latin poet, a humanist and in the first rank of French language translators of the fifteenth century, during the time of the mad king Charles VI of France. To judge from the uses made of "Du cas des nobles hommes et femmes" in England, and the sheer number of surviving manuscripts of it (sixty-five in a 1955 count), it was extremely popular in Western Europe throughout the fifteenth century. Laurent made two translations of the Boccaccio work, the second considerably more free. A large percentage of surviving manuscripts are carefully written and illuminated with illustrations.
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Lucretia Lucretia ( ) or Lucrece (Latin: "Lucretia" ; died  510 BC ) was an ancient Roman woman whose fate played a vital role in the transition of Roman government from the Roman Kingdom to the Roman Republic. While there were no contemporary sources, accounts from Roman historian Livy (Livius) and Greek-Roman historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus from the time of Emperor Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) agreed that there was such a woman and that her suicide after being raped by an Etruscan king's son was the immediate cause of the anti-monarchist rebellion that overthrew the monarchy.
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Stoic physics Stoic physics is the natural philosophy adopted by the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome used to explain the natural processes at work in the universe. To the Stoics the universe is a single pantheistic God, but one which is also a material substance. The primitive substance of the universe is a divine essence ("pneuma") which is the basis of everything which exists. The separation of force from matter produces a divine fire ("aether") which, as the basis of all matter, is differentiated into elements and shaped by the tension caused by the "pneuma" working according to the divine reason ("logos") of the universe. These processes are responsible for the formation, the development, and ultimately, the destruction of the universe in a never-ending cycle ("palingenesis"). The human soul is an emanation from the fiery "aether" which permeates the universe, and sensation is transmission of "pneuma-currents" from objects, which interact with the substance of the mind, which is the soul's ruling part. The Stoics also recognised the existence of other gods and divine agents as manifestations of the one primitive God-substance.
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Ludovico Ariosto Ludovico Ariosto (] ; 8 September 1474 – 6 July 1533) was an Italian poet. He is best known as the author of the romance epic "Orlando Furioso" (1516). The poem, a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's "Orlando Innamorato", describes the adventures of Charlemagne, Orlando, and the Franks as they battle against the Saracens with diversions into many sideplots. Ariosto composed the poem in the ottava rima rhyme scheme and introduced narrative commentary throughout the work.
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Alexander of Paris Alexander of Paris, also known as Alexander of Bernay, was a Norman poet of the 12th century, who wrote "Li romans d'Alexandre" ("Romance of Alexander"), one of the first poems written in French on the mythical exploits of Alexander the Great. It was composed in twelve-syllable lines, named alexandrines after this work (or possible after him). He was born in Bernay, Eure.
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Medievalism Medievalism is the system of belief and practice characteristic of the Middle Ages, or devotion to elements of that period, which has been expressed in areas such as architecture, literature, music, art, philosophy, scholarship, and various vehicles of popular culture. Since the eighteenth century, a variety of movements have used the medieval period as a model or inspiration for creative activity, including Romanticism, the Gothic revival, the Pre-Raphaelite and arts and crafts movements and neo-medievalism (a term often used interchangeably with medievalism). The words "medievalism" and "Medieval" are both first recorded in the nineteenth century. "Medieval" is derived from Latin "medium aevum" (middle of the ages).
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Le Livre de l'Espérance Le "Livre de l’Espérance", (The Book of Hope) also called the "Consolation des Trois Vertus" or the "Livre de l’Exile", was written by the French poet and statesman Alain Chartier. Begun in 1429, the work was not yet complete by the author's death in 1430. It is a lengthy dream vision and allegory of political, theological and poetic significance written in both verse and prose Middle French. Modeled on the Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius, instead of finding consolation through Dame Philosophy, it is the three Christian virtues, Faith, Hope, and Charity, who offer solace.
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Metamorphoses The Metamorphoses (Latin: "Metamorphōseōn librī" : "Books of Transformations") is a Latin narrative poem by the Roman poet Ovid, considered his "magnum opus". Comprising fifteen books and over 250 myths, the poem chronicles the history of the world from its creation to the deification of Julius Caesar within a loose mythico-historical framework.
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Psyche (book) Psyche (German: "Psyche, zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Seele" ) is an 1846 book by Carl Gustav Carus, a physician and painter noted for his work on animal psychology and physiognomy. In his "The Discovery of the Unconscious" (1970), Henri Ellenberger calls "Psyche" "the life-work of a physician and keen observer of the human mind" and "the first attempt to give a complete and objective theory on unconscious psychological life", adding that "It shows the shape reached by the theory of the unconscious at the end of the Romantic period, before the positivistic trend became dominant." He notes that Carus influenced Eduard von Hartmann and later Carl Jung. According to him, Carus defines psychology as "the science of the soul's development from the unconscious to the conscious" and believes that "human life is divided into three periods: (1) A pre-embryonic period in which the individual merely exists as a tiny cell within the mother's ovary. (2) the embryonic period; through fecundation, in which the individual is suddenly wakened from his long sleep, and the formative unconscious develops. (3) After birth, in which the formative unconscious continues to direct the individual's growth and the function of his organs. Consciousness arises gradually, but it always remains under the influence of the unconscious and the individual periodically returns to it in his sleep."
