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Although adult arsonists can cause a devastating loss in property and
lives, very little is known about them.
However, the 2001-2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related
Conditions, a nationally representative sample of some 43,000 Americans aged
18 or older, gave some scientists an unprecedented opportunity to learn more
about adult arsonists because one of the many questions asked of those
surveyed was the following: "In your entire life, did you ever start a
fire on purpose to destroy someone else's property or just to see it
Out of the approximately 43,000 survey respondents, some 400 individuals
answered yes to this question, the scientists reported online July 10 in
Comprehensive Psychiatry. Thus, extrapolating from this finding, it
looks as if arsonists constitute 1 percent of the U.S. population.
Moreover, by comparing survey responses from the individuals who reported
having intentionally started fires with those from the individuals who had
not, the scientists were able to glean some valuable insights into adult
"I expect the study findings will be of interest not only to the
psychiatric community, but also to insurance-company personnel, municipal
firefighters, and other entities affected by the serious costs associated with
arson," Vaughn noted. For instance, their findings might help the police
better profile arsonists. Also, "Given the substantial personal and
social costs related to arson, prevention and treatment interventions
targeting fire setters potentially could save lives and property,"
Vaughn and his colleagues wrote.
The study was funded by the National Institutes of Health.
An abstract of "Prevalence and Correlates of Fire Setting in
the United States: Results From the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol
and Related Conditions" can be accessed at<www.sciencedirect.com>
under "Browse by Title," "C," and then"
Comprehensive Psychiatry Articles in Press." ▪ |
|reflectional symmetry|| |
when you can fold a design along a line of symmetry so that all points on one side of the line exactly match all the points on the other side. Also called line or mirror symmetry.
|rotational symmetry|| |
when a design looks the same after you turn it around a point by less than a full circle. The # of times it looks the same as you turn it a full 360 degrees determines the type (3-fold, 5-fold etc.)
|bilateral symmetry|| |
when an object has just one line of reflectional symmetry. (butterfly or human body etc.)
a straight , continuous arrangement of infinitely many points, with infinite length but no thickness, extending forever in two directions. Named by giving the letter names of any two points on the line and by placing the line symbol above the letters.
|plane||has infinite length and infinite width, but no thickness. Named with a script capital letter.|
on the same line.
on the same plane.
|line segment|| |
a set of points on a line consisting of two endpoints and all the points between them.
|congruent segments|| |
line segments that have the same length.
the point on a segment that is the same distance from both endpoints.
the midpoint bisects the segment,or divides the segment into two congruent segments.
a straight line extending from a point.
|Coordinate Midpoint Property||if (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the coordinates of the endpoints of a segment, then the coordinates of the midpoint are (x1+x2/2, y1+y2/2)|
formed by two rays that share a common endpoint, provided that the two rays are noncollinear.
the common endpoint of the two rays of an angle.
|sides of an angle|| |
the two rays of an angle
|measure of an angle|| |
the smallest amount of rotation about the vertex from one ray to the other, measured in degrees.
|congruent angles|| |
if and only if two angles have the same measure. You use identical markings to show on a figure.
|angle bisector||a ray is the angle bisector if it contains the vertex and divides the angle into two congruent angles.|
|incoming angle (in pool)||is formed by the cushion and the path of the ball approaching the cushion.|
|outgoing angle (in pool)||is formed by the cushion and the path of the ball leaving the cushion.|
|Steps to creating a good definition|| 1. Classify your term. What is it?|
2. Differentiate your term. How does it differ from others in that class?
3. Test your definition by looking for a counterexample.
|right angle|| |
an angle that measures exactly 90 degrees
|acute angle|| |
an angle that measures less than 90 degrees.
|obtuse angle|| |
an angle that measures more than 90 degrees but less than 180 degrees
|Pair of vertical angles||angles formed by two intersecting lines; they share a common vertex but not a common side|
|Pair of linear angles||two supplementary adjacent angles formed by 2 intersecting lines ; they share a vertex and a side|
|Pair of Supplementary angles||two angles whose measures have a sum of 180 degrees|
|Pair of Complementary angles|| |
two angles that have the sum of 90 degrees.
a closed figure in a plane, formed by connecting line segments endpoint to endpoint with each segment intersecting exactly two others. Each line segment is called a side of the polygon and each endpoint where the sides meet is called a vertex.
|Diagonal of a polygon|| |
a line segment that connects two nonconsecutive vertices.
|Convex polygon|| |
if no diagonal of a polygon is outside the polygon.
|Concave polygon||if at least one diagonal of the polygon is outside the polygon.|
|Congruent polygons||if and only if polygons are exactly the same size and shape.|
|Equilateral polygon||all the sides of a polygon have equal length.|
|Equiangular polygon||all the angles have equal measure.|
|Regular polygon||is both equilateral and equiangular|
|Right triangle|| |
a triangle with one right angle.
|Acute triangle||a triangle with 3 acute angles (less than 90 degrees)|
|Obtuse triangle||a triangle where one angle is obtuse (measures over 90 degrees).|
|Scalene triangle||a triangle that has no congruent sides.|
|Equilateral triangle||a triangle with three congruent sides.|
|Isosceles triangle||a triangle with at least 2 congruent sides.|
|Trapezoid||a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides.|
|Parallelogram||a quadrilateral with 2 pairs of parallel sides|
|Rhombus||an equilateral parallelogram.|
|Rectangle||a parallelogram with four right angles|
an equilateral rectangle.
the set of all points in a plane at a given distance (radius) from a given point (center) in the plane. Has an arc measure of 360 degrees.
|Radius||a segment from the center to a point on the edge of the circle. It's length is also called the radius.|
|Diameter||a line segment containing the center, with its endpoints on the circle. The length of this segment is also called the diameter.|
|Congruent circles||two or more circles that have the same radius.|
|Concentric circles|| |
two or more coplanar circles that share the same center.
|Arc of a circle||two points on the circle and the continuous (unbroken) part of teh circle between the two points. The two points are called the endpoints of the arc.|
an arc of a circle whose endpoints are the endpoints of a diameter. It has an arc measure of 180 degrees.
|Minor arc||an arc of a circle that is smaller than a semicircle.|
|Major arc||an arc of a circle that is larger than a semicircle.|
|Central angle of a circle||the angle with its vertex at the center of the circle, and sides passing through the endpoints of the arc.|
|Chord||line segment whose endpoints are any two points on a circle|
|Tangent||a line in the plane of a circle that intersects the circle in exactly one point|
|Prism||A solid figure that has two congruent, parallel polygons as its bases. Its sides are parallelograms|
a solid figure with a polygon base and triangular sides that meet at a single point
|Cylinder||a 3-dimensional figure that has 2 congruent circular faces (soup can)|
|Cone||a shape whose base is a circle and whose sides taper up to a point|
|Sphere||a three-dimensional closed surface such that every point on the surface is equidistant from the center|
|Hemisphere||half of a sphere|
|Space||the set of all points.|
|Isometric drawing||a 2-D drawing of an 3-D object, in which 3 sides of the object are shown from a corner view.|
|Inductive reasoning||the process of observing data, recognizing patterns, and making generalizations about those patterns.|
|Conjecture||a generalization made from inductive reasoning.|
|Deductive reasoning||the process of showing that certain statements follow logically from agreed-upon assumptions and proven facts. Involves logical and orderly reasoning from accepted truths.|
|Function rule||the rule that gives the nth term for a sequence.|
|Linear function||rules that generate a sequence with a constant difference. In the form f(n)=mx+b, where: f(n) is the value (y) or dependant variable; x is the term# or independant variable, m is the constant difference (coefficient, slope) and b is the y-intercept.|
|Segment bisector||a line, rar, or segment in a plane that passes through the midpoint of a segment in a plane.|
|Perpendicular bisector||The one segment in a plane that is also perpendicular to the segment.|
|Median of a triangle||the segment connecting the vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of its opposite side.|
|Midsegment of a triangle||the segment that connects the midpoints of two sides of a triangle.|
|Distance from a point to a line||is the length of the perpendicular segment from the point to the line.|
|Altitude of a triangle||a perpendicular segment from a vertex to the opposite side or to a line containing the opposite side. It may be inside the triangle, outside the triangle or one of its sides. The length of the altitude is the height of the triangle. Every triangle has three.|
|Concurrent||when three or more lines have a point in common. The point of intersection of segments, rays, planes or lines is called "the point of concurrency"|
|Incenter||The point of concurrency for the three angle bisectors of a triangle.|
|Circumcenter||The point of concurrency for the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle.|
|Orthocenter||The point of concurrency for the three altitudes of a triangle.|
|Centroid||The point of concurrency for the three medians of a triangle.|
|Auxilary line||An extra line added to help with a proof.|
|Parts of a triangle||in a diagram, know which is: the vertex angle, the base angles, the legs and the base.|
|CPCTC||an abbreviation for the definition of congruent triangles which states that "corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent." This can be used in proofs.|
Flickr Creative Commons Images
Some images used in this set are licensed under the Creative Commons through Flickr.com. Click to see the original works with their full license.
- "reflectional symmetry" image
- "rotational symmetry" image
- "bilateral symmetry" image
- "line" image
- "collinear" image
- "coplanar" image
- "line segment" image
- "congruent segments" image
- "midpoint" image
- "bisect" image
- "ray" image
- "angle" image
- "vertex" image
- "sides of an angle" image
- "measure of an angle" image
- "congruent angles" image
- "right angle" image
- "acute angle" image
- "obtuse angle" image
- "Pair of Complementary angles" image
- "Polygon" image
- "Diagonal of a polygon" image
- "Convex polygon" image
- "Right triangle" image
- "Square" image
- "Circle" image
- "Concentric circles" image
- "Semicircle" image
- "Pyramid" image
This product uses the Flickr API but is not endorsed or certified by Flickr. |
by Toni Morrison
Frank Money and his sister Cee are profoundly lost, divided from each other and from themselves as they search for direction and hope in 1950s America. Frank joined the army to escape his too-small world, leaving behind his cherished and fragile sister. When he returns to the United States after the war, he is haunted by memories of his childhood and the horrors he witnessed abroad; it is only when he hears that Cee is in danger that his life regains the sense of purpose he had lost.
As the novel begins, Frank finds himself in a mental institution, where he has been drugged and strapped to a bed. He has no idea how or why he got there, only that he must escape. After he frees himself, he takes refuge with a minister who helps him begin his journey back to Georgia, where he has been summoned to help save his gravely ill sister.
Cee had taken a job “assisting” Dr. Beauregard Scott, an unrepentant Confederate. In fact, she has become the subject of his experiments in eugenics, which have made her infertile and endangered her life.
As Frank travels back to Georgia, we learn about his story and his history: the terrors of combat in Korea and the traumas of a childhood in the Deep South. Cee and Frank grew up in the small town of Lotus, where they were raised in the house of their coldhearted grandmother, Lenore. As a black man in Georgia, Frank endured daily injustices, and he and Cee are shattered by buried secrets and horrible visions of racial violence.
Home follows the classic structure of the hero’s journey. Frank, a modern Odysseus, leaves home, undergoes horrific trials that test his moral strength, and then returns home a chastened and changed man. He is filled with regrets about friends he could not save on the battlefield, but when he learns that Cee is endangered he is given the chance to rescue his sister.
Home is not only about one man finding his manhood and his home. It is also about the healing power of women—of Miss Ethel Fordham and her friends in Lotus, who nurse Cee back to health and nurture her in her time of need. Fierce, unflinching, deeply compassionate—and rooted in traditional healing practices—their methods are sharply contrasted with the self-serving, aggressive techniques of a patriarchal medical industry.
In Home, Morrison vividly evokes—through the trials of a brother and sister—the particular brand of racism that prevailed just before the end of Jim Crow and the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement. In dramatizing the abuses of the medical system, the devastating effects of war on those who fight it, and the meaning of both leaving and coming home, she holds a mirror up to our own time as well.
top of the page
1. Why has Toni Morrison chosen Home for her title? In what ways is the novel about both leaving home and coming home? What does home mean for Frank, for Cee, for Lenore, for Lily?
2. The race of the characters is not specified in the novel. How does Morrison make clear which characters are black and which are white? Why might she have chosen not to identify characters explicitly by their race?
3. What is the effect of alternating between Frank’s first-person (italicized) narration and the third-person omniscient narration through which most of the story is told? What is the implied relationship between Frank and the narrator?
4. Talking about the horrors of war in Korea, Frank tells the reader: “You can’t imagine it because you weren’t there” [p. 93]. Does the reader succeed in imagining it even though he or she was not there? How close to another’s experience, even those radically unlike our own, can imagination take us?
5. How has Frank’s war experience affected him? What symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder does he exhibit? In what ways does he suffer from survivor guilt?
6. In what sense can Home be understood as Frank’s confession?
7. In what very concrete ways does Cee’s lack of education hurt her? How might she have been saved from infertility had she understood the implication of the books about eugenics in Dr. Beau’s office?
8. Why do the women who heal Cee have such contempt for “the medical industry”? [p. 122]. In what ways are Frank and Cee both victims of a medical system that puts its own aims above the heath of its patients? Does Home offer an implicit critique of our own health-care system?
9. What methods do Miss Ethel Fordham and the other women use to nurse Cee back to health? Why do they feel Frank’s male energy might hinder the healing process? What larger point is Morrison making about the difference between feminine and masculine, or earth-based and industrial, ways of treating illness?
10. Frank doesn’t know “what took place during those weeks at Miss Ethel’s house surrounded by those women with seen-it-all eyes,” only that they “delivered unto him a Cee who would never again need his hand over her eyes or his arms to stop her murmuring bones” [p. 128]. In what ways is Cee transformed by the treatment, and the wise counsel, that Miss Ethel gives her?
11. Both Frank and Cee were eager to leave Lotus, Georgia, and never return. Why do they find it so comforting when they do go back? What is it about the place and people that feels to Frank “both fresh and ancient, safe and demanding” [p. 132] and makes Cee declare that this is where she belongs?
12. How have Miss Ethel and the other women in her community learned not just to live with but to rise above the limitations imposed on them? What moral code do they live by?
13. Why does Frank decide to give a proper burial to the man killed for sport --- and whose undignified burial Frank and Cee witnessed as children --- at the end of the novel? Why would this act be emotionally important for him? Why has Morrison structured the novel so that the end mirrors the beginning?
14. The flowering lotus is a plant of extraordinary beauty, but it is rooted in the muck at the bottom of ponds. In what ways is the fictional town of lotus, Georgia, like a lotus plant?
15. Why is it important that Frank does not resort to violence against Dr. Beau? In what ways has Frank been changed by the experiences he undergoes in the novel?
16. Much has been written about racism in America. What does Home add to our understanding of the suffering blacks endured during the late 1940s and early ‘50s? What is most surprising, and distressing, about the story Morrison tells?
Suggested Further Reading
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"Home is a daringly hopeful story about the possibility of healing --- or at least surviving in a shadow of peace. . . . This scarily quiet tale packs all the thundering themes Morrison has explored before. She's never been more concise, though, and that restraint demonstrates the full range of her power."
Ron Charles, The Washington Post
"A bona fide literary event . . . Homeis a moving testament to taking responsibility for your own life --- especially the parts you'd like to look away from. Grade: A-"
"Profound . . . This story of a man struggling to reclaim his roots and his manhood is enormously powerful."
O, The Oprah Magazine |
• Mod[m, n] gives the remainder on division of m by n.
• Mod[m, n, d] uses an offset d.
• For integers
and Mod[m, n]
lies between 0 and
• Mod[m, n, 1]
gives a result in the range
, suitable for use in functions such as Part
• Mod[m, n, d]
gives a result
• The sign of Mod[m, n] is always the same as the sign of n, at least so long as m and n are both real.
• Mod[m, n] is equivalent to m - n Quotient[m, n].
• Mod[m, n, d] is equivalent to m - n Quotient[m, n, d].
• The arguments of Mod can be any numeric quantities, not necessarily integers.
• Mod[x, 1] gives the fractional part of x.
• For exact numeric quantities, Mod
internally uses numerical approximations to establish its result. This process can be affected by the setting of the global variable $MaxExtraPrecision
• New in Version 1; modified in 4. |
[Embargoed for January 28, 2003, to coincide with the release of the January issue of the journal Pathophysiology.]
TOPICAL OXYGEN HELPS HARD-TO-HEAL WOUNDS HEAL FASTER AND BETTER
COLUMBUS, Ohio – A new study suggests that brief exposures to pure oxygen not only help chronic and other hard-to-heal wounds heal completely, such exposures also help wounds heal faster.
Ohio State University surgical scientists used topical oxygen therapy to treat 30 patients with a total of 56 wounds. The therapy required placing a bag containing pure oxygen over the wound for 90 minutes a day. More than two-thirds of the difficult wounds healed with the oxygen treatment alone.
Wounds in this clinical study ranged from post-surgical wounds to injuries resulting from acute trauma to ulcers – such as diabetic hand ulcers and bedsores. Many of the patients had conditions like diabetes that hindered wound healing.
Ultimately, more than two-thirds (38 out of 56) of the wounds healed with the oxygen treatment alone. Four additional wounds required surgery for complete closure. Altogether, three-quarters of the wounds healed with the use of topical oxygen.
“The quality of closure is very impressive,” said Chandan Sen, the study’s lead author and director of the Wound Healing Research Program in Ohio State’s department of surgery. “There was much less scarring than we had anticipated.”
“In most cases, the amount of residual scar tissue in the healed wounds after oxygen therapy appeared to be substantially less than we would expect after treatment with more standard forms of wound care,” said Gayle Gordillo, a study co-author and a plastic surgeon at Ohio State. “There was less defective tissue in the area once the wound healed.”
The research appears in the current issue of the journal Pathophysiology. Sen and Gordillo conducted the clinical case series study with Richard Schlanger, director of Ohio State’s wound healing clinic, and Loree Kalliainen, of Ohio State’s department of surgery.
Physicians at the university’s medical center monitored participants for up to nine months.
The study included people who had wounds that failed to heal with standard treatments, such as with stitches or the addition of wound care creams, and wounds at high risk of developing healing problems after surgery.
Topical oxygen treatment was delivered with an inflatable, see-through plastic bag with edges that adhered to the skin. It was secured around the affected limb or wounded area, and pure oxygen was administered for 90 minutes a day for four days, followed by a three-day rest period. This cycle was repeated for as long as the wound appeared to be healing.
Participants were treated in the hospital, in their homes or in extended care facilities. Treatment duration ranged from 24 days to about eight months.
Photos were taken before, during, and at the completion of the therapy. Wounds were considered healed once they were completely covered with epithelial tissue. Follow up ranged from less than one month to eight months. When a wound hadn’t begun to heal after 16 weeks, physicians attempted to close the injury with surgery.
Acute traumatic and post-surgical injuries had the best healing rates: such wounds on the trunk, arms and hands had a 75 percent and 100 percent healing rate, respectively. Half of all acute wounds on the legs and feet healed. Chronic wounds that responded well to the oxygen therapy included venous stasis ulcers (92 percent healing rate) and diabetic hand ulcers (91 percent healing rate), while bedsores had a less encouraging 44 percent healing rate.
“The differences in healing rates reinforce a link between other health conditions, such as diabetes and obesity, and wound healing outcomes,” said Sen, who is also the associate director of the Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute. Most patients in the study had at least one health condition, such as diabetes, cancer or an active infection.
Overall, the wounds least responsive to topical oxygen therapy were post-surgical wounds on the legs and feet, pressure ulcers and neuropathic foot ulcers.
“While topical oxygen helps wounds heal, it alone may not be adequate for managing lower extremity wounds and bedsores,” Sen said. “For these types of injuries, topical oxygen may be helpful as an adjunct to surgery or other forms of standard wound care.
“However, it is a good alternative to traditional wound-healing treatments for people with chronic wounds or wounds that have a high chance of healing poorly,” he said. “There have been no reported side effects from topical oxygen treatment, and the majority of chronic wounds in this study plus all of the acute wounds either healed or decreased in size during therapy.”
Topical oxygen chambers, which have FDA approval, may also be a more cost-effective treatment choice, too.
“The cost of a home health-care nurse can run $100 an hour,” said Gordillo. “If a person can take two weeks off his expected healing time, the cost of using topical oxygen will probably pay for itself.”
“The alternative to topical oxygen therapy, high-pressure chamber oxygen therapy, is considerably more expensive,” Sen said. “Also, it’s not readily applicable to all wound patients, as some are sensitive to high levels of oxygen.
“Topical oxygen is a simple form of therapy which, if necessary, many people could use at once, such as in the case of a public disaster,” he said. “These bags are also suitable for use in the field, so the treatment may be an option for deployed military troops. Further research testing the potential of topical oxygen therapy is warranted.”
The researchers received the topical oxygen chambers used in this study from GWR Medical, Inc. The researchers have no financial interests in this company.
Written by Holly Wagner, 614-292-8310; [email protected] |
SMART GRID - NEGAWATT - LED - ENERGY SAVINGS - SHIPPING - ELECTRIC TRUCKS
Efficiency innovation is, simply put, doing more--"getting more"--with less. For instance, the notion of the "negawatt": a unit of energy that is NOT created (when it otherwise would have been) due to energy savings and efficiency (and the follow up notion of an arbitrage market on which these negawatts might then be exchanged). New smart grid technology utilizes two way digital communication to manage electricity more efficiently, intelligently monitoring and controlling appliances at consumers' homes in order to increase efficiency and reduce cost. A dish washer is automatically run in the middle of the night (during off peak hours), negawatts are generated, energy is saved. Another example: LEDs create light with less energy expenditure (thus lowering energy consumption) and have a longer lifespan than traditional lighting sources.
Of course energy efficiency doesn't just involve pushing electricity around in a more intelligent fashion--moving physical product from point A to point B more efficiently is also a huge part of the process. A freight train can move a ton of freight 436 miles on a single gallon of fuel; and hence, if more freight is moved by train, we have an obvious, tremendous reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The use of zero-emission electric trucks, in place of the thousands of traditional diesel vehicles currently in use, would dramatically improve the quality of air in all urban environments. And the value chain becomes ever more optimized. |
Sometime before first European contact with the Illini (around 1635) the
Winnebago, a Siouan people, were in sad shape. Surrounded by war-like
Algonquin tribes such as the Fox (Meskwaki), Mascoutens (Fire Nation),
Hurons and others, their numbers were greatly reduced. A particularly
severe defeat at the hands of the Fox greatly weakened the Winnebago.
Then came a crippling epidemic (possibly flux) and starvation followed.
Upon learning of the plight of their northern neighbors, the
Illinois sent 500 men loaded with food northward to assist the Winnebagos
through their tribulations. The Winnebagos welcomed the Illinois,
but during dancing in honor of the Illini, the Winnebagos surprised
their guests and killed them. They then made a feast of their rescuers.
Upon learning of this treachery, the Illini dispatched a large war
party to avenge their dead. Knowing that the Illinois did not use bark-skinned
portable canoes, the Winnebago retreated to an island (in Lake Winnebago?).
Buut the season was advanced. The patient Illini waited until the weather
grew colder and the lake froze. They stormed across the ice, fell upon
the Winnebago, and killed all but 150 or so who were made slaves.
In time, the Illini released their prisoners who are the forefathers of the
surviving Winnebagos. It is possible that not all Winnebago bands were involved in the massacre.
By the mid Eighteenth Century, the Winnebagos were once again an independent
tribe of the Old Northwest.
Although the Illini had decimated the Winnebago, they had also suffered casualties. Taken
with the 500 men lost to treachery, the Illini were in a much weakened state at the worst
possible time. The Iroquois had turned their faces toward the
Return to Illini Home Page
Blasingham, E. The Depopulation of Illinois Indians. Ethnohistory,
Vol 3, No 3, Summer, 1956.
Scott, James. The Illinois Nation The Streator Historical Society, Streator, Il. 1973.
Schlarman, J. From Quebec to New Orleans, Belleville, IL. 1931. |
Origin of the List
Writing as Valerie Smith, I once presented a paper at AAAS in New Orleans with co-authors Jessica Scott and my husband Wayne Coskrey. This list is from that paper, except #10. In the original paper, items 1-9 each had 2 or more peer-reviewed-type references cited. Furthermore, the list is reworded to not be so nerdy.
Re: "Teaching the Science in Science Fiction," 1990.
10 Reasons to Use Science Fiction in the Science Classroom
|Apophysis flame "Spaceman" (c) V. Coskrey|
- SF can motivate students to like science.
- SF models scientific thinking and problem-solving.
- SF presents the science world-view.
- SF illustrates how science and technology affect lives.
- SF examines scientific issues for possible solutions and potential consequences.
- SF models possible futures, preparing students for change.
- SF connects science to the humanities and social sciences.
- SF provides practice in reading skills.
- SF fosters vivid mental images of scientific phenomena.
- SF is fun that can be shared!
Adapted from V. Smith, J. Scott, and W. Coskrey (1990). Teaching the Science in Science Fiction. Unpublished paper presented to AAAS, New Orleans, LA.
Additional Remarks: Start a Conversation
Like any good book shared among friends and associates, science fiction offers conversation starters. Class discussions often need an example to get the students thinking and talking. Examples from books can lead to examples from personal experiences and then to examples from the textbook or the teacher's knowledge.
Now the student is ready to learn technical concepts and vocabulary because the concept has become real to the student. Now the student is ready for a vocabulary word and a definition. Now the student is ready to state a law. Now the student is ready to solve a problem based in math or chemistry. Why now? Because the mental images of concrete examples offer a sense of reality--the science is more real to the student. |
McKnight, Anthony; Hoban, Garry; and Nielsen, Wendy, 2010, Animated storytelling about "my special place" to represent non-Aboriginal preservice teachers' awareness of "relatedness to country", ASCILITE 2010 Conference Proceedings, Sydney, 609-619.
In this study, a group (N=15) of final year non-Aboriginal preservice teachers participated in an elective subject that aimed to raise their awareness about Aboriginal ways of knowing. A vital aspect ofthe course was developing the preservice teachers' awareness of "relatedness to country" which is a key belief for Aboriginal people. The non-Aboriginal preservice teachers selected their own special place and then experienced Aboriginal ways of knowing throughout the course and visited local Aboriginal sites to hear and listen to stories shared by an Aboriginal Elder. At the end ofthe subject, the preservice teachers created their own animated story about their special place. The animation approach used is called "Slowmation" (abbreviated from "Slow Animation") which is a narrated stop-motion animation that is played slowly, at 2 photos/second, to tell a story. It is a simplified way for preservice teachers to make animations that integrates aspects of c1aymation, digital storytelling and object animation. To research this approach the preservice teachers were interviewed at the beginning and end of the course as well as submitting their animation for assessment. Data collected revealed that all the preservice teachers were able to make an animated story explaining their relationship to their "special place' and most developed a deeper understanding of what a relational approach to country means. Getting the preservice teachers to make animated stories helped them to reflect upon their special place and was a creative way to develop their awareness of cultural diversity especially about Aboriginal ways of knowing. |
While large, good condition, well-shaped oysters have high market value, they require optimal growing conditions and labour intensive techniques to culture. To handle this NSW oyster growers are progressively moving towards innovative technologies, one of which allows automated bulk processing of oysters. Growers now purchase sophisticated graders that clean, count and sort large number of oysters quickly and efficiently. While graders are routinely used to count and sort oysters into batches of similar size, these machines are actually measuring the characteristics of individual oysters. This presents an unprecedented opportunity to collect high-quality oyster growth and growing area performance data. This project focuses on the assessment of oyster lease and cultivation method performance. This can be translated into a management tool for improving the industries’ productivity and environmental sustainability. The project also demonstrates the possibility of implementing a long term oyster performance monitoring program, with minimum additional effort from the growers. |
Judges of the Court
About the Judges
The Supreme Court of Canada consists of the Chief Justice of Canada and eight puisne judges appointed by the Governor in Council, all of whom must have been either a judge of a superior court or a member of at least ten years' standing of the bar of a province or territory. The word "puisne" is derived from the ancient French word "puiné", which means "younger". It is used at the Court to distinguish the Chief Justice from the other judges. The Chief Justice is sworn as a member of the Privy Council of Canada before taking the oath of office as Chief Justice.
The judges must devote themselves exclusively to their judicial duties. No judge may hold any other remunerative office or engage in any business enterprise. A judge holds office during good behaviour until he or she retires or attains the age of 75 years, but is removable for incapacity or misconduct in office before that time by the Governor General on address of the Senate and House of Commons.
The Chief Justice presides over all sittings of the Court at which he or she is present. The Chief Justice oversees the work of the Court by designating the panels of judges who are to hear the cases and motions brought before it.
In addition to his or her Court duties, the Chief Justice is chairperson of the Canadian Judicial Council, whose members include the chief justices and associate chief justices of the federal and provincial superior courts, and the senior judges of the territorial superior courts. This body, established by the Judges Act, has a mandate to promote efficiency, uniformity and accountability, as well as to improve the administration of justice throughout Canada.
The Chief Justice also chairs the Board of Governors of the National Judicial Institute. The National Judicial Institute develops and delivers various educational programs for all Canada's federal, provincial and territorial judges.
Moreover, the letters patent of 1947 respecting the office of Governor General provide that, should the Governor General die, become incapacitated, be removed or be absent from the country for a period of more than one month, the Chief Justice or, if the Chief Justice is unavailable, the senior puisne judge of the Supreme Court, would become the Administrator of Canada and exercise all the powers and authorities of the Governor General.
Finally, the Chief Justice of Canada also chairs the committee which advises the Governor General on awards of membership in the Order of Canada. |
Recently there has been much discussion of additional budget cuts in school districts across the nation. Many worry that these additional cuts will affect libraries, including teacher librarians, because administrators are beginning to view them as luxuries rather than necessities.
No one is sure how many jobs will be lost, but The American Association of School Administrators predicts 19% of the nation’s school districts will have fewer librarians next year.
Unfortunately, many fail to recognize the impact librarians have on children. They do more than check out books- they are thoroughly involved in classroom learning and school technology.
The decrease in librarians may severely impact student’s development of information literacy and other key skills. Many children may enjoy spending time in the library but others depend on the library to keep them from falling behind in school.
What is your opinion about school districts removing libraries across the nation? Do you think it will affect children’s learning? Share your opinion on the School Announcement Blog!
For more information on this topic, click here! |
Loquat, an evergreen tree native to China and cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions for its fruit. The tree may reach a height of 30 feet (9 m). It bears clusters of fragrant white flowers. The tart fruit, pear-shaped and yellow to orange, is one to three inches (2.57.5 cm) long. The fruits are eaten and are used to make jelly and preserves. Loquats are grown in California and the Gulf states.
The loquat is Eriobotrya japonica of the rose family, Rosaceae.Loquats are small, yellow-orange tart fruits. |
The Trivers Willard Hypothesis predicts that under certain conditions, individuals will bias their investment in offspring differently depending on the sex of the offspring. It is believed that this can be as extreme as infanticide or as subtle as providing different amounts of breast milk.
A new study by Katherine HInde finds that macaques may do this. However, I think this may be counterintuitive.
Hinde uses data from 106 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to show that first time mothers produce richer milk when they have sons compared to when they have daughters. She suggests that “[t]his difference seems to reflect the tradeoffs between the benefits derived from additional investment in sons and the costs of diverting energy from maternal growth and development.”
The reason that I say that this is counterintuitive is this: Previous studies on female bonded primates have shown relatively little bias in investment … Boyd and Silk showed this to be, essentially, a random relationship so while some studies show a bias, others do not, and if you plot out the degree of bias across a range of female bonded primate species you get a cloud of data consistent with the hypothesis that the Trivers Willard “effect” is not strong with these animals. However, the situation with Hinde’s monkeys may be special.
But first, let’s be clear on the Tivers Willard effect itself. It has specific componants, which may be stated more than one way, but that need to be examined else it may be misunderstood.
Stated most compactly, individuals who are likely to produce high ranking offspring will differentially invest more resources in the sex with the highest variance in reproductive success.
Its the variance part that has to be understood to get the beauty of this idea. Consider mammals. In virtually all mammals, the number of offspring a female is likely to have is not very variable, while the number of offspring a male may have can, in some species, vary a great deal from zero to a much larger number than any female will have.
Under these conditions, it would be ideal to know in advance if your offspring is going to be one of the better producers, and if so, go for a male offspring. If not, go for the sure bet, the female.
To be precise, Trivers Willard states that under conditions where the rank of the offspring can be “known” to the mother, perhaps simply because she can assess her own rank (and higher ranking moms have higher ranking kids) then selection should favor individuals with some mechanism for assessing rank and then biasing investment in offspring. This has been demonstrated in several species.
Here’s what Hinde has to offer:
Milk samples were collected once during peak lactation from subjects of known age and social rank housed in large outdoor enclosures at the California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC). Analyses of milk constituents were conducted…
As found in red deer, there was a significant main effect of infant sex on milk [quality] however, an interaction effect between parity and sex revealed that sons born to primiparous mothers … get an additional gain in [milk quality] …
Here is a very impressive graph summarizing the results:
The difference is greater with first-time mothers, but in both cases sons receive more nutrition leading to greater body mass. In fact, the effect, while there is a fair amount of variation is rather startling.
I think the reason that you don’t seem to see Trivers Willard in many female-bonded species is because males disperse to new groups and spend a lot of time hanging around before they mate with any females. This may mean that females can’t really do as much for their sons as they can do for their daughters, so they end up not biasing investment very much. This does not, however, mean that biasing investment cannot work. I would like to know if this specific effect — of milk production and body weight — can be measured in other female-bonded primates.
HINDE, K. (2007): First-time macaque mothers bias milk composition in favor of sons. Current Biology, 17(22), R958-R959.
TRIVERS, R. L. & WILLARD, D.E. (1973): Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring.. Science, 179, 90-2. |
A mystery of the animal kingdom: How do owls turn their heads 270 degrees without damaging their blood vessels? At last an answer, published this week in Science
, as the winning poster
in the 2012 International Science & Engineering Visualization Challenge. Fabian de Kok-Mercado, of Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Philippe Gailloud, of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, dissected and X-rayed owls to discover how the birds do the twist.
Images courtesy of: Fabian de Kok-Mercado Philippe Gailloud Michael Habib Tim Phelps Lydia Gregg Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Archival: Prelinger Archives; music by lucky dragons/free music archive |
Treaty fishing rights are at risk, Western Washington tribes say
American Indian tribes in Western Washington say their treaty rights with the U.S. are at risk because the region is losing habitat that salmon need to survive.
The Associated Press
More than 150 years ago, American Indian tribes in Western Washington ceded much of the state to the federal government in return for guarantees of salmon and other fishing rights.
Now, those tribes say their treaty rights with the U.S. are at risk because the region is losing habitat that salmon need to survive. They say their treaty rights won't mean much if there's no salmon to harvest, and they're warning the federal government that they could resort to court action if more isn't done.
"The tribes' treaty rights, the basis of their economy, culture and way of life are at stake," said Mike Grayum, executive director of Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, an organization of 20 treaty tribes including the Hoh, Upper Skagit, Puyallup, Tulalip, Nooksack and Nisqually.
"Their very being is dependent on these natural resources. They don't exist without them. From the tribes' perspective, everything is at stake here. Their backs are against the wall."
Frustrated by the lack of progress in recovering salmon in Puget Sound and along the coast, the Western Washington tribes last summer took their concerns to the White House. In a report, they charged that the federal government has not lived up to its obligations under treaties signed in 1854 and 1855. The agreements preserved the tribes' right to harvest fish and shellfish in traditional grounds outside their reservation, a right reaffirmed in the 1974 Boldt decision and others.
"We need a change," said Billy Frank Jr., chairman of the Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission and a member of the Nisqually Tribe, who was involved with fish-in protests in the early 1970s. "We're on a course that's going down. If we don't turn it around, there's not going to be anything left. ... We have to turn it around."
Last fall the White House Council on Environmental Quality directed regional leaders of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Agriculture to come up with a plan to address the tribes' concerns.
In May, those agencies agreed to better use their existing regulatory authorities and incentive programs to protect and restore salmon habitat. They also proposed a forum between tribes and federal agencies to resolve local habitat problems with tribes around Puget Sound and along the Washington coast.
Bob Turner, assistant regional administrator for the salmon management division of NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service, said the agencies take seriously the issues the tribes raised.
"We need to do something to reverse the trends. We aren't gaining ground on habitat productivity," he said. "We are not in disagreement about the goal or concern."
The tribe is working on how to respond to the federal agencies.
"We would characterize it as a positive step forward ... but it's a small step," Grayum said. "It still comes up short of what we think is needed."
Despite millions of dollars spent on salmon recovery efforts in the region, steelhead and salmon such as the Puget Sound chinook continue to struggle. Development, logging, loss of wetlands and flood plains, overfishing, pollution, bulkheads along shorelines, increased human activity and other factors have contributed to their decline.
"The fundamental problem is that we're losing habitat faster than we can restore it," Grayum said.
For many tribes that have lived for centuries along Washington's rivers and bays, fishing for salmon, digging clams and catching crabs are central to tribal cultural identity, as well as important for subsistence and commercial reasons.
"To be Jamestown is to walk down to the beach to get food for our families to share with our neighbors and to gather our foods in a fashion that we have done for centuries and know that they're going to be there," said Elaine Grinnel, 76, a member of the Jamestown S'Kallam Tribe on the Olympic Peninsula.
"At no time did anybody have to go without food because it was so available. When you live on the beach and the tides are going in and out, there's food there. You could always go fishing, you could always go crabbing," she added.
Grinnel worried that the resources won't be there for future generations if more isn't done to protect habitat.
The tribes say federal agencies have been overly focused on restricting harvest in recent years while ignoring improvements in habitat.
Jeanette Dorner, salmon and ecosystem recovery director for the Puget Sound Partnership, said the tribes' concerns are very relevant to her agency's work. "To recover salmon, we have to recover the Puget sound ecosystem," she said.
"We have to stop destroying critical habitat and we need to restore natural processes and habitat. If we don't make progress on all of those things together, then we can't recover the salmon," Dorner said.
The tribes blame the lack of political will and coordinated federal leadership, the government's failure to enforce its laws, as well as the uneven application of salmon conservation measures.
"We ceded all this land to the United States for a contract to protect our salmon, our way of life, our culture. We're gatherers and we're harvesters. And they forgot about us," Frank said. |
Normally you know the hash function from context. If you are trying to crack a password then this password is valuable to you, in that it would grant you access to some data or service somewhere, which you specifically target. So one has to assume that you already know the kind of system (in particular if you succeeded in grabbing a list of hashed passwords from a database, then you saw the database), and this often includes knowledge of the password hashing function. Moreover, in systems which support several types of hash function (like the
/etc/shadow file on Unix systems), the kind of hash is encoded along the hash value, because, by nature, the system itself must know it.
Remember that hashed passwords are intended to be used by some software, somewhere, which exists as executable files and source code. On a general basis, software cannot be considered to be secret, and reverse engineering is quite effective at uncovering the kind of processing that is done on data.
For Windows, passwords tend to be processed with two hash functions, the old LM (LanMan), and the newer NT Hash (which is MD4). There is also a "password verifier" used in some part, which is "salted" with the user name (not a good salt, really: every "Administrator" is called "Administrator"). See this page for details. LM hash is extremely weak and was used as the demonstration testbed to show the effectiveness of rainbow tables; fortunately, it is disabled by default in newer systems (since Vista). However, the NT hash is still quite weak (not as abysmal as LM, but still) since it is very fast (a single MD4 invocation...) and unsalted (thus making it worthwhile to build precomputed tables, such as rainbow tables). |
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Note: This article was originally published in the September/October 2000 issue of Michigan History Magazine.
Houdini’s Final Act
Harry Houdini walked briskly to the footlights of Detroit’s Garrick Theater on October 24, 1926, as “Pomp and Circumstance” played in the background. Smiling, he ripped off his sleeves to show there was nothing hidden and began his performance.
Beginning with a variety of vanishing acts, the famed magician made several silver coins and alarm clocks disappear. Then, he made an attractive woman vanish on stage and a flower bush appear in her place. Moments later, she shouted, “Here I am,” from the back of the theater and came running down the aisle. As Houdini attempted his next trick, pain from his midsection made him turn aside. With the help of his assistants, he struggled through the rest of the first act. As the curtain fell, he collapsed and was taken to the dressing room. Despite a 104-degree temperature, he returned to the stage and completed his two-and-a-half hour show. Then, he collapsed again.
At Grace Hospital in Detroit, doctors discovered the performer had a gangrenous appendix and peritonitis, an inflammation of the abdominal cavity wall. They removed the appendix, but the poison had already flowed through his bloodstream. Newspapers from across the country carried front-page updates on Houdini’s condition.
Born Erich Weiss on March 24, 1874 in Budapest, Hungary, Harry Houdini moved with his family to Appleton, Wisconsin at age four. There, his father became the first rabbi in town. At thirteen, Houdini and his family moved to New York City, where his interest in magic grew. Houdini’s early shows consisted of card tricks and simple magic, such as producing a handkerchief from the flame of a candle and making a flower appear from the buttonhole of his jacket. He soon began performing a new form of entertainment called “challenge escape.”
Although Houdini wasn’t the first challenge-escape artist, he was the first to add suspense and anticipation to the act. Houdini prolonged his simple escapes by playing up the drama to the point where the crowd thought his death was imminent. In 1899, he headlined the largest chain of vaudeville theaters in the country and over the next few years toured overseas. Amazing escapes from straitjackets, handcuffs, leg irons and jail cells made him famous worldwide.
Houdini in the Detroit River (1906)
As thrilling as his escapes were, Houdini enhanced his legend by exaggerating stories of his feats. One of the best examples occurred in Detroit. The magician arrived in late November 1906 to perform for two weeks at the Temple Theater. Often performing public feats that drew attention to his show, Houdini decided to jump from the Belle Isle Bridge, bound with restraints, to promote his Detroit shows. According to Houdini, he leaped – handcuffed, chained and leg-ironed – into a small hole cut in the frozen river. Houdini claimed he was swept away by the current and stayed alive by breathing the air bubbles between the ice and water until he found the hole (The 1953 movie, Houdini, made the embellished version even more popular, depicting actor Tony Curtis swimming under the ice for eight suspense-filled minutes.). The jump from Belle Isle Bridge became Houdini’s most famous exploit.
However, the front page of the Detroit News on November 27, 1906 tells a different story. It reported that “tied by a lifeline a hundred and thirteen feet long, handcuffed…Houdini…leapt from the draw span of the Belle Isle Bridge at one o’clock this afternoon, freed himself while under water, then swam to a waiting lifeboat, passed over the unlocked and open cuffs and clambered aboard.” Though the river wasn’t frozen, the escape was still a remarkable feat in the cold November waters of the Detroit River.
On Friday, October 22, 1926, a McGill University student approached Houdini before a Montreal show and challenged the magician’s boasts of being able to sustain punches to the stomach. Houdini accepted the challenge but was struck before he could tighten his muscles. In pain, Houdini performed his last four Montreal shows before traveling by train to Detroit and collapsing after his first show.
After a week in Grace Hospital, Houdini whispered to his brother, Theo, “I’m tired of fighting…guess this is going to get me.” Taking one last glance at his wife, Bess, he closed his eyes and died at 1:26 p.m. on Sunday, October 31, 1926.
Houdini’s career in magic and illusion is enough in itself to make him a legend. He also wrote, directed or acted in five movies, performed on Broadway, owned a movie-production company and was given one of the first stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Seventy-four years after his death, his name is still synonymous with magic. |
In order to monitor and capture the source spectrum of moderate down to micro-scale earthquakes, it is essential that the NHFN instruments operate at high precision and in an extremely low noise environment. Therefore, the stations record at high sample rate, and their sensors are emplaced in deep boreholes to reduce noise contamination originating in the near surface weathered zone and from cultural noise sources. In addition, the reduction of noise at these stations through vigilant monitoring of actual seismic events plays a central part of our quality control effort.
As mentioned, a key aspect of quality control of the NHFN data is the analysis of actual seismic events. Seismic events of larger magnitude are relatively rare and generally provide more energy at lower frequencies. Hence, in order to provide more frequent real events and quality control in the higher frequency band of the NHFN stations, analysis of recordings from the much more frequent microearthquakes are needed. Because real event analyses are relatively labor intensive and because of inadequate insufficient funding, traditional methods of event analysis have proven financially infeasible. To help circumvent these problems, efforts to develop new and improved analysis techniques are ongoing. We have developed and are currently testing some promising techniques that are particularly well suited to the analysis of similar and repeating microearthquakes. The advantages of similar and repeating event analyses for both quality control and scientific purposes are numerous, and the nature of the seismograms from these types of events make automated, rapid and robust analysis possible.