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Apollonius of Rhodes Apollonius of Rhodes (Ancient Greek: Ἀπολλώνιος Ῥόδιος "Apollṓnios Rhódios"; Latin: "Apollonius Rhodius" ; fl. first half of 3rd century BCE), was an ancient Greek author, best known for the "Argonautica", an epic poem about Jason and the Argonauts and their quest for the Golden Fleece. The poem is one of the few extant examples of the epic genre and it was both innovative and influential, providing Ptolemaic Egypt with a "cultural mnemonic" or national "archive of images", and offering the Latin poets Virgil and Gaius Valerius Flaccus a model for their own epics. His other poems, which survive only in small fragments, concerned the beginnings or foundations of cities, such as Alexandria and Cnidusplaces of interest to the Ptolemies, whom he served as a scholar and librarian at the Library of Alexandria. A literary dispute with Callimachus, another Alexandrian librarian/poet, is a topic much discussed by modern scholars since it is thought to give some insight into their poetry, although there is very little evidence that there ever was such a dispute between the two men. In fact almost nothing at all is known about Apollonius and even his connection with Rhodes is a matter for speculation. Once considered a mere imitator of Homer, and therefore a failure as a poet, his reputation has been enhanced by recent studies, with an emphasis on the special characteristics of Hellenistic poets as scholarly heirs of a long literary tradition writing at a unique time in history.
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Friedrich Hölderlin Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (] ; 20 March 1770 – 7 June 1843) was a German poet. Described by Norbert von Hellingrath as "the most German of Germans," Hölderlin was a key figure of German Romanticism. Particularly due to his early association with and philosophical influence on Hegel and Schelling, he was also an important thinker in the development of German Idealism.
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Claudian Claudius Claudianus, usually known in English as Claudian ( ; c. 370 – c. 404 AD), was a Latin poet associated with the court of the emperor Honorius at Mediolanum (Milan), and particularly with the general Stilicho. His work, written almost entirely in hexameters or elegiac couplets, falls into three main categories: poems for Honorius, poems for Stilicho, and mythological epic.
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Carl Gustav Carus Carl Gustav Carus (3 January 1789 – 28 July 1869) was a German physiologist and painter, born in Leipzig, who played various roles during the Romantic era. A friend of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, he was a many-sided man: a doctor, a naturalist, a scientist, a psychologist, and a landscape painter who studied under Caspar David Friedrich.
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Naturphilosophie Naturphilosophie ("philosophy of nature" or "nature-philosophy" in German) is a term used in English-language philosophy to identify a current in the philosophical tradition of German idealism, as applied to the study of nature in the earlier 19th century. German speakers use the clearer term "Romantische Naturphilosophie", the philosophy of nature developed at the time of the founding of German Romanticism. It is particularly associated with the philosophical work of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, though it has some clear precursors also. More particularly it is identified with some of the initial works of Schelling during the period 1797–9, in reaction to the views of Fichte, and subsequent developments from Schelling's position. Always controversial, some of Schelling's ideas in this direction are still considered of philosophical interest, even if the subsequent development of experimental natural science had a destructive impact on the credibility of the theories of his followers in "Naturphilosophie".
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Macrobius Macrobius, fully Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, also known as Theodosius, was a Roman provincial who lived during the early fifth century, at the transition of the Roman to the Byzantine Empire, and when Latin was as widespread as Greek among the elite. He is primarily known for his writings, which include the widely copied and read "Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis" ("Commentary on the Dream of Scipio"), which was one of the most important sources for Platonism in the Latin West during the Middle Ages, the "Saturnalia", a compendium of ancient Roman religious and antiquarian lore, and "De differentiis et societatibus graeci latinique verbi" ("On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb"), which is now lost.
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German new humanism The German new humanism or Neuhumanismus was a movement that emerged in Germany around 1750. The term was coined by the historian Friedrich Paulsen in 1885. It was a continuation of the original humanism of the renaissance. Central to the movement was a rediscovery of the Antiquity, and the movement was linked to a humanistic idea of knowledge, referred to as Bildung, and to the idea of "humanity", the intellectual, physical, and moral formation of "a better human being." Some its major participants include Johann Matthias Gesner, Johann August Ernesti, Christian Gottlob Heyne, Friedrich August Wolf, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Johann Gottfried Herder, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Friedrich Hölderlin and Wilhelm von Humboldt.
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William Wordsworth William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication "Lyrical Ballads" (1798).
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Astronomica (Manilius) The Astronomica (] or ]), also known as the Astronomicon, is a Latin didactic poem written in hexameters and divided into five books about celestial phenomena. The "Astronomica" was penned c. AD 10– 20 by a Roman poet whose name was likely Marcus Manilius; little is known of Manilius, and although there is evidence that the "Astronomica" was read by many other Roman writers, no surviving works quote him. The poem was rediscovered c. 1416– 1417 by the Italian humanist and scholar Poggio Bracciolini, who had a copy made from which the modern text derives.