Towards this end, we are continuing to develop our new pattern scanning recognition scheme to detect, pick, locate and determine magnitudes for small and very small similar events recorded either continuously or from among large volumes of noisy triggered data snippets and our phase coherency method for identification of characteristically repeating events sequences from among groups of similar event multiplets.
Pattern Scanning: The pattern scanning recognition approach we are developing enhances the effective signal to noise for event detection, picking and locating by using the high amplitude information available in the full waveform of earthquake's signals. This is done by using a cross-correlation based scanning approach, which scans known waveform patterns through either continuous or collections triggered event snippets (regardless of the triggered event noise levels). With this approach, continuous or triggered waveform data that does not match selected patterns are ignored while waveforms that approximately match selected reference event patterns are flagged as newly identified earthquakes.
This approach is less comprehensive in that it only detects events that are somewhat similar in waveform character to the reference patterns. However, it can be generalized significantly by increasing the number of event patterns scanned or by using fairly low maximum cross-correlation thresholds for event flagging. Preliminary tests of our scanning code show that scans of 100 distinct event patterns can be scanned through a day's worth of waveform data in 75 minutes on one 900Mhz SPARC cpu when continuous seismic data is used. Scanning through collections of all triggered snippets is substantially faster, in proportion to the inverse fraction of total time spanned by the snippet data.
The approach also provides automated cross-correlation pick alignments that can be used for high precision relative locations and for automated low-frequency spectral ratio determinations for magnitude estimates. Clearly the method has potential for automatically cataloging a large fraction of the more numerous microearthquakes, and, in conjunction with the special attributes of similar event groups, updates of the catalogs in an automated monitoring mode can provide near-real-time microearthquake information that can be a powerful tool for monitoring network performance of real event data. Future plans include development and implementation of an automated similar event scanning and cataloging scheme that will provide real-event data from similar small magnitude events for assessment of network health on a much more frequent basis (every few days).
Perhaps more significantly, the approach can also capture and rapidly catalog some of the most scientifically relevant events (e.g. repeats of characteristically repeating microearthquakes used for deep slip rate monitoring and swarms of similar events typically associated with foreshocks and aftershocks). The approach is also surprisingly good at detecting events over a wide magnitude range. Hence there is clear potential for using patterns from larger aftershocks (e.g. flagged by REDI) to rapidly and automatically develop a high-resolution picture of foreshock and aftershock activity associated with large mainshocks. Tests so far using waveform patterns from an aftershock from the Parkfield magnitude 6 event (2.2Ml) have been able to detect and fully process similar events as low as Ml - 1.2 (a range of 3.4 magnitude units). Testing in this regard is continuing, but clearly the 3.4 magnitude range is a lower bound on the potential magnitude range attainable.
Phase Coherency: In order to enhance even further the resolution and scientific value of the similar events identifed using the pattern scanning approach, we are continuing to refine and test our spectral phase coherency algorithm. This algorithm allows for detailed quantification of the similarities and differences between highly similar Hayward fault events to provide characterization of the subsets of similar events known as characteristically repeating microearthquakes. These subsets form groups or sequences of events that are believed to represent recuring ruptures of the same small patch of fault through time, and, once recongnized, such sequences provide a new dimension of constraint on earthquake physics and deep fault deformation through the recurrence intervals and magnitudes of the events comprising the sequences. The complex spectral phase coherency methodology can be carried out in various frequency bands geared appropriately to the magnitude dependence of frequency for earthquakes and is generally an order of magnitude better in its discrimination power than the simple cross correlation method. The goal of the testing and refinement is ultimately to develop a scheme for rapid and objective discrimination and identification of characteristically repeating microearthquakes sequences down to the lowest magnitude possible (where recurrence times are short and hence temporal resolutions are higher) along the Hayward fault, and to use the information from these sequences to gain a better picture of the time evolution of creep deep in the fault zone.
Berkeley Seismological Laboratory
215 McCone Hall, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-4760
Questions or comments? Send e-mail: [email protected]
© 2007, The Regents of the University of California |
Coral Reefs, the Human View
Part A: Coral Reef Adventure
Animal, vegetable, or mineral? What exactly is coral? While corals might look more like rocks or plants, they are actually made up of tiny invertebrate animals, called polypscoral polyp: a small individual coral animal with a tube-shaped body and a mouth surrounded by tentacles., that are related to sea anemones and jellyfish. In total, there are more than 4,000 different coral species of various shapes, sizes, and colors.
- Watch the IMAX film Coral Reef Adventure. As you watch, take notes as preparation for answering the following Stop and Think questions.
Stop and Think1: According to the film, coral reefs have "perhaps the greatest concentration of symbiosis within one single habitat on the planet." Describe at least two examples of symbiosis on a coral reef as depicted in the film Coral Reef Adventure. Explain which organism(s) benefit or are harmed by these relationships.
2: What human relationships with coral reefs were depicted in the film? Would you classify any of these relationships as symbiotic? Explain. |
Earth Science - ESC1000
Course URL: http://www.hccfl.edu/faculty-info/jwysong/esc-1000-lecturelab-information.aspx
This is a one-semester course for non-science majors, which fulfills the General Education physical science requirement for the A.A. degree. The course prerequisites include college level mathematics skills (defined as being at or above the level of college algebra) and college level reading and writing skills (defined as testing above the cut-off for preparatory courses). As a result of the prerequisites, most of the students enrolled in ESC1000 are in their last year at the college. The typical student enrolled in ESC1000 is not intending to major in science. About 20% of the students intend to be education majors - most are self identified as liberal arts/general studies students.
(What follows is our college-wide course objectives for ESC1000)
By its nature, the Earth Science curriculum addresses a broad and voluminous body of subject matter. The Sciences of Geology, Astronomy, Meteorology and Oceanography are all included within the purview of Earth Science. Consequently, the following objectives will be included in the overall curriculum but may be weighted to varying degrees in individual course sections.
1. Describe the scientific method.
2. Define what a mineral is and discuss the importance of minerals in geology.
3. Discuss the origin and classification of rocks and explain the rock cycle.
4. Identify and explain the processes acting at the earth's surface that create and shape landforms.
5. Summarize the causes and effects of earthquakes and diagram the earth's interior structure.
6. Describe and discuss intrusive and extrusive igneous processes and features.
7. Discuss the theory of plate tectonics.
8.Describe the significance of geologic time, state the age of the earth, and explain relative and chronological dating methods.
9. Discuss global concepts such as locating positions on the earth, e.g. latitude and longitude, the earth's orbit around the sun, and seasonal variations.
10. Discuss the composition and circulation of earth's oceans and the geology of the seafloor.
11. Describe the composition, structure and circulation of the earth's atmosphere.
12. Describe and discuss the various weather elements such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, wind, clouds and precipitation.
13.List and describe the components of our solar system and discuss its origin.
14. Describe the universe beyond our solar system and discuss current ideas about its age and origin
Five exams will be administered during the semester. The lowest exam score from exams 1-4 will not be averaged into the final course point total.
Exams 1-4 will consist of 50 questions valued at 2 points each for a total of 100 points per exam.
Exam 5 (the final) will be in two parts, together worth 100 points. The first part of exam 5 will consist of 30 questions from the first three exams. Part two will consist of 20 questions presented in the form of a map quiz (see Geographic Locations Project information attached to this syllabus and also available at:http://www.hccfl.edu/facultyinfo/jwysong/files/E8F8BACC2F4348349FAE2F9FCB0F1803.doc |
A native subspecies of Phragmites australis (ssp. americanus) has long been a component of North American wetlands, but approximately 200 years ago a non-native subspecies (ssp. australis) was introduced from Europe and has become a major invader of brackish wetlands in the Chesapeake Bay region and throughout North America. Unlike native Phragmites, the non-native subspecies forms dense monocultures that exclude other plants and alter the nutrient dynamics, hydrology and function of invaded wetlands.
Along with the Plant Ecology Lab, we are working to investigate the combined effects of multiple stressors on nearshore habitats throughout the Chesapeake Bay region as part of a $5 million grant from the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA). Our role in this project focuses on using population genetics to understand how human activity could be impacting the spread of Phragmites on shorelines and wetlands.
A major key to understanding why Phragmites has become such a significant invader has resulted from understanding why, over 200 years after invading the Chesapeake Bay, Phragmites has only recently begun to spread explosively. In a collaboration with Karin Kettenring (Utah State University), Eric Hazelton (Ph.D. student, Utah State University) and Dennis Whigham (SERC), we demonstrated that Phragmites invasion was linked to the level of genetic diversity contained within patches. We found that Phragmites needed to have more than one genotype in a patch to produce significant numbers of viable seeds. Only after multiple genotypes became established close together, which appears to have taken many years to happen after initial invasion, were enough seeds produced to fuel further spread. The accumulation of genetic diversity was also influenced by anthropogenic development and happened more quickly in disturbed, eutrophic subestuaries. This work has been published in Journal of Ecology, Wetlands and Journal of Applied Ecology.
Many factors can contribute to how quickly newly formed patches accumulate enough genetic variation to produce the abundant seeds that allow them to fuel further invasion. As part of the larger NOAA grant, we are studying how different types of shoreline hardening affect the accumulation of multiple genotypes in Phragmites patches and how the age of patches affects their function in a subestuary.
In collaboration with Tom Mozdzer (Bryn Mawr College) and Pat Megonigal (SERC), funded by Maryland Sea Grant, we are studying how the genetic diversity of Phragmites patches affects their ability to grow and spread in response to elevated CO2 and nitrogen. We are using this information to understand how the spread of Phragmites is likely to change in the future and to find ways to improve management. |
Megalodon is greek word which means Big Tooth, it is named so because Megalodon shark had quite big tooth sized approx 170mm, these were the biggest and most dangerous killer predator shark ever lived on earth which are believed to got extinct about 28 to 1.5 million years ago.
Here are some interesting facts of these sharks who once ruled the oceans
These were the biggest sharks of their kind they could be as long as 20 meters about twice as big as great white shark of today
Some scientists take megalodon shark as bulkier or oversized version of great white shark of today, Megalodon shark is believed to weight about 47 metric tons
The teeth were triangular shaped strong and could be as long as 170 mm and could weight about 1/2 kg.
It is amazing that teeth of such enormous creature survived centuries.
Did you know if jaws of megalodon were fully open a whole bunch of human family could reside in it.
The most information about these sharks were revealed by analyzing the fossil teeth of these sharks.
A 20 meters long could have bite force of about 40900 lbf which is about 10 times greater then great white shark of today, you can easily estimate the immense power of these predators from there bite force which has been till now recorded the biggest bite force in history.
Megalodon shark were highly mobile specie but mostly mostly loved to live in near subtropical region of oceans, the fossil remains of these sharks were found almost from all over the world. |
It is absolute. Moral absolutism is the philosophy that mankind is subject to absolute standards of conduct that do not change with circumstances, the intent of the acting agent, or the result of the act. These standards are universal to all humanity despite culture or era, and they maintain their relevance whether or not an individual or a culture values them. It is never appropriate to break a law which is based on one of these absolutes. Moral absolutism does not dictate which acts are moral or immoral, however, merely that absolute morality does exist.
Moral absolutism is the main category of deontological ethics. Deontology bases an act’s morality on its adherence to rules. While all categories of deontological ethics hold that absolute morality does exist, not all of them believe that morality lies in the act alone, as moral absolutism teaches. Kantian (or duty ethics) is the other significant form of deontology and says that an act is moral if it is done deliberately and with the right motives. Contemporary deontology says that doing harm is only allowable if it is for a greater good. And the non-aggression principle bases morality on force; a person may only use force or cause harm when defending against an aggressor.
The absolutes in moral absolutism come by their authority in several different ways. Natural law theory says that human nature inexorably reveals some things as absolutely right or wrong. For instance, torturing innocents is absolutely wrong, and any reasonable contemplation of human nature would agree. Contractarianism teaches that morality is determined by a mutual, voluntary agreement between parties. The contract can be a legal document outlining the responsibilities of the parties involved or the assumed civil duties a citizen takes on in exchange for the benefits of living in a society. Divine command theory asserts that the morality of an action is dictated by God. Only God can determine the rules, and we are obligated to follow every word that applies to us.
The Bible teaches moral absolutism in spirit, if not in specifics. We are to look to God’s Word, not our own judgment, to know what right and wrong behavior looks like. But because God’s creation reflects His character, it’s inevitable that men seeking wisdom would occasionally stumble upon His truths.
God has placed in our hearts a standard of right and wrong that, if followed, would result in our being blessed (Romans 2:14-15). But our fallen nature and bent to sin cloud our conscience. Therefore, the Bible admonishes us to ask God for wisdom (James 1:5). Psalm 119:59 says, “I considered my ways and turned my feet to Your testimonies.” Consideration of human nature shows us our inability and our need for God: “If Your law had not been my delight, then I would have perished in my affliction” (Psalm 119:92).
God has set in place certain standards, and it is sin to break those standards. Psalm 24:1 testifies to God’s authority: “The earth is the LORD’s, and all it contains; the world, and those who dwell in it.” He set the absolutes of our morality in His word: “You shall therefore obey the LORD your God, and do His commandments and His statutes which I command you today” (Deuteronomy 27:10). The divine command theory of moral absolutism comes the closest to what the Bible teaches.
Discussing the philosophy of ethics from a secular, humanistic viewpoint is an interesting intellectual exercise, but the simple fact is that fallen man cannot discover truth and goodness without God. Like Abraham, there is only one way that we can be moral: “Then he believed in the LORD; and He reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Genesis 15:6). God bless you brother!!! :):) |
Turn on, Tune in, Drop out — Psychiatrists Reconsider the use of Psychedelics
“Turn on, Tune in, Drop out.”
With this snappy catchphrase, and an eponymous book, Dr. Timothy Leary boldly endorsed the use of hallucinogens to the American public five decades ago. Citing potential medical benefits, Leary believed that psychedelic drugs like LSD and psilocybin could help patients overcome psychiatric illness and facilitate a higher stage of consciousness.
While his divisive stance and strident attitude made him a symbol of the counterculture movement in the 1960’s, his ideas have been largely regarded by the scientific community as radical and medically insignificant. But recently, some researchers have begun to rethink those conclusions.
In April, the New York Times reported on the case of Clark Martin, a former psychologist who participated in a psilocybin study at Johns Hopkins Medical School. Suffering from depression, Martin opted to participate in the program after finding no solace in traditional treatments. In the study, Martin was given psilocybin and spent the next five hours listening to classical music in private reflection.
A year later, he reported that the psilocybin treatment had helped him largely overcome his depression, and considers the experience one of the most meaningful of his life. He wasn’t alone. Most of the patients in the study said the treatment yielded positive, long-lasting benefits.
Encouraged by these results, scientists are also considering studying the effects of psychedelics in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder, anxiety, post traumatic stress disorder, and addiction.
The Johns Hopkins study largely corroborates the data Leary had collected decades earlier in a 1960 study on psilocybin conducted at Harvard University, in which he saw significant positive results in his patients.
The use of psychoactive drugs in medicine is still relatively new. Not until the middle of the 20th century, with the introduction of the anti-psychotic drug Chlorpromazine, have physicians turned to pharmaceuticals to treat psychiatric illness. They largely displaced older, more invasive treatment options such as insulin shock therapy, psychosurgery, and electroconvulsive therapy.
Perhaps because of their initial success, pharmaceutical companies have recently embraced psychotropic medications, finding massive markets for the treatment of conditions like depression and anxiety.
But while drugs like Prozac and Valium have made fortunes, research for experimental treatments like psychedelics has garnered little attention. Without the profit making potential of less radical options, pharmaceutical companies are reluctant to allocate time and money to developing these equivocal treatments.
Still, a one-time session that produces lasting results could potentially provide a cheaper and less disruptive alternative to a daily pill. And the treatment, an interesting middle ground between therapy and medication, perhaps provides a more complete approach.
Now, 50 years removed from the counterculture movement that defined Leary’s research, his stigma is beginning fading, but maybe his science will remain. |
Coral reefs are integral part of marine life and are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems in existence (Odum & Odum, 1955). Although coral reefs cover a small fraction of the earth, they are home to a fifth of the Earth’s biodiversity. They provide important ecological services, are relied upon by approximately half a billion people for sustenance and protection (Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, 2008), and provide cultural benefits for many coastal communities worldwide.
A recent global analysis of coral reefs shows that coral reefs are increasingly threatened despite years of effort to mitigate impacts to this important ecosystem (Burke et al., 2011). Threats such as pollution, sedimentation, overfishing, ocean acidification, and coral bleaching continue to threaten reefs.
In order to address these threats, global, regional, national, a local action must be undertaken in order to strike a balance between humans and nature. |
The other day one of my colleagues sent me an article about a tummy rocket that runs on stomach acid and jets about doing sensor and/or chemical things. Then I got a pointer to this article [Link] on a wirelessly powered 3mm x 4mm x thin chip that goes into the human circulatory system (no teleporter, sorry!) and putts about (maybe) and does mechanical things like sensing or zapping.
What makes this notable to me is not the technology per se, but that the developer, a boffin at Stanford U, got to this by questioning an old assumption.
“scientists were approaching the problem incorrectly. In their models, they assumed that human muscle, fat, and bone were generally good conductors of electricity, and therefore governed by a specific subset—the “quasi-static approximation,” to be exact—of the mathematical principles known as Maxwell’s equations.
Poon (the researcher) took a different tack, choosing instead to model tissue as a dielectric—a type of insulator. As it turns out, human tissue is a poor conductor of electricity. But radio waves can still move through tissue. In a dielectric, the signal is conveyed as waves of shifting polarization of atoms within cells.”
Simply put someone assumed a while ago that human bodies are good conductors and that sidetracked the technology. The critical question is why didn’t they question the assumption and make actual measurement?
Electricity was early associated with frog muscles, which experiments seem to contradict the assumption prima facie. But someone decided humans acted like copper wires. If anything this is a good example of how good science is based on continually questioning assumptions and testing them. |
Just over 174 years ago, on September 17, 1835, the HMS Beagle landed on San Cristóbal Island in the Galápagos. After over a month of surveying the islands, looking especially for fossils, volcanic activity, and geological features, Charles Darwin left most notably with a collection of birds. He first noticed that mockingbirds of the various islands exhibited considerable variation. But of all the bizarrely tame birds, he wrote in The Voyage of the Beagle that the finches “form a most singular group … related to each other in the structure of their beaks, short tails, form of body and plumage.” The variation in Darwin’s finches was to be significant for his concept of natural selection.
Now, just to the west of where the Beagle first landed, descendents of Darwin’s finches find a food source in the dump of Puerto Ayora, a quickly growing town of about 10,000. The New York Times reports an ecological crisis on the archipelago, as the tourism-driven economy supports a population explosion coming largely from migrant Ecuadoreans. In the last year the government sent over 1,000 people back to Ecuador, no doubt because of pressure from preservationists who worry about the boobies and tortoises.
For evolutionary psychology, this story marks an odd union between the biological and the social. Literally trampling on the roots of a theory of evolution is an introduced population of pigs, running at times from hungry migrants who moved from their homeland for a chance at a decent life. Today in the Galápagos, evolution in the form Darwin observed is being crowded by the social world—a reminder, perhaps, that humans are not exempt from change. |
publications > open file report > Ecosystem History of Southern and Central Biscayne Bay: Summary Report on Sediment Core Analyses - Year Two
Ecosystem History of Southern and Central Biscayne Bay: Summary Report on Sediment Core Analyses - Year Two
U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 2004-1312
G. Lynn Wingard, Thomas M. Cronin, Charles W. Holmes, Debra A. Willard, Gary Dwyer, Scott E. Ishman, William Orem, Christopher P. Williams, Jessica Albietz, Christopher E. Bernhardt, Carlos A. Budet, Bryan Landacre, Terry Lerch, Marci Marot, Ruth E. Ortiz
The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) lists restoration of the timing, quantity, and quality of the natural flow of freshwater as one its primary goals. Before restoration can occur, however, the baseline conditions of the environment prior to significant human alteration must be established and the range of variation within the natural system must be determined. In addition, the response of the system to human alterations during the 20th century should be evaluated. Resource managers can use this information to establish targets and performance measures for restoration and to predict the system's response to changes invoked by restoration.
The objectives of the U.S. Geological Surveys Ecosystem History of Biscayne Bay research project are to examine historical changes in the Biscayne Bay ecosystem at selected sites on a decadal-centennial scale and to correlate these changes with natural events and anthropogenic alterations in the South Florida region. Specific emphasis is being placed on historical changes to (1) amount, timing, and sources of freshwater influx and the resulting effects on salinity and water quality; (2) shoreline and sub-aquatic vegetation; and (3) the relationship between sea-level change, onshore vegetation, and salinity.
This report compiles and summarizes results on analyses of cores from eleven sites in the Biscayne Bay ecosystem collected from 1996 to 2003. The following are the significant findings discussed:
A general trend emerges from the multiproxy analyses of all the cores examined - increasing salinity during the 20th century. Although the timing and onset of increased salinity varies at the different core sites, there are no exceptions to this trend. In the nearshore sites, the increase in average salinity has been accompanied by an increase in variability of salinity. In contrast, the central Biscayne Bay sites have shown increasingly stable salinity over the last century, indicated in part by the influx of increasing numbers of marine species. These trends could be a result of a number of factors, including (1) rising sea level; (2) changes in the natural flow of freshwater into the bay either through surficial or groundwater processes; (3) changes in average rainfall or rates of evaporation; (4) changes in sedimentation rates; or (5) a combination of factors. The timing of changes at some of the near-shore sites suggests both anthropogenic and natural factors are involved.
In addition to the general salinity trend for Biscayne Bay, the near-shore sites at Middle Key and north of Black Point have illustrated distinct, but site specific, changes in freshwater influx over time. Our data suggest that sites we assumed had historic point-source inflow of freshwater may not have. The wetlands cores (near Military Canal) also illustrate that sites in very close proximity to each other have historically been affected by very localized hydrologic regimes.
These results have significant implications for restoration planning. First, the recognition that Biscayne Bay appears to be evolving toward a more marine environment due to both natural and anthropogenic factors must be factored into the planning process. Second, generalized performance measures and targets for the near-shore and wetlands areas may not reflect the natural variability seen at these sites. Third, the nearshore environments are dramatically different from the mid-bay mudbanks, and have been for hundreds of years. Influx of freshwater into the bay appears to have a subtle or indirect effect on the benthic fauna of the mudbanks. Changes in flow during restoration may have little effect on the central bay mudbanks.
Examining decadal-centennial trends in a variety of habitats within the Biscayne Bay ecosystem provides a realistic means to set performance measures, predict system response to changes invoked by restoration, and to enlighten the public on what the natural system of the bay looked like.
For more information, please visit:
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey
This page is: http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/ofr/2004-1312/index.html
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Last updated: 15 January, 2013 @ 12:43 PM(HSH) |
“The problem of information overload, therefore, may not be the quantity of it but our inability to know what to do with it.” – Danniel Tammet
One of the most important skills I mastered early on at Microsoft, is information management. My ability to organize information directly impacts my success. For me, information management is the key to daily productivity from researching to learning faster to keeping my email inbox empty.
When I first joined Microsoft, I found myself spending four or more hours on administration and email. Then one day I decided … enough is enough. From that point on, I refused to spend more than 30 minutes a day between email and administration overhead. That day marked the start of my pursuit to find the best ways to handle and organize information. While my motivation helped, it’s actually finding and creating effective techniques that really made the difference.
Here are ten of my favorite ways to manage information:
- Factor reference from action. Carve out action items, To Dos, and tasks from your incoming streams of information. if it’s not an action, it’s reference. I first learned this practice when I was dealing with information overload as a support engineer. I ended up cementing the idea while working on our Microsoft Knowledge Base. The Knowledge Base is a vast collection of information, where each article tends to be optimized around either action or reference.
- Create lists. Make a new To Do list each day and use it to organize your key action items for the day. Create checklists for your common routines.
- Create collections. Put things into collections or think in terms of collections. Consolidate your notes into a single collection that you access quickly, such as in a personal notebook, a Word document or etc. Consolidate your thoughts or ideas into a single collection. Consolidate reference examples of your heroes or stories you can use for inspiration. Consolidate your “ah-has” into a single collection. Note that by single collection, I don’t mean you have it all in a single document, although you can. Instead, I’m thinking of collections of items, much like a photo album music collection. By stashing things of a similar type, such as “idea” or “note” … etc., you can determine the best way to arrange that collection. Maybe it’s a simple A -Z list or maybe you arrange it by time. For example, when I keep a journal of my insights, and each time I get an “ah ha”, I write it down under the current date. This way I can easily flip back through days and see my insights in chronological order. While I could arrange them A – Z, I like having my most recent ideas or inspirations bubbled to the top, since chances are I’m finding ways to act on them.
- Put things where you look for them. Where ever you look for it, that’s where it should be. If you keep looking for something in a certain place, either just put it there when you find it or add some sort of pointer to the actual location. While you might logically think something belongs in a certain place, the real test is where you intuitively look for it.
- Keep things flat. Out of sight, out of mind holds true for information. Avoid nesting information. Keep it flat and simple where you can. Think in terms of iTunes or a playlist. A well organized playlist is easy to jump to what you need.
- Organize long lists or folders using A-Z. When you have long lists or big collections, then listing things A-Z tends to be a simple way to store things and to look things up fast. Once a list gets long, A-Z or a numbered list is the way to go.
- Archive old things. When information is no longer useful for you, consider archiving it to get it out of your way. This usually means having a separate location. I’m a pack rat and I have a hard time letting things go, so I tend to archive instead. It let’s me get things out of the way, and then eventually get rid of them if I need to. Archiving has really helped me get a ton of information out of my way, since I know I can easily rehydrate it if I need to.
- Bubble up key things to the top. When you have a lot of information, rather than worry about organizing all of it, bubble up things to the top. You can effectively have a quick, simple list or key things up top, followed by more information. Keep the things up front simple. This way you get the benefits of both exhaustive or complete, as well as simple. Whenever you have a large body of information, just add a simple entry point or key take aways or summary up front.
- Know whether you’re optimizing for storing or retrieving. Distinguish whether you are storing something because you will need to look it up or refer to it a lot, or if you are simply storing it because you might need it in the future. For information that I need to look up a lot, I create a view or I make it easy to get to the information fast. For example, I might use a sticky note since I can quickly put it wherever I need to. For a lot of information, you simply need a quick way to store it. What you don’t want to do is have to work to hard, each time you need to file a piece of information. This I is where having a place for things, using lists, and organizing information in a meaningful way comes in handy. For most of my reference information, I organize it either by A-Z or by time. This way I don’t have to think too hard. I don’t create a bunch of folders for my email. Instead, I just store it all flat so it’s easy to search or browse or sort. For example, if I need to find an email from somebody, I simply sort my email by their name. Just by asking the question whether you’re optimizing for fast filing or for fast lookup will get you improving your information management in the right direction.
- Create views. Create views for the information that you need to frequently access. For example, you might put sticky notes of information that consolidate just the key things. As an analogy, think of your music store versus your playlists. You store might be a large collection organized A-Z, but your playlists are views that are more focused or have themes. You can apply this metaphor to any of your information collections.
Well, there you have it. Those are my top 10 favorite techniques for organizing information. I’ve had the privilege of learning and modeling from many great colleagues and mentors. The beauty is, I get to practice my information management skills every day while hacking my way through the information jungle. These skills save me a ton of time whether I’m reading books, taking notes, learning something new, or just about any time I’m dealing with information. It’s deliberate practice with immediate results.
Two More Ways to Improve Your Information Management
As a bonus, I’m including two additional techniques that significantly changed my game:
- Periodically sweep things. No matter how well you organize things, you’ll need to periodically sweep. Sweeping simply means cleaning things up after the fact. Periodically, allocating a block of time to go back through and clean up some of your messes. Things will always get out of disorder over time. Time also changes what’s important. When you revisit things, after the fact, you also gain the benefit of hind sight. Make the time now and then to make a pass through your collections. Get rid of what you don’t need. Archive things that you don’t currently need. Restructure your information to support your usage scenarios. This is one of those vital practices that really makes the difference if you actually do it.
- Reduce friction. Whenever you find that you’re working too hard to either find, organize, or use your information, pay attention to the friction. Work to reduce the friction. This might mean getting more information out of your way. It might mean bubbling more things up to where you can find them quickly. The key is to make it easy to use your information, and don’t let it become a burden. |
3) Database Structure
The database was designed using Microsoft Access 2007, as this program is widely available to agencies, students, researchers, and NGOs. Further, users are able to build additional queries and reports, and make other modifications to the design.
The database is divided into two files, referred to as the Front End and the Back End. The Front End provides the interface—the user-friendly forms, queries, and reports that the user interacts with. The Back End contains the data, the more than 50 tables that are related to each other in some way. This file is unwieldy for anyone not familiar with relational databases.
The database may be used on a network by more than one user. However, it is extremely important that they not use the same Front End file to access the Back End file. The Front End interface must be loaded onto any computer that will be using the database.
When a user opens the database for the first time, it may be necessary to link these two files. If this is not necessary, you already know how, or your interest is simply too fragile, you can move onto the next section. |
Learning Objectives for this Section
Aerobic respiration (def) is the aerobic catabolism of nutrients to carbon dioxide, water, and energy, and involves an electron transport system (def) in which molecular oxygen is the final electron acceptor. Most eukaryotes and prokaryotes use aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose. The overall reaction is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 yields 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (as ATP)
This type of ATP production is seen in aerobes and facultative anaerobes. Aerobes are organisms that require molecular oxygen because they produce ATP only by aerobic respiration. Facultative anaerobes, on the other hand are capable of aerobic respiration but can switch to fermentation, an anaerobic ATP-producing process, if oxygen is unavailable.
Aerobic respiration involves four stages: glycolysis, a transition reaction that forms acetyl coenzyme A, the citric acid (Krebs) cycle, and an electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. We will now look at each of these stages.
© Gary E. Kaiser
All Rights Reserved
Updated: June 26, 2001 |
Throughout the reconstruction effort, significant attention has been paid to possible solutions of turning human waste into a usable byproduct. Up until the earthquake (and in plenty of instances since), sanitation has been a problem, a health issue, or a crisis of epidemic proportions. School buildings are particularly susceptible to the spread of pathogens to vulnurable populations. But in Haiti, proper sanitation comes at a premium. The bathrooms of most schools can't but be simple pit latrines–pits that, when filled are covered with dirt, instigating the resituation of the latrine somewhere else on the schoolgrounds.
A more or less typical pre-quake Haitian school latrine
More fortunate schools such as at Elie Dubois have employed cisterns on site to collect waste. Cisterns store the waste in underground containers which are then emptied every 3-5 years by a truck, and the contents are taken to some off-site "facility." One hesitates to use the term "Waste Management" because to date in Haiti, there isn't any. Typically waste is trucked to the city dump to co-mingle with general garbage.
So there's something missing in Haiti's waste management infrastructure, but before any plans by international aid organizations were laid for a waste treatment center (or, heaven-if not economics-forbid, municipal sewage infrastructure), grassroots groups have been doing what they could with localized waste treatment solutions that could rely less, if at all, on a larger system to dispose of what could be a very lucrative byproduct.
The fact of the matter is: poop makes some really great fertilizer. Given the right amount of time and one of a diverse menu of processes, human waste can transform into nutrient-rich matter for distribution on agricultural land–land that, before Haiti assumed its distinctively tree-stripped and barren profile, was once among the most agriculturally-productive nations in the world. With the combination of a favorable climate and a cooperative population, there seems to be limitless potential to kickstart an agricultural renaissance for the island nation.
Yet fertile land alone cannot secure Haiti's promise to farm and reforest. Some of these continued problems stem from a reliance on charcoal for cooking. Charcoal can be produced from trees at basically any stage in their life cycle, and charcoal has become a fairly large industry in Haiti, threatening its ability to reforest.
A garden and a fish farm, both fed by a biodigester
Enter Brazil-based VivaRio, an organization that has been working in Haiti since 2005, and has built at its base of operations what it envisions to be the futrue for Haitian waste management. In the community of Kay Nou, in Bel Air, as well as in 50 other locations around the country, VivaRio is simultaneously collecting cooking fuel and fertilizer through its biodigesters. While the solid sludge output is generally ready to enrich soil, VivaRio emphasizes their system's ability to turn a byproduct gas into a cleaner-when-burned cooking fuel to offset the owner's reliance on charcoal.
The biodigester's domed structure has to be built to collect solid waste in a controlled chamber and be processed by bacteria. The byproduct of this "anaerobic" process is solid sludge fit for fertilizer, and methane gas. The methane, rising to the top of the dome, can be piped to the kitchen and put to work! Meanwhile, liquids from the biodigester are siphoned into what's called a "living machine," where plants in a leach field help to clean the effluent released from the tank.
Design section of Elie Dubois campus–including cafeteria/kitchen, toilet block and biodigester
A section of a biodigester (left), and what it looks like when it's finished (right)
Construction of Elie's biodigester is now underway–soon it will be hooked up the the latrine block on one end and the kitchen on the other and become an environmental and economic machine working on behalf of the school. The toilet system the school has opted for is a flush system like you would find in most bathrooms in the US. The system is comfortable, effective, but requires a lot of water. For this the school's system incorporates a large water collection cistern to help with the water consumption load. The team is anxious to study the performance of the Elie biodigester to see its potential in "pour flush systems" (using only 1-3 L) or "dry" systems which require no water at all.
Elie currently doesn't have plans of reusing its sludge and opts to continue trucking it off-site as had been done from their cistern before the quake.
Check out this RAD video of how the dome comes together–genious!
The Current Challenge: One Million Bones
Ready to make a difference? Join our current challenge, One Million Bones, and take a stand against humanitarian crises in Somalia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo! |
Are Cell Phones Safe? How to Avoid Risk
Cell phone use among children is a massive uncontrolled experiment on the brain. So says Devra Davis, Ph.D., award-winning scientist, writer and founder of Environmental Health Trust, a nonprofit devoted to researching and controlling avoidable environmental health threats. “Children’s skulls are thinner and their brains are less dense so there’s more absorption of radio frequency signals,” she said at a recent event in San Francisco where she spoke about the Campaign for Safer Cell Phones. She added that we don’t know the long term effects of using cell phones, and that the FDA has never tested cell phones for safety. “If cell phones were a pharmaceutical drug,” she said, “they would never have gotten to market.”
Studies from around the world are now being released with some startling news about using cell phone safety. A Swedish study reports that radio waves from mobile phones penetrate deep into the brain not just around the ear. Researchers found that using your cell phone for 10 years or longer will double the risk of getting an acoustic neuroma – a tumor on a nerve connecting your ear to your brain – and children, because they have thinner skulls than adults and nervous systems that are still developing, are particularly vulnerable to it. Other scientists warn that there is a 420% greater chance that young people who start using a cell phone before age 20 will develop a brain tumor later in life.
But it’s not only long term use of cell phones that’s of concern; short-term use also can have adverse effects. Scientists at the Spanish Neuro Diagnostic Research Institute in Marbella have discovered that a call lasting just two minutes can alter the natural electrical activity of a child’s brain for up to an hour afterwards. Doctors fear that disturbed brain activity in children could affect their mood and ability to learn and lead to psychiatric and behavioral problems.
Britain’s advisory body on radiological hazards, the Health Protection Agency has urged parents to limit their children’s use of cell phones, recommending that younger children use cell phones only in emergencies. But, here in the U.S. there are no precautionary guidelines and toy companies are teaming up with wireless companies and going after kids as young as five.
More than half of American teens aged 13-16 have a cell phone and now. Most of them aren’t just using their phones to talk. They’re text messaging, taking pictures, playing video games and surfing the Web, which opens up a whole new set of concerns. I was also shocked to hear from friends that their teens sleep with their cell phones under their pillows at night. That’s an additional 7 to 8 hours of radiation going directly into their brains!
It’s not realistic or practical to give up our cell phones, but here are some suggestions on using them more safely:
- Use a headset, or speaker phone whenever you or your child uses a cell phone. And never, ever put a cell phone up to the ear of a baby.
- Limit your child’s use of a cell phone to essential purposes only and keep the calls short.
- It’s best to keep your cell phone away from your body – do not clip it on your belt or put it in your pocket. Instead put it in your purse or backpack.
- Switch off your phone when you go to sleep to reduce EMF (electro magnetic field) exposure.
- Before making a call check the number of bars that indicate reception – a good signal means that the phone is using less radiation to transmit.
- Charging your phone creates a high level of radiation, so charge it in another room.
Here’s a video aimed called “Cell Phones: Just Like Cigarettes?” that you and your teen might enjoy watching: (below). If you’d like a landline phone using no electricity, check out www.oldphones.com.
Beth Greer, Super Natural Mom™, is the bestselling author of Super Natural Home as well as a radio talk show host and impassioned champion of toxin-free living who busts open the myth that our homes are safe havens. Beth is a columnist for The Washington Times Communities, Greenopolis.com and NaturallySavvy.com. Follow Beth on Twitter. Become a fan on Facebook.
(Photo Credit: The Washington Times) |
This article describes what "cookies" are, how they are used, and how to manage them in Firefox.
What is a cookie?
A cookie is information stored on your computer by a website you visit.
In some browsers, each cookie is a small file but in Firefox, all cookies are stored in a single file, located in the Firefox profile folder.
Cookies often store your settings for a website, such as your preferred language or location. When you return to the site, Firefox sends back the cookies that belong to the site. This allows the site to present you with information customized to fit your needs.
Cookies can store a wide range of information, including personally identifiable information (such as your name, home address, e-mail address, or telephone number). However, this information can only be stored if you provide it - websites cannot gain access to information you didn't provide to them, and they can't access other files on your computer.
By default, the activities of storing and sending cookies are invisible to you. However, you can change your Firefox settings to allow you to approve or deny cookie storage requests, delete stored cookies automatically when you close Firefox, and more.
Cookie settings in Firefox are managed in the OptionsPreferences window's Privacy panel. See Settings for privacy, browsing history and do-not-track for information on these settings.
For instructions on how to use these settings for certain tasks, see:
- Enable and disable cookies that websites use to track your preferences: How to turn cookie storage off or on in Firefox.
- Delete cookies to remove the information websites have stored on your computer: How to remove cookies that have already been stored by websites.
- Block websites from storing site preferences or login status in Firefox: How to block certain websites from storing cookies.
- Disable third-party cookies in Firefox to stop some types of tracking by advertisers: How to block websites other than the one you're currently visiting from storing cookies.
If you are having a problem with Firefox that involves cookies, see:
- Websites say cookies are blocked - Unblock them
- Fix login issues on websites that require a username and password
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Herbs , perennial, from fasciculate roots or rhizomes. Leaves basal and/or cauline, petiolate, petioles gradually to abruptly shorter on distal leaves; basal leaves usually larger than cauline; cauline leaves alternate. Leaf blade deeply palmately divided, round to pentagonal or reniform, margins entire or lobes apically crenate or lacerate, lobes of basal blades wider and fewer than those of cauline blades. Inflorescences terminal, 2-100(-more)-flowered racemes (occasionally branched, thus technically panicles), 5-40 cm or more; bracts subtending inflorescence branches; pedicels present or absent; bracteoles (on pedicels) subopposite-subalternate, not forming involucre. Flowers bisexual, bilaterally symmetric; sepals not persistent in fruit, 5; upper sepal 1, spurred, 8-24 mm; lateral sepals 2, ± ovate to elliptic, 8-18 mm; lower sepals 2, similar to lateral sepals; upper petals 2, spurred, enclosed in upper sepal, nectary inside tip of spur; lower petals 2, plane, ± ovate, ± 2-lobed, clawed, 2-12 mm, nectary absent; stamens 25-40; filaments with base expanded; staminodes absent between stamens and pistils; pistils 3(-5), simple; ovules 8-20 per pistil; style present. Fruits follicles, aggregate, sessile, ± curved-cylindric, sides prominently veined or not; beak terminal, straight, 2-4 mm. Seeds dark brown to black (often appearing white because of air in seed coat cells), rectangular to pyramidal, often ± rough surfaced. x = 8. Three Eurasian species of Delphinium -- D . elatum Linnaeus, D . grandiflorum Linnaeus, and D . tatsienense Franchet--have been commonly cultivated in North America. Of the nonnative taxa, only D . elatum is sporadically naturalized, as far as is known. Isolating mechanisms in Delphinium appear to be primarily ecological, geographic, and/or temporal. Where these distinctions are disrupted, introgression often exists. Hybridization occurs regularly between certain taxa, particularly in areas of disturbance (e.g., roadcuts, drainage ditches, clearcuts). The more common and easily recognized hybrids are included in the key. |
The Amos Block was built on the site of the Empire State Mills Building in 1878,
and may have incorporated the remains of that earlier property. Immediately
adjacent to the Amos Block were warehouses, wholesale establishments, and light
manufacturing companies, while space in the building itself was allocated for
wholesale grocery businesses at street level, and storage on the upper stories.
Steam packets loaded and unloaded freight on the canal side, while the elaborate
Romanesque facade on West Water Street enticed passersby to patronize the
wholesale grocery businesses inside.
Jacob Amos, whose surname appears on the parapets of the building, served
as mayor of Syracuse for two terms (1892-1896). During that time he
concerned himself with improving the appearance of the city. The
installation of sewer systems, street paving, and the completion of
Syracuse City Hall were among his principle accomplishments. Jacob Amos
was also a businessman. Aside from owning and renting out space in the
Amos Building, he also owned a flour mill, a portion of which survives
today on Walton Street, south of the Amos Block.
The Amos Block was
J. Lyman Silsbee, a prominent Syracuse architect who also designed the
Syracuse Savings Bank and the White Memorial building. In the Amos
Building, Silsbee abandoned the Gothic for the Romanesque. The Amos Block
is the only known Romanesque structure in Syracuse designed by Silsbee.
Following his work here, Silsbee moved to Chicago, where he worked with
Frank Lloyd Wright, and specialized in designing residential buildings in
the shingle style.
The commercial structure, with its distinctive Romanesque facade, was
sited next to the old Erie Canal where it became an important component of
the developing downtown business district during the last quarter of the
nineteenth century. The block, which measures approximately 55 feet by 145
feet, is comprised of a full basement and four stories with an additional
half-story is located above the center portion. The seven separate street
level bays are most easily delineated on the West Water Street or southern
elevation. The six westernmost comprise a single homogeneous architectural
unit commonly known as the Amos Building. Silsbee designed the facade in
1878, incorporating an earlier, smaller structure. In the process, he
added a half-story to the two center bays, erected the two western bays,
and altered the roof line of the two eastern bays. The easternmost portion
of the block, which is detailed somewhat differently than the main block,
dates to about 1910, and exhibits narrow rectangular openings and a
cast-iron front on the first story.
The exterior of the first story has early twentieth-century rusticated
concrete block facing while the second, third and fourth stories exhibit a
variety of Romanesque style openings in different groupings accented by
variations in surface texture, with brick corbelling at the cornice line.
The two center bays rise to a parapet gable, effecting an interesting
verticality to the otherwise horizontal orientation of the building. The
east and west elevations are plain brick bearing walls. Adjoining
buildings on either side have been demolished in recent years. The north
facade – which more people drive by today -- is also
plain because the elevation faced the canal.
In the 1970s this old
commercial block, then empty and dilapidated, was scheduled for demolition
as part of the Chandler Plan – the name for the doomed project that would
have turned much of Clinton square into the urban version of a highway
interchange. The Amos Block was saved, and it is now listed on the
National Register of Historic Places. In recent years it was best known as
the home of Syracuse Suds – the most visible of the city’s recent
breweries. In 1999, Syracuse Subs moved nearby to the former Neal & Hyde
building on Franklin Street, and now the Amos Block sits empty once again.
The Syracuse Downtown Committee and others are working hard to find a new
use for the building. |
As I was reading about the Battle of Tours in the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbons, I decided to compile a list of the significant battles in human history: the results of which changed the course of history.
Historians call them 'macro historical' events. On an average, there have been one such battle every century; but every three hundred or four hundred years there have been a really major battle that changed history for at least the next half-millenia.
The seven major battles are:
The Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC. This is the first time a western nation defeated an eastern empire. The history of the 300 hundred years before that had become the story of large eastern empires, under an absolute emperor (shah-en-shah, king-of-kings) menancing smaller western states. This set a pattern of the so called 'clash of civilzations', and a similar theme would repeat in the list. However, the impact of the Greek victory was huge: it brought the Greek wisdom and culture to all of known Asia: brought the Greeks in military and intellectual contact with the Indians. But there is an irony: it needed a Macedonian to unite the Greeks under an Empire. The Greeks, led by Alexander, went on to conquer almost all of the known world, except for India and China.
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, 9 AD. This is the battle that stopped the expansion of the Roman Empire into northern Europe.
Battle of Badr, 634 and Battle of Qadisiyah, 636. The two battles are taken together, although they are two distinct events. The first was the battle of the survival for Islam, which it did. The second was the battle of survival for Persians (Sassanian, Zoroastrians) which they didn't. These two laid the ground-work for the Islamic domination of the middle east. Historically, the major 'Eastern Empire' always used to be Persian. (Achemenid, Seleucid, Sassanian); but now the (middle) east had got an even greater spiritual power behind it. The center of gravity of the middle east power struggle went slightly west: to the Arabs. The Arabs themselves would not hold that for too long: they would eventually relinquish Asian power to the Turks (who founded Empires that would eventually rule all of Asia: through the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals) until the Europeans took over.
Battle of Tours, 732. This is the battle that stopped Arab advance into Europe. There is still a lot of debate if this was as important as many historians like Gibbons say. However, one thing is certain: the political map of Europe would look really different today had the Arabs been able to win this battle, conquer France (they already had Spain) and set their sights across the English Channel. This battle also laid the foundation of European social and political structures that would persist in Europe for almost a thousand years. The victorious army was led by Charles "Hammer" Martel, whose grandson, Charlamagne would go on to found the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne's vision of a united Europe still inspire a lot of Europeans.
Battle of Tarain, 1191-1192. This is the battle that brought Islamic rule to India and marked the founding of the Delhi Sultanate. There had been earlier Muslim attacks on India, including the one by the Arabs that annexed Sind in 712, and the series of raids by Mehmud of Ghazni from 999 to 1025. Attacks on India from the north-west had never been new. But the previous attacks were either repelled (the Huns, for example); or the conquerors ceased to retain a separate identity for long and merged with the greater Indian body-politic (the Kushans, for example). I attribute that to the strength and vitality of the Indian culture at the time. However, this time, the Indians withdrew into a psychological shell, failed to accept the power and vitality of the new force and had a harder time 'Indianizing' the new force. However, efforts by giants like Amir Khusrau, Akbar, Guru Nanak (just to mention three) helped in creating a composite 'Hindustani' (Indian) culture, politics and religion. But the fault lines are still visible to this day. Other Asian nations have a history of converting their conquerors to their own culture. The Mongols, after conquering China, became the Chinese Yuan. The other branch of Mongols, after conquering Baghdad, adopted Islam. The Safavids (who were originally Central Asian Turks), became Persian.
Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588. This marked the end of Spanish domination and the beginning of English (remember, England and Scotland were still two separate kingdoms) domination in the world stage. The English could not have a built the Empire without beating the Spanish. If the English had not won, the U.S and Canada would probably be French or Spanish speaking, for example.
The Battle of Stalingrad: 1942-43. The second world war had a number of turning points: the battle of Britain, the battle for the Atlantic, the battle of El-Alamein, the battle of Midway, the battle at Kohima. But none comes close to the importance of the Battle of Stalingrad. This not only turned the tide of the second world war in the favor of the Allies, it marked the beginning of the Soviet Empire. Between two evils, the world chose the lesser. However, the courage, the valor, the commitment and the sacrifice of the Russian people does not have that many parallels in human history. The world owes a lot to the Russian people for standing up against Nazi barbarism and prevailing over them.
There is a pattern here, not of a 'clash of civilizations' type; but a more subtle fight between different ideologies to govern the human race. Different periods have marked the ascendancy of different governing ideals, these battles mark those turning points.
The other significant battles, in chronological order (includes the six mentioned above, for the sake of continuity)
The Battle of Marathon, 490 BC.
Battle of the Allia, 390 BC
The Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC. Mentioned earlier.
The Battle of Cannae, 216 BC
The Battle of the Metaurus, 207 BC
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, 9 AD
Notable mentions: Battle of Carrhae, 53BC
Middle Ages (100AD - 1600AD)
Battle of Adrianople, 378
Battle of Chalons, 451
Battle of Badr, 634 and Battle of Qadisiyah, 636
Battle of Tours, 732 AD, Tours, France
Battle of Talas river, 751 AD
Battle of Bach Dang river, 938
The Battle of Hastings, 1066
The battle/siege of Antioch 1097-1098
Battle of Hattin, 1187
Battle of Tarain, 1191-1192
The Battle of Baghdad in 1258
Mongol attacks on Japan:
First Battle of Panipat, 1526
Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588
Siege of Vienna, 1683
Notable mentions: Battle of Lechfeld, 955. Fall of Constantinople, 1453, Battle of Kosovo, 1483, Siege of Rhodes, 1522. Russo-Kazan wars 1552. Battle of Swally, 1612.
Modern World (1700 AD - present)
Battle of Poltava, 1709
The Third Battle of Panipat. Panipat, India, 1761: Marathas defeated by Afghans. It killed any chances of a Maratha resurgence, paved the way for the British domination of India.
Battle of Saratoga, 1777
Battle of Valmy, 1792
Gettysburg, 1863 (and Sherman's capture of Atlanta, 1864)
The Battle of Stalingrad: 1942-43 |
I was asked to post this on The Concussion Blog, in full. I appreciate what another Parent Advocate is doing for raising the awareness of concussions. Katherine is doing a fine job and checking in on her is a must.
10 ways to lower your Child’s Concussion Risk
Concussions are a part of youth sports at every level from elementary school years to college. Playing at the local playground, riding bikes or just being a kid can put your child at risk for a concussion. However, any parent can reduce their child’s risk of concussion with some simple steps:
1. Educate yourself on the signs and symptoms of a concussion along with the other members of your family so that an educated adult is always available during a practice or a game or by phone for your child to call. Always check in with your child on the car ride home from any sporting activity or play date, and ask their day, and how they are feeling. If your child complains that he/she hit their head, you should know the correct questions to ask to see if there could be an issue with a head injury.
2. Educate your child about concussions. There are simple, painless videos for the media savvy teenager of today. Studies show that kids are more likely to report concussions when they know what a concussion is. The earlier the diagnosis, the sooner a child can begin the rest needed to heal a concussion.
3. Check your child’s sports equipment at the beginning, middle and end of each season. While there is no sport equipment, including helmets, that can prevent concussions, ill fitting or worn equipment can make many injuries worse. After a hard hit, recheck all equipment for damage again. Bike helmets need to replaced after every fall, while other sports helmets are more durable.
4. Make sure all your child’s coaches and camp counselors have concussion awareness training. If they don’t, politely email them a link to a training video and ask them to let you know what they thought of it after they view it.
5. Make sure your coach has your cell number with him/her at the field if you are dropping off your child for sports. If you aren’t available, substitute another adult’s cell phone number and have the proper paperwork so that adult can make medical decisions for your child. While it is rare, never leave a coach alone in a 911 situation to make medical decisions for your child.
6. Attend as many games as you can and watch your child play for the sheer love of the sport. But also be aware if your child is hurt in a game, you have the right to see your child no matter what the policy of the team. Coaches cannot see every player in every moment of a game and coaches are not doctors. Parents must be responsible for their children’s well-being and that includes deciding when a child should be pulled from a game. You are the final authority over your child and be prepared to make that call if you do not agree with a coach who wants your child to play when you have concerns about a possible injury. So many parents have shared with me that they wanted to pull their injured child from a game, but instead deferred to the coach and their child was hit again and only then too late was pulled from a game. Multiple blows tend to complicate and length recovery time for a concussion. As the CDC motto says, “When in doubt, sit it out. Better to lose a game than the whole season!”
7. If you suspect your child may have a concussion, know when to call 911, when to drive to the ER, and when to just call your child’s regular doctor. Your pediatrician can refer your child to local concussion specialists after your doctor has diagnosed the concussion.
8. If your child has a concussion, follow your doctor’s instructions and read how best to care for your child after a concussion.
9. Have your child play organized sports year around as sports promote fitness and strong bodies. One study showed that only 20% of all youth concussions occur in organized sports. It is my personal experience that unsupervised children who are bored and looking for something fun to do, can end up in trouble faster than a child on a field with adults playing a game with rules and a referee.
10. And make your child wear a bike helmet! The greatest concussion risk for your child happens when he or she is riding a bike according to this CDC study. Many parents say they would never let their children play football, yet these same parents let their children ride their bikes without helmets.
Katherine “Price” Snedaker
Katherine is the founder of SportsCapp which provides free resources, educational program and speakers for recreational sports teams, town leagues and private schools to build concussion awareness into their programs for players, coaches and parents. She designed her website and program around her concern with middle school aged athletes who are not covered by CT Concussion Law since they play in private or town leagues rather than in public middle schools where they would be protect the law. She has been work with CT and NY lacrosse leagues for several years and hopes to bring concussion awareness to teams from other sports across the state. Katherine is also the founder of Team Concussion, a social media/web based support group for teenagers with concussions.
Katherine has her Masters in Social Work and has worked as a school social worker. In addition to being a lifelong athlete, she has over ten years experience coaching boys lacrosse and co-ed soccer with children aged 5 to 15. She has vast experience with concussions as an athlete, a professional, a coach,CONNy league advisor and a parent of three active sons. One of her sons has suffered through a number of concussions, mostly from non-sport activities.
To help with research, Katherine has agreed to donate her brain to the study of CTE after she dies and encourages all adult athletes with concussion histories to consider this option (click here for more info). |
America has myriad reasons to be grateful to our 16th president, Abraham Lincoln, considered by many historians to be the nation's most important commander in chief. However here in Connecticut, we have one more reason to be particularly thankful to the man known as "Honest Abe" - the Morrill Act, which he signed into law 150 years ago this year.
Championed by Congressman Justin Morrill of Vermont, the Morrill Act of 1862 established America's "land-grant university" system, of which the University of Connecticut is one of the oldest and finest members. Without the Morrill Act, UConn would not be the institution it is today.
This weekend at UConn's Storrs campus, Under Secretary Kevin Concannon from the United States Department of Agriculture, Food, Nutrition and Consumer Services will be on-hand for a dinner honoring the 150th anniversary of the act that paved the way for UConn's creation. The event will celebrate the vision of President Lincoln, Congressman Morrill and the many others who made land-grant universities possible.
But what's more, it will celebrate the full flourished vision of the Morrill Act, now on proud display in 110 different land-grant colleges and universities across the nation. Here at home, this weekend's celebration honors the spirit of this seminal act, still relevant 150 years later and on display each day in the groundbreaking strides made here at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources in teaching, research and outreach.
The Morrill Act was signed into law in the summer of 1862, at the end of the Industrial Revolution and at the height of the American Civil War. Congressman Morrill saw a need to establish higher learning institutions that focused on more than just classical studies, with educational opportunities in the realms of engineering and agriculture. And given the war, he wanted these schools to also include education in military tactics.
Today UConn exists as a result, as well as the 109 other land-grant colleges and universities across the nation, consistently producing thousands of our most prominent scientists and teachers, as well as those who have revolutionized the farming industry and made countless advancements in scientific research and environmental protection. They have produced those who work to feed the world, to bring better nutrition to impoverished areas and to drive local, state and national economies.
Although the animal science programs remain, UConn's agricultural college is no longer the simple "cow college" it was once labeled to be, its impacts now more far-reaching than many may be aware.
The school positively influences the Connecticut economy through teaching, research and outreach, promoting and protecting human and animal health while training students for the high-tech jobs of tomorrow. The breadth of the curricula - animal sciences, horticulture, nutrition, environmental sustainability, health and wellness, turf grass management, economics and so much more - make the college a sound investment in the state's ongoing economic recovery
The UConn College of Agriculture and Natural Resources has made great advancements in the development of sustainable agriculture, in enhancing human nutrition and in utilizing biotechnology to solve problems. And once students learn it here, they take it on the road with them. They take it into inner-cities to establish vital nutrition programs, and to impoverished areas both at home and abroad to create sustainable food systems. The world is the better for it.
That's why this weekend and throughout the rest of the year we should celebrate the achievements of the Morrill Act. Created in a time of national turmoil and strife, yet stronger than ever 150 years later.
As President Obama recently declared in a proclamation honoring the Morrill Act's 150th anniversary, "Generations of Americans have led richer, more productive lives as beneficiaries of the land-grant university system." Nowhere is that more true than here in Connecticut.
So thank you, Congressman Morrill and President Lincoln, for choosing 150 years ago to make this investment in America. As we celebrate this weekend on the Storrs campus the Morrill Act helped to create, we will honor our great past while we plan for our next successful 150 years.
Gregory Weidemann is Dean of the University of Connecticut College of Agriculture and Natural Resources. |
Skippy at the Kimbell: Where's the Cross?02/20/2008
By Skippy R
The first Christian "art" must have been the fish symbol that believers could trace in the sand to covertly identify themselves and then immediately erase. (This reminds me of the intricate sand drawings by Tibetan monks, which are also eventually erased. Both show the transitory nature of this world).
Over the centuries Christian art evolved into mysterious icons, then magnificent cathedrals, and currently has exploded into a variety of media including Contemporary Christian Rock, Veggie Tales, fish bumper stickers and Thomas Kinkade.
One question grew as I walked through the Kimbell Art Museum's excellent exhibit Picturing the Bible: The Earliest Christian Art . Where was the cross?
You have to navigate through several rooms filled with early Christian art before you find what has become the dominant symbol of Christianity. The earliest Christians apparently were still freaked out by crucifixion. After all, it was a death that could happen to any of them, and it was horrible, excruciatingly painful and usually reserved only for political rebels and the basest criminals. The cross evoked shame. Using the cross as a public symbol would have been a public relations disaster for the earliest believers.
Still, the cross was used by early Christians occasionally in seals and certain manuscripts. Tertullian mentions marking the cross on the forehead as a talisman against evil, but this also could have been taken from Ezekiel Chapter 9, in which a "mark" (the Hebrew letter tau or a cross) is written on believers' foreheads as protection against God's wrath.
Constantine had seen a "cross of light" in his vision before the battle of the Milvian Bridge—the chi-rho symbol of a cross with the top bent round. He put the sign on all his soldiers' shields. After he became emperor, he ordered construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where his mother Helena "discovered" the true cross under some rubble. In 341 A.D Constantine outlawed crucifixion as a means of execution. The horror of the cross began to fade in the popular imagination. Soon, it was off to the races. Only a few years later, manuscripts begin to record the veneration of the cross.
By the end of the fourth century the paradoxical "jeweled cross" became popular among those who could afford it. This contradiction would have boggled the mind of a first-century follower of Jesus.
Christ hanging on the cross was not depicted until the end of the fifth century, but even then he was triumphant, with eyes open and no sign of suffering. It wasn't until the ninth century that Byzantine art began to show Christ with eyes closed, possibly reflecting a theological focus on the mystery of his death.
One of the last pieces displayed in the Kimbell's exhibit is the Reliquary Cross of Justin II dating from about 570 A.D. Made with gilded silver over a bronze core, with inlaid gems, this is veritable amusement park of religious symbolism. Precious gems dangle from the arms of the cross. On the back are engraved images of the Emperor Justin and his wife Sophia with arms raised in praise.
Why all the razzle-dazzle? According to the accompanying notes on the piece, "Under threat from barbarian invaders, the emperor was sending a message that he would provide protection with Christ's own authority."
Thus a new art form was born that in future centuries would be honed to perfection—rulers using Christian symbols to send political messages.
All I could think of when I saw this jeweled cross in the center of the room was the Trinity Broadcasting set of Paul and Jan Crouch and the phrase "over the top."
This piece is described as "reliquary" because inside is a compartment meant to contain a piece of the true cross. The compartment is now empty.
Could the Kimbell exhibit's centerpiece be a comment on the state of modern Christianity—all razzle-dazzle and no cross?
Let's hope not.
Picturing the Bible: The Earliest Christian Art runs through the end of March.
Editor’s note: Skippy R discusses the exhibit further in a previous blog entry. |
People have often heard America referred to as a “melting pot” – a nation of diversity. This is an undeniable truth. People have come to America from all points of the globe. But until 1965 America was a unique culture that required immigrants to assimilate into its unique society. We did not ask that people forget their heritage or leave it behind. We did require that they leave their “culture” behind. After all, did they not come here to escape a failing culture?
John Jay, 1st Chief Justice of the Supreme Court wrote in the Federalist Papers #2, paragraphs 5 & 6:
“With equal pleasure I have as often taken notice that Providence has been pleased to give this one connected country to one united people — a people descended from the same ancestors, speaking the same language, professing the same religion, attached to the same principles of government, very similar in their manners and customs, and who, by their joint counsels, arms, and efforts, fighting side by side throughout a long and bloody war, have nobly established general liberty and independence.
This country and this people seem to have been made for each other, and it appears as if it was the design of Providence, that an inheritance so proper and convenient for a band of brethren, united to each other by the strongest ties, should never be split into a number of unsocial, jealous, and alien sovereignties.”
Note that the people are “united,” by “speaking the same language, professing the same religion, attached to the same principles of government, very similar in their manners and customs.” And before the Immigration Act of 1965 only people that came from similar cultures were allowed to immigrate to the U.S. But since 1965 we have been deluged with people from all cultures forming small enclaves within American society and fracturing the once stable American culture into many that all vie for power and resources.
An awakening has occurred, most notably in Germany and England, that multiculturalism does not and cannot work. For instance, in Germany, Chancellor Angela Merkel said Germany’s attempt to create a multicultural society has failed completely and is calling on the country’s immigrants to learn German and adopt Christian Values. She went on further to say: “We feel tied to Christian values. Those that don’t accept them don’t have a place here.”
“British Prime Minister David Cameron horrified European elites when he recently proclaimed that multiculturalism has failed. The idea that all cultures are equal and that they can live happily side by side in one country is false. It just doesn’t work.
And Prime Minister Cameron knows all too well that Britain can no longer ignore the danger of growing and competing cultures within its own borders-cultures that threaten British institutions and British national identity. This is especially relevant in Europe today because of the difficulty of assimilating Muslim immigrants.”
“The safety of a republic depends essentially on the energy of a common national sentiment; on a uniformity of principles and habits; on the exemption of the citizens from foreign bias and prejudice; and on the love of country, which will almost invariably be found to be closely connected with birth, education, and family. The opinion advanced in [Jefferson’s] Notes on Virginia is undoubtedly correct, that foreigners will generally be apt to bring with them attachments to the persons they have left behind; to the country of their nativity, and to its particular customs and manners. They will also entertain opinions on government congenial with those under which they have lived; or if they should be led hither from a preference to ours, how extremely unlikely is it that they will bring with them that temperate love of liberty, so essential to real republicanism?…
“In the recommendation to admit indiscriminately foreign emigrants of every description to the privileges of American citizens, on their first entrance into our country, there is an attempt to break down every pale which has been erected for the preservation of a national spirit and a national character; and to let in the most powerful means of perverting and corrupting both the one and the other.”—Alexander Hamilton
How can America protect its culture when we permit it to be overrun by people with different cultures – who import their own inferior cultures – and refuse to embrace American culture? The framers knew it would be impossible so Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1 delegates to Congress the power to control immigration. But Congress failed us as it was insisted we had to let anybody immigrate. In 1965 the Immigration Act abolished the national origins quota system which had limited immigration to primarily people from a culture similar to ours. Dissenters of the Act were ridiculed and labeled as “racist” or “intolerant” – which is still a commonly used attack by subversives within our society today. Multiculturalism is intellectually indefensible. There is no logical argument that can be made in support of it as history demonstrates multicultural societies to be total failures.
Culture and Society go hand in hand. Culture needs society to sustain its existence and society needs culture to hold it together and survive. Language, government and other man made things are a product of culture. This is why we see immigrants form enclaves within our society. It is said they seek to “maintain their identity and heritage.” Which is just another way of saying it is a way for them to ensure the survival of their “culture.”
The result of these numerous cultures within America is that American culture must now compete for power within its own government as well as for resources. It is a fact that cultures compete for dominance in every country where cultures attempt to co-exist. Multiculturalism hasn’t worked anywhere and it’s not working in America.
The result of Western countries importing large numbers of people from incompatible cultures will only result in culture clashes as resources diminish. Conflicts between nations and groups of different civilizations will dominate global politics as we are witness of it in current time.
At this time, America is in great danger of a total loss of its unique culture. We are witness as the many cultures that have set up their own societies within America vie for power within the government. Most notably are Mexican and Islamic cultures that threaten the American culture as Mexicans call for what they believe to be “stolen lands” returned to Mexico and Muslims that simply refuse to assimilate into American society and call for the right of Sharia which is incompatible with American Liberty, Law and Justice – the very founding principles that made American culture so unique.
As I said, conflict will arise between cultures and this conflict will result in the American people saving their unique culture or seeing it come to utter destruction. The result is dependent on the courage of Americans to take a stand in protecting their culture from encroachment by these foreign cultures.
Publius Huldah Explains Why Islamists Don’t Have the Right to Build Mosques, Proselytize Or Institute Sharia Law In America
As Many of you know, the infiltration of Islam into our States is of great concern. Publius explains why and demonstrates how to combat this foreign invasion. Please take the time to watch this video and share it with as many as you can. It is time we, the militia, take a stand and fight the battles our cowardly “public servants” do not have the courage to take on.
Follow her blog: Publius-Huldah’s Blog
That’s right. He said that. After reading the article I am not too thrilled with the ass the wrote it.
A statement that caught my eye was this:
“If recent history is any guide, if the bomber ends up being a white anti-government extremist, white privilege will likely mean the attack is portrayed as just an isolated incident — one that has no bearing on any larger policy debates,”
He cannot be serious. It would have “no bearing” on “larger policy debates”??? If that were true then why is it that so many people are trying to tie the bombing in with the 2nd Amendment and Libertarian political activists?
How can this moron deny that if the bomber were a “white anti-government extremist” it would certainly mean MORE surveillance of Americans with the excuse of intercepting “home grown” terrorist attacks?? What kind of idiot thinks that more surveillance and infringing on the rights of Americans will only happen because a “foreigner” or a “muslim” is behind a terrorist attack on American soil?
Sirota definitely has his own agenda motivated by his “anti white man” mindset which blames “white America” for the plight of others.
You can read Sirota’s article HERE… even tho I wouldn’t recommend it. I provide the link for those that would like to take the time to give him a piece of their mind.
The more serious charge being made by much more honest and trustworthy media, which has some credibility, is that the Boston bombing was another “false flag operation” brought to you by one or more of the alphabet soup group.
We are at the threshold of a fundamental evolutionary change for mankind. As the articles, movies and pictures posted here have demonstrated, we have been moving towards a one world governing body referred to as The New World Order. There is a solution to the many problems our world faces. Please take the time to view this movie which addresses each of these problems individually, laying out the entire insidious plan for world domination and then reveals the solutions we can implement to change that direction and put an end to the machinations that would steal our Liberty and even our very lives.
For More Information:
On one hand we have the admission by the U.S. that Iran is NOT making nuclear weapons.
See it here:
On the other hand, we may have policy that, is no doubt, extreme meddling in the affairs of a Sovereign Nation.
See it here:
These destructive and violent actions would not occur with a Ron Paul Presidency. This is only one of the reasons he has my support.
The main question to ask is:
Why does the U.S. believe it has the authority to tell other Sovereign Nations what they can and cannot do?
Ron Paul wouldn’t hesitate to tell you that the U.S. has no such authority and that meddling in the affairs of other nations will only result in greater problems in the future.
We all have a choice. We can choose Peace and Freedom or War and Slavery.
A VOTE FOR RON PAUL IS A VOTE FOR PEACE AND FREEDOM.
Get ready to have your mind blown. You will never be the same after watching these videos. You will NEVER believe anything you see on the news again. And you will know that there is a great manipulation taking place by the Media AND the Federal Government.
I am only posting the very first video of this series. Please follow the link at the bottom of this post to view the rest. I’ve included the link to his new website so that you may learn more about this fraud being perpetrated on the American people.
This is basically proof that there are many PsyOps being performed for the news media. Some of these might even be classified as “False Flag Operations” on a small-scale. Remember, they are designed to form opinions and beliefs FOR YOU.
I recommend viewing the rest of the videos here and visiting the main website at WellAware1.com.
This was passed on to me:
Scary stuff happening in Fresno. I received this from a friend in Fresno . I thought it warrants your awareness of what may be happening throughout our Country.
This is from a retired CHP Officer and ex military.
Makes you wonder why these guys are always sitting at the end of the runway on Tuesday when I go to our POP meetings.. etc….
I received this from my ex-homicide partner who is still active in law enforcement circles in the Fresno area.
Excuse the language but don’t excuse the facts. Don’t give up your guns, and buy necessary ammunition if you can find it. Be cautious and alert. Be ready if, God forbid, we need to protect our families and loved ones.
If You weren’t at Rotary Friday. You missed the only decent speaker we’ve had in more than a year. LTC John Cotter is the 144th Fighter Wing’s antiterrorism officer. John had a two-part presentation. First part was describing his job as the units antiterrorism officer. Pretty standard stuff.
The second part was information that will curl your hair. A Part-time air guardsman works as a checker at local Von’s. Two women in full burkas buy every pre-paid cellphone in the store. Clerk/airman gets to thinking about it. Goes to Cotter and reports incident. Cotter asks store for surveillance video. It’s scary enough that he contacts Fresno FBI.
FBI investigates, determines these women have been doing this all over the Valley. Cell phones shipped through Canada to Iraq/Afghanistan where they become triggers for roadside bombs.
The Shell station at Peach and Shaw. Every time a local GI goes there in fatigues they are asked specific questions. What is your unit? When are you deploying? How many aircraft are you taking?
The F-16s out of Fresno fly CAP for west coast. As such they are the first line of defense so they have the US ‘s most sophisticated air-to-air missiles. Foreign governments would like to get their hands on those missiles or at least learn how to build them. Also how many we have, etc. Two spy groups are working on it, one based at Fashion Fair Mall (the F-16s take-off pattern) and one based at Sierra Vista Mall (the F-16s landing pattern).
Cotter said the ragheads (But we don’t profile.) are always probing the base. Two dorks in a pickup show up at the front gate wanting to deliver a package marked Air National Guard, Fresno . No postage, no UPS, no FedEx, no DHL, no nothing. Just a probe.
I asked Cotter why we haven’t seen anything about this in The Bee, on KMJ, on local TV news. He said they’re not interested. Since Friday I’ve learned of two other things. My brother-in-law Frank, (management at Avaya) had a Muslim tech who took a leave-of-absence for 6 weeks in Afghanistan . After the 6 weeks were up he called from New York requesting an extension. Frank (who does profile) said, ‘you’re fired’, and called the Fresno FBI who were very interested. Don’t know the outcome.
A Muslim who owns a liquor store in my former hometown of Kingsburg was constantly bugging customers to buy guns for him. Finally one of the guys I grew up with called the FBI.
We are a country at war and the enemy is among us. I don’t care what Janet Napolitano says, it’s a fight to the death and we should be prepared as possible. Brother-in-law Frank has a theory and I think it may be closer to the truth than Homeland Security wants to admit. There are a certain number (probably a large number) of Muslims among us who are awaiting the trigger date and will begin randomly killing as many of us as they can, sort of a Fort Hood on steroids. I know I’m getting prepared to shoot back.
Two items of interest. Sheriff Margaret Mims wants to grant concealed carry permits to all who are qualified. Columnist Jim Boren, among the most bleeding of the bleeding heart liberals, says it’s time for Fresno residents to arm themselves. LOAD up, you can bet this is happening in places other than Fresno …
Pet Watch Associates
(Note from Ice: I am withholding the contact info) |
With Congress nearly unable to come to an agreement about the federal budget, many government agencies and institutions feared they may have to cease operations. What would a government shutdown have meant for the average American?
CNN has compiled a searchable table organizing affected government offices and services, which is being updated as more information is made available.
NPR also has an article about what will and will not be closed in the event of a government shutdown.
The Christian Science Monitor has an article about the role a government shutdown would play in Medicare and Medicaid services.
The Wall Street Journal Health Blog also covers possible closings in other health-related services such as the Centers for Disease Control, the Food and Drug Administration, and the National Institutes of Health.
And even if the government shuts down tonight, the Library is always available 24/7 at thelibrary.org.
Find this article at |
Curiosity Rover has been on the red planet for quite a while, scouring through different places and gathering more information about Mars. A recent image that sent Curiosity back to the Earth shows it gazing out at a strange shiny object at some distance. Naturally, the image has piqued the interest of many.
Once the image surfaced, many have forwarded explanations about it, ranging from plausible to hilarious. For instance, some have cited that the shiny object is perhaps a lever to open some secret door which may lead to Megatrons. Others think that the shiny object is our way to another dimension.
The shiny metal object is perched atop a red rock and is remarkably different than the composition of the ground around it. On a serious note, it can simply turn out to be a more eroded portion of the red rock. Curiosity spotted the interesting object back on January 30th this year. A similarly mysterious and interesting object was spotted by Curiosity last year too.
We do hope that if Curiosity made a closer inspection of the this queer-looking object, NASA would reveal those details in the coming days. Until then, on with the wildest theories.
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Canadian and provincial governments could spend $2.4 billion to build a large scale solar photovoltaic manufacturing plant and then give it away for free and still earn a profit in the long run, according to a financial analysis conducted by the Queen’s University Applied Sustainability Research Group in Kingston, Canada.
Queen’s University Mechanical Engineering Professor Joshua Pearce conducted the study — to be published in the August edition of the academic journal Energy Policy — to find out if it makes economic sense for governments to support solar cell manufacturing in Canada. He was surprised to discover the answer is an overwhelming yes even in extreme situations and feels governments should be aggressively supporting this industry to take advantage of the financial opportunity.
“This study uses hard financial numbers. Everything we did is transparent and all our equations are in the study,” says Professor Pearce. “The benefits of encouraging solar manufacturing in Canada are clear and massively outweigh the costs.”
The report looked at six different scenarios: everything from building a plant and giving it away or selling it to more traditional and less costly loan guarantees or tax holidays for a private sector company to construct the plant. In all the scenarios, both federal and provincial governments enjoyed positive cash flows in less than 12 years and in many of the scenarios both governments earned well over an eight per cent return on investments ranging from hundreds of millions to $2.4 billion.
The revenues for the governments of nearly $500 million a year, were determined from taxation (personal, corporate and sales), sales of panels, and saved health, environmental and economic costs associated with offsetting coal-fired electricity.
New York City’s second-tallest building received the highest rating for environmental performance and sustainability from the U.S. Green Building Council yesterday, becoming the first commercial skyscraper to get Platinum certification under the council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design program.
The 54-story Bank of America Tower received the certification because of its water and energy efficiency, indoor air quality, green construction materials and other criteria. The building uses a 4.6-megawatt cogeneration plant and has floor-to-ceiling windows to cut down on the need for artificial light. Wastewater is recycled from the sinks, and urinals in the men’s rooms are waterless. The building is constructed from steel with 87 percent recycled material and 45 percent recycled concrete.
Bank of America said it went into construction hoping to build the most eco-friendly building possible. It’s estimated that the building saves 8 million to 9 million gallons of water every year. The interior of the building also has a lower carbon dioxide content, which developers say can help keep employees alert during the day.
Bank officials say the building’s green status projects the right image.
“In terms of how the financial services industry is seen by the public … a more buoyant economy and lower unemployment will make a big difference in our image,” said Anne Finucane, Bank of America’s global strategy and marketing officer.
Wind turbines could co-exist with military activities off Virginia’s coast depending on their locations, a Defense Department assessment has concluded.
Proponents of commercial wind power 12 miles or beyond Virginia’s coast believe the giant turbines could ultimately provide 10 percent of the state’s annual electricity demand and operate without incident in the military’s busy seas.
“I look at this as a very positive thing,” said Hank Giffin, a retired Navy vice admiral and a member of a coalition promoting offshore winds. “Initially there were a lot of people who were concerned the Navy would just say no.”
Released Wednesday, the Department of Defense assessment looks at 25 tracts identified for optimum winds. The report identifies 18 tracts as compatible with military needs and rules as long as certain guidelines are met. They were not detailed in the report.
Other tracts were ruled out because they conflict with Navy activities.
The area is used to test drones and by helicopters that sweep the ocean surface with mine-detecting sleds. Wind-power advocates have said they will honor the military’s concerns and not build where there are potential conflicts.
President Barack Obama will hold an event at the White House on Friday to announce the expansion of federal emissions standards to include trucks, an administration official said Thursday.
Obama is directing two federal agencies to create for the first time a national standard for medium-sized and heavy-duty trucks, the official said. The policy, to be carried out by the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Transportation, is designed to increase fuel efficiency and decrease greenhouse gases and would apply to vehicles built from 2014 to 2018, the official said.
The president will also extend the federal emissions standards the administration adopted a year ago to include cars and light trucks manufactured from 2017 and beyond, according to the official. The current standards apply to vehicles made in the years 2012 to 2016 and sold in the United States.
“This announcement lays the groundwork for a more secure energy future by reducing our dependence on foreign oil, enhancing American competitiveness with a new generation of advanced electric vehicles, and protects the environment by reducing dangerous greenhouse gas and other pollutants,” the official said. “This isn’t just good for America’s energy security and our environment, it’s good for business, workers, and consumers too.”
The White House has invited stakeholders in the policy to attend Friday’s event, the official said.
While global warming is expected to spread tropical diseases into new areas, it appears human action to prevent malaria may be outpacing the spread of the debilitating disease. New Scientist points out a new study coming out of the University of Oxford that examined how much malaria has spread since 1900, when the world was 0.7°C cooler.
In total, the area where malaria is endemic has decreased from 58% to 30%, with the rate of transmission fallen nearly everywhere. That said, though overall area has decreased, malaria may still spread into new areas as our climate changes.
[JR: Given the misleading coverage in the blogosphere, I'll do a post on the subject of climate change and malaria/health.] |
Monday, December 24, 2007
- industrial unions within the context of "fordism" -- fordism and mid-20th century capitalism allowed a few gigantic corporations to dominate the economy. Because of realities of technology, these firms employed armies of industrial mass-production workers. Because of realities of economics, these mass-production workers could (if they could arrange it) shut down significant portions of the leading production of the economies of nations. Because of political realities (having to do with the crises of the 1930s and 1940s) these workers were able to unionize and exercise this latent power.
- an important portion of this political reality was the existence of a genuine threat of an alternative; this being Soviet-style communism. It's often perception that is more important than reality when it comes to elites. In the case of the elites and Soviet Communism, many Western elites saw the governments of the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China as offering an alternative to voters in the West. For that reason, many leaders in the West advocated providing workers with reforms in the hopes of forestalling revolution.
- public sector unions and the growth of government: prior to 1929, even after the accomplishments of the Progressive Movement, and the realities of World War I economies, capitalists and many capitalist politicians were able to delude themselves that some fantastical illusion of a "free market" was a sufficient means for organizing industrial-urban society. The ten lost years of the Great Depression and successful public mobilization of resources in World War II disabused them of that notion. While significant public activism in the economy was and is still regarded as heresy against the laws of nature by right-wing cranks, even they aren't going to do anything to roll-back the size of the state to 1929 levels. (Maybe. In this late period of right-wing triumphalism and delusion, anything is possible, despite what the reality-based communities have to say on the subject. ) Anyhow, ... the state grew in importance as an employer and provided large numbers of workers with steady work, ... and in response to the culture of the times, these workers were allowed to unionize. In Canada, these public sector workers and their unions remain significant sources of progressive strength and resources, even after over two decades of assaults.
- the welfare state, "full" employment policies, and mass education: While education is usually intended as a means of training obedient workers and indoctrinated managers, ... and while revolutions had been fought and sometimes won by illiterate peasants and workers in the past, it was and is also the case that education systems sometimes train people for independence, as well as providing expecatations of fulfilling work and careers. When these expectations are not met, there is often an articulate pool of resentment. In the 1960s and 1970s, and even up to today, the former manifestation, ... independent, critical thinkers, continue to be produced in larger numbers.
- feminism: economic independence and education produced the second wave of feminism, in the West, producing a powerful movement that has had impacts on the social, economic, and political levels. It has also created a body of critical thinking that naturally responds with skepticism to the platitudes of elites.
- environmentalism: full employment and the welfare state created a sense among many that the struggle for survival (in a realistic sense, I mean within the economic and technological realities of the late-20th century West) did not require constant consumption of the world's resources, strip-mining of all available natural resources. It too served as an area of critical thought.
I suspect that I'm getting into results of the sources of strength. I don't know. I haven't typed an entry for a number of days, and I need to put something out there.
We need to take stock today, of what our potentialities are. That's all for now spam-bots and uninvestigated google hits. And me.
Saturday, December 22, 2007
But, I would argue to such a conservative, that right-wing policies really only serve to reward a rapacious elite, people more selfish and thoughtless than is healthy for human society. Inequalities of power, meant to place the superior over the inferior have invariably rewarded the most violent and rapacious. And then the system produces a ruling class of the privileged, unremarkable children of those greedy sociopaths.
It remains the case that the best years for industrial capitalism were the years between 1945-73. The time when our societies were at their most democratic. This was the era that saw significant gains in living standards for the working class, for the democratic and material rights of oppressed minorities, for feminism, for the rights of youth. All these gains in the Western capitalist democracies produced a fear on the part of the elites, so that they called it a "crisis of democracy." And they therefore worked to destroy it. But the achievements of that era are with us still: a vibrant peace movement, sanity on the strength of the environment, and a more mature attitude towards sexuality and its diversity (please remember the pathetic batch of closet-cases and rapists who seek to impose their "family values" upon the rest of us).
Even the poorer nations were getting in on the act. And when it came to the enormous rise in oil and other commodity prices, Western elites had had enough and they sought to destroy the many-headed hydra of democratic impulses. We see the glorious results of their efforts. The demented simpleton, george w. bush has presided over the creation of perhaps one million violent deaths in Iraq, the creation of 2 million refugees, which, in the calculus of narrow-minded bigoted US policy leaders, counts as the greatest foreign policy blunders in their country's history. Meanwhile, the capitalist ruling class, the mass entity that had the power to sabotage (alas, perhaps not fatally) bush II and Cheney's delusions about attacking Iran as well, has not had the power to police itself, and has produced with its real-estate speculations yet another gigantic credit crisis for the US and world financial systems.
It appears that social inequality only gives a minority of stupid people the power to lord it over everyone else and to create even bigger messes that mass democracy produces. The genius of democracy is that individuals' self-interest works at a rational level to counteract the selfish attacks of other peoples' stupidity. We are not all uniformly stupid all the time, and we can and have acted to defend ourselves from the out-of-control stupidity of the most violent and rapacious.
Finally, social inequality prods people to put their own selfishness and desperation to work as a survival mechanism, creating a society of bitter, vicious cretins.
The best means for conducting the affairs of the billions of voracious humans on this planet is through leftist policies of equality, democracy, and human rights.
Friday, December 21, 2007
Tuesday, December 18, 2007
One part reads: "After an early autumn in which his government regularly and successfully divided the opposition - particularly Stephane Dion's Liberals - Mr. Harper's Conservatives have found themselves dealing with a series of negative events."
It occurred to me that Harper was successful when he was trying to be destructive, but with his present unpopularity (a result of the nauseatingly bad high policy of his government) and traditional conservative corruption and incompetence beginning to blossom, making his enemies look bad isn't going to save him.
This latest mutation of "conservatism" is an empty shell, but for the lingering stench of the foul soul that died within it long ago.
Saturday, December 15, 2007
The same goes for getting imperialist politicians to bring an end to their imperialist wars. It isn't going to happen. We have to do it ourselves. The sooner we stop deluding ourselves that the party of the corpor-rats and the stupes, and the other party of the copor-rats and the deluded, are going to do what we ask them to, the sooner we can start doing the serious work of finding out how we can accomplish these things ourselves.
Fuck off wayne. You support arbitrary arrests and political harrassment. I don't give a shit what you say about anything from now on.
Friday, December 14, 2007
Under the circumstances, our actions probably seemed heartless, but the truth of the matter is that we could not see that there would be any end in sight to the situation, and, more importantly, we were being made to feel unwelcome in our own home.
There are two sides to every story. We feel we did more than our fair share. That's all I intend to say on the matter.
Evidently, the US Federal Reserve's quarter-point rate cut isn't having the desired effect because the US banking system is paranoid as a result of its own pervasive corruption.
In other news, the Harpercons have pulled their copyright bill again. So, maybe a victory there. And I watched a few minutes of Brian Mulroney's testimony yesterday. I'd like to have seen Chretien or Martin squirm like that. Seemed to me, Mulroney was trying to bluster his way through his completely sloppy "accounting" of the money he said he never got from the guy he never liked. Brazen fibbery. I couldn't watch much of it.
Thursday, December 13, 2007
Wednesday, December 12, 2007
Tuesday, December 11, 2007
Why, for instance, is the antiwar movement basically nowhere on campuses? I don't know, and the people on campuses I've spoken to don't have good answers either, but it's up to them to answer that. They were disappointed when the war wasn't stopped before it started after the Feb. 15, 2003, worldwide demonstrations. They were disappointed when it wasn't stopped after that, and after a few more marches. They were disappointed and demoralized when Bush was re-elected. They can never get more than 15 people for a meeting and 5 are pushing a sectarian agenda, 5 want to talk only about Palestine and 5 can't get past identity politics.
Sunday, December 9, 2007
How casually we take civil rights. A Commons committee is examining the government's plan to fix an unconstitutional law that allows it to lock up non-citizens indefinitely without charge. But committee members won't let lawyers for the six men detained under this law appear before them because –given a tight February deadline set by the Supreme Court, plus the six weeks of Christmas holidays that MPs allow themselves – there just isn't enough time.
What else can you say?
Friday, December 7, 2007
But his latest criticisms of the bush II regime's demonstrable lying on Iran's nuclear ambitions is bang-on. This is inexcusable behaviour on the part of any government, especially that of the most powerful nation in the world.
And we are to believe, Mr. Bush, that the National Intelligence Estimate this week talks of the Iranians suspending their nuclear weapons program in 2003…And you talked of the Iranians suspending their nuclear weapons program on October 17th…
And that term suspending is just a coincidence?
And we are to believe, Mr. Bush, that nobody told you any of this until last week?
Your insistence that you were not briefed on the NIE until last week might be legally true — something like “what the definition of ‘is’ is” — but with the subject matter being not interns but the threat of nuclear war.
Legally, it might save you from some war crimes trial… but ethically, it is a lie.
It is indefensible.
Thursday, December 6, 2007
Tuesday, December 4, 2007
Monday, December 3, 2007
The OPP say charges are pending after a protest rally over a native-operated smoke shop erupted into violence. Two people, including controversial figure Gary McHale, were injured during the
melee on Saturday morning.McHale suffered a bruised rib, black eye and head and feet injuries.
Cue the closeted racists to appear and start denouncing First Nations violence, roused from their blissful sleep, where they were not dreaming about over one-hundred years of broken treaties and "two-tier justice" against the First Nations.
Note to the banned: Your links aren't being considered because your track record on everything has been disastrous, and Gary McHale has been a complete idiot and a hypocrite for over a year now, so he doesn't get the benefit of the doubt.
Sunday, December 2, 2007
Apparently, Vladimer Putin wants to be Prime Minister of Russia and there's a strong possibility that he'll get to be.
Putin represents the class of former-Soviet state rulers who helped orchestrate the top-down revolution that destroyed the official myth of "ownership by the people" and instead, through a corrupt privatization process, gave it to the managerial class (that is to say, themselves).
But some of these guys stayed in the public sector, and while they got rich through corruption, they got nowhere near as wealthy as the few, better-positioned who became "oligarchs" along with out-and-out mobsters. They watched resentfully as the oligarchs looted the country and took the wealth to Western banks, as Russia sank into the most pathetic weakness.
Putin represents the gang left behind by the oligarchs. But Putin's gang still controlled the legal system, and they have the power to crack-down on this tiny bunch of would-be plutocrats. No tactic is out-of-bounds to this ruthless caste.
Together with the high price of oil, Russia is on a sounder footing to make a stand in the world, but it's testimony to Russia's continued weakness that this stance is a nakedly surly, resentful, nasty one.
But what Putin's continued strength means is that democracy is still not an option. Not after the word was so abused and discredited during the Yeltsin era, when illegal state violence and massive corruption was greeted with applause by the sensitive, liberal West.
Saturday, December 1, 2007
We tend to care about the environment and if the vast majority of the world's scientists say that our constant belching of gigantic clouds of smoke and other dangerous chemicals into the atmosphere is having a major and worrisome effect on the planet, we take it seriously. Especially if the scientists who reject this analysis appear to all be funded by the oil companies or other contributors to the alleged problem. That, or they're unpublished cranks who Alexander Cockburn has dredged up in a desperate attempt to maintain a disproven thesis.
We certainly don't go to war, or ignore the possibility of global warming, if the people who tell us to are the biggest, absolute idiots in all the world. People who feel compelled to abuse respected Canadian scientist and eco-activist David Suzuki with all manner of hateful abuse; calling him a charlatan for his warnings about the danger of global warming, while at the same time being able to believe in the contradictory theses that the world is not warming up AND that the world is warming up because the whole solar system is warming up.
It's a serious subject dipshits, which is it? Is the world heating up or isn't it?
People who I like tend not to think that the authorities should be empowered to sweep anyone and everyone off the street and hold them indefinitely without even charging them with anything, subjecting them to torture to produce useless "confessions" and using these "confessions" to go after people of a similar skin colour or political orientation.
People who I like tend to be sane, reasonable, humane people with an natural tendency to prefer the truth to stupid, insulting lies.
People who I don't like believe these stupid lies. They repeat them and tell their own. They're ugly-minded, useless people. People like the execrable Werner Patels, or as some have taken to calling him: "Weiner Prattles."
When faced with a clear case of unjustified police brutality (brutality is never justified, but occasionally you can see a reason for it) as the recent shameful, black-eye for Canada, when four RCMP officers tasered, swarmed and killed an unarmed, distraught man at Vancouver International Airport, Werner is quick to side with the out-of-control cops and cast aspersions on the victim:
Exactly. The Taser is the best approach available. The public needs to be protected from such animals. In the (good) old days, he would have been shot; with a Taser, death is not the most common outcome at all. But as I also said, if you act like an animal, you have to be prepared to face the consequences, including death.
Again, when Canada is disgraced (Hello! The RCMP was involved again! How about that?) by our complicity in helping the bush II regime ship Canadian citizen Maher Arar to Syria to be tortured, Werner is once again quick to blame the victim and defend the perpretators:
Another such case of ‘manipulation by media’ was the hoopla around Maher Arar, a Syrian living in Canada who was deported by the US government to Syria, where he remained for some time before he was released and returned to Canada. Arar claimed that he had been tortured in Syria but to this day has failed to provide evidence (circumstantial or otherwise) of his allegations. The Canadian government, to avoid a lawsuit he had filed for several hundred million dollars, decided it was better to pay him C$10 million and get him to shut up once and for all.
What ridiculous, hateful stupidity. Patels describes Arar as "a Syrian living in Canada," which is wrong. Arar is a Canadian citizen. Syria doesn't allow anyone to renounce their citizenship, but even if Arar wanted to be a dual-citizen, he would still be a Canadian. Werner doesn't want to be called "a piece of shit that fell out of Mrs. Patels and is now lying around in Canada" does he? I could go on, but the lies and stupidities are too pervasive.
Why am I discussing this imbecile? It's part of a wider argument, bear with me. (Or don't. It's a free country.) The main reason I know anything about Werner Patels is through the work of Canadian Cynic, who somehow has the strength to daily keep tabs on the right-wing blogosphere and report on their various and sundry atrocities. It was also due to Canadian Cynic that I encountered one Tony Phryllis, who saw fit to link approvingly to Werner's idiotic diatribe:
The crux of the writer's argument, at least the way I read it, is that conservative blogs help deliver truth in a world where the mainstream media is biased while liberal blogs help perpetuate the bias.
Read the article by Werner Patels for yourself to see if it makes sense.
Okay, big fucking deal. One stupid loser links to another stupid loser. But here's the thing; Phyrillas has this link to a book called Tip of the Spear, which is apparently about one citizen standing up to corruption in Philadelphia politics
Musician, businessman, politician, citizen activist, revolutionary. Russ Diamond has been a lot of things during his 44 years. Add author to the list.The founder of PACleanSweep, which led the fight to repeal the July 2005 pay raise and punish members of the Legislature for their betrayal of the public trust, Diamond has chronicled his efforts to reform state government in a new book, "Tip of the Spear." ... Makes a wonderful holiday gift for that political revolutionary in your life.
I don't know much about Pennsylvania politics. Matter of fact, I know sweet dick-all about the subject. But if this right-wing doofus points to Tip of the Spear as an admirable example of citizen activism, I'm sure the book is as lame as Werner Patel's political analysis.
But this Russ Diamond fellow has (allegedly) had some sort of impact on the world of Pennsylvania politics, beyond empty-headed bloviating. In this, he is quite similar to all the right-wing foot soldiers, all the Christian-right chumps and saps, who have lined-up to make sure that the unions that could have protected them, the environmental laws that could have preserved their world, the welfare state that could have shielded them from their masters' economic policies were destroyed. About the only non-negative thing they've achieved is to make illegal all the homosexual behaviour that they're so evidently prone to. (I said "non-negative" but not positive. By this I mean they wrote laws that did things, albeit bad things.)Just like the happily witless Toronto Sun letter writers who bitch endlessly about immigrants, taxes, and spending on the people, I'm sure that Diamond has had a real influence on his world, all of it bad.
That's what makes Phryllis momentarily important to me. This unremarkable US right-wing idiot, the creation of a community of losers, scum, madmen, is part of gigantic network of similar idiots from the pitifully insane Werner Patels to this Russ Diamond fellow. And while their wave has crested, they did a powerful amount of damage during the almost thirty years they had in power.
The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 is a convenient signpost for the movement represented by the goons of our present times. The significance of Ronald Reagan is that he represented a conscious decision to embrace fantasy over reality, to celebrate ignorance over inconvenient reality, to use simplistic slogans over nuanced deliberations, and to engage in naked agression over the pretence of diplomacy. Reagan was not so much different from Jimmy Carter insofar as the outcomes were pretty much the same (see El Salvador for instance), but in the inane justifications, and the abusrd evidence he and his handlers would use as arguments for his destructive policies.
Ronald Reagan was an actor, and a simple-minded individual as well. He was therefore perfect in acting the role of a heroic American president, in a simple-minded fantasy just perfect for all the simpletons who had been mourning their lost privileges and shattered delusions since the 1960s.
By "simpletons" I mean the slow-witted authoritarian white males, anyone who ever felt threatened by the social movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Minority civil rights, feminism, environmentalism, the peace movement, ... all these challenges to the bigoted status-quo of racism, sexism, destructive consumerism and plunder, militarism. Also, there was the gay rights movement, religious pluralism, and the intellectual challenges to entrenched capitalism spreading through academia. In short, a thorough, and long overdue challenge to the whole gamut of prejudices, delusions, superstitions, and cultural bullying of a large portion of society.
Reagan's victory came at a very significant point in his nation's and the world's history. The US empire was weakening for reasons unrelated to beginnings of democratic upsurge. An overvalued US dollar until Nixon abandoned the gold standard in 1973, had weakened US industry for years. Imperial overstretch, especially in Vietnam, where the nationalist resistance had the support and protection of both the relatively powerful Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China, had brought on a political-military crisis. The recovery of Cold War clients of Western Europe and Japan was a further challenge to US economic superiority. The "Third World" was feeling its strength in the surging world economy, demanding higher commodity prices and a better deal from the international economy overall. The best example of this "Third World" insurgency was the successful oil price revolution of the OPEC cartel. In the USA's "backyard" of Latin America, decades of repression and (inevitably) failed capitalist development schemes had produced a widespread insurgency, similar to what we're seeing now in the early-21st century.
Finally, and most traumatically for the American people, on top of all this, the people of Iran rose up against the brutal, corrupt, US puppet, the Shah, and Iranian university students invaded and occupied the American Embassy in Tehran in anger over their suspicions that the US government was continuing to plot with the Shah to destroy their revolution. Several US Embassy staff were taken hostage and the occupation lasted for months. During the crisis, the Carter Administration attempted a military rescue of the hostages which ended disastrously and seemed to be representative of then-current worries of the USA's "weakness."
This perception of "weakness" had stemmed from the USA's supposed "defeat" in Vietnam. (They had been unable to impose a puppet government against the will of the vast majority of the Vietnamese people and against an organized North Vietnamese military backed-by the two great communist military powers.) In the face of the obvious lies and incompetence of successive US governments on Vietnam, the American people were reluctant to endorse further military adventurism for years afterwards, compelling the Carter Administration to have to pursue diplomacy and negotiation with international adversaries, rather than instantly resorting to brute force. This brief period of sanity was referred to as "The Vietnam Syndrome."
The decline in US dominance was not due to "decadence" and "weakness," arising as some sort of unavoidable consequence of women getting decent pay, treating blacks as equals, driving smaller cars, or not sacrificing one's children to Moloch, but from real structural causes. In 1945, the United States of America was the world's creditor nation, the only economic great power with an intact industrial base, with by far the most powerful military capabilities the world had ever seen. The economy was humming along because of new-found consumer strength, because of postwar reconstruction, military Keynesianism, and other causes. But such an artificial position of total dominance could not last. When its rivals had recovered, when capitalism's enemies found new sources of strength, when the US began to be challenged as it moved into the former European empires after 1945, the image of pristine supremacy of 1945-50 could not be sustained.
But this was all too difficult for morons seeking scapegoats and easy answers. Just as Western civilization was getting smarter, Western imperialism was getting injured enough for the morons, thugs, imperialists, racists, assholes, weeping over their lost entitlements, to blame the good people for these geo-political developments. "Reaganism" was to be the antidote. Union-busting. Tax-cuts for the rich. Deregulation of the economy. Shredding of the welfare state (even the stunted US one). And unapologetic support for brutality, imperialism, and militarism worldwide.
A group of right-wing hacks and war-mongers calling themselves the Committee on the Present Danger had concocted a fraudulent analysis of Soviet military power (similar to Democratic Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy's fraudulent "missile gap" with the Soviets, and the recent fraudulent PNAC analysis) claiming that the USSR was overtaking the USA militarily. Obviously the thing to do was to rachet-up military spending enormously. (This last gasp of counter-cyclical military Keynesianism might have actually helped Reagan on the economic front. It certainly mitigated the high-interest rate recession which occured at the beginning of his first term.)
It has been downhill ever since. Reagan was allowed to say any fool-ugly thing that popped into his head. Trees caused pollution. The Nicarauguan Contra rebels, raping and murdering their way throughout that poor country were the moral equivalent of the US founding fathers. Libya was to be bombed. Tiny Grenada was invaded and treated as an example of US heroism. Black welfare queens were responsible for the deficits. And, in the Iran-Contra scandal, some of the most significant crimes of any US president were excused by their being carried-out by a confused, kindly grandfather and an allegedly telegenic US Marine colonel.
Neurotic, far-right whacko billionaires responded to the increased influence of sane people in the media and decided to meet the challenge by funding hack publishers and pro-business think-tank/propaganda mills. And they bought up geneuine media outlets and gave guaranteed careers to shameless professional liars, and denied access to the voices of reason. And certain sectors of the population, those who had been forced into some mild form of reticence about their love of war, injustice, bullying, and theft, lapped it all up. America was great. America was strong. The thing to do was to push all the feminist bitches, faggots, atheists, and darkies, back into the shadows, and let the upstanding white Christian [allegedly apparently] heterosexual men, those who had proven incapable of keeping up with the changing times, back in charge. We now have an entire network FOX news, and a culture of lies, swallowed up by deluded, ugly shits.
And of course, these morons, being morons, have fucked everything up. As their movement went from strength to strength, they gained in the self-confidence of their bankrupt ideas and their impunity at ever facing a reckoning for their corruption and brutality. But now their control over the system is at its peak, and their influence over the population is self-destructing. This article:
Does an admirable job of outlining their moral decline. And now, they have barfed up stammering moron bush II, and the "brains" behind their operation (the laughable Cheney and Rumsfeld) were allowed to pursue their hubris to its fullest extent, producing the greateset US foreign policy disaster in their nation's history. They have brought ruin to the economy, hollowing it out in their pursuit of maximum individual profit. And they have revealed the full extent of their sleazy hypocrisy with the implosions of various "Christian" movements ... Ralph Reed's cynical work for Jack Abramoff, and Falwell and Robertson's ghoulish blaming of the victims after 9-11. It's all gone wrong, because these people are wrong, stupid, losers.
We on the left, we in the reality-based community have to be poised to seize the moment. |
Only women can be mothers. Have we forgotten this fundamental?
Only a woman can carry in her body an eternal being which bears the very image of God. Only she is the recipient of the miracle of life. Only a woman can conceive and nurture this life using her own flesh and blood, and then deliver a living soul into the world. God has bestowed upon her alone a genuine miracle — the creation of life, and the fusing of an eternal soul with mortal flesh. This fact alone establishes the glory of motherhood.
Despite the most creative plans of humanist scientists and lawmakers to redefine the sexes, no man will ever conceive and give birth to a child. The fruitful womb is a holy gift given by God to women alone. This is one reason why the office of wife and mother is the highest calling to which a woman can aspire.
This is the reason why nations that fear the Lord esteem and protect mothers. They glory in the distinctions between men and women, and attempt to build cultures in which motherhood is honored and protected.
In his famous commentary on early American life, Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville explained:
Thus the Americans do not think that man and woman have either the duty or the right to perform the same offices, but they show an equal regard for both their respective parts; and though their lot is different, they consider both of them as beings of equal value. They do not give to the courage of woman the same form or the same direction as to that of man, but they never doubt her courage; and if they hold that man and his partner ought not always to exercise their intellect and understanding in the same manner, they at least believe the understanding of the one to be as sound as that of the other, and her intellect to be as clear. Thus, then, while they have allowed the social inferiority of woman to continue, they have done all they could to raise her morally and intellectually to the level of man; and in this respect they appear to me to have excellently understood the true principle of democratic improvement.
De Tocqueville contrasted the American understanding of women, with European sentiments:
There are people in Europe who, confounding together the different characteristics of the sexes, would make man and woman into beings not only equal but alike. They could give to both the same functions, impose on both the same duties, and grant to both the same rights; they would mix them in all things — their occupations, their pleasures, their business. It may readily be conceived that by thus attempting to make one sex equal to the other, both are degraded, and from so preposterous a medley of the works of nature nothing could ever result but weak men and disorderly women.
The War on Motherhood
America’s glory was her women. de Tocqueville believed this when he wrote:
As for myself, I do not hesitate to avow that although the women of the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic life, and their situation is in some respects one of extreme dependence, I have nowhere seen woman occupying a loftier position; and if I were asked, now that I am drawing to the close of this work, in which I have spoken of so many important things done by the Americans, to what the singular prosperity and growing strength of that people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply: To the superiority of their women.
But this birthright would be exchanged during the last century for a mess of pottage. Perhaps the greatest legacy of the 20th century has been the war on motherhood and biblical patriarchy. Feminists, Marxists, and liberal theologians have made it their aim to target the institution of the family and divest it from its biblical structure and priorities. The results are androgyny, a radical decline in birthrate, abortion, fatherless families, and social confusion.
Incredibly, the biggest story of the 20th century never made headline news [i]. Somehow we missed it. It was the mass exodus of women from the home, and the consequent decline of motherhood. For the first time in recorded history of the West, more mothers left their homes than stayed in them. By leaving the home, the experience and reality of childhood, family life and femininity were fundamentally redefined, and the results have been so bad that if this one trend is not reversed, our grandchildren may live in a world where the both the true culture of Christian family life and the historic definition of marriage are the stuff of fairy tales.
Many “isms” have influenced these trends-evolutionism, feminism, statism, eugenicism, Marxism, and more. But in the end, the philosophical gap between the presuppositions of the Atheists, eugenicists, and Marxists of the early 20th century, and the presuppositions of the professing Church in the 21st century, have narrowed dramatically. The goals of the state and the goals of the mainstream church have so merged, that the biblical family with its emphasis on male headship, generational succession, and prolific motherhood are a threat to the social order of both institutions.
Less than one hundred years ago, the architects of the atheistic communist Soviet state anticipated the death of the Christian family. They explained the need for destroying the Christian family with its emphasis on motherhood, and replacing it with a vision for a “new family.” Lenin wrote:
We must now say proudly and without any exaggeration that part from Soviet Russia, there is not a country in the world where women enjoy full equality and where women are not placed in the humiliating position felt particularly in day-to-day family life. This is one of our first and most important tasks…Housework is the most unproductive, the most barbarous and the most arduous work a woman can do. It is exceptionally petty and does not include anything that would in any way promote the development of the woman…The building of socialism will begin only when we have achieved the complete equality of women and when we undertake the new work together with women who have been emancipated from that petty stultifying, unproductive work…We are setting up model institutions, dining-rooms and nurseries, that will emancipate women from housework…These institutions that liberate women from their position as household slaves are springing up where it is in any way possible…Our task is to make politics available to every working woman.
In his 1920 International Working Women’s Day Speech, Lenin emphasized:
The chief thing is to get women to take part in socially productive labor, to liberate them from ‘domestic slavery,’ to free them from their stupefying [idiotic] and humiliating subjugation to the eternal drudgery of the kitchen and the nursery. This struggle will be a long one, and it demands a radical reconstruction, both of social technique and of morale. But it will end in the complete triumph of Communism.
Lenin’s comrade Trotsky played a key role in communicating the Marxist vision of what he called the “new family.” Lenin and Trotsky believed in the overthrow of Christianity by destroying the biblical family. They sought to build a new state, free from historic Christian presuppositions concerning the family. This meant denigrating the biblical notion of male headship and hierarchy within the family. It meant eliminating any sense that there should be a division of labor between man and wife. This required delivering women from the burdens of childbirth and childcare. It meant adopting tools like birth control as guarantors that women could be free to remain in the workforce. Trotsky said this:
|Lenin’s comrade Trotsky|
Socialization of family housekeeping and public education of children are unthinkable without a marked improvement in our economics as a whole. We need more socialist economic forms. Only under such conditions can we free the family from the functions and cares that now oppress and disintegrate it. Washing must be done by a public laundry, catering by a public restaurant, sewing by a public workshop. Children must be educated by good public teachers who have a real vocation for the work. Then the bond between husband and wife would be freed from everything external and accidental, and the one would cease to absorb the life of the other. Genuine equality would at last be established…
The most disturbing part of quotes like those above is how similar they sound in sentiment and spirit to voices today from individuals who claim to be a part of the Church of Jesus Christ. Even more disturbing is how many of the anti-family social reforms are presuppositions of modern Christians in America. Presuppositions which have been fully accepted.
How America’s Conscience Was Seared Toward Motherhood
But motherhood is not easily defeated. It was here from the beginning and it has always carried the Church and civilization forward. Motherhood not only perpetuates civilization, it defines it.
At first Jamestown was a bachelor society struggling for survival. But she became a civilization when the women arrived. Plymouth, on the other hand, began as a civilization-families of faith committed to fruitfulness and multiplication for the glory of God, an impossibility without motherhood.
Motherhood is not easily defeated because God has placed reminders of its importance in the very bodies of the women He created. To defeat motherhood, the enemies of the biblical family must do more than make it a social inconvenience, they must teach women to despise themselves by viewing their own wombs as the enemy of self-fulfillment. This means minimizing the glorious gift of life which is only given to womankind. It means redefining what it means to be a woman.
But even this is not enough. To defeat motherhood the enemies of the biblical family must sear the conscience of an entire generation of women. This is done through the doctrines of social emancipation from the home, sexual liberation, birth control, and abortion — all four of which cause a woman to war against her created nature. Instead of being the blessed guardian of domesticity for society, she is taught that contentment can only be found by acting, dressing, and competing with men. Instead of being an object of respect, protection, and virtue, she sells herself cheaply, thus devaluing her womanhood. Instead of glorying in a fruitful womb she cuts off the very seed of life. Sometimes she even kills the life.
Years of playing the part of a man hardens a woman. It trains women to find identity in the corporation, not the home. It teaches them to be uncomfortable around children and large families—the mere presence of which is a reminder of the antithesis between God’s design for womankind and the norms of post-Christian societies.
But women are not the only ones with seared consciences. Men have them too. Consider that fifty years ago a man would have winced to think of female soldiers heading into combat while stay-at-home dads are left behind changing diapers. Today’s man has a seared conscience. He no longer thinks of himself as a protector of motherhood, and a defender of womankind. He comforts himself by repeating the mantras of modern feminism, and by assuring himself of how reasonable and enlightened he is — how different he is from his intolerant and oppressive fathers. But in his heart, modern man knows that he has lost something. He has lost his manhood.
To be a man, you must care about women. And you must care about them in the right way. You must care about them as creatures worthy of protection, honor, and love. This means genuinely appreciating them for their uniqueness as women. It means recognizing the preciousness of femininity over glamour, of homemaking over careerism, and of mature motherhood over perpetual youth. But when women are reduced to soldiers, sexual objects, and social competitors, it is not merely the women who lose the identity given to them by the Creator, but the men as well. This is why the attack on motherhood has produced a nation of eunuchs—socially and spiritually impotent men who have little capacity to lead, let alone love women as God intended man to love woman–as mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters.
Motherhood Will Triumph
There is an important reason why motherhood will not be defeated — The Church is her guardian. As long as she perseveres — and persevere she will — motherhood will prevail.
The Church is the ultimate vanguard of that which is most precious and most holy. She holds the oracles of God which dare to proclaim to a selfish, self-centered nation: “Children are a blessing and the fruit of the womb is His reward.” Psalm 127:3.
The Church stands at the very gates of the city, willing to receive the railing complaints of feminists, atheists, and the legions arrayed against the biblical family, and she reminds the people of God: “Let the older women teach the young to love their children, to guide the homes.” Titus 2:3-5.
It is this very love of the life of children, this passion for femininity and motherhood which may be God’s instrument of blessing on America in the days to come. As the birth rate continues to plummet, divorce rates rise, and family life in America dissipates to the point of extinction, life-loving families will not only have an important message to share, but thy will have an army of children to help them share it.
Teacher: Susie what do you want to be when you grow up?
Susie: I want to be a doctor.
Teacher: How wonderful! And what about you Julie?
Julie: I want to be a soldier.
Teacher: How commendable! And what about you Hannah?
Hannah: When I grow up I want to be a wife and mother!
Teacher: [dead silence]…
After years of society belittling the calling of motherhood, something wonderful is happening — something wonderfully counter-cultural! In the midst of the anti-life, anti-motherhood philosophies which pervade the culture, there is a new generation of young ladies emerging whose priorities are not determined by the world’s expectations of them. They have grown up in homes where fathers shepherd them, where children are not merely welcome, but where they are deeply loved. Some of these women have been home educated, which means that many of them have grown up around babies and their mothers. They have learned to see motherhood as a joy and a high calling, because their parents see it that way.
And when asked about their future, these girls know their own minds. These are the future mothers of the Church. Young women who are not afraid to say that the goal of all of their education and training is to equip them to pursue the highest calling of womanhood, the office of wife and mother.
The Cost of Motherhood
Once a lady went to visit her friend. During the visit the children of the friend entered the room and began to play with each other. As the lady and her friend visited, the lady turned to her friend and said eagerly and yet with evidently no thought of the meaning of her words: “Oh, I’d give my life to have such children.” The mother replied with a subdued earnestness whose quiet told of the depth of experience out of which her words came: “That’s exactly what it costs.”
There is a cost of motherhood. And the price is no small sum. And if you are not willing to pay this price, no amount of encouragement about the joys of motherhood will satisfy.
But the price of motherhood is not fundamentally different from the price of being a disciple of Jesus Christ. In fact, Christian mothers see their duty as mothers flowing from their calling to Jesus Christ. And what is this cost?
Christian motherhood means dedicating your entire life in service of others. It means standing beside your husband, following him, and investing in the lives of children whom you hope will both survive you and surpass you. It means forgoing present satisfaction for eternal rewards. It means investing in the lives of others who may never fully appreciate your sacrifice or comprehend the depth of your love. And it means doing all these things, not because you will receive the praise of man — for you will not — but because God made you to be a woman and a mother, and there is great contentment in that biblical calling.
In other words, Motherhood requires vision. It requires living by faith and not by sight.
These are some of the reasons why Motherhood is both the most biblically noble and the most socially unappreciated role to which a young woman can aspire. There are many people who ask the question: Does my life matter? But a mother that fears the Lord need never ask such a question. Upon her faithful obedience hinges the future of the church and the hope of the nation.
In 1950, the great Scottish American preacher Peter Marshall stood before the United States Senate and he explained it this way:
The modern challenge to motherhood is the eternal challenge — that of being a godly woman. The very phrase sounds strange in our ears. We never hear it now. We hear about every other kind of women — beautiful women, smart women, sophisticated women, career woman, talented women, divorced women, but so seldom do we hear of a godly woman — or of a godly man either, for that matter.
I believe women come nearer fulfilling their God-given function in the home than anywhere else. It is a much nobler thing to be a good wife than to be Miss America. It is a greater achievement to establish a Christian home than it is to produce a second-rate novel filled with filth. It is a far, far better thing in the realm of morals to be old-fashioned than to be ultramodern. The world has enough women who know how to hold their cocktails, who have lost all their illusions and their faith. The world has enough women who know how to be smart.
It needs women who are willing to be simple. The world has enough women who know how to be brilliant. It needs some who will be brave. The world has enough women who are popular. It needs more who are pure. We need women, and men, too, who would rather be morally right that socially correct
As we approach America’s national Mother’s Day celebration, lets remember that we are fighting for the Lord, and it is He who prioritizes motherhood and home as the highest calling and domain of womanhood “that the word of God be not blasphemed.” Titus 2:5.
May the Lord fill our churches with faithful mothers. |
What is a nuclear power plant?
A nuclear power plant produces electricity from nuclear energy. There are 104 nuclear power plants in the United States. Nuclear energy is produced through the heat-generating "fission" process, in which neutrons split uranium atoms to create energy. This energy is used to make steam, which then powers generators to make electricity. Nuclear power plants use large amounts of water to carry heat, generate steam, and cool the nuclear reactor core. Plants are built next to a water source from which they can draw the water they need and return the water after use. The returned water is usually warm and may have some build up of heavy metals and salts. The water is not radioactive because it never comes in contact with radioactive materials.
Unlike fuel-burning power plants, nuclear plants do not emit carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen oxides. But they use radioactive materials, including enriched uranium. Nuclear power plants produce spent nuclear fuel, which includes many highly radioactive byproducts of the fission process. Plants regularly have to remove and replace their spent uranium fuel. This waste remains radioactive for thousands of years, and must be adequately stored and isolated. They also produce low-level radioactive wastes, such as workers’ shoe covers and clothing, rags, mops, equipment, and reactor water residues. To protect their health, nuclear power plant workers are monitored for radiation exposure.
An accident or failure at a nuclear power plant could result in dangerous levels of radiation that could affect the health and safety of people working at or living near the plant. Emergency planning defines two zones near a nuclear power plant. The 10-mile radius zone is where it is possible that people could be harmed by direct radiation exposure, which can cause serious illness or even death. The 50-mile radius zone is a broader area where radioactive materials could contaminate water supplies, food crops, and livestock.
This description is based on the information found in the Web links listed with this topic.
Web Links from MedlinePlus (National Library of Medicine)
Electricity from Nuclear Energy (Environmental Protection Agency)
Emergency Preparedness and Response (US Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
Estimating Risk. Radiation Protection (Environmental Protection Agency)
Nuclear Power Plant Emergency: Fact Sheet (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (PDF — 57.61 KB)
Nuclear Power Plants. RadTown USA (Environmental Protection Agency)
Power Reactors (US Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
Promoting Safety in Nuclear Installations (International Atomic Energy Agency) (PDF — 255.20 KB)
Radiation Emergencies (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Uranium (Nuclear) (US Energy Information Administration)
Are these chemicals in MY community?
Last Updated: April 4, 2013 |
ATTENTION TEACHERS OF 3RD GRADE STUDENTS
We have created a document that will assist with your mathematics instruction for 3rd graders who will be taking the AIMS this school year. As you know all third grade teachers were asked to implement our TUSD 2012 Mathematics Curriculum (that encompasses the AZ Academic Content Standards in Mathematics) beginning with SY 2012 – 2013. However, third grade students across our state continue to be assessed on the 2008 AZ Mathematics Standard in the spring of 2013 and 2014. Information included in this document can assist us in making appropriate instructional decisions to effectively prepare our students for spring assessments as we progress through this transition. Click here for link. |
Learn more physics!
What is distilled water?
- Samantha (age 9)
Distilled water is water that has been boiled and then recondensed
(that is, the water vapor is turned back into liquid water on a cold
People distill water in order to purify it. Dissolved contaminants
like salts are left behind in the boiling pot as the water vapor rises
away. It might not work if the contaminants also boil and recondense,
such as having some dissolved alcohol. Plus, you have to be careful not
to re-contaminate the water after distilling it.
(published on 10/22/2007)
Follow-up on this answer. |
In this retrospective case series from a university veterinary medical center, the frequency of canine and feline emergency
visits were noted with respect to the lunar cycle. Emergencies were classified as animal bite, cardiac arrest, epilepsy, ophthalmic,
gastric dilatation-volvulus, trauma, multiple diseases, neoplasia, or toxicosis. Of the 11,940 cases seen during the 11-year
period, 9,407 involved dogs and 2,533 involved cats. The lunar cycle was classified into eight phases, ranging from new moon
to full moon to waning crescent moon, and lasted 29.5 days. The effect of the lunar phase on the emergency visits was evaluated
by calculating relative risk.
The results of the study revealed that the number of emergencies on full moon days was not significantly different from nonfull
moon days for either dogs or cats. However, significant differences existed in the number of emergencies for both animals
observed on fuller moon days (waxing gibbous, full moon, and waning gibbous phases) compared with other days. The risk was
28% greater in dogs and 23% greater in cats. According to the authors, these slight increases would probably not be recognized
by attending emergency clinicians. They also acknowledged the limitations of this low caseload study and concluded that further
investigations at other clinical facilities with greater patient numbers are warranted.
The effect of the lunar cycle on animal and human medical conditions has always been a source of interest and debate. Although
this study is limited to one institution and small animals and has low case numbers, the data are revealing because they may
dispute the notion that moon phases influence caseload. The authors also present references from the human medical field with
conflicting evidence regarding the relationship between the moon and disease states. Unfortunately, in this paper, the effect
of the lunar cycle on the type of emergency was not delineated. The authors also noted that the exact mechanism for explaining
the effect of the moon phase has never been elucidated.
Wells RJ, Gionfriddo JR, Hackett TB, et al. Canine and feline emergency room visits and the lunar cycle: 11,940 cases (1992-2002).
J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007;231(2):251-253.
The information in "Research Updates" was provided by Veterinary Medicine Editorial Advisory Board member Joseph Harari, MS, DVM, DACVS, Veterinary Surgical Specialists, 21 E. Mission Ave., Spokane, |
CAMBRIDGE, Mass. (CBSDC) – It sounds like something that should be in one of the “Terminator” movies, but Harvard scientists have figured out how to integrate electronics with human tissue.
In a paper recently released in the journal Nature Materials, a research team reveals they have created “cyborg” tissue.
According to the Harvard Gazette, team leader Charles M. Lieber said for the first time the new technology works “at the same scale as the unit of biological system without interrupting it.”
To create the “cyborg” flesh, the Harvard-based scientists created a system for “nanoscale” scaffolds that allowed tissue to be interwoven with nano-wiring. After the nano-wire scaffolding was set up, the scientists then grew skin on the wires.
The wiring will allow the engineered flesh to detect oxygen, pH, and other elements in the air much like skin that’s naturally grown on a human body.
Although future engineers could potentially use the technology to help metallic killing machines blend into society, the immediate uses for this is for pharmaceuticals, with the cyborg skin being used to test drugs. |
Go to the previous, next section.
This chapter disusses what job control is, how it works, and how Bash allows you to access its facilities.
Job control refers to the ability to selectively stop (suspend) the execution of processes and continue (resume) their execution at a later point. A user typically employs this facility via an interactive interface supplied jointly by the system's terminal driver and Bash.
The shell associates a job with each pipeline. It keeps a
table of currently executing jobs, which may be listed with the
jobs command. When Bash starts a job
asynchronously (in the background), it prints a line that looks
25647indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process ID of the last process in the pipeline associated with this job is 25647. All of the processes in a single pipeline are members of the same job. Bash uses the job abstraction as the basis for job control.
To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job
control, the system maintains the notion of a current terminal
process group ID. Members of this process group (processes whose
process group ID is equal to the current terminal process group
ID) receive keyboard-generated signals such as
These processes are said to be in the foreground. Background
processes are those whose process group ID differs from the
terminal's; such processes are immune to keyboard-generated
signals. Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or
write to the terminal. Background processes which attempt to
read from (write to) the terminal are sent a
SIGTTOU) signal by the terminal driver, which, unless
caught, suspends the process.
If the operating system on which Bash is running supports
job control, Bash allows you to use it. Typing the
suspend character (typically `^Z', Control-Z) while a
process is running causes that process to be stopped and returns
you to Bash. Typing the delayed suspend character
(typically `^Y', Control-Y) causes the process to be stopped
when it attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to
be returned to Bash. You may then manipulate the state of
this job, using the
bg command to continue it in the
fg command to continue it in the
foreground, or the
kill command to kill it. A `^Z'
takes effect immediately, and has the additional side effect of
causing pending output and typeahead to be discarded.
There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell. The
character `%' introduces a job name. Job number
may be referred to as `%n'. A job may also be referred to
using a prefix of the name used to start it, or using a substring
that appears in its command line. For example, `%ce' refers
to a stopped
ce job. Using `%?ce', on the
other hand, refers to any job containing the string `ce' in
its command line. If the prefix or substring matches more than one job,
Bash reports an error. The symbols `%%' and
`%+' refer to the shell's notion of the current job, which
is the last job stopped while it was in the foreground. The
previous job may be referenced using `%-'. In output
pertaining to jobs (e.g., the output of the
the current job is always flagged with a `+', and the
previous job with a `-'.
Simply naming a job can be used to bring it into the foreground: `%1' is a synonym for `fg %1' bringing job 1 from the background into the foreground. Similarly, `%1 &' resumes job 1 in the background, equivalent to `bg %1'
The shell learns immediately whenever a job changes state.
Normally, Bash waits until it is about to print a prompt
before reporting changes in a job's status so as to not interrupt
any other output. If the
-b option to the
set builtin is set,
Bash reports such changes immediately (see section The Set Builtin).
This feature is also controlled by the variable
If you attempt to exit bash while jobs are stopped, the
shell prints a message warning you. You may then use the
jobs command to inspect their status. If you do this, or
try to exit again immediately, you are not warned again, and the
stopped jobs are terminated.
bg [jobspec]Place jobspec into the background, as if it had been started with `&'. If jobspec is not supplied, the current job is used.
fg [jobspec]Bring jobspec into the foreground and make it the current job. If jobspec is not supplied, the current job is used.
jobs [-lpn] [jobspec] jobs -x command [jobspec]
The first form lists the active jobs. The
-l option lists
process IDs in addition to the normal information; the
option lists only the process ID of the job's process group
-n option displays only jobs that have
changed status since last notfied. If jobspec is given,
output is restricted to information about that job.
If jobspec is not supplied, the status of all jobs is
-x option is supplied,
jobs replaces any
jobspec found in command or arguments with the
corresponding process group ID, and executes command,
passing it arguments, returning its exit status.
suspend [-f]Suspend the execution of this shell until it receives a
-foption means to suspend even if the shell is a login shell.
When job control is active, the
builtins also accept jobspec arguments.
exact, the string supplied must match the name of a stopped job exactly; if set to
substring, the string supplied needs to match a substring of the name of a stopped job. The
substringvalue provides functionality analogous to the
%?job id (see section Job Control Basics). If set to any other value, the supplied string must be a prefix of a stopped job's name; this provides functionality analogous to the
Go to the previous, next section. |
Health fears over computer material
A material used in computer technology could pose health risks to those involved in its manufacture, according to scientists.
Nanoplatelets, made from thin layers of the carbon graphene, are said to be used for their super-conductive properties.
The flexibility of the disc-shaped particles mean they can be readily incorporated into plastic and rubber, and are used to enhance the electronic properties of touch screens.
However, scientists at the University of Edinburgh have found that the particles could be harmful when they enter the lungs.
The nanoplatelets, which are less than one carbon atom thick and invisible to the naked eye, behave like tiny Frisbees and stay airborne.
But researchers said their aerodynamic properties mean that when inhaled, they can find their way deeper into the lungs than other forms of graphene, meaning they could accumulate in the lungs and cause damage.
Professor Ken Donaldson, chair of respiratory toxicology at the University of Edinburgh, said: "We need to further assess the potential hazards posed by nanoplatelets made of graphene and other materials, so that appropriate health and safety measures can be put in place for those involved in their manufacture."
The study, which looked at the aerodynamic and toxic properties of graphene-based nanoplatelets, has been published in the journal ACS Nano. |
Most Active Stories
Tue December 13, 2011
No 'God Particle' Yet, But Scientists Say Stay Tuned
Physicists have a grand theory that describes how tiny particles interact to form all the stuff we see in the universe — everything from planets to toasters to human beings.
But there is one particle predicted by this theory that has never been detected in experiments. It's called the Higgs boson. Scientists are dying to know if it really exists — and now researchers are closer to finding out than ever before.
To hear the latest results from the search, physicists recently crammed into an auditorium at CERN, the world's largest particle physics lab near Geneva, Switzerland. Someone wrote on Twitter, "Room full to the rafters. People would hang from the lamps if the security guards would let them."
The Higgs boson is a famous subatomic particle first theorized to exist back in the mid-1960s. It's a key part of some beautiful mathematics that would explain a fundamental mystery: why things have mass.
If the Higgs exists, scientists should now be able to find it — using a brand new machine at CERN called the Large Hadron Collider. The collider sends bits of atoms racing around a 17-mile circular track. They smash together and spew out subatomic rubble that scientists can study for signs of the Higgs.
The jargon came fast and furious on Tuesday as researchers showed off colorful PowerPoint slides packed with graphs and numbers and equations. The bottom line: two different experiments saw some things that might be traces of the Higgs...or maybe not.
CERN's director-general, a physicist named Rolf-Dieter Heuer, described them as "intriguing hints."
"But please be prudent. We have not found it yet. We have not excluded it yet," cautioned Heuer. "Stay tuned for next year." Researchers believe they'll be able to make a more definitive statement on the Higgs in 2012.
This new data does narrow the search. Drew Baden, a physicist at the University of Maryland, says they're running out of places where the Higgs could be hiding.
It reminds him of the old joke about how when you find something, it's always in the last place you look. But in this case, he says, it's no sure thing that the Higgs is there to find — so the suspense is growing.
Baden compares the Higgs search to looking for your favorite pair of socks. Imagine you rummage through your dresser and finally find them in the last possible drawer. That probably wouldn't surprise you.
But what if your dresser had 100 drawers and you've already looked through 99 of them — how would you feel about your chances of finding the socks? "I mean, I'd be suspicious that it's not there," says Baden.
That's sort of the situation that the Higgs-searchers are in. "So far, we've opened up a lot of these drawers," Baden says. "And so far, we haven't seen it."
If the Higgs is not found in the next year or so, he says, scientists may have to totally rethink their ideas about the inner workings of the universe. |
Thoroughly reviewed Bureau of Labor Statistics data from last year indicate that, in the United States, there are currently more workers earning below the minimum wage than there are workers actually making the minimum wage itself.
The data, Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers: 2011, found that 2.2 million workers make below the minimum wage compared to 1.7 million who make the federal minimum wage of $7.25 an hour. Other interesting (i.e. depressing) data points include:
By major occupational group, the highest proportion of hourly-paid workers earning at or below the Federal minimum wage was in service occupations, at 13 percent. About 6 in 10 workers earning the minimum wage or less in 2011 were employed in service occupations, mostly in food preparation and serving related jobs.
The industry with the highest proportion of workers with hourly wages at or below the Federal minimum wage was leisure and hospitality (22 percent). About one-half of all workers paid at or below the Federal minimum wage were employed in this industry, primarily in restaurants and other food services. For many of these workers, tips and commissions supplement the hourly wages received.
The proportion of hourly-paid workers earning the prevailing Federal minimum wage or less declined from 6.0 percent in 2010 to 5.2 percent in 2011. This remains well below the figure of 13.4 percent in 1979, when data were first collected on a regular basis.
Interestingly, the three states with the highest proportion of workers being paid at or below the minimum wage were “Right-to-Work” states. In 2011, Texas, Georgia, and Mississippi all had between 8 and 10 percent of workers in this category.
A summary tackling this data appeared on Democratic Underground.
Despite the election being billed as a choice between two different visions of our nation’s economic future, the minimum wage has been a side note to drastic political theatrics. President Obama has hinted at raising the minimum wage to near $10 but not delivered on the promise while his challenger, Mitt Romney, has claimed “America deserves better” than low paying jobs. Unless, of course, you worked the Republican Nation Convention as a janitor, where you would have earned less than minimum wage.
In a study released last month, the Economic Policy Institute (EPI) found that if the minimum wage was raised to $9.80 an hour it would generate nearly $25 billion in consumer spending and create 100,000 full time jobs. |
Kids don’t just play video games anymore – they make them! The winners of the 2012 National STEM Video Game Challenge were recently announced in Washington, D.C. Inspired by President Obama’s “Educate to Innovate Campaign,” the competition seeks to motivate interest in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) learning by tapping into students’ natural passion for playing and making video games. “Well-designed video games can help students excel in STEM and have fun doing it”, said Tom Kalil, Deputy Director for Policy in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. Twenty-eight middle school and high school students from across the country were selected as winners for their original game designs. In addition, two winners were awarded in the Collegiate category and three in the Educator category. Game highlights for the winners can be found online.
National STEM Video Game Challenge Winners Announced
June 6, 2012 by wgbyeducation |
Velika i Mala Crljivica, Cista Velika, 16º 53΄ 33.97˝ E, 43º 30΄ 57.48˝ N
Dubravka - Sv. Barbara, Konavle, 18º 25΄ 20.57˝ E, 42º 32΄ 30.42˝ N
Stećci are medieval monolithic tombstones found on the entire territory of the present Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in parts of Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia. Available data suggest that they first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, with the first phase lasting throughout the 13th century. A period of the most intensive production and decoration were the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 16th century their use completely ceased.
Out of 70,000 odd tombstones recorded at 3,300 odd sites, about 60,000 monuments are located in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 4,400 in Croatia, 3,500 in Montenegro and 4,100 in Serbia. Stećci fall into two main groups: recumbent and upright stone monoliths. The majority are recumbent, appearing in three types: slabs, chests and ridged tombstones. Among the upright stećci, the following types can be distinguished: steles, pillars (obelisks), crosses and nišan monuments. According to the records 63 per cent of monuments are chests, 21.5 per cent slabs, 9 per cent ridged tombstones (sljemenjaci), 4.4 per cent columns, stelae and turban-shaped monuments, 0.6 per cent crosses, and 0.6 per cent amorphous monuments. So far 4638 items with decorations (rendered in relief) and 384 items with inscriptions have been identified.
The recumbent monuments represent a primary form of stećci. They are found in all of the distribution areas. Artistic shaping of stećci is expressed in their form and decoration. The basic artistic quality of stećci lays in decorations rendered in two stone-carving techniques. The most frequent is a bass relief, though engraved drawings are not uncommon
Along with their accentuated symbolism characteristic of the mediaeval art, decoration motifs also exhibit secular and religious symbols as well as other interlaced and combined ornaments. Generally speaking, the stećci ornamentation reveals the understanding and sensibility of an entire era, both of the people who took part in their creation and of the deceased who found their final resting place under them and upon whose wishes - according to inscriptions - stećci were made.
Apart from the regional differences manifested in the selection of shapes, ornamental motifs and quality, stećci were usually organised in groups thus forming family graveyards with only a few monuments, kin graveyards ranging from 30 to 50 monuments and/or village graveyards, sometimes with several hundred monuments. Especially significant are representative cemeteries of noble families belonging to the highest rungs of feudal society.
In Croatia stećci are located in southern parts of the country, i.e. in Dalmatian hinterland and on the coastal belt, from the territory of Konavle to Northern Dalmatia and Southern and Central Lika region. They are the most numerous in the territory of Dubrovnik, in the territory of Neretva's mouth, in the Makarska Littoral as well as in the territories of Vrgorac, Imotski and Sinj. More than 400 sites with stećci have been registered in Croatia so far. Research of their typology, decorations, graveyards, arrangement, relationships with other sites and cultural influences on a wider territory give a clearer picture of appearance and development of stećci.
Stećci on the territory of Croatia represent a kind of culturological bond to other medieval tombstones in the region, which were created within a wider Mediterranean cultural circle.
All aspects of their appearance and development make stećci a distinctive feature of the Croatian cultural heritage.
The two selected sites represent the best preserved sites of this kind in Croatia.
The archaeological site of Velika i Mala Crljivica, Cista Velika, Split-Dalmatia County
The site is located near the village of Cista Velika along the road Trilj-Imotski, in a length of 200 meters. Crljivica is a complex archaeological site with several occupation phases. The first phase is represented by three Bronze Age cairns (so-called Velika i mala Crljivica), north and south of the modern road. The second phase is attested by the route of the Roman road Salona - Tilurium - Novae - Narona, which was overlaid with modern road on this location, whilst on some other parts it runs more to the north. The third phase is associated with a medieval graveyard with stećci which in the 14th and 15th centuries (some of the burials are later) developed on the cairns and on the surrounding area, along the Roman, i.e. then contemporary medieval road. To this day ninety odd monuments of all types (slabs, chests and ridged monuments) have been preserved. The repertoire of ornamental motifs is similar to decorations on other stećci in this area: all types of crosses, anthropomorphous lilies, hunting scenes, circle dance scenes, duels, various vegetal motifs, crescents, stars, half-knobs, etc. On two ridged monuments partly preserved are inscriptions in bosančica which mention the names of Jerko and Vladna Kustražić (today one of these monuments is located in front of the Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments in Split). They can be dated to the first half or mid-fifteenth century.
South of sc. Velika Crljivica (eastern part of the site) lays a karst valley with seven wells constructed in the Middle Ages or even earlier. The entire area makes a unique complex which developed along the karst valley with water and the main road communication in this part of Dalmatian hinterland. Taking into consideration the state of preservation, number of stećci, context and number as well as diversity of decorations, Velika i mala Crljivica represent the most significant site with stećci in Croatia.
The archaeological site of Dubravka - Sv. Barbara, Konavle, Dubrovnik-Neretva County
The site is located near the village of Dubravka in the territory of Konavle (also Municipality of Konavle), Dubrovnik-Neretva County, near the three-border point of Croatia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Two types of stećci are recorded: chests and slabs. With 84 monuments, it represents the largest preserved medieval necropolis in the Konavle region. Most common decorations include stylized wine grape tendrils, rosettes with crosses, bows and arrows, hands and arms. These stećci can be dated to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. At the site also located is the church of St. Barbara. It was built in 1889 on the location of an older church. The site is encircled with a drystone wall with a cairn next to it. There are two entrances to the graveyard with two tombstones used in their construction. Next to the necropolis ran a road connecting the inlands of Herzegovina and the valley of Konavle. It was in use from Prehistory to the Late Middle Ages.
Made as a work of art, as a sculpture, with an intention to make a memory of the deceased immortal, as well as an organic component of the European funerary practice, medieval tombstones - stećci represent a specific phenomenon and a specific synthesis of language and script, religion and custom, history and chronology, culture, art and aesthetics. Their primary interpretative context is Central and South-Eastern Europe as a transitional area of the European culture, marked by intertwining and blending of cultural influences of Eastern and Western Christianity, placed between the medieval West and East.
An outstanding value and European dimension of stećci as medieval tombstones and a specific expression of the medieval sepulchral art is determined by their threefold historic context: West European, Byzantine and South Slavic.
Bridging confessional, political, ethnic and geographical divisions within the wider South Slavic region and reconciling two, otherwise sharply detached, concepts of medieval culture - aristocratic (court and clerical) and popular concepts - and by making the notion of the end of human existence universal through the combination of the pagan and Christian motifs and art, the complex art of stećci exhibit the most profound artistic expression of a truth of one world. It is verbally accompanied by inscriptions - epitaphs.
Comprehensiveness, universality and applicability of a complex phenomenon such as stećci are a reflection of reflected in the universal nature of what they depicted and visualised artistically: death.
Criterion ii Medieval tombstones - stećci represent an original artistic expression originating in a specific context of the fusion of different cultural influences.
Criterion iii Stećci are a unique phenomenon in the medieval European artistic and archaeological heritage in terms of their typological diversity, number, variety of ornamental motifs, inscriptions as well as historic context.
Criterion vi Stećci have been deeply rooted in various customs and beliefs from the time when they first appeared to the present day. Stećci-related phenomena (superstitions, folk traditions and tales) exhibit several similar patterns encountered in the entire distribution area. The epigraphy and symbols displayed on stećci have influenced a modern literature and other forms of art.
The nominated graveyards are integral part of a unique cultural phenomenon and representative examples of stećci which together merit equal treatment.
Due to systematic archaeological excavations into the graveyards with stećci, conducted within the scope of research projects, and numerous publications and exhibitions on stećci, those graveyards have been included in various protection and presentation programs for more than six decades. This all has raised public awareness on the significance of stećci, thus preserving their authenticity and integrity. An investigative work of Šefik Bešlagić made a particular contribution in his book Stećci - kultura i umjetnost (Mediaeval Tombstones - Culture and Art), in 1982.
On the other hand, inaccessibility of many of the graveyards, remote from roads and settlements, has been a key factor in preserving the authenticity of both graveyards and their natural surroundings as well as in minimising any human impact.
Notwithstanding, the graveyards with stećci have been occasionally at risk due to public and private works. Stone blocks have sometimes been unsystematically removed from the graves they marked, taken to new locations, thus diminishing the authenticity and integrity of certain sites.
The nominated graveyards with stećci, their archaeological context and diversity of their types, decorations and inscriptions represent all embracing aspects of phenomenon and study of stećci.
The graveyards in this serial nomination have preserved the highest level of authenticity and integrity amongst all other graveyards with stećci. The nominated graveyards are protected cultural properties in all four countries, and are all subject to statutory protection.
In certain details, particularly decorative motifs, stećci may be compared to other medieval tombstones in Europe, and even in their area of distribution. This primarily includes slabs located at medieval graveyards or in churches. Decorations on slabs vary from simple to elaborately decorated depictions of the deceased (priests, nobles and other relatively wealthy figures). Stećci and slabs share their shape (thick or thin slabs) and certain ornamental motifs and inscriptions.
Some of the motifs or scenes depicted on stećci are also to be found in other works of art (paintings, reliefs) or artefacts (jewellery, tapestry) of that period. In terms of their number and monumentality, stećci can be to a certain degree compared to the Irish and British high crosses which are also covered with various ornaments. However, they appeared during the Early Middle Ages, and disappeared as late as the 12th century. Furthermore, these crosses were not used solely as grave marks. The same applies to Armenian khachkars - tombstones and memorial monuments created in Armenia in the period between the 9th and 17th centuries, reaching a peak in the 14th century. |
Troubleshooting GRUB Issues
If a system has issues with the GRUB configuration (possibly caused by incorrect changes to the the GRUB configuration file, installation of another OS, changes to device ordering due to hardware or BIOS changes, etc.) causing GRUB to be unable to find its configuration file, one may end up sitting at the grub boot prompt without a clue as to what to do next. The first step is usually to discover where the GRUB configuration files are located. The GRUB find command can help.
grub> find /grub/grub.conf find /grub/grub.conf (hd0,2) (hd1,2)
This tells us that we have two /boot partitions, possibly due to use of software RAID or multiple OS installations. One is on the first hard disk third partition, the other is on the second hard disk third partition. To reinstall the GRUB configuration for the first instance to the MBR:
grub> root (hd0,2) grub> setup (hd0)
If other Linux versions such as Ubuntu are installed, there may be a menu.lst file but no grub.conf for that installation, but as CentOS uses a symbolic link menu.lst pointing to grub.conf a find on menu.lst will work for either:
grub> find /grub/grub.conf find /grub/grub.conf (hd0,0) grub> find /grub/menu.lst find /grub/menu.lst (hd0,0) (hd0,1)
This tells us that we have two /boot partitions, the first on the the first disk first partition, probably our CentOS, and another Linux /boot on the first disk second partition.
To see what is in grub.conf and menu.lst files use the GRUB cat command:
grub> cat (hd0,0)/grub/grub.conf ... contents of file listed ... grub> cat (hd0,1)/grub/menu.lst ... contents of file listed ...
If nothing was found on the first try it may be that there is no /boot partition and grub is installed on the root partition. Try
grub> find /boot/grub/grub.conf (hd0,0) (hd1,4)
In this example there are again two GRUB installations. One on the first disk first partition, and the other on the second disk fifth partition - the first extended partition.
To restore the second instance and write the GRUB bootloader on the MBR of the first disk:
grub> root (hd1,4) grub> setup (hd0)
If in doubt as to where the root partition is located one might try to find a file in /etc. For example:
grub> find /etc/fstab (hd0,1)
Thus we know our / is on the first disk second partition - /dev/sda2 for SCSI or SATA, or /dev/hda2 for PATA.
The GRUB shell has a lot more capabilities, and is thoroughly documented in the GRUB info files, accessible via "info grub".
Other GRUB articles:
This page created and maintained by PhilSchaffner. Other Wiki contributors are invited to make corrections, additions, or modifications. |
Biblical order of creation
In the book of Genesis, God creates the universe. Many creationists who take Genesis literally use a peculiar argument in which they claim that the order of creation in Genesis exactly matches what scientists know today.
- Day one: God creates heaven and earth, and light and dark.
- Day two: God creates the firmament.
- Day three: God creates land in the water, then plants.
- Day four: God creates the sun and moon; then, as an afterthought, he creates the other stars.
- Day five: God creates water animals, then birds.
- Day six: God creates land animals, then Adam.
- Da seven: God rests.
At this point, theists go into a convoluted attempt to shoehorn this with modern science, claiming that this is exactly the order in which all our modern science tells us things came into existence. Since it is highly improbable that Moses, writing the old testament, would happen to get all the particulars so right, he must have been inspired by God.
Actually there are several things in the ordering that don't make sense.
- If the sun, moon and stars were created on the fourth day, where was the light coming from on day 1? Was the universe filled with ambient light?
- What firmament? Apologists invented this as a way of explaining the great flood, but it is not a scientific concept.
- If God created plants on day three before the sun, how did they get food?
- Although research does indicate that water life evolved before land animals, birds evolved after land animals.
Those issues aside, getting some things in the correct order is hardly miraculous. It is true that there are many possible permutations of the order of creation as presented, but only a small subset of those permutations make any sense. For instance, does anyone seriously believe that the Bible authors might have written that "First God created people, then he created light and dark, then he made the sun, then animals, and then the earth, and then the universe which contains it last of all"? |
September 17 is Constitution Day. This is the day that commemorates the signing of the Constitution on September 17, 1787. The Constitution is the fundamental basis of our political system. But most people know little about it. The Constitution doesn’t just talk about Congress and the Supreme Court. It sets forth a profoundly conservative vision of government and society. It is crucial that people understand these principles if liberty is to be maintained.
Natural Law The Constitution is predicated on the existence of natural law. The Declaration of Independence states that "We hold these Truths to self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness." This thinking extends to the Constitution. The Bill of Rights does not pretend to grant rights that can be repealed at the government’s discretion. It recognizes pre-existing God-given rights. This can be seen most clearly in the Ninth Amendment, which states "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."
A Republic, not a Democracy The Founding Fathers created the Constitution to provide "a Republican Form of Government" to the states. The word democracy never appears in the Constitution. In fact, the Founders despised democracy. Although the distinction has become blurred, the distinction between republic and democracy can be summarized as being that in a democracy, policy should be whatever the people want it to be, whereas in a republic, there are right and wrong things to do regardless of what people think. In a republic, the people serve to check the government, not provide a mandate for tyrannical policies.
Limited Government Having just fought a war to prevent the British Empire from imposing tyranny on America, the Founding Fathers understood the necessity of strictly limiting government power. Most constitutions provide the government with unlimited power and restrict the freedom of the people. But our Constitution restricts the powers of the federal government, limiting its functions to a few explicitly enumerated activities.
A Well-regulated Militia The Constitution gives Congress the power "To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia" and "calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions." The militia in general is composed of all law-abiding adult citizens. The Second Amendment states that "the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed" because "A well-regulated militia [is] necessary to the security of a free state." In the last resort, the militia will be necessary to overthrow a tyrannical government. Thus no gun control laws are constitutional.
Federalism The Constitution has a separation of powers and checks and balances so as to divide and limit federal power and prevent the rise of a dictator. The system of federalism means that most issues are left to the states. This accommodates different opinions and ensures more responsive and effective government. All federal actions not explicitly authorized by the Constitution, including welfare and entitlement programs, are unconstitutional. Before the Seventeenth Amendment, senators represented state governments, giving them a say and helping to limit federal power. Before the Sixteenth Amendment, income taxes were unconstitutional.
Unconstitutional Spending The Tenth Amendment states that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited to it by the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." What powers are not delegated to the federal government? The Constitution grants the federal government no authority for actions concerning welfare, entitlements, retirement, health care, poverty, agriculture, labor, the economy, education, foreign aid, gun control, the environment, or product regulation. The states may address these issues if they wish, but any federal spending or regulation in these areas is unconstitutional.
Freedom of Religion The first amendment declares that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." This means that Congress can neither establish a religion nor stop the states from doing so. Also, establishing a religion is not the same as endorsing a religion, which the federal government often did during the founders’ era. The founders believed that a moral and religious populace was crucial for good government. The phrase "separation of church and state" never appears in the Constitution.
God in the Constitution Some people claim that the Constitution is a secular document without reference to God. But Article VII states that the Constitution was signed "in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty-seven." Further, the First Amendment protects freedom of religion, which its author James Madison defined as how we worship the Creator.
Secession The Constitution is a contract between the American states. Before the Constitution, the thirteen colonies were sovereign, independent countries. When they created the Constitution, they created "dual sovereignty," agreeing to delegate part of their sovereignty to the federal government, while retaining the rest. This union is voluntary, and the Founding Fathers believed that the states had the legal power to withdraw at any time. Further, the Constitution does not give the federal government any authority to stop secession. Thus perpetuating the union is left to the states, not the federal government. The war for Independence was a war of secession.
Nullification Many of the Founding Fathers, including Jefferson, believed that states had the power to nullify laws passed by the federal government within their own boundaries. This principle was enshrined in the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 1798. Violations of the Constitution would undoubtedly occur, and the federal government could not be trusted to limit itself. Since the states created the federal government, they should "interpret" the Constitution.
Judicial Review The executive, legislative, and judicial branches are often described as equal. But the Founders clearly wrote in The Federalist that Congress would be most powerful, the Supreme Court least. The Constitution does not give the courts any authority to overturn laws. In 1803, the Supreme Court usurped this power in a case called Marbury v. Madison. Since then, the courts have acted as tyrants by legitimizing federal power-grabs and interfering with the legitimate powers of the states, such as regulating abortion and allowing school prayer.
Living Constitution? Some people have advanced the notion that we have a "living constitution" whose meaning changes over time. This is a convenient belief for those who wish to ignore the Constitution’s limitations on government power. Britain has an unwritten "constitution" which does not interfere with government power. That’s just what our Founding Fathers wanted to avoid. How would you like the rules to be "living" when you play poker?
General Welfare and Interstate Commerce Some people try to get around Constitutional limits by citing the general welfare clause. However, "general welfare" is simply a summary of the specific powers listed in the Constitution, according to its author, James Madison. Another common justification is the interstate commerce clause. But this simply means goods crossing state lines. It has been perverted to imply that Congress can regulate any activity that affects interstate commerce. The "necessary and proper" clause has been similarly perverted.
Electoral College The President is selected by the Electoral College. This reflects the role of the states in creating the federal government. For about forty years, electors were selected by state legislatures, not voters. The Electoral College also decentralizes elections, isolating fraud and limiting the effects of natural disasters. Centralized elections would invite massive fraud.
War Powers The Constitution grants Congress the power "to declare War," as well as "raise and support Armies" and "provide and maintain a Navy." This power is not granted to the President. This means that decision to go to war will not be made by one person. This decentralized power and provides an important check on government.
The Constitution’s meaning is clear—it strictly limits government power. It must be defended. |
Requiring a person to repeat problem behaviour
past the point of interest or motivation.
Support for learning
and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking
the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows
the student to grow in independence as a learner.
Schema-Driven Problem Solving:
Recognizing a problem as a "disguised" version of an old problem for which one
already has a solution.
A basic structure for organizing information;
Mental systems or categories of perception and experience.
Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student performance.
Schema or expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event
such as buying groceries or ordering take-out pizza.
learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and
criticizing the summaries.
Independent classroom work.
Fulfilling one's potential.
Our perceptions about ourselves.
The need to experience choice and control in what we do and how we do it.
A person's sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task.
The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviour.
A groundless expectation that is confirmed because
it has been expected.
Talking oneself through the steps of
Use of behavioural learning principles to change your
Learners who have a combination of academic
learning skills and self-control that makes learning easier; they have the skill
and the will to learn.
Providing yourself with positive
consequences, contingent on accomplishing particular behaviour.
Memory for meaning.
The ability to use symbols-language,
pictures, signs, or gestures-to represent actions or objects mentally.
Involving the senses and motor activity.
System that holds sensory
information very briefly.
The tendency to remember the
beginning and the end but not the middle of a list.
in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.
Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behaviour.
Communication system of hand movements that symbolize words and
The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to
the situation in which they were learned, and are difficult to apply in new
Social Cognitive Theory:
Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors
such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory.
Changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Social
Goals: A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part
of a group.
Removal of a disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes.
The ways in which members of a society encourage positive development
for the immature individuals of the group.
Social Learning Theory:
emphasizes learning through observation of others.
of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for
A "pep talk" or specific performance
feedback-one source of self-efficacy.
in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable
members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking
and behaving) through these interactions.
Sociocultural Views of Motivation:
Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations
within communities of practice.
Socioeconomic Status (SES):
in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige.
The study of formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and
how long to speak in conversations within cultural groups.
tight or tense muscles, characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy.
Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking.
Using visual cues to understand language.
for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early
in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms
Spread of Activation:
Retrieval of pieces of information based on
their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates
(stimulates) recall of associated information.
Stand-Alone Thinking Skills Programs:
Programs that teach thinking skills directly without need for an extensive knowledge
of subject matter.
Measure of how widely scores vary from
Standard Error of Measurement:
A reflection of the degree of unreliability
estimated by the standard deviation of an average student's scores around that
average student's true score.
Score based on the standard deviation.
Tests given, usually to large numbers of students (district-wide,
provincially, or nationwide) under uniform conditions and scored according to
Whole number scores from 1 to 9 where each
stanine represents a range of raw scores that correspond to one-ninth of scale.
Not likely to be a chance occurrence. Stem: The question
part of a multiple-choice item.
Schema that organizes knowledge
or perceptions about a category.
The extra emotional and
cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm
a stereotype that others hold about you.
Event that activates behaviour.
Capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to regulate
Responding differently to similar, but not
Typical structure or organization for a category
Repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations that block
flow of speech.
People or animals studied.
Small components that make up complex behaviour.
that follows instruction and assesses achievement.
Sustaining Expectation Effect:
Student performance maintained at a certain level because teachers don't recognize
The order of words in phrases or sentences.
score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
how rather than knowing that-knowledge that is more likely to be learned during
everyday life than through formal schooling.
System for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills
Students who focus on mastering the
task or solving the problem.
A teacher's belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students
and help them learn.
A depiction of you as a teacher, usually
including a curriculum vitae, statement of teaching philosophy, examples of
your teaching plans and activities, example assignments and tests, students'
work, and even videos or CD excerpts of teaching.
Learning arrangement in which team members prepare cooperatively, then meet
comparable individuals of competing teams in a tournament game to win points
for their team.
A potential problem with tests in which the content
or procedures of administering the test discriminate against a group of students
on the basis of gender, SES, race, ethnicity, etc.
of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions.
Time on Task:
Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand.
Technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student
from the rest of the class for a brief time.
Token Reinforcement System:
in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behaviour can
be exchanged for some desired reward.
on the context and the patterns you expect to occur in that situation.
Assignment to different classes and academic experiences based on achievement.
Influence of previously learned material on new material.
Gradual preparation of exceptional students to move from high school
into further education or training, employment, or community involvement.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
A three-part description of the mental abilities (thinking
processes, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context) that lead to
more or less intelligent behaviour.
Hypothetical average of all
of an individual's scores if repeated testing under ideal conditions were possible.
Unconditioned Response (UR):
Naturally occurring emotional or physiological
Unconditioned Stimulus (US):
Stimulus that automatically produces
an emotional or physiological response.
Exclusion of some
true members from a category; limiting a concept.
of a task to meeting one's goals.
Degree to which a test measures
what it is intended to measure.
Degree of difference or deviation
Putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into
Accomplishments that are modelled by someone else.
Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behaviour
by observing another person being reinforced for that behaviour.
Inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or intonation.
Whole Language Perspective:
A philosophical approach to teaching and learning
that stresses learning through authentic, real-life tasks. Emphasizes using
language to learn, integrating learning across skills and subjects, and respecting
the language abilities of student and teacher.
Within-Class Ability Grouping:
System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three
groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences.
According to Jacob Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom.
Students who don't want to learn or to look smart, but
just want to avoid work.
Heuristic in which one starts
with the goal and moves backward to solve the problem.
that you are focusing on at a given moment.
Standard score indicating
the number of standard deviations a raw score is above or below the mean.
of Proximal Development:
Phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate
help and support.
[Click here] to go back to the top. |
About the Area
Much of this ecoregion has either been converted to wheat farms or rangelands. However, about 50,000 km2 of the Nebraska Sand Hills is considered relatively intact.
Many prairie animals are burrowers, a great way to escape the heat and find shelter when trees are in short supply. For example, Black-tailed prairie dogs build extensive underground 'towns', which soon become temporary and permanent shelter for burrowing owls, jackrabbits, snakes, and many other species.
Thanks to conservation efforts, populations of the Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus), Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), and the Bison (Bison bison) have all been increasing in recent years, and efforts are now underway to restore populations of the Swift fox (Vulpes velox).
The dominant grass communities include Grama-needlegrass (Bouteloua spp., Stipa spp.) and Wheatgrass (Agropyron spp.), and Wheatgrass-needlegrass, with Spear grass (Poa annua), Gramma, and Wheatgrass further north. The Sand Hills contain a distinct grassland association dominated by sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), Calamovilfa longifolia, and the needle-and-thread (Stipa comata).
Among the many birds of the prairie are Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis), Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Sharp-tailed and Sage grouse (Tympahuchus phasianellus and Centrocercus urophasianus), Mountain plover (Charadrius montanus), and the largest breeding population of endangered Piping plovers (Charadrius melodus). In the northern stretches of the prairie, scattered ponds known as 'prairie potholes' are key to the survival of thousands of migrating birds.
Much of this ecoregion is now grazed by livestock or has been converted to dryland farming. Other threats include oil and gas development and the construction of roads.
700,000 sq. km (270,000 sq. miles)
Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands
Central North America: Canada and the United States
Which are the fastest hoofed animals in the world?
Prairie pronghorns are the fasted hoofed animals in the world, achieving speeds of up to 60 miles (96 km) per hour! |
Massive riches, considerable challenges
GeographyIndonesia is an archipelagic nation that consists of 5 main islands (Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi), and thousands of smaller ones.
Many of these islands are dissected by large rivers of economic and ecologic importance, such as the Mahakam, and Barito in Kalimantan.
Indonesia is located on a shaky part of the Earth. Three tectonic plates below the archipelago are often grinding against each other, forming volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
As a tropical country, Indonesia is subject to distinct seasons: monsoonal wet and dry seasons.
NatureBoth below and above water, Indonesia’s biodiversity is unrivalled. Tigers, elephants, rhinos, orangutans, cloud leopards, tapirs and a multitude of rare, threatened and amazing wildlife are found in the nation’s forests and swamps. New species are constantly being discovered.
On the eastern part of the archipelago, separate from the Asian landmass, the islands of Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and Maluku have seen the evolution of species that are markedly different from western Indonesia.
Further to the east, Papua (originally part of the Australian landmass) exhibits a range of unique habitats, including more than 700 bird species (including migrants).
Indonesia’s warm seas are home to marine turtles, whales, dugongs and the world’s largest diversity of tropical marine species.
Economy & DevelopmentSince the 1997 financial crash, Indonesia’s economy has been slowly but steadily growing. In 2005, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was US$287 billion.
A majority of people are involved in the agriculture sector, for products such as palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber. Some of the major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles and mining, with natural resources such as timber, fish, tin, copper and gold generating sizable income.
However, Indonesia’s abundant natural resources have yet to benefit the country as a whole. Now, the challenge is to ensure they are better managed before they run out. |
Monroe County - The first human case of West Nile Virus has been reported in our area.
The Monroe County Department of Public Health released few other details regarding the case, but warned that humans are at a high risk to contract the disease from now until the first heavy frost of the year.
There have been 34 human cases of West Nile Virus reported in New York State so far this year.
To reduce your risk of contracting the virus, the health department recommends covering exposed skin and using insect repellent that contains DEET.
Health leaders also recommend draining pools of standing water, which can become breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
People over 50 and those with chronic illness are at the highest risk for the virus. Symptoms of West Nile mimic the flu.
According to the Centers for Disease Control, less than 1 percent of mosquitoes carry the West Nile Virus. |
From Classic Encyclopedia 1911
FLOWER (Lat. fla y, floris; Fr. fleur), a term popularly used for the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the fairest, choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various technical senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical interest. It is impossible to give a rigid botanical definition of the term " flower." The flower is a characteristic feature of the highest group of the plant kingdom - the flowering plants (Phanerogams) - and is the name given to the association of organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are concerned with the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical works the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta). As the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized by the pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are two, viz. the pollen-bearer or stamen and the ovule-bearer or car pel. These are with few exceptions foliar structures, known in comparative morphology as sporophylls, because they bear the spores, namely, the microspores or pollen-grains which are developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, and the megaspore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.
In Gymnosperms, which represent the more primitive X. 1S a type of seed-plants, the microor macro-sporophylls are generally associated, often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which the term " flower " has been applied. But there is considerable difference of opinion as to the relation between these cones and the more definite and elaborate structure known as the flower in the higher group of seed-plants--the Angiosperms - and it is to this more definite structure that we generally refer in using the term " flower." Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots arise from leaf-buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance to each other as regards the arrangement and the development of their parts; and it sometimes happens, from injury and other causes, that the part of the axis which, in ordinary cases, would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to a flower-bud. A flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power of extension by the continuous development of its apex. In this respect it differs from a leaf-bud. In some cases, however, of monstrosity, especially seen in the rose (fig. 1), the central part is prolonged, and bears leaves or flowers. In such cases the flowers, so far as their functional capabilities are concerned, are usually abortive. This phenomenon is known as proliferation of the floral axis.
Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are produced in the axil of leaves, which are called bracts. The term bract is properly applied to the leaf from which the primary floral axis, whether simple or branched, arises, while the leaves which arise on the axis between the bract and the outer envelope of the flower are bracteoles or bractlets. Bracts sometimes do not differ from the ordinary leaves, as in Veronica hederifolia, Vinca, Anagallis and Ajuga. In general as regards their form and appearance they differ from ordinary leaves, the difference being greater in the upper than in the lower branches of an inflorescence. They are distinguished by their position at the base of the flower or flower-stalk. Their arrangement is similar to that of the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are often applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with it, as in the order Malvaceae and species of Dianthus and winter aconite (Eranthis), where they have received the name of epicalyx or calyculus. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present, due to the formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In many cases bracts act as protective organs, within or beneath which the young flowers are concealed in their earliest stage of growth.
When bracts become coloured, as in Amherstia nobilis, Euphorbia splendens, Erica elegans and Salvia splendens, they may be mistaken for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes mere scales or threads, and at other times are undeveloped, giving rise to the ebracteate inflorescence of Cruciferae and some Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are empty, no flower-buds being produced in their axil. A series of empty coloured bracts terminates the inflorescence of Salvia Horminum. The smaller bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasionally persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the peduncles, but more usually they are deciduous, falling off early by an articulation. In some instances they form part of the fruit, becoming incorporated with other organs. Thus, the cones of firs and the stroboli of the hop are composed of a series of spirally arranged bracts covering fertile flowers; and the scales on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same nature. At the base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl of bracts often exists, called a general involucre, and at the base of the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl called an involucel or partial involucre. In some instances, as in fool's-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an involucel; while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15), neither involucre nor involucel is developed. In Compositae the name involucre is applied to the bracts surrounding the head FIG. 2. - Head (capitulum)of Marigold (Calendula), showing a congeries of flowers, enclosed by rows of bracts, i, at the base, which are collectively called an involucre.
of flowers (fig. 2, i), as in marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke. This involucre is frequently composed of several rows of leaflets, which are either of the same or of different forms and lengths, and often lie over each other in an imbricated manner. The leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and in teazel (Dipsacus), and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or verticillate bracts generally remain separate (polyphyllous), but may be united by cohesion (gamophyllous), as in many species of Bupleurum and in Lavatera. In Compositae besides the involucre there are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each flower, and in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each flower. These structures are of the nature of an epicalyx. In the acorn the cupule or cup (fig. 3) is formed by a growing upwards of the flower-stalk immediately beneath the flower, upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it is of the nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of the hazel-nut.
When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers, that is, are empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbricated scales or bracts are in this condition, and it is from the membranous white scales or bracts (paleae) forming the choke attached to the edible receptacle that the flowers are produced. The sterile bracts of the daisy occasionally produce capitula, and give rise to the hen-and-chickens daisy. In place of developing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain circumstances, as in proliferous or viviparous plants, produce leaf-buds.
A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called a spathe. It is common among Monocotyledons, as Narcissus (fig. 4), snow-flake, Arum and palms. In some palms it is 20 ft. long, and encloses 200,000 flowers. It is often associated with that form of inflorescence termed the spadix, and may be coloured, as in Anthuriuzn, or white, as in arum lily (Richardia aethiopica). When the spadix is compound or branching, as in palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate parts of the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their young state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 3. - Cupule of Quercus Aegilops. cp, Cupule; gl, fruit. (After Duchartre.) FIG. I. - Proliferous Rose.
Sepals transformed into leaves.
Petals multiplied at the expense of the stamens, which are reduced in number.
Coloured leaves representing abortive carpels. Axis prolonged, bearing an imperfect flower at its apex.
s, P c, a, Bracts. in a withered form, as in some palms, Typha and Pothos. In grasses the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile bracts (fig. 5, gl); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs of reproduction. Bracts are frequently changed into complete leaves. This change is called phyllody of bracts, and is seen in species of Plantago, especially in the variety of Plantago media, called the rose-plantain in gardens, where the bracts become leafy and form a rosette round the flowering axis. Similar changes occur in Plantago major, P. lanceolata, Ajuga reptans, dandelion, daisy, dahlia and in umbelliferous plants. The conversion of bracts into stamens (staminody of bracts) has been observed in the case of A bies excelsa. A lengthening of the axis of the female strobilus of Coniferae is not of infrequent occurrence in Cryptomeria japonica, larch (Larix europaea), &c., and this is usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and sometimes even with the development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of the scales.
The arrangement of the flowers on the axis, or the ramification of the floral axis, is called the inflorescence. The primary axis of the inflorescence is sometimes called the rachis; its branches, whether terminal or lateral, which form the stalks supporting flowers or clusters of flowers, are peduncles, and if small branches are given off by it, they are called pedicels. A flower having a stalk is called pedunculate or pedicel- late; one having no stalk is sessile. In describing a branching inflorescence, it is common to speak of the rachis as the primary floral axis, its branches as the secondary floral axes, their divisions as the tertiary floral axes, and so on; thus avoiding any confusion that might arise from the use of the terms rachis, peduncle and pedicel. The peduncle is simple, bearing a single flower, as in primrose; or branched, as in London-pride. 6. - Peduncle of Fig It is sometimes succulent, as in Carica), ending in a the cashew, in which it forms the receptacle, enclosing large coloured expansion supnumerous male and female porting the nut; spiral, as in flowers. Cyclamen and Vallisneria; or spiny, as in Alyssum spinosum. When the peduncle proceeds from radical leaves, that is, from an axis which is so shortened as to bring the leaves close together in the form of a cluster, as in the primrose, auricula or hyacinth, it is termed a scape. The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, convex or concave form, and bearing numerous flowers, as in the arti choke, daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis sometimes appears as if formed by several peduncles united together, constituting a fasciated axis, as in the cockscomb, in which the flowers form a peculiar crest at the apex of the flattened peduncles. Adhesions occasionally take place between the peduncle and the bracts or leaves of the plant, as in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The adhesion of the peduncles to the stem accounts for the extraaxillary position of flowers, as in many Solanaceae. When this union extends for a considerable length along the stem, several leaves may be interposed between the part where the peduncle becomes free and the leaf whence it originated, and it may be difficult to trace the connexion. The peduncle occasionally becomes abortive, and in place of bearing a flower, is transformed into a tendril; at other times it is hollowed at the apex, so as apparently to form the lower part of the outer whorl of floral leaves as in Eschscholtzia. The termination of the peduncle, or the part on which the whorls of the flower are arranged, is called the thalamus, torus or receptacle. There are two distinct types of inflorescence - one in which the flowers arise as lateral shoots from a primary axis, which goes on elongating, and the lateral shoots never exceed in their development the length of the primary axis beyond their point of origin. The flowers are thus always axillary. Exceptions, such as in cruciferous plants, are due to the non-appearance of the bracts. In the other type the primary axis terminates FIG. 9. - Head of flowers(capitulum) of Scabiosa atropurpurea. The inflorescence is simple and indeterminate, and the expansion of the flowers centripetal, those at the circumference opening first.
in a single flower, but lateral axes are given off from the axils of the bracts, which again repeat the primary axis; the development of each lateral axis is stronger than that of the primary axis beyond its point of origin. The flowers produced in this inflorescence are thus terminal. The first kind of inflorescence is indeterminate, Here the axis is either elongated, FIG. 7. - Inflorescence of the Lime (Tilia platyphyllos) (nat. size).
b, Petiole with axillary bud. Attached to the peduncle is the bract (h).
FIG. 4. - Flowers of Narcissus (Narcissus Tazetta) bursting from a sheathing bract b. FIG. 5. - Spikelet of Oat (Avena sativa) laid open, showing the sterile bracts gl, gl, or empty glumes; g, the fertile or floral glume, with a dorsal awn a; p, the pale; fs, an abortive flower.
FIG. (Ficus hollow (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. 8. - Raceme of Linaria striata. d, bract.
indefinite or axillary. producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first (fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers expand first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus centripetal, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference to centre.
The second kind of inflorescence is determinate, definite or terminal. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other. flowers are produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre; or the axis is shortened and flat tened, producing a number of separate floral axes, the central f„ one expanding first, while the others are developed in succession farther from the centre. The expansion of the flowers is in this case centrifugal, that is, from apex to base, or from centre to circumference. It is illustrated in fig. 10, Ranunculus bulbosus; a' is the primary axis swollen at the base in a bulb-like manner b, and with roots proceeding from it. From the leaves which are radical proceeds the axis ending in a solitary terminal flower f'. About the middle of this axis there is a leaf or bract, from which a secondary floral axis a" is produced, ending in a single flower less advanced than the flower f. This secondary axis bears a leaf also, from which a tertiary floral axis a" is produced, bearing an unexpanded solitary flower f"'. From this tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of formation. Here f is the termination of the primary axis, and this flower expands first, while the other flowers are developed centrifugally on separate axes.
A third series of inflorescences, termed mixed, may be recognized. In them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging to the opposite type from that of the branches, or vice versa. According to the mode and degree of development of the lateral shoots and also of the bracts, various forms of both inflorescences result.
Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral shoot produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant ends in a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond, as in Veronica hederifolia, Vinca minor and Lysimachia nemorum. The flower in this case is solitary, and the ordinary leaves become bracts by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their number, like that of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite, varying with the vigour of the plant. Usually, however, the floral axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract, instead of ending in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles are produced, and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar way. Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary peduncle or floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off pedicels, ending in single flowers, a raceme is produced, as in currant, hyacinth and barberry. H the secondary floral axes give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branching, and forms a panicle, as in Yucca gloriosa. If in a raceme the lower flowerstalks are developed more strongly than the upper, and thus all the flowers are nearly on a level, a corymb is formed,which may be simple, as in fig. II, where the primary axis a' gives off secondary axes a", a", which end in single flowers; or branching, where the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are very short or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a spike is produced, as in Plantago and vervain (Verbena officinalis) (fig. 12). If the spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig. 13), it is an amentum or catkin, hence such trees are called amentiferous; at other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowers, surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it constitutes a spadix, which may be simple, as in Arum maculatum (fig. 14), or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers only, and covered with scales, is a strobilus, as in the hop. In grasses FIG. II. FIG. 12. FIG. 13. FIG. I I. - Corymb of Cerasus Mahaleb, terminating an abortive branch, at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales, e. a', Primary axis; a", secondary axes bearing flowers; b, bract in the axils of which the secondary axes arise.
FIG. 12. - Spike of Vervain (Verbena officinalis), showing sessile flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the spike have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full bloom, and those at the top are only in bud.
FIG. 13. - Amentum or catkin of Hazel (CorylusAvellana), consisting of an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales, each of which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen projecting beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating from the branch by an articulation.
there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small spikes, called locustae or spikelets, which are either set closely along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by the branching of the central one; to the latter form the term panicle is applied.
If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common point, and spread out as radii of nearly equal length, each ending in a single flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner, an umbel is produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral axis a the secondary axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like manner, and end in small umbels b, which are called partial umbels or umbellules. This inflorescence is seen in hemlock and other allied plants, which are hence called umbelliferous. If there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex or slightly concave receptacle, having either very short pedicels or none, a a (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. 14. - Spadix of Arum maculatum. (After W o s s i d l o.) a, Female flowers; b, male flowers; c, hairs representing sterile flowers.
FIG. 15. - Compound umbel of Common Dill (Anethum graveolens), having a primary umbel a, and secondary umbels b, without either involucre or involucel.
FIG. Io. - Plant of Ranunculus bulbosus, showing determinate inflorescence.
capitulum (head) is formed, as in dandelion, daisy and other composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious (fig. 9) and teazel. In the American button-bush the heads are globular, in some species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold, they are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly hollowed, or convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle be developed upwards, the centre not developing, a concave receptacle is formed, which may partially or completely enclose a number of flowers that are generally unisexual. This gives rise to the peculiar inflorescence of Dorstenia, or to that of the fig (fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the inner surface of the hollow receptacle, and are provided with bracteoles. This inflorescence has been called a hypanthodium. Lastly, we have what are called compound indefinite inflorescences. In these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally upon the primary axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which floral shoots arise which may have a centripetal arrangement similar to that on the mother shoot, or it may be different. Thus we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a racemose manner on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or compound raceme, as in Astilbe. In the same way we may have compound umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a compound spike, as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some palms, and a compound capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens daisy. Again, there may be a raceme of capitula, that is, a group of capitula disposed in a racemose manner, as in Petasites, a raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all the forms of inflorescence being indefinite in disposition. In Eryngium the shortening of the pedicels changes an umbel into a capitulum.
The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is seen in Anemone nemorosa and in gentianella (Gentiana acaulis), where the axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers being produced upon the plant. This is a solitary terminal inflorescence. If other flowers were produced, they would arise as lateral shoots from the bracts below the first-formed flower. The general name of cyme is applied to the arrangement of a group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A cymose inflorescence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis before terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral axes which repeat the process - the development being only limited by the vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus centrifugally developed. The cyme, according to its development, has been characterized as biparous or uniparous. In fig. 16 the biparous cyme is represented in the flowering branch of Cerastium. Here the primary axis t ends in a flower, which has passed into the state of fruit. At its base two leaves are produced, in each of which arise secondary axes t' t', ending in single flowers, and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced, giving rise to tertiary axes 1" t", ending in single flowers, and so on. The term dichasium has also been applied to this form of cyme.
In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial form of inflorescence is very general. In some members of the order, as Dianthus barbatus, D. carthusianorum, &c., in which the peduncles are short, and the flowers closely approximated, with a centrifugal expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a contracted dichasium, and receives the name of fascicle. When the axes become very much shortened, the arrangement is more complicated in appearance, and the nature of the inflorescence can only be recognized by the order of opening of the flowers. In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle (Lamium), the flowers are produced in the axil of each of the foliage leaves of the plant, and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of flowers. But on examination it is found that there is a central flower expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring bearing solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal. The inflorescence is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers being sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters are called verticillasters (fig. 17). Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a dichasium, owing to the exhaustion of the growing power of the plant, only one of the bracts gives origin to a new axis, the other remaining empty; thus the inflorescence becomes unilateral, and further development is arrested. In addition to the dichasial form there are others where more than two lateral axes are produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in turn (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. 16. - Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of Cerastium collinum; t-t", successive axes. (After Duchartre.) produces numerous axes. To this form the terms trichasial and polychasial cyme have been applied; but these are now usually designated cymose umbels. They are well seen in some species of Euphorbia. Another term, anthela, has been used to distinguish such forms as occur in several species of Luzula and FIG. 17. - Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle (Lamium album). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant, and produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a centrifugal manner.
Juncus, where numerous lateral axes arising from the primary axis grow very strongly and develop in an irregular manner.
In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively developed one from the other, but the axis of each successive generation, instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only one. The basal portion of the consecutive axes may become much thickened and arranged more or less in a straight line, ns and thus collectively form an apparent or false axis or sympodium, and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In the true raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in succession a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the floral axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but in the uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal portions of which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the opposite side of the axis to the bract from which it apparently arises (fig. 18). The bract is not, however, the one from which the axis terminating in the flower arises, but is a bract produced upon it, and gives origin in its axil to a new axis, the basal portion FIG. 20.
FIG. 19. FIG. 21.
FIG. 18. - Helicoid cyme of a species of Alstroemeria. a l, a 2, a3, a4, &c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the corresponding bracts b 2, 3, b4, &c., and ending in a flower f2, f 3, f 4, &c. The whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the internodes.
FIG. 21. - Flowering stalk of Ragwort (Senecio). The flowers are in heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other hand, taken collectively, expand centrifugally - the central one a first.
of which, constituting the next part of the false axis, occupies the angle between this bract and its parent axis - the bract from which the axis really does arise being situated lower down upon the same side of the axis with itself. The uniparous cyme presents two forms, the scorpioid or cicinal and the helicoid or bostrychoid. In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a double row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts when developed forming a second double row on the opposite side; the whole inflorescence usually curves on itself like a scorpion's tail, hence its name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagrammatic sketch of this arrangement. The false axis, a b c d, is formed by successive generations of unifloral axes, the flowers being arranged along one side alternately and in a double row; had the bracts been developed they would have formed a similar double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence in the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid cymes.
In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the basal portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed in a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix round the false axis. In Alstroemeria, as represented in fig. 18, the axis a l ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf. From the axil of this leaf, that is, between it and the primary axis a l arises a secondary axis a2, ending in a flower f 2 , and producing a leaf about the middle. From the axil of this leaf a tertiary floral axis a 3, ending in a flower f 3, takes origin. In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows along one side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals, so as to form an elongated spiral round it.
Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common, but in Streptocarpus polyanthus and in several calceolarias we probably have examples. Here there are scorpioid cymes of pairs of flowers, each pair consisting of an older and a younger flower.
Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite and indefinite types are represented - mixed inflorescences. Thus in Composite plants,such as hawkweeds (Hieracia) and ragworts (Senecio, fig. 21), the heads of flowers,Mixe d taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the terminal head first, while the florets, or small flowers on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference first. So also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (Lamium), the different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally, while the florets of the verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where the leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become bracts, and thus might lead to the supposition of the whole series of flowers being one inflorescence. In such cases the cymes are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, according to circumstances. In Saxifraga umbrosa (London-pride) and in the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes; in sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often called a glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of dichasial cymes; a scorpioid cyme of capitula in Vernonia scorpioides. The so-called catkins of the birch are, in reality, spikes of contracted dichasial cymes. In the bell-flower (Campanula) there is a racemose uniparous cyme. In the privet (Ligustrum vulgare) there are numerous racemes of dichasia arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole inflorescence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, and has been called a thyrsus. Tabular View Of Inflorescences A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.
I. Flowers solitary, axillary. Vinca, Veronica hederifolia. II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate.
1. Elongated form(Raceme), Hyacinth, Laburnum,Currant. (Corymb), Ornithogalum. 2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), Cowslip, Astrantia. III. Flowers in groups, sessile.
I. Elongated form (Spike), Plantago. (Spikelet), Grasses. (Amentum, Catkin), Willow, Hazel. (Spadix) Arum, some Palms. (Strobilus), Hop.
2. Contracted or shortened form(Capitulum), Daisy,Dandelion, Scabious. IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.
a. Compound Spike, Rye-grass. b. Compound Spadix, Palms. c. Compound Raceme, Astilbe. d. Compound Umbel, Hemlock and most Umbelliferae. e. Raceme of Capitula, Petasites. f. Raceme of Umbels, Ivy. B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.
I. Flowers solitary, terminal. Gentianella, Tulip. II. Flowers in Cymes.
I. Uniparous Cyme.
a. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).
Elongated form, Alstroemeria. Contracted form, Witsenia corymbosa. b. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows). Elongated form, Forget-me-not, Symphytum, Henbane. Contracted form, Erodium, Alchemilla arvensis. 2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous),including 3-5chotomou3 Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela).
a. Elongated form, Cerastium, Stellaria. b. Contracted form (Verticillaster), Dead-nettle, Pelargonium. 3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. Streptocarpus polyanthus, many Calceolarias. C. Mixed Inflorescence.
Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, Horse-chestnut. Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, Vernonia scorpioides. Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes,Laurustinus. Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus), Sea-pink. consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes. The axis is usually very much contracted, no internodes being developed, and the portion bearing the floral leaves, termed the thalamus or torus, frequently expands into a conical, flattened or hollowed expansion; at other times, though rarely, the internodes are developed and it is elongated. Upon this torus the parts of the flower are arranged in a crowded manner, usually forming a series of verticils, the parts of which alternate; but they are sometimes arranged spirally especially if the floral axis be elongated. In a typical flower, as in fig. 22, we recognize four distinct whorls of leaves: an outer whorl, the calyx of sepals; within it, another whorl, the parts alternating with those of the outer whorl, the corolla of petals; next a whorl of parts alternating with the parts of the corolla, the androecium of stamens; and in the centre the gynoecium of carpels. Fig. 23 is a diagrammatic representation of the arrangement of the parts of such a flower; it is known as a floral diagram. The flower is supposed to be cut transversely, and the parts of each whorl are distinguished by a different symbol. Of these whorls the two internal, forming the sporophylls, constitute the essential organs of reproduction; the two outer whorls are the protective coverings or floral envelopes. The sepals are generally of a greenish colour; their function is mainly protective, shielding the more delicate internal organs before the flower opens. The petals are usually showy, and normally alternate with the sepals. Sometimes, as usually in monocotyledons, the calyx and corolla are similar; in such cases the term perianth, or perigone, is applied. Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily, speak of the parts of the perianth, in place of corolla, although in these plants there is an outer whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner (corolla), of a similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be petaloid, as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the appearance of sepals, then they are sepaloid, as in Juncaceae. In plants, as Nymphaea alba, where a spiral arrangement of the floral leaves occurs, it is not easy to say where the calyx ends and the corolla begins, as these two whorls pass insensibly into each other. When both calyx and corolla are present, the plants are dichlamydeous; when one only is present, the flower is termed monochlamydeous or apetalous, having no petals (fig. 24). Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is achlamydeous, or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential organs, collectively termed the androecium, is composed of the microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or stamens. In their most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the filament (fig. 25, f), supporting at its summit the anther (a), consisting of the pollen-sacs which contain the powdery pollen (p), the microspores, which is ultimately discharged therefrom. The gynoecium or pistil is the central portion of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It consists of one or more carpels (megasporophylls), either separate (fig. 22, c) or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the pistil are the ovary (fig. 26, o), which is the lower portion enclosing the ovules destined to become seeds, and the stigma (g), a portion of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the pollen is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary, as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion called the style (s) . The androecium and gynoecium are not present in all flowers. When both are present the flower is hermaphrodite; and in descriptive botany such a flower is indicated by the symbol l. When only one of those organs is present the flower is unisexual or diclinous, and is either male (staminate), j , or female (pistillate), ? . A flower then normally consists of the four series of leaves - calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium - and when these are all present the flower is complete. These are usually densely crowded upon the thalamus, but in some instances, after apical growth has ceased in the axis, an elongation of portions of the receptacle by intercalary growth occurs, by which changes in the position of the parts may be brought about. Thus in Lychnis an elongation of the axis betwixt the calyx and the corolla takes place, and in this way they are separated by an interval. Again, in the passion-flower (Passiflora) the stamens are separated from the corolla by an elongated portion of the axis, which has consequently been termed the andro phone, and in Passiflora also, fraxinella (fig. 27), Capparidaceae, and some other plants, the ovary is raised upon a distinct stalk termed the gynophore; it is thus separated from the stamens, and is said to be stipitate. Usually the successive whorls of the flower, disposed from below upwards or from without inwards upon the floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or are a multiple of the same number of parts, those of one whorl alternating with those of the whorls next it.
In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or less convex, and the series of organs follow in regular succession, culminating in the carpels, in the formation of which the growth of the axis is closed (fig. 28). This arrangement is known as hypogynous, the other series (calyx, corolla and stamens) being beneath (hypo-) the gynoecium. In other cases, the apex of the growing point ceases to develop, and the parts below form a cup around it, from the rim of which the outer members of the flower are developed around (peri-) the carpels, which are formed from the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup. This arrangement is known as perigynous (fig. 29). In many cases this is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over The flower (stamens and FIG. 22. FIG. 25.
FIG. 24. FIG. 26.
The flower. FIG. 22. - Flower of Sedum rubens. s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c, carpels.
FIG. 23. - Diagram of a completely symmetrical flower, consisting of four whorls, each of five parts. s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c, carpels.
FIG. 24. - Monochlamydeous (apetalous) flower of Goosefoot (Chenopodium), consisting of a single perianth (calyx) of five parts, enclosing five stamens, which are opposite the divisions of the perianth, owing to the absence of the petals.
FIG. 25. - Stamen, consisting of a filament (stalk) f and an anther a, containing the pollen p, which is discharged through slits in the two lobes of the anther.
FIG. 26. - The pistil of Tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum), consisting of the ovary o, containing ovules, the style s, and the capitate stigma g. The pistil is placed on the receptacle r, at the extremity of the peduncle.
hyacinth, we calyx and FIG. 27. - Calyx and pistil of Fraxinella (Dictamnus Fraxinella). The pistil consists of several carpels, which are elevated on a stalk or gynophore prolonged from the receptacle.
by the carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring from the edge of the receptacle which is immediately above the ovary (epigynous), hence the term epigyny (fig. 30).
FIG. 28. FIG. 29. FIG. 30.
FIGS. 28, 29 and 30. - Diagrams illustrating hypogyny, perigyny and epigyny of the flower. a, Stamens; c, carpels; p, petals; s, sepals.
When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said to be cyclic, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts and are alternate it is eucyclic (figs. 22, 23). In Symmetry contrast to the cyclic flowers are those, as in Magnoli of the flower. aceae, where the parts are in spirals (acyclic). Flowers which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at another, as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed hemicyclic. In spiral flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to staminal parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs. 3 1, 32), although in some plants there is no such distinction, the FIG. 3 FIG. 31.
From Strasburger's by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIGS. 31 and 32. - White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32, successive stages, a-f, in the transition from petals to stamens. (After Wossidlo.) parts being all petaloid, as in Trollius. Normally, the parts of successive whorls alternate; but in some cases we find the parts of one whorl opposite or superposed to those of the next whorl. In some cases, as in the vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems to be the ordinary mode of development, but the superposition of the stamens on the sepals in many plants, as in the pink family, Caryophyllaceae, is due to the suppression or abortion of the whorl of petals, and this idea is borne out by the development, in some plants of the order, of the suppressed whorl. As a rule, whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on those of another we may suspect some abnormality.
A flower is said to be symmetrical when each of its whorls consists of an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any one whorl are multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a symmetrical flower may have five sepals, five petals, five stamens and five carpels, or the number of any of these parts may be ten, twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl, alternating with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical flower of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the staminal whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case the additional five parts form a second row alternating with the others. In the staminal whorl especially it is common to find additional rows. Fig. 34 shows a symmetrical flower, with five parts in the three outer rows, and ten divisions in the inner. In this case it is the gynoecium which has an additional number of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with four divisions of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four divisions of the pistil. In fig.
36 there are three parts in each whorl; and in fig. 37 there are three divisions of the calyx, corolla and pistil, and six stamens in two rows. In all these cases the flower is symmetrical. In Monocotyledons it is usual for the staminal whorl to be double, it rarely having more than two rows, whilst amongst dicotyledons there are often very numerous rows of stamens. The floral envelopes are rarely multiplied. Flowers in which the number of parts in each whorl is the same, are isomerous (of equal number); when the number in some of the whorls is different, the flower is anisomerous (of unequal number). The pistillate whorl is very liable to changes. It frequently happens that when it is fully formed, the number of its parts is not in conformity with that of the other whorls. In such circumstances, however, a flower has been called symmetrical, provided the parts of the other whorls are normal, - the permanent state of the pistil not being taken into account in determining symmetry. Thus fig. 38 shows a pentamerous symmetrical flower, with dimerous pistil. Symmetry, then, in botanical language, has reference to a certain definite numerical relation of parts. A flower in which the parts are arranged in twos is called dimerous; when the parts of the whorls are three, four or five, the flower is trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous, respectively. The symmetry which is most commonly met with is trimerous and pentamerous - the former occurring generally among monocotyledons, the latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous symmetry occur also among dicotyledons.
The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation to the axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one sepal is next the axis, and is called superior or posterior; another is next the bract, and is inferior or anterior, and the other two are lateral; and certain terms are used to indicate that position. A plane passing through the anterior and posterior sepal and through the floral axis is termed the median plane of the flower; a plane cutting it at right angles, and passing through the lateral sepals, is the lateral plane; whilst the planes which bisect the ?? ? 11 4lll!0 FIG. 33.
? ? 4 ? O FIG. 35. ? d FIG. 37.
FIG. 33. - Diagrammatic section of a symmetrical pentamerous flower of Stone-crop (Sedum), consisting of five sepals (s), five petals (p) alternating with the sepals, ten stamens (a) in two rows, and five carpels (c) containing ovules. The dark lines (d) on the outside of the carpels are glands.
FIG. 34. - Diagram of the flower of Flax (Linum), consisting of five sepals (s), five petals (p), five stamens (a), and five carpels (c), each of which is partially divided into two. The dots represent a whorl of stamens which has disappeared. It is pentamerous, complete, symmetrical and regular.
FIG. 35. - Diagram of the flower of Heath (Erica), a regular tetramerous flower.
FIG. 36. - Diagram of the trimerous symmetrical flower of Iris.
FIG. 37. - Diagram of the symmetrical trimerous flower of Fritillary (Fritillaria). FIG. 38. - Diagram of the flower of Saxifrage (Saxifraga tridactylites). The calyx and corolla consist of five parts, the stamens are ten in two rows, while the pistil has only two parts developed.
angles formed by the lateral and median planes are the diagonal planes and in these flowers the petals which alternate with the sepals are cut by the diagonal planes.
In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the calyx of Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in the calyx of Leguminosae (fig. 39) - the reverse, by the law of alternation, being the case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom of the pea (figs. 39, 40), the odd petal (vexillum) st is superior, FIG. 39. - Diagram of flower of Sweet-pea (Lathyrus), showing five sepals (s), two superior, one inferior, and two lateral; five petals (p), one superior, two inferior, and two lateral; ten stamens in two rows (a); and one carpel (c).
while the odd sepal is inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae one of the two carpels is posterior and the other anterior, whilst in Convolvulaceae the carpels are arranged laterally. Sometimes the twisting of a part makes a change in the position of other parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the ovary changes the position of the labellum.
When the different members of each whorl are like in size and shape, the flower is said to be regular; while differences in the size and shape of the parts of a whorl make the flower irregular, as in the papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a flower can be divided by a single plane into two exactly similar parts, then it is said to be zygomorphic. Such flowers as Papilionaceae, Labiatae, are examples. In contrast with this are polysymmetrical or actinomorphic flowers, which have a radial symmetry and can be divided by several planes into several exactly similar portions; such are all regular, symmetrical flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or some multiple of the others, then the flower 15 asymmetrical. This want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways. Alteration in the symmetrical arrangement as well as in the completeness and regularity of flowers has been traced to suppression or the non-development of parts, degeneration or imperfect formation, cohesion or union of parts of the same whorl, adhesion or union of the parts of different whorls, multiplication of parts, and deduplication (sometimes called chorisis) or splitting of parts.
By suppression or non-appearance of a part at the place where it ought to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry or completeness of the flower is disturbed. This suppression when confined to the parts of certain verticils makes the flower asymmetrical. Thus, in many Caryophyllaceae, as Polycarpon and Holosteum, while the calyx and corolla are pentamerous, there are only three or four stamens and three carpels; in Impatiens Noli-me-tangere the calyx is composed of three parts, while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and in Tropaeolum pentaphyllum there are five sepals, two petals, eight stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of symmetry is traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the last-mentioned plant the normal number is five, hence it is said that there are three petals suppressed, as shown by the position of the two remaining ones; there are two rows of stamens, in each of which one is wanting; and there are two carpels suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasionally some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower. By the suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the carpels, flowers become unisexual or diclinous, and by the suppression of one or both of the floral envelopes, monochlamydeous and achlamydeous flowers are produced. The suppression of parts of the flower may be carried so far that at last a flower consists of only one part of one whorl. In the Euphorbiaceae we have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of parts, where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms where two of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which the calyx is suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or three bracts (so that the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous), and only one or two stamens are produced. And finally, we find flowers consisting of a single stamen with a bract. There is thus traced a degradation, as it is called, from a flower with three stamens and three divisions of the calyx, to one with a single bract and a single stamen.
Degeneration, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise either to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in form. In unisexual flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges of the undeveloped stamens in the form of filiform bodies or scales. In double flowers transformations of the stamens and pistils take place, so that they appear as petals. In Canna, what are called petals are in reality metamorphosed stamens. In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find the florets converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may appear as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae and Valeriana. In Scrophularia the fifth stamen appears as a scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in Pentstemon, it assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place of an anther.
Cohesion, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and adhesion, or the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes of change both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in Cucurbita the stamens are originally five in number, but subsequently some cohere, so that three stamens only are seen in the mature flower. Adhesion is well seen in the gynostemium of orchids, where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In Capparidaceae the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the axis is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens are united.
Multiplication, or an increase of the number of parts, gives rise to changes. We have already alluded to the interposition of new members in a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the staminal whorl, but usually the additional parts produced form a symmetrical whorl with the others. In some instances, however, this is not the case. Thus in the horse-chestnut there is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven stamens are formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical.
Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of deduplication, or chorisis, i.e. the splitting of a part so that two or more parts are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruciferous plants the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens and two short ones (tetradynamous). The symmetry in the flower is evidently dimerous, and the abnormality in the androecium, where the four long stamens are opposite the posterior sepals, takes place by a splitting, at a very early stage of development, of a single outgrowth into two. Many case's of what was considered chorisis are in reality due to the development of stipules from the staminal leaf. Thus in Dicentra and Corydalis there are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther, and are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching of stamens also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus, in the so-called polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there are really only five stamens which give off numerous branches, but the basal portion remaining short, the branches have the appearance of separate stamens, and the flower thus seems asymmetrical.
Cultivation has a great effect in causing changes in the various parts of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and adhesion of parts are due to the art of the horticulturist. The changes in the colour and forms of flowers thus produced are endless. In the dahlia the florets are rendered quilled, and are made to assume many glowing colours. In pelargonium the flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and such is FIG. 40. - Flower of Pea (Pisum sativum), showing a papilionaceous corolla, with one petal superior (st) called the standard (vexillum), two inferior (car) called the keel (carina), and two lateral (a) called wings (alae). The calyx is marked c. also the case with the Ranunculus, the auricula and the carnation. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state, as columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and others, as Linaria, in which one petal only is usually spurred, are altered so as to have all the petals spurred, and to present what are called pelorian varieties.
As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the parts of the flower, floral formulae have been devised. Several modes of expression are employed. The following is a very simple mode which has been proposed: - The several whorls are represented by the letters S (sepals), P (petals), St (stamens), C (carpels), and a figure marked after each indicates the number of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula S 5 P 5 St 5 C 5 means that FIG. 41. FIG. 42. FIG. 43.
FIG. 41. - Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the Nettle (Urtica). FIG. 42. - Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.
FIG. 43. - Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned inwards at the edges.
the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the whorls being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would be represented by the formula S 5 P 5 St 5 + 5 C 5, where St5+5 indicates that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each. A flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be expressed S 4 PoSt 4 Co. When no other mark is appended the whorls are supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark the position of the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus, to express the superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is drawn between them, e.g. the symbol S 5 P 5 I St 5 C 5 is the formula of the flower of Primulaceae.
The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud with respect to each other before opening is the aestivation or praefloration. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud in the same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive names have been given to the different arrangements exhibited, both by the leaves individually and in their relations to each other. As regards each leaf of the flower, it is either spread out, as the sepals in the bud of the lime-tree, or folded upon itself (conduplicate), as in the petals of some species of Lysimachia, or slightly folded inwards or outwards at the edges, as in the FIG. 44. FIG. 45. FIG. 46.
FIG. 44. - Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned outwards at the edges.
FIG. 45. - Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn, and are twisted on their axis.
FIG. 46. - Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in which the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that I and 2 are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly external and partly overlapped by 1.
calyx of some species of clematis and of some herbaceous plants, or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or folded transversely, becoming crumpled or corrugated, as in the poppy. When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping or being folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel, the aestivation is valvate (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts may be turned either inwards or outwards; in the former case the aestivation is induplicate (fig. 43), in the latter case reduplicate (fig. 44). When the parts of a single whorl are placed in a circle, each of them exhibiting a torsion of its axis, so that by one of its sides it overlaps its neighbour, whilst its side is overlapped in like manner by that standing next to it, the aestivation is twisted or contorted (fig. 45). This arrangement is characteristic of the flower-buds of Malvaceae and Apocynaceae, and it is also seen in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae. When the flower expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but sometimes, as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under circular aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of Camellia japonica cover each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation is imbricate. At other times, as in the petals of Camellia, the parts envelop each other completely, so as to become convolute. This is also seen in a transverse section of the calyx of Magnolia grandiflora, where each of the three leaves embraces that within it. When the parts of a whorl are five, as occurs in many dicotyledons, and the imbrication is such that there are two parts external, two internal, and a fifth which partially covers one of the internal parts by its margin, and is in its turn partially covered by one of the external parts, the aestivation is quincuncial (fig. 46). This quincunx is common in the corolla of Rosaceae. In fig. 47 a section is given of the bud of Antirrhinum majus, showing the imbricate spiral arrangement. In this case it will be seen that the part marked 5 has, by a slight change in position, become overlapped by 1. This variety of imbricate aestivation has been termed cochlear. In flowers such as those of the pea (fig. 40), one of the parts, the vexillum, is often large and folded over the others, FIG. 47. FIG. 48.
FIG. 47. - Diagram to illustrate imbricated aestivation, in which the parts are arranged in a spiral cycle, following the order indicated by the figures I, 2, 3, 4, 5.
FIG. 48. - Diagram of a papilionaceous flower, showing vexillary aestivation.
I and 2, The alae or wings.
3, A part of the carina or keel.
4, The vexillum or standard, which, in place of being internal, as marked by the dotted line, becomes external.
5, The remaining part of the keel. giving rise to vexillary The order of the cycle is indicated aestivation (fig. 48), or the by the figures.
carina may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is carinal, as in the Judas-tree (Cercis Siliquastrum). The parts of the several verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation. Thus, in Malvaceae the corolla is contorted and the calyx valuate, or reduplicate; in St John's-wort the calyx is imbricate, and the corolla contorted. In Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is twisted, and has its parts arranged in a circle, the calyx is imbricate, and exhibits a spiral arrangement. In Guazuma the calyx is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The circular aestivation is generally associated with a regular calyx and corolla, while the spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as well as with regular forms.
The sepals are sometimes free or separate from each other, at other times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the former case, the calyx is polysepalous, in the latter gamosepalous or monosepalous. The divisions of the Calyx. calyx present usually the characters of leaves, and in some cases of monstrosity they are converted into leaf-like organs, as not infrequently happens in primulas. They are usually entire, but occasionally they are cut in various ways, as in the rose; they are rarely stalked. Sepals are generally of a more or less oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their apices either blunt or acute. In their direction they are erect or reflexed (with their apices downwards), spreading outwards (divergent or patulous), or arched inwards (connivent). They are usually of a greenish colour (herbaceous); but sometimes they are coloured or petaloid, as in the fuchsia, tropaeolum, globe-flower and pomegranate. Whatever be its colour, the external envelope of the flower is considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles sometimes form a prominent rib, which indicates the middle of the sepal; at other times they form several ribs. The venation is useful as pointing out the number of leaves which constitute a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx the number of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus, a calyx which has three sepals is trisepalous; one with five sepals is pentasepalous. The sepals occasionally are of different forms and sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet (galeate). In a gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in various ways, sometimes very slightly, and their number is marked by the divisions at the apex. These divisions either are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse teeth (fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about halfway, FIG. 49. FIG. 50.
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 51. FIG. 52. FIG. 53.
FIG. 49. - Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (Lychnis).
Obsolete calyx (c) of Madder (Rubia) adherent to the pistil, in the form of a rim.
FIG. 53. - Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent calyx (s), surrounding the berry (fr), derived from the ovary. (After Duchartre.) the calyx being trifid (three-cleft), quinquefid (five-cleft), &c., according to their number; or they reach to near the base in the form of partitions, the calyx being tripartite, quadripartite, quinquepartite, &c. The union of the parts may be complete, and the calyx may be quite entire or truncate, as in some Correas, the venation being the chief indication of the different parts. The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a greater extent than others; thus a two-lipped or labiate calyx is formed. The upper lip is often composed of three parts, which are thus posterior or next the axis, while the lower has two, which are anterior. The part formed by the union of the sepals is called the tube of the calyx; the portion where the sepals are free is the limb. Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked enlargement. In the violet the calycine segments are prolonged downwards beyond their insertions, and in the Indian cress (Tropaeolum) this prolongation is in the form of a spur (calcar), formed by three sepals; in Delphinium it is formed by one. In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is adherent to the flower-stalk. In Potentilla and allied genera an epicalyx is formed by the development of stipules from the sepals, which form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the bracteoles. Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it becomes dry, scaly and glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses), as in the rushes (Juncaceae); hairy, as in Compositae; or a mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and Acanthaceae, and in Madder (Rubia tinctorum, fig. 50), when it is called obsolete or marginate. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and Valerianaceae the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is developed in the form of hairs called pappus (fig. 51). This pappus is either simple (pilose) or feathery (plumose). In Valeriana the superior calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it is shown to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower expands, as in poppies, and is caducous (fig. 52); or along with the corolla, as in Ranunculus, and is deciduous; or it remains after flowering (persistent) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, and Boraginaceae; or its base only is persistent, as in Datura Stramonium. In Eschscholtzia and Eucalyptus the sepals remain united at the upper part, and become disarticulated at the base or middle, so as to come off in the form of a lid or funnel. Such a calyx is operculate or calyptrate. The existence or non-existence of an articulation determines the deciduous or persistent nature of the calyx.
The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the pistil, and enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the apple, pear, &c. In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at the apex. Sometimes a persistent calyx increases much after flowering, and encloses the fruit without being incorporated with it, becoming accrescent, as in various species of Physalis (fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered or marcescent form, as in Erica; sometimes it becomes inflated or vesicular, as in sea campion (Silene maritima). The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present in the greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ more from ordinary leaves than sepals do, and are much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. In some cases, however, they are transformed into leaves, like the calyx, and occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil. They are seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as in some species of Cobaea, Hoya viridiflora, Gonolobus viridiflorus and Pentatropis spiralis. As a rule they are highly coloured, the colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue or red flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts), as generally in yellow flowers, or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish flowers. The attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or in part to surface markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a pelargonium, when viewed with a z or 4-in. object-glass, shows beautiful hexagons, the boundaries of which are ornamented with several inflected loops in the sides of the cells.
Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some instances, hairs are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs, though sparse and scattered, present occasionally the same arrangement as those which occur on the leaves; thus, in Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured hairs are seen on the petals of Menyanthes, and on the segments of the perianth of Iris. They serve various purposes in the economy of the flower, often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate in their texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy, as in Stapelia and Rafflesia; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and stiff, as in Xylopia. A petal often consists of two portions - the lower narrow, resembling the petiole of a leaf, and called the unguis or claw; the upper broader, like the blade of a leaf, and called the lamina or limb. These parts are seen in the petals of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often wanting, as in the crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are then sessile. According to the development of veins and the growth of cellular tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves. Thus the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the petal becomes fimbriated, as in the pink; or laciniated, as in Lychnis Flos-cuculi; or crested, as in Polygala. Sometimes the petal becomes pinnatifid, as in Schizopetalum. The median vein is occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in the form of a long process, as in Strophanthus hispidus, where it extends for 7 in.; or the prolonged extremity is folded downwards or inflexed, as in Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches the base. The limb of the petal may be flat or concave, or hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the petals become folded FIG. 56. FIG. 57. FIG. 58.
FIG. 54. - Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri). c, The claw or unguis; I, the blade or lamina.
FIG. 55. - Petal of Crowfoot (Ranunculus), without a claw, and thus resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous scale is seen.
FIG. 56. - Tubular petal of Hellebore (Helleborus). FIG. 57. - Pansy (Viola tricolor). Longitudinal section of flower; v, bracteole on the peduncle; 1, sepals; ls, appendage of sepal; c, petals; cs, spur of the lower petals; fs, glandular appendage of the lower stamens; a, anthers. (After Sachs.) (From Vines' Students' Text-Book of Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.) FIG. 58. - Part of the flower of Aconite (Aconitum Napellus), showing two irregular horn-like petals (p) supported on grooved stalks (o). These serve as nectaries. s, the whorl of stamens inserted on the thalamus and surrounding the pistil.
in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in aconite (fig. 58) some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn, supported on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57), snapdragon and Centranthus, one or all of them are prolonged in the form of a spur, and are calcarate. In Valeriana, Antirrhinum and Corydalis, the spur is very short, and the corolla or petal is said to be gibbous, or saccate, at the base. These spurs, tubes and sacs serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing of nectar.
A corolla is dipetalous, tripetalous, tetrapetalous or pentapetalous according as it has two, three, four or five separate petals. The general name of polypetalous is given to corollas having separate petals, while monopetalous, gamopetalous or sympetalous is applied to those in which the petals are united. This union generally takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the apex; in Phyteuma the petals are united at their apices also. In some polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are separate at the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals are equal as regards their development and size, the corolla is regular; when unequal, it is irregular. When a corolla is gamopetalous it usually happens that the lower portion forms a tube, while the upper parts are either free or partially united, so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the two portions being the throat, which often exhibits a distinct constriction or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth, crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal among the parts, or some may unite more than others.
Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the rosaceous corolla (fig. S9), in which there are five spreading petals, having no claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry and Potentilla; the caryophyllaceous corolla, in which there are five petals with long, narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the pink tribe; the cruciform, having four petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite in the form of a cross, as seen in wallflower, and in other plants called cruciferous. Of irregular polypetalous corollas the most marked is the papilionaceous (fig. 40), in which there are five petals: - one superior (posterior), st, placed next to the axis, usually larger than the rest, called the vexillum or standard; two lateral, a, the alae or wings; two inferior (anterior), partially or completely covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their lower margins, so as to form a single keel-like piece, car, called carin g , or keel, which embraces the essential organs. This form of corolla is characteristic of British leguminous plants.
Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes campanulate or bell-shaped, as in (Campanula) (fig. 60); infundibuliform or funnel-shaped, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the limb becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; hypocrateriform or salver-shaped, when there is a straight tube surmounted by a flat spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); tubular, having a long cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the limb, as in Spigelia and comfrey; rotate or wheel-shaped, when the tube is very short, and the limb flat and spreading, as in forget-me-not, Myosotis (when the divisions of the rotate corolla are very acute, as in Galium, it is sometimes called stellate or star-like); urceolate or urn-shaped, when there is scarcely any limb, and the tube is narrow at both ends, and expanded in the middle, as in bell-heath (Erica cinerea). Some of these forms may become irregular in consequence of certain parts being more developed than others. Thus, in Veronica, the rotate corolla has one division much smaller than the rest, and in foxglove (Digitalis) there is a slightly irregular companulate corolla. Of irregular gamopetalous corollas there may be mentioned the labiate or lipped (fig. 62), having two divisions of the limb in the form of lips (the upper one, u, composed usually of two united petals, and the lower, 1, of three), separated by a gap.
In such cases the tube varies in length, and the parts in their union follow the reverse order of what occurs in the calyx, where two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper. When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called ringent (fig. 62). The labiate corolla characterizes the natural order Labiatae. When the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to leave only a chink between them, the corolla is said to be personate, as in snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas the two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in calceolaria, assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what occurs in the labellum of some orchids, as Cypripedium. When a tubular corolla is split in such a way as to form a strap-like process on one side with several tooth-like projections at its apex, it becomes ligulate or strap-shaped (fig. 63). This corolla occurs in many composite plants, as in the florets of dandelion, daisy and chicory. The number of divisions at the apex indicates the number of united petals, some of which, however, may be FIG. 54.
FIG. 59. - Rosaceous corolla (c) of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), composed of five petals without claws.
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 60. - Flower of Campanula medium; d, bract; v, bracteoles.
abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become more united than others, and then the corolla assumes a bilabiate or two-lipped form, as seen in the division of Compositae called Labiatiflorae.
Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole corolla is absent. In Amorpha and Afzelia the corolla is reduced to a single petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely wanting. In the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such as Ranunculus, globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and corolla, while others, such as clematis, anemone and Caltha, have only a coloured calyx. Flowers become double by the multiplication of the parts of the corolline whorl; this arises in general from a metamorphosis of the stamens.
Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which received in former days the name of nectaries. The term nectary was very vaguely applied by Linnaeus to any part of the flower which presented an unusual aspect, as the crown (corona) of narcissus, the fringes of the Passion-flower, &c. If the name is retained it ought properly to include only those parts which secrete a honey-like substance, as the glandular depression at the base of the perianth of the fritillary, or on the petal of Ranunculus (fig. 55), or on the stamens of Rutaceae. The honey secreted by flowers attracts insects, which, by conveying the pollen to the stigma, effect fertilization. The horn-like nectaries under the galeate sepal of aconite (fig. 58) are modified petals, so also are the tubular nectaries of hel lebore (fig. 56). Other modifications of some part of the flower, especially of the corolla and stamens, are produced either by degeneration or outgrowth, or by chorisis, or deduplication. Of this nature are the scales on the petals in Lychnis, Silene and Cynoglossum, which are formed in the same way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus, the scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered stamens. In Narcissus the appendages are united to form a crown, consisting of a membrane similar to that which unites the stamens in Pancratium. It is sometimes difficult to say whether these structures are to be referred to the corolline or to the staminal row.
Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base. When this attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals fall off either immediately after expansion (caducous) or after fertilization (deciduous). A corolla which is continuous with the axis and not articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths, may be persistent, and remain in a withered or marcescent state while the fruit is ripening. A gamopetalous corolla falls off in one piece; but sometimes the base of the corolla remains persistent, as in Rhinanthus and Orobanche. The stamens and the pistil are sometimes spoken of as the essential organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required in order that perfect seed may be produced. As with few exceptions the stamen represents a leaf which has been specially developed to bear the pollen or microspores, it is spoken of in comparative morphology as a microsporophyll; similarly the carpels which make up the pistil are the megasporophylls (see Angiosperms). Hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers are those in which both these organs are found; unisexual or diclinous are those in which only one of these organs appears, - those bearing stamens only, being staminiferous or " male "; those having the pistil only, pistilliferous or " female." But even in plants with hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often provided against by the structure of the parts or by the period of ripening of the organs. For instance, in Primula and Linum some flowers have long stamens and a pistil with a short style, the others having short stamens and a pistil with a long style. The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed primroses (fig. 61), the latter in the " pin-eyed." Such plants are called dimorphic. Other plants are timorphic, as species of Lythrum, and proper fertilization is only effected by combination of parts of equal length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before the pistil; these are called proterandrous, as in Ranunculus repens, Silene maritima, Zea Mays. In other plants, but more rarely, the pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in Potentilla argentea, Plantago major, Coix Lachryma, and they are termed proterogynous. Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs are called dichogamous. When in the same plant there are unisexual flowers, both male and female, the plant is said to be nionoecious, as in the hazel and castor-oil plant. When the male and female flowers of a species are found on separate plants, the term dioecious is applied, as in Mercurialis and hemp; and when a species has male, female and hermaphrodite flowers on the same or different plants, as in Parietaria, it is polygamous. The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the petals, with which they generally alternate, forming one or more whorls, which collectively constitute the androecium. Their normal position is below the pistil, and when they are so placed (fig.64, a) upon the thalamus they are hypogynous. Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or are epipetalous, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar, so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent of the calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous or epigynous (fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur, especially amongst Saxifragaceae, where the parts are half superior or half inferior. Where the stamens become adherent to the pistil so as to form a column, the flowers are said to be gynandrous, as in Aristolochia (fig.
66). These arrangements of parts are of great importance in classification. The stamens vary in number from one to many hundreds. In acyclic flowers there is often a gradual transition from petals to stamens, as in the white water-lily (fig. 31). When flowers become double by cultivation, the stamens are converted into petals, as in the paeony, camellia, rose, &c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are usually equal in number to the sepals or petals, and are arranged opposite to the former, and alternate with the latter. The flower is then isostemonous. When the stamens are not equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is anisostemonous. When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication of parts than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of stamens is haplostemonous. If the stamens are double the sepals or petals as regards number, the flower is diplostemonous; if more than double, polystemonous. The additional rows of FIG. 61. FIG. 62. FIG. 63.
FIG. 61. - Flower of cowslip (Primula veris) cut vertically. s, Sepals joined to form a gamosepalous calyx; c, corolla consisting of tube and spreading limb; a, stamens springing from the mouth of the tube; p, pistil.
FIG. 62. - Irregular gamopetalous labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle (Lamium album). The upper lip u is composed of two petals united, the lower lip (1) of three. Between the two lips there is a gap. The throat is the part where the tube and the labiate limb join. From the arching of the upper lip this corolla is called ringent.
FIG. 63. - Irregular gamopetalous ligulate flower of Ragwort (Senecio). It is a tubular floret, split down on one side, with the united petals forming a straplike projection. The lines on the flat portion indicate the divisions of the five petals. From the tubular portion below, the bifid style projects slightly.
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 64. - Flower of Paeonia peregrina,in longitudinal section. k, Sepal; c, petal; a, stamens; g, pistil. (2 nat. size.) stamens may be developed in the usual centripetal (acropetal) order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be interposed between the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, i.e. develop centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the flower is said to be obdiplostemonous . When the stamens are fewer than twenty they are said to be definite; when above twenty they are indefinite, and are represented by the symbol 00. The number of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals prefixed to the term androus; thus a flower with one stamen is monandrous, with two, three, four, five, six or many stamens, di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hexor polyandrous, respectively.
The function of the stamen is the development and distribution of the pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a contracted portion, often thread-like, termed the filament (fig. 25 f), and a broader portion, usually of two lobes, termed the anther (a), containing the powdery pollen (p), and supported upon the end of the filament. That portion of the filament in contact with the anther-lobes is termed the connective. If the FIG. 65. - Flower of Aralia in vertical section. c, Calyx; p, petal; e, stamen; s, stigmas. The calyx, petals and stamens spring from above the ovary (o) in which two chambers are shown each with a pendulous ovule; d, disc between the stamens and stigmas. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch mission of Gustav Fischer.
anther is absent the FIG. 66. - Flowers of Aristolochia Clem- atitis cut through longitudinally. I. Young stamen is abortive, flower in which the stigma (N) is receptive and cannot perform and the stamens (3) have not yet opened; its functions. The II. Older flower with the stamens (S) anther is developed o n the c orolla dried up.er(X2) dth e hairs before the filament, and when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in the mistletoe.
The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or threadlike, and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit. It is often, however, thickened, compressed and flattened in various ways, becoming petaloid in Canna, Marania, water-lily (fig. 32); subulate or slightly broadened at the base and drawn out into a point like an awl, as in Butomus umbellatus; or clavate, that is, narrow below and broad above, as in Thalictrum. In some instances, as in Tamarix gallica, Peganum Harmala, and Campanula, the base of the filament is much dilated, and ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these cases the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in Allium and Alyssum calycinum. The filament varies much in length and in firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that of the pistil, and to the position of the flower, whether erect or drooping. The filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support the anther in an erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses, and other wind-pollinated flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like, so that the anther is pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is generally continuous from one end to the other, but in some cases it is bent or jointed, becoming geniculate; at other times, as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is colourless, or of different colours. Thus in fuchsia and Poinciana, it is red; in Adamia and Tradescantia virginica, blue; in Oenothera and Ranunculus acris , yellow.
Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are some times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (Tradescantia virginica) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation of the protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the thalamus or torus, and the stamens fall off after fertilization: but in Campanula and some other plants they are continuous with the torus, and the stamens remain persistent, although in a withered state. Changes are produced in the whorl of stamens by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less extent, while the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the androecium may unite, forming a tube round the pistil, or a central bundle when the pistil is abortive, the stamens becoming monadelphous, as occurs in plants of the Mallow tribe; or they may be arranged in two bundles, the stamens being diadelphous, as in Polygala, Fumaria and Pea; in this case the bundles may be equal or unequal. It frequently happens, especially in Papilionaceous flowers, that out of ten stamens nine are united by their filaments, while one (the postericr one) is free (fig. 68). When there are three or more bundles the stamens are triadelphous, as in Hypericum aegyptiacum, or polyadelphous, as in Ricinus communis (castor-oil). In some cases, as in papilionaceous flowers, the stamens cohere, having been originally separate, but in most cases each bundle is produced by the branching of a single stamen. When there are three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral ones as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect stamens, each having at the base of the filament two abortive stamens or staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules. Filaments sometimes are adherent to the pistil, forming a column (gynostemium), as in Stylidium, Asclepiadaceae, Rafflesia, and Aristolochiaceae (fig. 66); the flowers are then termed gynandrous. FIG. 69. FIG. 70.
FIG. 68. - Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus). The stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments (f), while one of them (e) is free; st, stigma; c, calyx.
FIG. 69. - Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (Cheiranthus). ce, Exothecium; cf, endothecium; highly magnified.
FIG. 70. - Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus). The anther entire (a) with its filament; section of anther (b) showing the four loculi.
The anther consists of lobes containing the minute powdery pollen grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure or opening of some sort. There is a double covering of the anther - the outer, or exothecium, resembles the epidermis,and often presents stomata and projections of different kinds (fig. 69); the inner, or endothecium, is formed by a layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, cf), the cells of which der Botanik, by per FIG. 67. - Spikelet of Reed (Phragmites communis) opened out. a, b, Barren glumes; c, fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale, d; the zigzag axis (rhachilla) bears long silky hairs.
have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the wall. The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears entirely. The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that when the anther attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and these by their elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The anther is developed before the filament, and is always sessile in the first instance, and sometimes continues so. It appears at first as a simple cellular papilla of meristem, upon which an indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon these projections the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen, usually four in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation takes place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells. Those central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endothecium, the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer.
In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for each anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete it is a quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther (fig. 70). Sometimes, however, only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of the sacs in each lobe, in which case the anther is said to be bilocular or dithecal. Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and becomes unilocular, or monothecal, or dimidiate, either by the disappearance of the partition between the two lobes, or by the abortion of one of its lobes, as in Styphelia laeta and Althaea officinalis (hollyhock). Occasionally there are numerous cavities in the anther, as in Viscum and Rafesia. The form of the anther-lobes varies. They are generally of a more or less oval or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as in Mercurialis annua; at other times linear or clavate, curved, flexuose, or sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of union of the lobes and the unequal development of different parts of their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced. That part of the anther to which the filament is attached is the back, the opposite being the face. The division between the lobes is marked on the face of the anther by a groove or furrow, and there is usually on the face a suture, indicating the line of dehiscence. The suture is often towards one side in consequence of the valves being unequal. The stamens may cohere by their anthers, and become syngenesious, as in composite flowers, and in lobelia, jasione, &c.
The anther-lobes are united to the connective, which is either continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the filament is continuous with the connective, and is prolonged so that the anther-lobes appear to be united to it throughout their whole length, and lie in apposition to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said to be adnate or adherent; when the filament ends at the base of the anther, then the latter is innate or erect. In these cases the anther is to a greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the attachment is very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are movable (versatile) and are easily turned by the wind, as in Tritonia, grasses (fig. 105), &c., where the filament is attached only to the middle of the connective. The connective may unite the antherlobes completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or free. At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes, assuming various forms, as in Acalypha and oleander; or it is extended backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71), forming a nectar-secreting spur. In Salvia officinalis the connective is attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as to separate the two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which contains pollen, the other being imperfectly developed and sterile. The connective is joined to the filament by a movable joint forming a lever which plays an important part in the pollinationmechanism. In Stachys the connective is expanded laterally, so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and bring them into a horizontal line.
The opening or dehiscence of the anthers to discharge their contents takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores. When the anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the line of the suture - longitudinal dehiscence (fig. 25). At other times the slit is horizontal, from the connective to the - side, as in Alchemilla arvensis (fig. 73) and in Lemna; the dehiscence is then transverse. When the anther lobes are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the connective, then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear to be transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole length of the anther-lobe at once, but often for a time it extends only partially. In other instances the opening is confined to the base or apex, each loculament opening by a single pore, as in Pyrola, Tetratheca juncea, Rhododendron, Vaccinium and Solanum (fig. 74), where there are two, and Poranthera, where there are four; whilst in the mistletoe the anther has numerous pores for the discharge of the pollen. Another mode of dehiscence is the valvular, as in the barberry (fig. 75), where each lobe opens by a valve on the outer side of the suture, separately rolling up from base to apex; in some of the laurel tribe there are two such valves for each lobe, or four in all. In some Guttiferae, as Hebradendron cambogioides (the Ceylon gamboge plant), the anther opens by a lid separating from the apex (circumscissile dehiscence) .
The anthers dehisce at different periods during the process of flowering; sometimes in the bud, but more commonly when the pistil is fully developed and the flower is expanded. They either dehisce simultaneously or in succession. In the latter case individual stamens may move in succession towards the pistil and discharge their contents, as in Parnassia palustris, or the outer or the inner stamens may first dehisce, following thus a centripetal or centrifugal order. These variations are intimately connected with the arrangements for transference of pollen. The anthers are called introrse when they dehisce by the surface next to the centre of the flower; they are extrorse when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they dehisce by the sides, as in Iris and some grasses, they are laterally dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature, anthers originally introrse become extrorse, as in the Passionflower and Oxalis. The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great variety in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in the poppy and tulip, orange in Eschscholtzia, &c. The colour and appearance of the anthers often change after they have discharged their functions.
Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or non-development of the anthers, when they are known as staminodia, or rudimentary stamens. In Scrophularia the fifth stamen appears in the form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons it is reduced to a filament with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at the apex. In other cases, as in double flowers, the stamens are converted into petals; this is also probably the case with such FIG. 71. FIG. 13. FIG. 74.
s FIG. 72. FIG. 75.
FIG. 71. - Two stamens of Pansy (Viola tricolor), with their two anther-lobes and the connectives (p) extending beyond them. One of the stamens has been deprived of its spur, the other shows its spur c. FIG. 72. - Anther of Salvia officinalis. lf, fertile lobe full of pollen; ls, barren lobe without pollen; e, connective; f, filament.
FIG. 73. - Stamen of Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla), with the anther opening transversely.
FIG.74. - Stamen of a species of Nightshade (Solanum), showing the divergence of the anther-lobes at the base, and the dehiscence by pores at the apex.
FIG. 75. - The stamen of the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris), showing one of the valves of the anther (v) curved upwards, bearing the pollen on its inner surface.
plants as Mesembryanthemum, where there is a multiplication of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in Canna, one of the anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla. Some are enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in Cinchona (included); others are exserted, or extend beyond the flower, as in Littorella or Plantago. Sometimes the stamens in the early state of the flower project beyond the petals, and in the progress of growth become included, as in Geranium striatum. Stamens also vary in their relative lengths. When there is more than one row or whorl in a flower, those on the outside are sometimes longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times those in the interior are longest, as in Luhea. When the stamens are in two rows, those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those which alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single stamen is longer than all the rest. A definite relation, as regards I ?' number, sometimes exists between the long and the short stamens. Thus, in some flowers the stamens are didynamous, having only four out of five stamens developed, and the two corresponding to the upper part of the flower longer than the two lateral ones. This occurs in Labiatae and Scrophulariaceae (fig. 76). Again, in other cases there are six stamens, whereof four long ones are arranged in pairs opposite to each other, and alternate with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to tetradynamous flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their direction, may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In the last-mentioned case they are called declinate, as in amaryllis, horse-chestnut and fraxinella.
The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther consist of small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled mother-cells formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (microsporangia) of the young anther. These mother-cells are either separated from one another and float in the granular fluid which fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac, or are not so isolated. A division takes place, by which four cells are formed in each, the exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and monocotyledons. These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase in size and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into an outer cuticular layer, or extine, and an inner layer, or intine. Then the walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollengrains float freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually disappears, and the mature grains form a powdery mass within the anther. They then either remain united in fours, or multiples of four, as in some acacias, Periploca graeca and Inga anomala, or separate into individual grains, which by degrees become mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane of the mother-cell is not completely absorbed, and traces of it are detected in a viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in Onagraceae. In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into masses, or pollinia (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids each of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (caudicle) which adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (rostellum) by means of a viscid gland (retinaculum) which is either naked or covered. The term clinandrium is sometimes applied to the part of the column in orchids where the stamens are situated. In some orchids, as Cypripedium, the pollen has its ordinary character of separate grains. The number of pollinia varies; thus, in Orchis there are usually two, in Cattleya four, and in Laelia eight. The two pollinia in Orchis Morio contain each about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small masses, when bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In Asclepiadaceae the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79), belonging to two contiguous anther-lobes - each pollen-mass having a FIG. 78. FIG. 79. FIG. 80.
FIG. 78. - Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (g) or viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (p) are supported on stalks or caudicles (c). These masses are easily detached by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.
FIG. 79. - Pistil of Asclepias (a) with pollen-masses (p) adhering to the stigma (s). b, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united by a gland-like body. Enlarged.
FIG. 80. - Stamen of Asclepias, showing filament f, anther a, and appendages p. Enlarged.
caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of which they are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia are also provided with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80). The extine is a firm membrane, which defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour to it. It is either smooth, or covered with numerous projections (fig. 81), granules, points or crested reticulations. The colour is generally yellow, and the surface is often covered with a viscid or oily matter. The intine is uniform in different kinds of pollen, thin and transparent, and possesses great power of extension. In some aquatics, as Zostera, Zannichellia, Naias, &c., only one covering exists.
Pollen-grains vary from a o 0 - to o-y of an inch or less in diameter. Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is ellipsoidal, more or less narrow at the extremities, which are called its poles, in contradistinction to a line equidistant from the extremities, which is its equator. Pollen-grains are also spherical; cylindrical and curved, as in Tradescantia virginica; C From Vines' Students' Text-Book of Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
FIG. 82. - Germinating pollengrain of Epilobium (highly mag.) bearing a pollen-tube s; e, exine; intine; abc, the three spots where the exine is thicker in anticipation of the formation of the pollen-tube developed in this case at a.
polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and Compositae; nearly triangular in section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae (fig. 82). The surface of the pollen-grain is either uniform and homogeneous, or it is marked by folds formed by thinnings of the membrane. There are also rounded portions of the membrane or pores visible in the pollengrain; these vary in number from one to fifty, and through one FIG. 76. - Corolla of foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), cut in order to show the didynamous stamens (two long and two short) which are attached to it.
From Strasburger's Lehrbueh der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 77. - Tetradynamous stamens (four long and two short) of wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri). FIG. 81. - Pollen of Hollyhock (Althaea rosea), highly magnified.
FIG. 83. - Male flower of Pellitory (Parietaria officinalis), having four stamens with incurved elastic filaments, and an abortive pistil in the centre. When the perianth (p) expands, the filaments are thrown out with force as at a, so as to scatter the pollen.
or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination of the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only one, while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards; when numerous, the pores are either scattered irregularly, or in a regular order, frequently forming a circle round the equatorial surface. Sometimes at the place where they exist, the outer membrane, in place of being thin and transparent, is separated in the form of a lid, thus becoming operculate, as in the passionflower and gourd. Within the pollen-grain is the granular protoplasm with some oily particles, and occasionally starch. Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes place in the pollengrain into a vegetative cell or cells, from which the tube is developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides to form the male cells (see Angiosperms and Gymnosperms).
When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the pollen is shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the pollen must be conveyed to the stigma of the pistil.
Polling- Thisrocess termed pollination (see Pollination. p p ()' is promoted in various ways, the whole form and structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some plants, as Kalmia and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity of the filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants pollination is effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees, grasses, &c., and in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are produced. These plants are anemophilous . But the common agents for pollination are insects. To allure and attract them to visit the flower the odoriferous secretions and gay colours are developed, and the position and complicated structure of the parts of the flower are adapted to the perfect performance of the process, It is comparatively rare in hermaphrodite flowers for self-fertilization to occur, and the various forms of dichogamy, dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent this.
Under the term disk is included every structure intervening between the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures. that the name of nectary was applied by old authors.
It presents great varieties of form, such as a ring, scales, glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &c., and in the progress of growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus becoming truly nectariferous. The disk is frequently formed by degeneration or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens, and thus representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be opposite to the stamens. In some flowers, as Jatropha Curcas, in which the stamens are not developed, their place is occupied by glandular bodies forming the disk. In Gesneraceae and Cruciferae the disk consists of toothlike scales at the base of the stamens. The parts composing the disk sometimes unite and form a glandular ring, as in the orange; or they form a dark-red lamina covering the pistil, as in Paeonia Moutan (fig. 84); or a FIG. 84. - Flower of Tree waxy lining of the hollow receptacle, Paeony (Paeonia Moutan), as in the rose; or a swelling at the deprived of its corolla, and top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae, showing the disk in the form in which the disk is said to be of a fleshy expansion (d) ep i gynous. The enlarged torus covering the ovary.
covering the ovary in Nymphaea (Castalia) and Nelumbium may be regarded as a form of disk.
The pistil or gynoecium occupies the centre or apex of the flower, and is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes when these are present. It constitutes the innermost whorl, which after flowering is changed into the fruit and contains the seeds. It consists essentially of two parts, a basal portion forming a chamber, the ovary, containing the ovules attached to a part called the placenta, and an upper receptive portion, the stigma, which is either seated on the ovary (sessile), as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called the style, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil consists of one or more modified leaves, the carpels (or megasporophylls). When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is simple or monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several carpels, more or less united, it is compound or polycarpellary (fig. 86). In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when present), and stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded leaf, the upper surface of which is turned inwards towards the axis, and the lower outwards, while from its margins are developed one or more ovules. This comparison is borne out by an examination of the flower of the double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit is produced, and the pistil consists merely of sessile leaves, the limb of each being green and folded, with a narrow prolongation upwards, as if from the midrib, and ending in a thickened portion. In Cycas the carpels are ordinary leaves, with ovules upon their margin.
A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels may be arranged either at the same or nearly the same height FIG. 85.
From Strasburger's Lenrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
S FIG. 86. FIG. 89. FIG. 88. FIG. 90.
FIG. 85. - Pistil of Broom (Cytisus) consisting of ovary o, style s, and stigma t. It is formed by a single carpel.
FIG. 86. - Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (Helleborus niger). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are indefinite, and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous).
FIG. 87. - Fruit of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), consisting of an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry seed-like fruits (achenes).
FIG. 88. - Fruit of Rosa alba, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis s', the persistent sepals s, and the carpels fr. The stamens (c) have withered. (After Duchartre.) FIG. 89. - Pistil of Ranunculus. x, Receptacle with the points of insertion of the stamens a, most of which have been removed.
FIG. 90. - Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (Linum), consisting of five carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are separate.
in a verticil, or at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they remain separate and distinct, thus showing at once the composition of the pistil, as in Caltha, Ranunculus, hellebore (fig. 86), and Spiraea, the term apocarpous is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 2 2) the pistil consists of five verticillate carpels o, alternating with the stamens e. In magnolia and Ranunculus (fig. 89) the separate carpels are numerous and are arranged in a spiral cycle upon an elongated axis or receptacle. In the raspberry the carpels are on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on a swollen succulent one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a hollow one. When the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and chickweed, the pistil becomes syncarpous. The number of carpels in a pistil is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple pistil is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three carpels, trigynous, &c.
The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete; it may take place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and stigmas remain free (fig. 90), and in this case, when the ovaries form apparently a single body, the organ receives the name of compound ovary; or the union may take place by the ovaries and styles, while the stigmas are disunited; or by the stigmas and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate states exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as in Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base; but in Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and in Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When the union is incomplete, the number of the parts of a compound pistil may be determined by the number of styles and stigmas; when complete, the external venation, the grooves on the surface, and the internal divisions of the ovary indicate the number.
The ovules are attached to the placenta, which consists of a mass of cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels pass to the ovule. The placenta is usually formed on the edges of the carpellary leaf (fig. 91) - marginal. In many cases, however, the placentas are formations from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary leaves. In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing the placenta is the inner or ventral suture, corresponding to the margin of the folded carpellary leaf, while the outer or dorsal suture corresponds to the midrib of the carpellary leaf. As the placenta is formed on each margin of the carpel it is essentially double. This is seen in cases where the margins of the carpel do not unite, but remain separate, and consequently two placentas are formed in place of one. When the pistil is formed by one carpel the inner margins unite and form usually a common marginal placenta, which may extend FIG. 91. - Pistil of Pea along the whole margin of the ovary after fertilization of the as far as the base of the style (fig. 1 ovules, developing to form Y (g 9), the fruit. f, Funicle or or may be confined to the base or stalk of ovule (ov); pl, plaapex only. When the pistil consists centa; s,withered style and of several separate carpels, or is stigma; c, persistent calyx.
apocarpous, there are generally separ ate placentas at each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil, on the other hand, the carpels are so united that the edges of each of the contiguous ones, by their union, form a septum or dissepiment, and the number of these septa consequently indicates the number of carpels in the compound pistil (fig. 92). When the FIG. 92. FIG. 93. FIG. 94.
FIG. 92. - Trilocular ovary of the Lily (Lilium), cut transversely. s, Septum; o, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle of each chamber. Enlarged.
FIG. 93. - Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, composed of five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet in the centre forming the septa, s. The ovules (o) are attached to a central placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures. Dorsal suture, 1. FIG. 94. - Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which the edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules o, are not folded inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules appear sessile on the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.
dissepi:ments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is divided into cavities or cells, and it may be bilocular, trilocular (fig. 92), quadrilocular, quinquelocular, or multilocular, according as it is formed by two, three, four, five or many carpels, each carpel corresponding to a single cell. In these cases the marginal placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a single central one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the central angle of the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do not fold inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the walls of the ovary, then the ovary is unilocular (fig. 95) and the placentas are parietal, as in Viola (fig. 96). In these instances the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united contiguous leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be united, each developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of the carpels, which fold in to the centre, split there into two lamellae, each of which is curved outwards and projects into the FIG. 97. FIG. 98.
FIG. 95. - Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which the septa (s) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the placentas and ovules (o). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, 1. FIG. 96. - Pistil of Pansy (Viola tricolor), enlarged. I, Vertical; 2, horizontal section; c, calyx; d, wall of ovary; o, ovules; p, placenta; s, stigma.
FIG. 97. - Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (Cucumis Melo), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From the centre, processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas bearing the ovules.
FIG. 98. - Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary, in which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (o) are attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with the walls of the ovary.
loculament, dilating at the end into a placenta. This is well seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), Pyrola, &c. The carpellary leaves. may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be applied in a valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the placentas then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or thickenings along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the placentas are not connected with the walls of the ovary, and form what is called a free central placenta (fig. 98). This is seen in many of the Caryophyllaceae and Primulaceae (figs. 99,100). In Caryophyllaceae, however, while the placenta is free in the centre, there are often traces found at the base of the ovary of the remains of septa, as if rupture had taken place, and, in rare instances, ovules are found on the margins of the carpels. But in Primulaceae no vestiges of septa or marginal ovules can be perceived at any period of growth; the placenta is always free, and rises in the centre of the ovary. Free central placentation, there fore, has been accounted for in two ways: either by supposing that the placentas in the early state were formed on the margins of 2 FIG. 95.
I FIG. 99. FIG.
FIG. 99. - Pistil of Cerastium hirsutum cut vertically. o, Ovary; p, free central placenta; g, ovules; s, styles.
FIG. too. - The same cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as to show the interior of the cavity of the ovary o, with the free central placenta p, covered with ovules g. carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development these leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules free in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not marginal but axile formations, produced by an elongation of the axis, and the carpels verticillate leaves, united together around the axis. The first of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae, the second to Primulaceae.
Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not formed by the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called spurious dissepiments. They are often horizontal, as in Cathartocarpus Fistula, where they consist of transverse cellular prolongations from the walls of the ovary, only developed after fertilization, and therefore more properly noticed under fruit. At other times they are vertical, as in Datura, where the ovary, in place of being two-celled, becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae, where the prolongation of the placentas forms a vertical partition; in Astragalus and Thespesia, where the dorsal suture is folded inwards; and in Oxytropis, where the ventral suture is folded inwards.
The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form, sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times hairy and grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions between the carpels and correspond to the dissepiments. The dorsal suture may be marked by a slight projection or by a superficial groove. When the ovary is situated on the centre of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its base is above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed superior, as in Lychnis, Primula (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig. 28). When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying with it the floral envelopes and stamina' leaves, the basal portion of the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary leaves alone closing in the apex, the ovary is inferior, as in pomegranate, aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see fig. 30). In some plants, as many Saxifragaceae, a there are intermediate forms, in which the term half-inferior is applied to the ovary, whilst the floral whorls are halfsuperior. The style proceeds from the summit of the carpel (fig.
102), and is traversed by a narrow canal, in which there are some loose projecting cells, a continuation of the placenta, constituting what is called conducting tissue, which ends in the stigma. This is particularly abundant when the pistil is ready for fertilization. In some cases, owing to more rapid growth of the dorsal side of the ovary, the style becomes lateral (fig. roi); this may so increase that the style appears to arise from near the base, as in the strawberry, or from the base, as in Chrysobalanus Icaco, when it is called basilar. In all these cases the style still indicates the organic apex of the ovary, although it may not be the apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the style of each carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depression in the midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus. Such a style is gynobasic, and is well seen in Boraginaceae.
The form of the style is usually cylindrical, more or less filiform and simple; sometimes it is grooved on one side, at other times it is flat, thick, angular, compressed and even petaloid, as in Iris (fig. 103) and Canna. In Goodeniaceae it ends in a cup-like expansion, enclosing the stigma. It sometimes bears hairs, which aid in the application of the pollen to the stigma, and are called collecting hairs, as in Campanula, and also in Aster and other Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth of the style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the mature stigma of other flowers. In Vicia and Lobelia the hairs frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syncarpous pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they alternate with the septa; when united completely, the style is said to be simple (fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of each carpel of a compound pistil, may also be divided. Each division of the tricarpellary ovary of Jatropha Curcas has a bifurcate or forked style, and the ovary of Emblica officinalis has three styles, each of which is twice forked. The length of the style is determined by the relation which should subsist between the position of the stigma and that of the anthers, so as to allow the proper application of the pollen. The style is deciduous or persists after fertilization.
The stigma is the termination of the conducting tissue of the style, and is usually in direct communication with the placenta. It consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid matter which detains the pollen, and causes it to germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly speaking, the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated. The stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous pistil, or, in other words, corresponds with the back of the loculaments; but in some cases it would appear that half the stigma of one carpel unites with half that of the contiguous carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the dissepiments, that is, alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.
The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which compose the pistil. Thus in Campanula a five-cleft stigma indicates five carpels; in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or bilamellar stigma indicates a bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in Gramineae, the stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be terminal or lateral. In Iris it is situated on a cleft on the back of the petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as those of Mimulus, present sensitive flattened laminae, which close when touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may be globular, as in Mirabilis Jalapa; orbicular, as in Arbutus Andrachne; umbrella-like, as in Sarracenia, where, however, the proper stigmatic surface is beneath the angles of the large expansion of the apex of the style; ovoid, as in fuchsia; hemispherical; polyhedral; radiating, as in the poppy (fig. 104), where the true stigmatic rays are attached to a sort of peltate or shield-like body, which may represent depressed or flattened styles; cucullate, i.e. covered by a hood, in calabar bean. The lobes of a stigma are flat and pointed as in Mimulus and Bignonia, fleshy and blunt, smooth or granular, or they are feathery, as in many grasses (fig. 105) and other windpollinated flowers. In Orchidaceae the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are united to the face of the anthers, and along with them form a solid mass.
The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become the seed. Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of FIG. IOI. FIG. 102.
FIG. 104. FIG. 103.
FIG. 101. - Carpel of Lady's-mantle (Alchemilla) with lateral style s; o, ovary, st, stigma. Enlarged.
FIG. 102. - Pistil of Primrose (Primula) composed of five carpels which are completely united; o, ovary; s, style; st, stigma. Enlarged.
FIG. 103. - Gynoecium of the Flowerde-Luce (Iris), consisting of an inferior ovary (o) and a style which divides into three petaloid segments (s), each bearing a stigma (st).
FIG. 104. - Capsuleof Poppy, opening by pores (p), under the radiating peltate stigma (s).
FIG. 105. - Flower of a grass with glumes removed, showing three stamens and two feathery styles. p, Pale; 1, lodicules. Enlarged.
the carpellary leaves, but are also formed over the whole surface of the leaf, as in Butomus. In other instances they rise The ovule. from the floral axis itself, either terminal, as in Poly gonaceae and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in Primulaceae and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary, and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed angiospermous; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no proper ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being denominated gymnospermous. In Cycas the altered leaf, upon the margin of which the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales, from which they are pendulous in Zamia, are regarded by all botanists as carpellary leaves. As for the Coniferae great discussion has arisen regarding the morphology of parts in many genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes united in such a way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil, so that the ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In Leontice thalictroides (Blue Cohosh), species of Ophiopogon, Peliosanthes and Stateria, the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the ovules are exposed; and in species of Cuphea the placenta ultimately bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing the exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either directly, when it is sessile, or by means of a prolongation funicle (fig. I io, f). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after fertilization. The part by which the ovule is attached to the placenta or cord is its base or hilum, the opposite extremity being its apex. The latter is frequently turned round in such a way as to approach the base. The ovule is sometimes embedded in the placenta, as in Hydnora. FIG. I 06. FIG. 107. FIG.7108. FIG. 109.
FIGS. 106 and mg. - Successive stages in the development of an ovule. n, Nucellus; i, inner; o, outer integument in section; m, micropyle.
FIG. 108. - Orthotropous ovule of Polygonum in section, showing the embryo-sac s, in the nucellus n, the different ovular coverings, the base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, and the apex of the ovule with its micropyle m. FIG. 1 09. - Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine (Pinus austriaca), showing the nucellus a, consisting of delicate cellular tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac b. The micropyle m is very wide.
The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from the placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or less enlarged ovate form constituting what has been called the nucellus (fig. 106, n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This nucellus may remain naked, and alone form the ovule, as in some orders of parasitic plants such as Balanophoraceae, Santalaceae, &c.; but in most plants it becomes surrounded by certain coverings or integuments during its development. These appear first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the nucellus, which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In some cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamopetalous dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also in walnut, &c. But usually besides the single covering another is developed subsequently (fig. 106, o), which gradually extends over that first formed, and ultimately covers it completely, except at the apex. There are thus two integuments to the nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do not completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed the micropyle is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex of the ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to form the embryo-sac or megaspore (fig. 108, s). This embryo-sac increases in size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the nucellus until it is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it may actually extend at the apex beyond it, as in Phaseolus and Alsine media; or it may pass into the micropyle, as in Santalum. In Gymnosperms it usually remains deep in the nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue (fig. 109). For an account of the further development of the megaspore, and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertilization is formed the embryo, see Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
The point where the integuments are united to the base of the nucellus is called the chalaza (figs. II i, 112). This is often coloured, is of a denser texture than the surrounding tissue, and is traversed by fibrovascular bundles, which pass from the placenta to nourish the ovule.
When the ovule is so developed that the chalaza is at the hilum (next the placenta), and the micropyle is at the opposite extremity, there being a short funicle, the ovule is orthotropous. This form is well seen in Polygonaceae (fig. I12), Cistaceae, and most gymnosperms. In such an ovule a straight line drawn from the hilum to the micropyle passes along the axis of the ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one side than on the other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is curved upon itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum,and ultimately is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the ovule is campylotropous (fig. I Io). Curved ovules are found in Cruciferae, and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or anatropous ovule (fig. I I 1) is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attachment of the funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated at the opposite extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the side usually next the placenta, coalesces with the ovule and constitutes the raphe (r), which often forms a ridge. The anatropous ovule arises from the placenta as a straight or only slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows, gradually becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the integuments (cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes adherent to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument be formed it covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not form on the side to which the raphe is adherent. These may be taken as the three types of ovule; but there are various intermediate forms, such as semi-anatropous and others.
The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When there is a single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached to the placenta at the base of the ovary (basal placenta), and is then erect, as in Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be inserted a little above the base, on a parietal placenta, with its apex upwards, and then is ascending, as in Parietaria. It may hang from an apicilar placenta at the summit of the ovary, its apex being directed downwards, and is inverted or pendulous, as in Hippuris vulgaris; or from a parietal placenta near the summit, and then is suspended, as in Daphne Mezereum, Polygalaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle arises from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and there bending over suspends the ovule, as in Armeria (sea-pink); at other times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the ovule becomes horizontal. When there are two ovules in the same cell, they may be either collateral, that is, placed side by eh 1 h FIG. I10. FIG. III.
FIG. I io. - Campylotropous ovule of wall-flower (Cheiranthus), showing the funicle f, which attaches the ovule to the placenta; p, the outer, s, the inner coat, n, the nucellus, ch, the chalaza. The ovule is curved upon itself, so that the micropyle is near the funicle.
FIG. I I I. - Anatropous ovule of Dandelion (Taraxacum), nucellus, which is inverted, so that the chalaza ch, is removed from the base or hilum h, while the micropyle f is near the base. The connexion between the base of the ovule and the base of the nucellus is kept up by means of the raphe r. side (fig. 92), or the one may be erect and the other inverted, as in some species of Spiraea and Aesculus; or they may be placed one above another, each directed similarly, as is the case in ovaries containing a moderate or definite number of ovules. Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the ovules, o, are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each margin of the carpel. When the ovules are definite (i.e. are uniform, and can be counted), it is usual to find their attachment so constant as to afford good characters for classification. When the ovules are very numerous (indefinite), while at the same time the placenta is not much developed, their position exhibits great variation, some being directed upwards, others downwards, others transversely; and their form is altered by pressure into various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it frequently happens that some of the ovules are arrested in their development and become abortive.
When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes ready for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and the pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angio sperms or the summit of the nucellus in mnos erms P gY P it is detained there, and the viscid secretion from the glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the nucellus in the latter, induce the protrusion of the intine as a pollen-tube through the pores of the grain. The pollen-tube or tubes pass down the canal (fig. 112), through the conducting tissue of the style when present, and reach the interior of the ovary in angiosperms, and then pass to the micropyle of the ovule, one pollen-tube going to each ovule. Sometimes the micropyle lies close to the base of the style, and then the pollentube enters it at once, but frequently it has to pass some distance into the ovary, being guided in its direction by various contrivances, as hairs, grooves, &c. In gymnosperms the pollen-grain resting on the apex of the nucellus sends out its pollen-tubes, which at once penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113). In angiosperms when the pollentube reaches the micropyle it passes down into the canal, and this portion of it increases considerably in size. Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in contact with the tip of the embryo-sac and perforates it. The male cells in the end of the pollen-tube are then transmitted to the embryo-sac and fertilization is effected. Consequent upon this, after a longer or shorter period, those changes commence in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the embryo plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of nutriment for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization confined to the ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant. The ovary enlarges, and, with the seeds enclosed, constitutes the fruit, frequently incorporated with which are other parts of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c. In gymnosperms the pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down the tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are discussed in a separate article - FRUIT. (A. B. R.) |
By Jan Bowers, contributing writer, March 01, 2013
Every dermatologist sees bug bites. While many will be little more than an annoyance to the patient, others can have serious, even deadly, consequences. Some are difficult to identify; others are easy to diagnose but stubbornly resist treatment, or recur after successful treatment. “Dermatologists are interested in arthropods for three reasons,” said Dirk M. Elston, MD, managing director of the Ackerman Academy of Dermatopathology in New York City and deputy editor of the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, who takes office as president of the AAD this month. “One is the growing incidence of scabies and lice,” and their impact on patients. “Two, when we treat bites and stings, we may see the first indication of a serious underlying illness. A bizarre, extreme reaction to a mosquito bite, for example, can be a presenting sign of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. And finally, arthropods can be the vector for diseases. Some of those have skin manifestations, and dermatologists are the ones to diagnose them.” Arthropods include insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and millipedes.
International (and domestic) travel has reinvigorated infestations once thought to be on the wane. Bedbugs (Cimex lecturlarius), for example, were declining in the Americas after the introduction of DDT and pyrethrum insecticides in the 1940s, according to a Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology article on tropical dermatology (2012;67(3):331.e1-331.e14). A resurgence in the U.S. in recent years, robust enough to warrant national news coverage, is attributed to international travel, as well as resistance to current insecticides, abandonment of the most potent insecticides, and the ability of bedbugs to survive up to a year without food. [pagebreak]
“The infestations we see coming from other countries are mainly bedbugs, scabies, and lice,” said Jose Dario Martinez, MD, professor of internal medicine and dermatology at University Autonomous of Nuevo Leon Monterrey, Mexico. “Certainly you had these in the U.S. before international travel was common, but it is so easy to bring back bedbugs when you travel. Scabies is in crowded countries with poor hygiene, and bedbugs are all over the world. Head lice, too, are common all over the world. There are other things you can catch from international travel, but these are the three principal infestations.”
The uninvited guest
Bedbugs emerge from hiding at night to feast on human blood. Being notorious hitchhikers (they can’t fly), they also crawl into luggage and clothing that’s left on the floor and accompany the traveler to the next destination. International travelers are bringing new types of bedbugs to the U.S. to interbreed with their American cousins, Dr. Elston said. “But you don’t have to go to exotic places — you can go to New York or Orlando and bring them home in your suitcase.” Dr. Martinez recalled that bedbugs bit him several times on the leg in a New York City hotel room while he was attending a summer meeting of the AAD (he saved a photo of the bites as a souvenir of his trip). The JAAD article notes that while the presence of bedbugs has traditionally been associated with low standards of sanitation, bedbugs are “now reported in upscale’ homes and hotels” and tend to be found in overcrowded areas of towns and cities. While bedbug infestations have been reported throughout the U.S., Philadelphia now ranks as the nation’s most bedbug-infested city, according to pest control company Terminix (reported on Time.com’s NewsFeed). [pagebreak]
Bedbugs tend to bite exposed areas of the body such as an arm hanging out of the covers, Dr. Elston said. “You can also get them on the trunk, where they often appear three in a row — that’s sometimes referred to as breakfast, lunch, and dinner.’” Dermatologists are likely to recognize bedbug bites on the trunk, he noted, but they may not realize that a patient with hundreds of bites on the arm who has picked them is also a victim of bedbugs. “These cases can look like prurigo nodularis on the arm when in fact they represent bedbug bites,” he said. “The key to the diagnosis is doing a biopsy and seeing eosinophil, a wedge-shaped infiltrate, and endothelial swelling typical of a bite.”
Repellents are relatively ineffective against bedbugs, Dr. Elston said, so “choose your hotel wisely. An acidic smell in the room can indicate bedbugs. The mattress seams may be stained brown, which represents bloody feces. Eggs may appear as white specks, and the bugs themselves are reddish-brown and about the size of a small tick.” Bedbugs also lurk in offices and movie theaters, he added, so “when you put your purse on the floor, they can crawl in and come home with you.” While bedbugs are highly resistant to traditional insecticides (which, the JAAD authors note, are generally more harmful to humans than bedbug bites), Dr. Martinez said that some new insecticides are proving to be effective, including those in the pyrrole, neonicotinoid, and phenylbrazole groups. Four volunteers at Eastern Virginia Medical School are trying a different method — poisoning the food supply. The New York Times reports that, under the supervision of an emergency room physician, the researchers are taking oral ivermectin and inviting bedbugs to bite. Ivermectin is a common deworming drug sometimes deployed against treatment-resistant head lice (see sidebar) and scabies; while it is not curative, the researchers have found that after they took one dose of it, 60 percent of the bedbugs that bit them died. [pagebreak]
The seven-year itch
The tiny mite Sarcoptes scabiei doesn’t bite, but provokes intense pruritis by burrowing into the epidermis and depositing eggs, which mature in 21 days. “Scabies exists in epidemic proportions. Every dermatologist sees it, and we see it a lot,” Dr. Elston said. “It used to come in cycles of about seven years, but starting about 30 years ago, it stopped cycling and just stayed.” Travel is likely one factor underlying the spread of scabies, which shows no sign of abatement, Dr. Elston said.
Scabies spreads through skin-to-skin contact and via fomites like bedding and clothing, and is particularly common among children, Dr. Martinez said. “In children, scabies affects the head, palms, soles, and genital area. In adults, it’s mainly the umbilicus, hands, and genitals. The lesions look like papules with scales, but the identifying feature is the burrow made by the female.” Scabies do not pose a health threat to patients with healthy immune systems, but “some people are very allergic to these mites, and instead of 12 to 14 lesions, they develop eczema and itch like crazy.” Bacteria harbored under the nails can cause secondary infections when patients scratch scabies lesions, Dr. Martinez added.
First-line treatment for scabies is permethrin, Dr. Elston said, but off-label alternatives are available in cases of treatment failure. In addition to oral ivermectin, these include 10 percent sulfur in white petroleum jelly, “which is how much of the world still treats scabies. A recent study indicated that aloe jelly performs about as well as benzyl benzoate, another standard treatment used in many parts of the world.” While dermatologists are observing some resistance to permethrin, failure to use the medication properly may contribute to lack of efficacy. “Failure to treat areas like under the nails, where the mites are living, can result in treatment failure,” Dr. Elston said. “People scratch and mites and ova end up under the nails, and if you don’t clean out under the nails and apply the medication there, the infestation may recur. They also have to treat between the fingers and toes, in the belly button, and on the genitalia. They’re often nervous about putting the medication on their genitals, so you have to tell them that it’s an important place to treat.” [pagebreak]
If global travel plays only a supporting role in the spread of scabies and bedbugs, it’s solely responsible for bringing to the U.S. Chikungunya, a mosquito-borne viral infection, and certain forms of cutaneous leishmaniasis, spread by sand flies. “Chikungunya was an isolated African fever that made its way to islands in the Indian Ocean that served as vacation destinations for Europeans and Americans,” Dr. Elston said. “In the U.S., we have the vectors that can carry it [Asian tiger mosquitoes], so if someone comes back sick from a vacation, the disease can spread. It now has a wide distribution.”
Patients with Chikungunya present with fever, severe muscle and joint pain, headache, and a rash that tends to occur in acral sites such as the ear, Dr. Elston said. Because several diseases can cause headache, fever, and rash, he suggested that dermatologists consider the location of a patient who presents with these symptoms. “In the Eastern U.S., especially the Carolinas, you should think first of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Away from the East coast, it might be Ehrlichia. And then if they have rash on the ear and don’t have exposure to tick bites but do have mosquito bites, in Texas you think of dengue and in the southeast of the country you now think of things like Chikungunya.” According to a report from Cornell University, published on Cornell Chronicle Online, the Asian tiger mosquito is now established up the East coast through New Jersey, and its numbers are rising in New York City. A new Cornell computer model predicts that outbreaks of Chikungunya could occur in 2013 in New York City during August and September, in Atlanta June through September, and year-round in Miami. [pagebreak]
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), the most common form of leishmaniasis, can be caused by about 20 different species of Leishmania (a protozoan parasite spread by sand flies), according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Leishmaniasis naturally occurs in places like Texas, where it’s usually the mexicana variety,” Dr. Elston explained. “That will often heal on its own. But there are more aggressive types that are picked up in places like southwest Asia and South America. While soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan can show up with leishmaniasis, the more severe types, especially from certain portions of South America, can come back years later and cause very destructive lesions in the central face. If you picked it up in areas with mucocutaneous disease, you often need treatment with systemic medication to prevent that kind of highly destructive manifestation.” The CDC states that the geographic distribution of CL in the U.S. reflects travel and immigration patterns, and that more than 75 percent of the cases diagnosed in U.S. civilians have been acquired in Latin America, including Costa Rica.
The first lesion (which may be single or multiple) in localized CL is a papule which appears at the site of the sand fly bite, said Yahya Dowlati, MD, PhD, director of the Center for Research and Training in Skin Diseases and Leprosy at the Tehran University of Medical Sciences and president of the Iranian Society of Dermatology. “This lesion grows and converts into an ulcer which is covered by dry exudates, or the papules may turn into nodules instead.” The history of traveling to endemic areas is an important factor in the diagnosis of leishmaniasis in countries where the disease is not endemic, he said, adding that “a direct smear from the periphery of an active lesion is the most commonly performed method of diagnosis; when the Giemsa stain is used, the non-flagellated amastigote forms will be seen.” [pagebreak]
The treatment of CL is challenging, Dr. Dowlati noted, particularly for the diffuse and mucocutaneous forms of the disease. “Despite the existence of a large number of randomized controlled trials, the bottom line is that there is no high-level evidence available for the treatment of Old World [endemic in Afghanstan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Tunisia, Algeria and Syria] or New World [e.g., Brazil, Bolivia, Peru] CL.” Dr. Martinez said he is currently reviewing the use of oral miltefosine, and had success in treating one of his own leishmaniasis patients with multiple lesions. Dr. Elston said that once a dermatologist has determined where CL was acquired, “the CDC can be very helpful in providing guidelines for how a given site should be treated, and also putting a physician in touch with an expert to help.”
Dr. Martinez emphasizes the importance of asking patients about recent travel, “especially when they have a lesion that’s unusual for their area, because these infestations are a common cause of morbidity among international travelers.” For patients who come in before an international trip and inquire about vaccines, dermatologists should counsel prevention “because for these things, there are no vaccines — only use of appropriate clothes and repellents, and avoiding places where the bugs can bite you.” [pagebreak]
Treatment resistance in head lice
Head lice have been found on ancient Egyptian mummies, and it’s likely that humanity’s struggle to rid itself of Pediculus humanus capitis predates recorded history. The latest chapter in the ongoing saga involves the worldwide overuse of the topical insecticides permethrin and malathion, widely recommended as first-line treatment, with the result that lice in many areas are demonstrating resistance to these agents. Permethrin has an immobilizing effect on the louse, called “knockdown;” DNA sequencing has shown that “knockdown resistance” (kdr) to permethrin results from a genetic mutation, according to an editorial published in the New England Journal of Medicine about the use of topical ivermectin as an alternative treatment (2012;367(18):1750-2). The authors cite the frequency of “resistant kdr-like louse alleles” as ranging from zero in Thailand to 100 percent in California, Florida, and Texas.
A group of French researchers conducted a large-scale observational study to evaluate the occurrence of head lice resistance to pyrethroids (a group that includes permethrin) and malathion in the elementary schools of Paris. They collected live and uninjured lice and performed a series of ex vivo bioassays to test for sensitivity to malathion and to a formulation of permethrin and piperonyl butoxide. In addition, the researchers conducted molecular analysis on a portion of the lice to look for kdr mutations. Among the findings, published in JAAD (2012;67(6):1143-50): 98.7 percent of the tested lice had homozygous kdr mutations; 100 percent of the lice were dead after one hour of contact with malathion; and 85.7 percent of the lice exposed to the permethrin formulation were dead after one hour. The researchers concluded that formulations containing malathion can still be recommended as pediculicides for schoolchildren of Paris, and that in clinical practice, longer exposure times “could result in relatively good efficacy, even on resistant’ head lice.”
Dirk Elston, MD, maintained that although permethrin still works in some patients, the effect of kdr is that “it takes longer and longer exposures for it to work. And the longer the exposure, the more concerned you become about the use of the medication.” Citing epidemiological data suggesting a link between insecticide use and childhood leukemia, he noted that “it’s a statistical link, but it’s concerning, and many parents and physicians prefer to find alternatives that are safer.” These may include Ulesfia, which contains benzyl alcohol, and spinosad, a naturally derived insecticide “that can be a little irritating but also seems to be fairly effective. If it were my child, I would use Ulefsia because it’s completely free of any insecticides, and I personally don’t like the idea of using insecticides on children.”
Help your patients
When patients visit with questions about infestations, you can feel confident referring them online to learn more. Dermatology A-Z, located at www.aad.org/skin-conditions/dermatology-a-to-z, includes sections on bedbugs, lice, and scabies. Each section offers information about signs and symptoms; causes; diagnosis, treatment, and outcome; and prevention and management tips. |
BOOK: TONIGHT ON THE TITANIC (PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY)
Reviews vocabulary featured in Mary Pope Osborne's 17th Magic Tree House book; includes a "true/false" quiz and short writing prompts. Most of this lesson can be used without the book. Also on abcteach.com: crossword, word search, and word scramble.
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The early life of Jesus
About 2000 years ago a man named Jesus was born in the town of Bethlehem in the land of Israel. He was unique. He was fully God and yet fully human. God had allowed himself to be born as a man so that he could live and suffer among us, to serve as the perfect atonement for our sin, and to offer forgiveness and salvation to anyone who believes.
His birth, mission, death and resurrection were foretold by the prophets of the Old Testament of the Bible and revealed to us by the writers of the New Testament.
Jesus lived among his fellow Jews during a time when the boundaries of the Roman Empire included the land of Israel. He preached and performed miracles for three-and-a-half years until he was crucified by the Romans. He died on a wooden cross and was buried in a tomb.
But his life did not end in death. Jesus Christ was resurrected. And because he was perfect, he is able to open the doors to the Kingdom of God. And because he was sinless, he is able to forgive us our sins so that we too can be accepted into the Kingdom of God.
Jesus explains this in a passage of the Bible called John 3:16, when he said: "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life."
The following is an overview of the life and teachings of Jesus Christ.
The virgin Mary is told she'll give birth to Jesus
(see Luke 1:26-38; Matthew 1:18-25) Read online
The New Testament books of Matthew and Luke explain the virgin birth of Jesus. Mary was engaged to a man named Joseph but not yet married. The angel Gabriel appeared to Mary and announced that she would have a son who would be named Jesus and who would be called the Son of God. Here is the NIV translation of Luke 1:27-35:
In the sixth month, God sent the angel Gabriel to Nazareth, a town in Galilee, to a virgin pledged to be married to a man named Joseph, a descendant of David. The virgin's name was Mary. The angel went to her and said, "Greetings, you who are highly favored! The Lord is with you."
Mary was greatly troubled at his words and wondered what kind of greeting this might be. But the angel said to her, "Do not be afraid, Mary, you have found favor with God. You will be with child and give birth to a son, and you are to give him the name Jesus. He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High. The Lord God will give him the throne of his father David, and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever; his kingdom will never end."
"How will this be," Mary asked the angel, "since I am a virgin?"
The angel answered, "The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God. - Luke 1:27-35 (NIV).
Jesus is born in the town of Bethlehem
(see Luke 2:1-7) Read online
Shortly before Jesus was born, the Roman emperor Caesar Augustus decided that a census be taken throughout the Roman Empire, including the land of Israel. People were required to return to their ancestral homes for registration. For Joseph and Mary, that meant leaving Nazareth, which is a town in the northern district of Galilee, and traveling to Bethlehem, which is in the southern region called Judah or Judea.
After they arrived in Bethlehem, Mary was ready to give birth to Jesus. So Joseph and Mary went to a manger because they could not find other lodging. It was a manger, where animals are kept, that served as the humble place of birth for Jesus.
Bethlehem is an important city for Messianic prophecy. King David, who ruled over Israel about 1,000 years before the time of Jesus, was born in Bethlehem. And the prophet Micah, who lived about 700 years before Jesus, announced that Bethlehem would be the birthplace for the Messiah:
"But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." - Micah 5:2 (NIV translation).
Ephrathah is the ancient name for the town of Bethlehem in Judah.
Star of Bethlehem appears
(see Matthew 2:1-2) Read online
When Jesus was born, a star appeared over Bethlehem. Scholars today speculate whether the star was a meteor, a supernatural phenomenon, an alignment of celestial bodies, or a literal star. Many scholars believe that Jesus was born sometime around 4 BC to 8 BC. It is interesting to note that ancient Chinese astronomy records indicate that there was a star-like object hovering somewhere over the Middle East for several days in the year 5 BC, about 2000 years ago.
King Herod tries to kill the new-born King (Jesus)
(see Matthew 2:3-12) Read online
The Star of Bethlehem attracted visitors from the East. These visitors believed that the star marked the birth of a new king. Perhaps the visitors were familiar with the Bible's prophecies and understood that a Messiah King would be born in Israel and that he would have an impact on the entire world.
But, Israel already had a ruler, King Herod the Great. He was not a true king but had been appointed by the Romans to govern the Jews in the land of Israel. Herod was described by Josephus, a Jewish historian who ived during the first century, as a murderous man who ordered the deaths of many of his own family members. When Herod found out that the visitors were hoping to find and worship the newborn king, Herod ordered the deaths of every infant in Bethlehem, in the hopes of killing the king that the visitors spoke of.
The infant Jesus and his parents escape to Egypt
(see Matthew 2:13-15) Read online
An angel warned Joseph of Herod's plans to murder the young children of Bethlehem. So Joseph and Mary took the baby Jesus to Egypt and they lived there until Herod died.
In ancient times the people of Israel sometimes sought refuge in Egypt, including Jacob and his sons, who left the land of Israel during a time of famine. The Gospel of Matthew shows that many events in Jewish history are similar to events in the life of Jesus, reinforcing his role as the Messiah.
Jesus is taken back to Israel, to the town of Nazareth
(see Matthew 2:19-23) Read online
After the death of King Herod, Joseph, Mary and Jesus returned to the land of Israel. Joseph was afraid to return to Bethlehem because the town is near Jerusalem, where Herod Archelaus, the son of Herod, now reigned as king. So Joseph took his family to the northern district of Galilee, to a small town called Nazareth. This obscure town became the hometown of Jesus, where he grew up and became an adult.
Jesus as a young child visits the Lord's Temple
(see Luke 2:41-52) Read online
When Jesus was 12 years of age, he and his mother Mary and stepfather Joseph traveled to Jerusalem to celebrate the annual Feast of the Passover. When the feast had ended, Mary and Joseph became separated from Jesus and they searched for him. Jesus had gone to the Lord's Temple and conversed with the people there. The people were amazed by his depth of understanding and by his knowledge. When Mary found Jesus at the Temple, Jesus said to her: "Why were you searching for me?" he asked. "Didn't you know I had to be in my Father's house?" (Luke 2:49).
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is a virus that is transmitted to humans through mosquito bites.
Jungle yellow fever
is transmitted to humans through mosquitoes that have been infected by monkeys carrying the virus.
Urban yellow fever
is passed to mosquitoes from infected humans, and the mosquitoes continue to infect other humans by biting them. Yellow fever cannot be passed from human to human.
The yellow fever virus is found only in South America and sub-Saharan Africa. Jungle yellow fever is typically only passed to humans who work or travel in the rain forest. Yellow fever can only be contracted through a bite from a female mosquito.
Risk factors for getting yellow fever include traveling to an area where humans are already infected by the yellow fever virus or where there are contaminated monkeys or mosquitoes that can transmit the virus.
Symptoms for yellow fever include:
- High fever
- Chills and muscle aches
- Vomiting, sometimes vomiting blood
More serious complications include:
Symptoms typically begin 3-6 days after infection. Yellow fever is diagnosed with a blood test, but there is no course of treatment for the virus. Doctors usually recommend a long period of bed rest, along with plenty of fluids. Patients should also avoid places where mosquitoes are present to avoid spreading the disease to others.
Illness from yellow fever varies from a self-limited illness to hemorrhagic fever, which can be very severe and lead to death.
The vaccine is a weakened, live form of the yellow fever virus. The vaccine is created by growing the live virus in a lab. The preferred storage method is frozen vials. The vaccine is administered subcutaneously (beneath the skin).
The yellow fever vaccine is not usually given with other vaccines, but it may be given with the
hepatitis B vaccine.
The following individuals should get vaccinated:
- All individuals aged 9 months to 59 years who are traveling to or living in a place where yellow fever is present such as certain parts of South America and Africa
- People who work in labs and may be exposed to yellow fever
Travelers should be vaccinated at least 10 days before departure.
The vaccine lasts for 10 years. Every 10 years, a booster is required if you are at risk for contracting yellow fever.
Common minor side effects include:
- Soreness, swelling, or redness at the injection site
- Muscle aches
Rare, serious side effects include:
- Nervous system reaction
- Severe allergic reaction
- Organ failure
The vaccine should not be given to:
- Infants aged six months or younger—In rare cases when your 6-8 month-old baby must travel to high-risk areas, talk to the doctor about the vaccine.
- People over the age of 60 are at higher risk for serious complications. If you are traveling to an area of yellow fever risk, consult an infectious disease specialist to find out if vaccination is a good choice for you.
- Are severely allergic to eggs, chicken, or gelatin
Have a disease that weakens the immune system, such as
—If you are traveling to high-risk areas, talk to your doctor about the vaccine.
Are receiving treatments that weaken the immune system, such as
- Have problems with the thymus or have had their thymus removed
- Are pregnant (theoretical risk to the developing fetus)—Talk to your doctor about the risks and benefits of the vaccine if you are traveling to a high-risk area. If you are vaccinated, your doctor may use a blood test to confirm immunity.
- Are breastfeeding—If you are traveling to high-risk areas, talk to your doctor about the vaccine.
To decrease your chance of getting yellow fever, do the following:
- Use insect repellent.
- Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants.
- Stay in screened areas.
An outbreak of yellow fever in the United States is unlikely since the virus is not geographically present in this country. But in the event of an outbreak, uninfected people would be vaccinated and precautions would be taken to reduce transmission.
WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Vaccine Information Center website. Available at:
. Accessed February 4, 2007.
The Directors of Health Promotion and Education website. Available at:
. Accessed February 4, 2007.
Jentes ES, Poumerol G, Gershman MD, et al. The revised global yellow fever risk map and
recommendations for vaccination, 2010: consensus of the Informal WHO Working
Group on Geographic Risk for Yellow Fever.
Lancet Infect Dis.
Khromava AY, Eidex RB, Weld LH, et al. Yellow Fever Vaccine Safety Working Group. Yellow fever vaccine: an updated
assessment of advanced age as a risk factor for serious adverse events.
Vaccine. 2005 May 9;23(25):3256-63.
Staples JE, Gershman M, Fischer M. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC). Yellow fever vaccine: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on
Immunization Practices (ACIP).
MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010 Jul 30;59(RR-7):1-27.
Thomas RE, Lorenzetti DL, Spragins W, Jackson D, Williamson T. Active and
passive surveillance of yellow fever vaccine 17D or 17DD-associated serious adverse events: systematic review.
US Department of Health and Human Services, National Immunization Program website. Available at:
. Accessed March 3, 2008.
Yellow fever vaccine. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at:
. Updated February 2010. Accessed February 19, 2010.
Yellow fever vaccine: what you need to know. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at:
. Published March 30, 2012. Accessed February 24, 2012.
2/19/2010 DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance
: Transmission of yellow fever vaccine virus through breast-feeding—Brazil, 2009. Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2010;59(05):130.
Last reviewed June 2012 by Lawrence Frisch, MD, MPH
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © EBSCO Publishing. All rights reserved. |
Australian Bureau of Statistics
1362.1 - Regional Statistics, New South Wales, 2004
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 27/05/2004
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Where are the greenest households in New South Wales?
The Northern Beaches Statistical Region (SR) recycled 99% of household waste, compared to 95% for all New South Wales (NSW) households in March 2003, according to figures released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics today.
Northern Beaches SR also led the way in the re-use of household waste (98%), compared to any other region of the state (80% for all of NSW).
From Bourke to Bankstown and from Dubbo to Deniliquin, other highlights from Regional Statistics New South Wales include:
Further information is in Regional Statistics New South Wales 2004 (cat. no. 1362.1).
Media Note: This publication includes information on labour force status, educational attainment, crime, population, births, deaths, building statistics, hotels and motels and local council finances for different regions of NSW. It also features information on environmental issues, community preparedness for emergencies, and census data on dwelling structure and tenure type.
These documents will be presented in a new window.
This page last updated 8 December 2006 |
LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT
In Australia, each jurisdiction has its own laws and policies for responding to FDV, whilst the Australian Government takes a lead in developing national approaches to policy. More information on the policy context for FDV can be found in the Conceptual Framework for Family and Domestic Violence, Australia, 2009 (cat. no. 4529.0).
Most Australian Government FDV service delivery occurs through funding arrangements with states and territories, however reporting obligations mean that there are also a number of Australian Government level data sources. National data sources have been included where available from Australian Government agencies, such as those relating to FDV services provided in the Family Court context and the drawing together of state and territory information related to homelessness services and coronial inquests. In addition, national data sources based on surveys run by or on behalf of the Australian Government to inform FDV policy areas have been included.
At the state and territory level, governments are primarily responsible for crime prevention programs, law enforcement, issuing of family violence orders, prosecution of FDV perpetrators, behavioural change programs within Corrective Services, delivery of public health, disability and medical services and provision of child protection services and other specific FDV services. Each state and territory agency that provides FDV services is a potential source of data. Further information about FDV support and services delivered by each jurisdiction, including the Australian Government is outlined in the National Plan to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children.
This page last updated 28 March 2012 |
|Authors: ||S. Spiegel, R.R. Martin|
Determining the virological status of in vitro grown rosaceous plant material requires, in most cases, removing plantlets from test tubes and growing them out in a greenhouse to fully developed plants which are then indexed by grafting onto virus indicator plants.
Detection of strawberry mild yellow-edge disease (SMYE), among other virus diseases, in strawberry plantlets grown in vitro has followed this procedure.
This is a time-consuming process which causes delays in the release of plant material to breeders and/or growers.
Two approaches were made to detect virus directly in plantlets grown in vitro: a) Leaves were excised, under axenic conditions, from known infected plantlets and grafted onto greenhouse-grown Fragaria vesca indicators.
Following a protocol which resulted in high graft survival, indicators showed typical SMYE symptoms within 20–25 days. b) To detect the filamentous particles associated with SMYE in plantlets grown in vitro by immunosorbent electron microscopy.
Rod-shaped particles were trapped from homogenates of infected plantlets and not from healthy plants by the antiserum made against an expressed fusion protein.
This polypeptide consisted of the putative coat protein of the potexvirus associated with SMYE fused to glutathione transferase in the GEX-1 expression vector.
Blind tests performed with known-infected plantlets from five countries gave positive results consistently.
These results were later confirmed by grafting onto indicators.
It was also found that the concentration of particles in leaf homogenates was higher than in root homogenates.
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Medical Xpress (12.12.12)
Aids Weekly Plus
Researchers at the University of Southern California (USC) found a trigger that is used by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) to enter liver cells. They discovered that in the early stages of HCV infection, the virus binds to receptors on the surface of liver cells and activates PI3K and AKT, proteins that control cell growth and metabolism, and which allow HCV to enter the cells. According to James Ou, professor of molecular microbiology and immunology at USC’s Keck School of Medicine, when the two protein factors are activated, they initiate a group of reactions that alter the physiology of infected cells. Later, by continuing to disturb this pathway, HCV may sensitize the liver cells to become cancerous.
Ou has been studying HCV for 20 years and the hepatitis B virus for 30 years. He explained that the next step is to understand how activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway allows HCV to enter the cell. Ou also noted that the research has led to the identification of a novel target for developing new drugs to treat HCV in the form of compounds that disrupt the PI3K-AKT pathway. These anti-hepatitis drugs would be expected to prevent the virus from entering, and thus, cause the virus to disappear.
The study, “Transient Activation of the PI3K-AKT Pathway by Hepatitis C Virus to Enhance Viral Entry,” was published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry (2012;287(50): 41922–41930). |
Teaching Creativity to Children from a Galaxy Away Thursday, May 17, 2012
Encouraging "expansive thinking" opens children to creative possibilities, says a TAU researcher
Playing make-believe is more than a childhood pasttime. According to psychologists, it's also crucial to building creativity, giving a child the ability to consider alternative realities and perspectives. And this type of thinking is essential to future development, aiding interpersonal and problem-solving skills and the ability to invent new theories and concepts. That has been shown to be a component of future professional success in fields from the arts to the sciences and business.
But can creativity be taught? Prof. Nira Liberman ofTel Aviv University's School of Psychological Sciences, with her students Maayan Blumenfeld, Boaz Hameiri and Orli Polack, has demonstrated that children can be "primed" for creativity by how they are persuaded to think about and see the world around them. According to their study, one catalyst of creativity is "expansive" thought — encouraging children to think about distant objects and perspectives like the galaxies in the skies above, as opposed to local objects and perspectives in their immediate surroundings.
Thinking "outwards" rather than "inwards" allows children to consider different points of view and think beyond their "here and now" reality, says Prof. Liberman, whose research has been published in the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. She says that relatively simple exercises can get children in the right frame of mind.
Thinking from the inside out
Prof. Nira Liberman
For their study, the researchers worked with 55 children ages six to nine. Half were shown a series of photographs that started with nearby objects and gradually progressed to more distant ones — from a close-up of the pencil sitting on their desk progressing to a picture of the Milky Way galaxy. The other half was shown exactly the same photographs but in reverse order, to induce a "contractive" frame of mind.
After viewing the series of photographs, the children completed creativity tests, including the Tel Aviv Creativity Test (TACT), in which the participant is given an object and asked to name the different uses they can think of for it. Points are given for the number of uses mentioned and the creativity of the use. The children in the expansive mind-set group scored significantly better on all of the creativity measures, coming up with a greater number of uses and more creative uses for the objects.
Spatial distance, as opposed to spatial proximity, was clearly shown to enhance creative performance, says Prof. Liberman. Increased creativity was a direct result of priming the children in the first group to think expansively rather than contractively.
This study was the first to focus on child rather than adult creativity in this type of research. In the past, Prof. Liberman and her fellow researchers investigated how creativity in adults may be enhanced by encouraging them to consider the distant future and unlikely events. Overall, "psychological distance can help to foster creativity because it encourages us to think abstractly," says Prof. Liberman of her findings.
Flexing creative muscles
This study adds to recent research by social psychologists that shows creativity is a trainable skill, not only an innate talent. Though some people are undeniably more creative than others,there are benefits from "priming" your mind to think more creatively by investigating new perspectives and thinking abstractly.
"Creativity is basically about the flexibility of thought of your mental system," explains Prof. Liberman. Like the physical stretching that makes your body more flexible, mental exercises such as problem solving can train the mind to improve its creative thinking.
"The flexibility of your mental operations is important because it underlies many human qualities, such as empathy, self regulation, problem-solving, and the ability to make new discoveries," she adds.
For more psychology and psychiatry news from Tel Aviv University, click here. |
The East Ithaca Depot
The building AGAVA resides in was known as the East Ithaca Railroad Depot, built as part of Ezra’s investment in 1876. The Depot was a stop on the Utica, Ithaca & Elmira Railway Line. Ezra wanted a station as close to campus as possible to make travel to this remote campus easy on faculty, and students. The original location was down the street at the current Coal Café and Coal Apartments on Maple Avenue.
During the 1850s and 60s, railroads were booming in the United States. The Ithaca and Owego Railroad had opened in 1834, but it was more of a horse drawn trolley on wood planks than a steel rail locomotive line. It wasn’t until after the Civil War that Ezra Cornell used an estimated $2 million of his own fortune to put Ithaca on the railroad map. Ezra recognized that the railways would help not only secure future trade but also provide travel facilities for members of the University he was in the process of forming.
Today the only active line is a train that runs from Gang Mills yard (west of Corning) over the ex-Erie to Waverly line and then up the Ithaca & Athens line to Ithaca & Cayuga Lake. Cargill and NYSEG account for most of the car loads
Utica, Ithaca & Elmira Railroad. First Train out over Deep Gorge between Van Etten and Horseheads, November 11, 1873. Ezra Cornell, wearing top hat, has one foot on timber guard.
The History Center
Winton G Rossiter and John Marcham: “History of Railroads in Tompkins County” |
Biomass - A sustainable future
Biomass is renewable, low carbon, organic material such as wood and agricultural residues. With rising fossil fuel cots and growing environmental concerns, biomass is now one of the most popular fuels of choice for heat and power generation.
Today it is possible to co-fire with biomass and waste to energy biomass products in conventional heat and power stations. This is not the science of tomorrow, such fuels are the rational choice today in race to reduce CO2 emissions.
Here at AKATA BIO energy we promote the use of ‘waste to energy’ products such as forestry residues, wood waste, agriwaste, commercial and industrial waste and also household waste. Correctly managed biomass is a sustainable fuel that can deliver a significant reduction in net carbon emissions when compared to fossil fuels.
AKATA Bio Energy - we convert waste to a valuable energy resource. |
Food and Nutrition
In certain stages of life, defenses can be undermined. In these cases it is advisable restableces the proper functioning of the defense system in perfect condition taking vitamins like A, C and E and minerals, among which iron, zinc, selenium and copper.
As for the recommendation of a balanced diet, we provide all the nutrients the body needs, it also serves to ensure the proper functioning of the immune system.
Food intake should be adequate energy, if we eat more calories than your body needs will gain weight and can affect the immune system’s ability to fight infection.
The right thing is to limit the fat and replace less healthy, from red meat, bakery products, sausages, etc,. by others that they are, as the oily fish, nuts and olive oil. Read the rest of this entry »
Fat is the term used to encompass the room temperature solid fat (butter, margarine and shortening) or liquid such as oils. All are formed by the union of glycerol with three fatty acid molecules. These fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Animal fat has a high proportion of saturated fatty acids whereas vegetable oils contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (sunflower oil or soy) or monounsaturated (olive oil).
The fat produced in the combustion 9 kilocalories per gram and, therefore, have an important role as energy supply to the body. Some polyunsaturated acids are part of cell membranes and are necessary for the synthesis of substances that regulate inflammation and blood clotting. It is therefore considered essential fatty acids and should be part of the diet. Except for this small amount of essential fatty acids, fat is not strictly necessary, but is healthier diet with at least 30% fat and is also more palatable.
- It is recommended that fats contribute about 30% of calories from the diet. Read the rest of this entry »
Carbohydrates are foods formed by
* Simple sugars, or monosaccharides: glucose, fructose and galactose, or
* Sugars together in pairs to form disaccharides:
- Sucrose or table sugar, formed by the union of glucose and fructose or
- Lactose, formed by the union of glucose and galactose.
Simple sugars can be combined into more complex molecules, up to thousands of monosaccharide units to form other carbohydrates such as starch or glycogen and fiber such as cellulose, pectin and fructo-oligo-saccharides, etc..
Carbohydrates are found in plant foods. Fruits contain primarily monosaccharides, disaccharides, and fiber. The tubers, cereals and vegetables, starches and fiber. Foods of animal origin, except for milk which contains lactose, the liver and a small amount of molluscs, have no carbohydrates in appreciable amounts. Read the rest of this entry »
From a chemical standpoint, proteins are formed by the union of several molecules of twenty different amino acids. Nine of these twenty amino acids can form in the body and is necessary to take them with food proteins, are essential amino acids. Proteins are therefore essential in the diet.
The amino acids in proteins are required for the formation of all body organs and molecules that regulate the functioning of body, such as some hormones, and defend us from infections, such as antibodies. Each protein has an important role, and its lack causes an abnormality or disease. A diet without an adequate amount of proteins allows the development of growing animals and non-protein diet leads to death within months.
The proteins have a greater “biological quality” the more essential amino acids they contain, and thus can maintain the growth of animals with varying degrees of ease. If the protein is “high quality”, small amounts sufficient to maintain normal growth. As diminishes the quality of the protein require greater amounts to achieve the same effect. Read the rest of this entry »
What are nutrients?
Foods contain hundreds of different substances, some of which have an important role in nutrition, because they are used in functions such as:
- Produce the energy needed for muscle activity and chemical reactions that sustain life.
- Build the body, becoming part of its structure.
- Contribute to regulate metabolic functions.
These elements or substances known by the name of nutrients, and according to the daily needs of them are distinguished: Read the rest of this entry »
hypoglycemia, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, liver protector
Main Uses (leaves):
for diabetes and high blood sugar
as a tonic for the liver and liver problems
as an antimicrobial for kidney and bladder infections
as an antioxidant (especially the liver) Read the rest of this entry »
While the root of yacon is currently being marketed to diabetics and people on diet … no lowering effect on blood sugar has been published in humans or animals for tubers (leaves only). Because it contains a type of sugar is not metabolized (it is also much lower in calories), is certainly a substituent regular sugar sweetener for diabetics and dieters. Consumers should be aware that however, the yacon root will not help diabetics to reduce or maintain levels of blood sugar as some are trying to sell (and indeed the tuber does not contain glucose and fructose).
Today in local markets yacon root is considered a fruit and is sold with other fruits like pineapple or apples (not in so large and diverse section of potatoes from the market). The tubers have a wonderful sweet flavor improves when dried in the sun until the skin is wrinkled a bit. Read the rest of this entry »
The hypoglycemic action of the leaves of yacon has been demonstrated in laboratory studies with normal and diabetic rats by researchers in Argentina. A decoction of the leaves of yacon reported to produce a significant decrease in blood sugar levels in normal rats when administered by injection or orally.
In glucose tolerance tests, a single application of a decoction of the leaf, decreased levels of plasma glucose in normal rats. In contrast, a single oral application or injection of the decoction of the leaves of yacon had no effect on levels of plasma glucose in rats with diabetic condition induced in the laboratory.
However, the administration of a lower dose of leaf tea instead of water for 30 days produced a significant hypoglycaemic effect in rats with diabetes induced in laboratory condition. Read the rest of this entry »
The root or yacon tuber is a rich source (up to 67%) of fructooligosaccharides (FOS). These compounds help give the sweet potato flavor but most of these types of sugar are not easily digested or metabolized by humans. For this reason, Yacon shows much promise as a food for diabetics and as a base for low-calorie sweeteners. These oligofructanos have been classified recently as “prebiotics.”
Since they are not digested in the human gastrointestinal tract, they are transported to the colon where they are fermented by selected species of intestinal microflora (especially Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus) and helps balance the intestinal flora and aids digestion.
A laboratory study suggests that the prebiotic effect of yacon tuber extracts during the fermentation process increases the natural production of beta-glucans that act as a nonspecific immunostimulant. Read the rest of this entry » |
Science Fair Project Encyclopedia
Edict of Worms
The Edict of Worms was issued by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor on May 29, 1521 at Worms, at the end of the Diet of Worms. It contained a condemnation of Martin Luther and declared him to be an outlaw and a heretic for his opposition to the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. Among other things, this ruling permitted anyone to kill Luther without suffering legal consequence, and the property of Luther's followers and supporters could be seized by force. Luther was, however, charged to go along the passage across the Holy Roman Empire and thus returned to Wittenberg where he was protected by the Elector Friedrich until 1522 when he felt compelled to return from his exile there to defend his views in the context of the revolution they had caused.
The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details |
They are compounds formed by a metal and hydrogen, in which
the hydrogen has an oxidation number –1.
The hydrides of groups 1 and 2 are more ionic than
covalent. The hydrides of groups 13 and 14 are more covalent than ionic. But
they have the same name, except boron hydride which is named as H + nometal
In Formulae you have an exercise to write the names of these substances
and to check your results. You also have the answer to the exercise.
In Names you have an exercise to write the formulae for these substances
and to check your results. You have to introduce the formulae without
subscripts, for example for water = H2O. You also have the answer to the |
Save Water by Learning How Much Your Plants Really Need
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The following is an excerpt from Solar Gardening: Growing Vegetables Year-Round the American Intensive Way by Leandre Poisson and Gretchen Vogel Poisson. It has been adapted for the Web.
Mention watering, and the first thing we think of is how we can garden so that we don’t have to water. If a garden’s soil is rich with humus, the decomposing organic matter will absorb water like a sponge and hold in the moisture, making it available to growing plants. Mulching also makes for moist soil, because it prevents the evaporation of water from the ground’s surface. That’s why, in American Intensive Gardening, we grow plants close together to form a living mulch. Just like a miniature rainforest, the canopy of leaves shades the soil, keeping it cooler and reducing moisture loss through evaporation.
Recently we came across some old gardening notes that indicated that in 1978 we had had to water our garden for the first time in its nine-year history. In fact, until the past few years watering has never been a consistent part of our gardening activities. We might have watered seedbeds or seedlings, but we rarely found it necessary to provide additional water for growing plants. But our climate seems to have changed so much in recent years that we now begin watering in May and continue through the course of the summer. In addition, the lack of snow cover in our area over the past few winters has given us spring seasons with little surface moisture. This new need to water has helped us empathize with gardeners who live in arid regions of the country. We have learned, much to our dismay, just how time-consuming watering a garden can be.
Transplants and newly seeded areas most always require some watering. Growing plants need consistent moisture, no extremes of too-wet or too dry conditions. By observing your garden closely, it should be clear to you when you have to water. If leaves begin to wilt, if broccoli and cauliflower plants form buds while they are still immature, or if the soil feels and looks dry more than an inch below the surface, the garden wants either watering or a good soaking rain very soon.
Observing the weather can also provide important clues as to when you should water. In our area, if we receive anywhere from one-half to one inch of rain during the week, we generally don’t need to water. An un-mulched garden, though, or one that has a sandy, fast-draining subsoil might demand supplementary watering, even with adequate weekly rainfall.
Different gardeners will develop their own favorite systems for watering, based on the equipment available to them and how frequently they need to water to keep the subsurface soil moist. There are, however, some general guidelines for when and how to water. In humid areas of the country, the best time to water is early in the morning, to allow the surface soil to dry out during the day and discourage fungus problems. In arid regions evening watering is preferable to decrease the amount of evaporation. With soil whose structure is predominantly clay, water will take a long time to penetrate, so a slow-drip system of irrigation in this case is a good option. With sandy soils you can use a more rapid delivery system, though you still need to water more frequently than on clay soils.
We prefer delivering water to the surface of the soil rather than wetting the leaves of the plants. A powerful spray of water may disturb tender seedlings, and the sun can burn and damage wetted foliage. For irrigating our plants, we like to use the so-called soaker hoses made from recycled materials, which are available from most garden supply stores. We also own a few drip irrigation hoses. If we do water with a regular garden hose, we use a wand attachment and move it around the base of the plants. For applying solutions of liquid fish emulsion fertilizer or manure tea (see page 104 for our recipe), we recommend using a metal watering can and irrigating around the base of the plants. |
Background, definitions and scope
Ethics of dementia research
- What is research?
- Dementia and dementia research
- Ethical dementia research
- Researchers and the ethical conduct of research
Research is a general term which covers all kinds of studies designed to find responses to questions by means of a systematic and scientific approach. It generally involves the use of predefined methods or procedures which are clearly documented, thereby making it possible for other people to understand exactly what the researchers did to arrive at their conclusions. In this way, the results and conclusions can be assessed and analysed in terms of relevance and accuracy, bearing in mind any limitations or factors which the researchers may have highlighted.
Simply asking for somebody’s opinion about a particular issue or asking them to indicate their preferences is not research as it lacks the systematic and scientific approach described above. Also, as will described later in the report, people who participate in research must have been provided with detailed information about the study and, on the basis of that information, have consented to taking part (please see section 4 on informed consent).
Different types of research
There are numerous types of research but a distinction is often made between medical research and social science research (particularly psycho-social research). Examples of medical research might, for example, include animal experimentation, genetic research and clinical trials of new medicinal products. Such research tends to draw mainly on the “natural sciences” such as biochemistry, physics and biology. Figure 1 below provides an example of different types of medical research.
Figure 1: Different types of medical research (main source: Röhrig et al., 2009)
Social science research, on the other hand, covers studies which focus on some aspect of society. It generally involves exploring, verifying or conceptualizing a particular social phenomenon or aspect of human life or behaviour. It has its roots in several fields of scholarship outside of the natural sciences. Figure 2 shows some of the main social science disciplines.
Figure 2: The main social science disciplines
Whilst some studies are clearly medical or social science research, the distinctions are sometimes blurred as researchers increasingly recognise the benefits of multi-disciplinary research. For example, medical researchers may want to explore psychological responses to various treatments and therefore adopt methods more typically associated with social science research (more information about different methods can be found in sub-section 2.1.3). It is therefore important to realise that there are, broadly speaking, two types of research but that there may be some overlap. Also, as researchers come from very different scholarly fields, they may approach research from different angles and have different perspectives of research.
World views guiding research
Researchers have different world views or belief systems which guide them in their research, influencing the decisions they make about how to conduct their studies, what counts as valid knowledge, what is the right way to obtain that knowledge, how it should be analysed (e.g. using quantitative or qualitative-based methods), and what their own role is in the process (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998).
The various approaches to research are sometimes called research paradigms. The most common are perhaps positivism and interpretivism, which are generally associated with quantitative or qualitative methods of data collection and analysis, respectively (Snape and Spencer, 2003). In the past, there was considerable debate about which approach was “right” and some people argued that the two approaches were incompatible. For many years, the positivist paradigm was dominant and there was a tendency to judge the quality of research on the basis of whether it respected criteria applicable to the positivist tradition such as the researcher not having any influence on the data collected and whether the findings could be reproduced if the exact same procedure was carried out.
Nowadays, it is generally accepted that both approaches are valid and have their advantages and disadvantages. Principles of scientific integrity and procedure apply to research guided by both paradigms and include issues such as honesty, transparency about the procedure and a systematic approach to data collection and analysis, as well as avoiding misconduct such as the falsification or misrepresentation of findings, plagiarism and undeclared possible conflicts of interests (Aita and Richer, 2005).
Consequently, there is a third paradigm, that of pragmatism, in which the method used is that which appears to be suited to the research problem without getting caught up in philosophical debates about which is the best approach (Patton, 1990). Pragmatic researchers grant themselves the freedom to use any of the methods, techniques and procedures typically associated with quantitative or qualitative research. They recognise that every method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be complementary. Other researchers may adhere rather rigidly to methods associated with a specific research paradigm.
Qualitative and quantitative research methods
Qualitative studies concentrate mainly on words and meanings and aim to capture the richness and complexity of human experience, whereas quantitative studies involve recording or converting information obtained from participants in numerical form so as to enable statistical analysis of the findings and the generalisation of those findings to the wider population.
In quantitative studies, particularly those involving the development of medication or the use of experiments or large-scale surveys, one of the aims is to be able to generalize the findings (i.e. to infer that the findings can, to a high degree of probability, be considered as applying to a much wider group of people than those involved in the actual study). In other words, conclusions may be drawn about preferences, attitudes or the effects of a particular drug on people with dementia based on the information obtained from the group of people who participated in the study. This might range from a couple of hundred to over a thousand people depending on the type of study. Hypotheses are formulated (i.e. precise, carefully worded questions, which state a predicted outcome as well as the possibility that the outcome might not occur). By means of statistical analysis of the findings, the researchers determine with what degree of certainty they can claim that the findings could not be due to chance. Such studies are often referred to as quantitative studies.
Qualitative studies, on the other hand, generally involve recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and experience, including contradictory beliefs, ambiguities, behaviours and emotions. Researchers carrying out such studies are interested in gaining an in-depth understanding of people’s experience and not in obtaining information which can be generalized to other larger groups. They usually clearly identify a problem or topic that they want to explore, may be guided by a theoretical lens (a kind of overarching theory which provides a framework for their investigation) and formulate research questions. The approach to data collection and analysis is methodical but allows for greater flexibility than in quantitative research. Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and interaction with the participants e.g. through participant observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups. It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analysed.
Dementia is an umbrella term used to describe conditions which cause brain cells to die and lead to the gradual and progressive deterioration of memory as well as to changes in mood and personality. The gradual and progressive deterioration of cognitive functions, which is characteristic of dementia, such as memory, reasoning and planning, affects people’s capacity to carry out various activities such as getting washed and dressed, finding their way around, preparing meals and handling money etc. (Graham and Warner, 2009; Alzheimer Europe, 2011). The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer’s but there are numerous other types. Vascular dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies, for example, are also quite common and some people may have a combination of different types of dementia.
It is important to note that a person who has been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) also has dementia (because AD is a type of dementia). On the other hand, a person who has been diagnosed with dementia does not necessarily have AD because they may have a different type of dementia. However, the whole issue of the medical labels applied to people with dementia is likely to change soon as there have been proposals to replace the term “dementia” with the term “major neurocognitive disorder” in the forthcoming DSM-V (the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association). It is further proposed to label different types of dementia as being conditions associated with neurocognitive disorder (e.g. major neurocognitive disorder associated with vascular disease or mild neurocognitive disorder associated with Alzheimer’s disease) (American Psychiatric Association 2010).
Not all difficulties experienced by people with dementia can be attributed to the death of brain cells. According to the disability model, many of the problems faced by people with disabilities (including people with dementia) are due to the rather rigid and inflexible way that society is organised, which creates “excess disability”. Excess disability is defined by Brody et al. (1971) as "The discrepancy which exists when the individual’s functional incapacity is greater than that warranted by the actual impairment. In short, it denotes a gap between actual function and judged potential function” (pp. 125-126, in Werezak). Similarly, Kitwood (1993), whilst not denying the medical aspects of dementia, drew attention to a range of factors which might affect the progression of dementia including psycho-social factors.
Dementia research could be defined as any kind of research aimed at increasing the understanding of the disease biology and of disease prevention or improving the treatment, care, well-being and quality of life of people with dementia either directly or indirectly. This might include research into the condition itself, into the experience of having dementia or into care and treatment. People participating in dementia research (hereafter referred to as “participants”) are usually people with dementia, informal carers or professional carers but in some cases could be people without dementia and other specific groups. For example, researchers might be interested in learning about the attitudes, knowledge or fears about dementia of the general public or student nurses.
Determining what is ethical
Research should have scientific validity in the sense that it should be methodologically rigorous. It should have value in that it should be expected to result in health or knowledge advancement and it should involve minimum risk and have been independently reviewed (Emanuel et al., 2000). These are ethical concerns which apply to the whole research process from the initial choice of a research topic right up to the publication of results and the provision of feedback to participants, and will be addressed in more detail in various sections of this report. Ethical research must be based on morally sound principles and not on expediency (i.e. what is best for the researcher, sponsors or the government). The main focus of this document is on ethical issues in dementia research. By this, we do not mean dementia research carried out by ethicists but rather all kinds of research into dementia (e.g. medical, psychosocial, the development of assistive technology etc.), which is carried out in an ethically acceptable manner.
Different ethical models
There are different ways of determining whether a particular act is ethical (i.e. if it is morally acceptable to do it). This involves reflection about which actions are morally “right” and “wrong”, bearing in mind that good motivations may lead to wrong actions and that bad motivations do not rule out actions which are considered right. Dilemmas may occur whereby it is necessary to decide on a particular course of action rather than another and in so doing to give greater weight to certain moral concerns at the expense of others.
Some approaches to ethics focus on the outcome. This might involve judging whether the consequences of the act are good or bad (Noble-Adams, 1999) or what the best outcome would be for the greatest number of people (Peach, 1995 in Aita and Richer, 2005). In the utilitarian approach, for example, which was formulated by Bentham and Mill in the 19 th century, actions are considered as right if they are likely to promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Actions likely to result in the opposite would be considered as “wrong”. Evaluations of the various outcomes tend to focus on pain and pleasure. However, as pointed out by Petrini (2011), this approach only considers the amount of good and not the way in which it is distributed.
Furthermore, there may be more than one issue at stake and it would be difficult to measure maximum happiness. Maximising happiness may even conflict with other values such as justice, fairness, solidarity and honesty. In addition, there are a lot of different actors directly or indirectly involved in or affected by research such as health and social care providers, pharmaceutical companies, shareholders, people in search of a cure or better treatment, researchers and academics, insurance companies and future generations. This means that there a lot of different interpretations as to the value of different outcomes as well as different motivations driving action and different opinions about the importance of particular ethical principles.
Other theorists consider whether the nature of an act is right or wrong irrespective of the consequences because something is believed to be good if it is consistent with moral rules and principles. This is often described as a deontological theory and a classic example is Kant’s theory. He stated that as man is a moral agent, he is responsible for his actions. They are intrinsically right or wrong. Critics argue that the consequences of actions should not be ignored (Petrini, 2011).
Some people believe that ethical principles are universal (ethical universalism) whereas others take the view that such principles are related to a specific culture or individual choice (ethical relativism) and hence not generalizable to people with different cultural beliefs (Pojman, 2002). The latter has also been referred to as communitarian ethics which maintains that moral thinking has its origins in the historical traditions of particular communities and that consequently, it is a cultural rather than abstract concept in that communities share values, customs, institutions and interests (Petrini, 2011). Aita and Richer (2005) suggest that this approach is particularly important in the case of multi-site studies and healthcare research involving multidisciplinary collaboration. However, even research at a single site may involve people from different cultural backgrounds and both researchers and participants with diverse ethical perspectives. On the other hand, an over-emphasis on communitarian ethics might result in a “tyranny of the majority” in which the majority defines what is beneficial, morally right or “a good life”, which may result in an unfair outcome for some groups of people (Petrini, 2011).
Contrary to approaches which focus on the majority or the community, “personalism” strives to achieve common good by promoting and enhancing the good of the individual guided by values such as respect for life, sociality and solidarity, and responsibility (Petrini, 2011).
Applying various ethical models to specific issues
In our previous work on the ethical issues linked to the use of assistive technology (AT) by and for people with dementia, Alzheimer Europe decided against developing a hierarchy of ethical principles or basing decisions solely on outcomes or motives. We opted for an approach to making decisions about the ethical use of AT based on a careful consideration of specific aspects of each decision needing to be made (set in a particular moment in time and place, involving a range of actors and relationships, and people with different needs, wishes and interests) but with an emphasis on the well-being of the person with dementia. This inevitably involves a consideration of principles, motives and outcomes and ensuring that we do not lose sight of individuals with dementia.
In the case of the ethics of research, there are different issues at stake. There is a need to reflect simultaneously on the well-being and happiness of the individual research participant as well as on that of the wider social group and future generations who stand to benefit from the research. The fact that many people participate in research with the aim of helping others does not lessen the need to protect their wellbeing and promote their happiness.
Some of the ethical models mentioned above might seem fairly contradictory and one might wonder how a working group made up of people from different professional and personal backgrounds and with different perspectives about dementia, research and ethics could come to any kind of consensus. However, a pragmatic approach to the topic of dementia research and a common concern about the wellbeing of participants in such research makes this possible.
According to Petrini (2011), pragmatic and utilitarian approaches are quite common nowadays. However, when faced with practical problems, it is possible to adopt a case-by-case approach, find common ground and reach a consensus. The core value is the individual and personalism (described in the previous sub-section) is the best approach to face ethical problems.
Definition of actor = one who does something or who takes part in any affair.
“man” should be understood as meaning human beings (i.e. men and women). The term is used here simply to reflect the language usage at the time the statement was made.
In the case of research, we also need to consider the researchers themselves. Researchers come from a wide range of backgrounds and despite their common interest in research have a wide range of personalities and characters. They are not ethical or unethicalper sebut may conduct research ethically or unethically. Certain personality traits, such as integrity, trustworthiness and honesty, may increase the likelihood of researchers conducting ethical research but sometimes unethical conduct may be linked to lack of knowledge or awareness.
Beauchamp and Childress (2001) considered the relevance and desirability of five virtues for health professionals. These included compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity and conscientiousness. They also considered the ethics of care which focuses on relationships involving care, responsibility, trust, fidelity and sensitivity with particular reference to the doctor-patient relationship. In some forms of research, researchers strive to maintain a certain distance from participants in order to minimise the possibility of influencing the kind of data collected whereas others approach data collection more from the perspective of a collaborative act involving the social (re)construction of meaning. Either way and even in the absence of a relationship based on the provision of care, researchers have responsibilities towards participants and should be trustworthy and sensitive to their needs.
Last Updated: jeudi 29 mars 2012 |
Opinion 2.071 - Subject Selection for Clinical Trials
Ethical considerations in clinical research have traditionally focused on protecting research subjects. These protections may be especially important for those from socioeconomically disadvantaged populations who may be more vulnerable to coercive pressures. The benefits from altruism that result from participation in research, particularly for severely chronically ill persons, may justify equitable consideration of historically disadvantaged populations such as the poor. With these considerations in mind, the following guidelines are offered:
(1) Although the burdens of research should not fall disproportionately on socioeconomically disadvantaged populations, neither should such populations be categorically excluded, or discouraged, from research protocols.
(2) Inclusion and exclusion criteria for a clinical study should be based on sound scientific principles. Conversely, participants in a clinical trial should be drawn from the qualifying population in the general geographic area of the trial without regard to race, ethnicity, economic status, or gender.
If a subject’s primary care physician determines that the subject received a clear medical benefit from the experimental intervention which is now moving towards marketing approval and chooses to seek authorization from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for continued use of the investigational therapy during the time period between the end of the protocol and the availability of the drug on the market, the investigator should work with the primary care physician, the product sponsor, and the FDA to allow continued availability of the product. (I, V, VII) |
Haikonen envisions autonomous robots that perceive and understand the world directly, acting in it in a natural human–like way without the need of programs and numerical representation of information. By developing higher–level cognitive functions through the power of artificial associative neuron architectures, the author approaches the issues of machine consciousness. Robot Brains expertly outlines a complete system approach to cognitive machines, offering practical design guidelines for the creation of non–numeric autonomous creative machines. It details topics such as component parts and realization principles, so that different pieces may be implemented in hardware or software. Real–world examples for designers and researchers are provided, including circuit and systems examples that few books on this topic give. In novel technical and practical detail, this book also considers: the limitations and remedies of traditional neural associators in creating true machine cognition; basic circuit assemblies cognitive neural architectures; how motors can be interfaced with the associative neural system in order for fluent motion to be achieved without numeric computations; memorization, imagination, planning and reasoning in the machine; the concept of machine emotions for motivation and value systems; an approach towards the use and understanding of natural language in robots. The methods presented in this book have important implications for computer vision, signal processing, speech recognition and other information technology fields. Systematic and thoroughly logical, it will appeal to practising engineers involved in the development and design of robots and cognitive machines, also researchers in Artificial Intelligence. Postgraduate students in computational neuroscience and robotics, and neuromorphic engineers will find it an exciting source of information. |
- Historic Sites
Private Flohr’s America
From Newport to Yorktown and the battle that won the war: A German foot soldier who fought for American independence tells all about it in a newly discovered memoir
December 1992 | Volume 43, Issue 8
“EwrĠe Pöbels in the Nord america bin the werĠe fein Leyds,” wrote Georg Daniel Flohr, composing in very broken English a preface to his memoir of his time as a soldier in the American Revolution. “All the people of North America are fine people.” Sometime in the summer of 1788, in Strasbourg, France, Georg Flohr put down his pen, having completed about 250 pages of script in his native German (except for the English prologue) and some thirty extraordinary illustrations. He titled his volume Account of the Travels in America Which Were Made by the Honorable Regiment of Zweibrücken on Water and on Land from the Year 1780 to 1784 .
He described the treatment of slaves as “against human nature” and Indians’ dancing as “wondrous.”
It lay forgotten in a city library for nearly a century before being rediscovered as the only known account of events in America by an enlisted man in the great army of the Comte de Rochambeau and certainly one of the most vivid accounts of the war by anyone. Flohr viewed life in the Colonies through the eyes of a common soldier, and he remarked on racial diversity, the scene in Boston and Newport, the rural countryside, slaveowning, Iroquois he encountered, American women, and his eyewitness view of the storming of Redoubt 9 at Yorktown, the culminating military moment of the war.
Flohr was born in 1756, the son of a butcher and small farmer in a tiny German village named Sarnstall, near the French border. Nothing is known about his childhood; he was nineteen when he joined the Royal-Deux-Ponts, a German regiment in the service of France formed near his home (Deux-Ponts was French for the German city and principality of Zweibrücken). The regiment’s records describe him as five foot eight, with black hair and black eyes. Unlike most diary-keeping soldiers, Flohr did not interest himself in everyday life in camp; rather he focused on his unique experiences, beginning with the transatlantic crossing in the summer of 1780, a harrowing experience for a landsman.
The journey, he wrote, made plain the “omnipotence of God.” Life on board ship was marked by frequent deaths, boredom, strong language, “godless life,” and spates of feverish prayer during the frequent storms. Flying fish and the sighting of whales, as well as a naval engagement with the British during the trip, brought Flohr only temporary diversion from the onset of scurvy and his pain at watching “how daily our brothers were thrown into the depths of the ocean. Yet nobody was surprised since the food was bad enough to destroy us all.” By the time the regiment reached Newport, Rhode Island, after seventy-two days at sea, “two to three hundred men were sick on every ship, and half of them could not walk anymore.”
How did Flohr feel after this torturous trip about the cause he would fight and possibly die for? He never says, and he probably never gave it much thought. He knew enough to describe Boston as “where the rebellion first started” and an Englishman as “a Tory, meaning a good Englishman, who ran away when the rebellion started,” but he portrayed the role of French troops as simply to protect Americans against the English inclination to “wreak havoc on the country.” War was an accepted part of life in the eighteenth century, a profession, and a soldier like Flohr would expect to go wherever the winds of war might take him.
Once encamped in Newport, Flohr started to look around the countryside. He was impressed by the friendliness of the people, a sentiment not echoed by officers like Count William von Forbach, a brother of the regimental commander, who felt that he had “not met with that reception on landing, which we expected and which we ought to have had.” Flohr discovered that the rank and file “were especially liked by the girls, since we were Germans, and they hold the German nation in very great esteem.” The freedoms enjoyed by young Americans, particularly their custom of bundling, surprised him: “Once they are sixteen years old, their father and mother must not forbid them anything anymore, cannot give them any orders on anything anymore, and if they have a lover he can freely go with them.” Furthermore, no one “may hit them under pain of great punishment.”
He found the citizenry handsome: “You also do not see any difference in their clothing between Sunday clothes and workday clothes. [The women] are always dressed like noblewomen, and even for only half an hour’s journey they always ride on horseback or in a carriage. The women ride as well as the men. They also are the prettiest among all foreign nations, but they are not haughty and talk to anyone, rich or poor.” |
Measuring one of the world's largest glaciers
Over two Antarctic summer seasons British Antarctic Survey (BAS) mounted an ambitious and challenging deep-field science campaign to one of the most remote places on Earth. -. For three months of each of the 2007 and 2008 austral summers three scientists and two field assistants camped in orange pyramid tents surviving on dried food and working in temperatures between –33 and +2°C. The nearest base was the BAS Rothera Research Station on the Antarctic Peninsula, some 800 miles away.
The quest for glaciologists Robert Bingham, Julian Scott and Andy Smith was to determine what’s causing one of the world’s biggest glaciers to speed up, and how Pine Island Glacier, on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, will contribute to sea level rise. This is their story.
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ARCTIC TRADITIONAL STORIES
Nanogak, Agnes (Inuit); Nanogak, Agnes, illus. More Tales from the Igloo. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Hurtig Publishers Ltd.; 1986. 116 pages. (upper elementary/secondary) *.
These stories are grouped into three sections: tales of birds and beasts, in which animals act like humans; tales of adventure, describing actions of epic heroes; and tales of sorrow and revenge, which illustrate the consequences of bad behavior and violent actions that go unpunished. The foreword gives information on Inuit life and the nature of Inuit stories and storytelling.
Baylor, Byrd; Ingram, Jerry (Choctaw), illus. They Put on Masks. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons; 1974. 47 pages. (lower elementary).
This book beautifully describes the forms and functions of masks among the Eskimo, Northwest Coast tribes, Iroquois, Navajo, Apache, Hopi, Zuni, and Yaqui. The book evokes the powerful feelings associated with masks and provides much descriptive information. It is important to note that many American Indians find depicting masks and using them for classroom activities offensive.
Boiteau, Denise; Stansfield, David. Early Peoples: A History of Canada. Markham, Ontario, Canada: Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd.; 1988. 64 pages. (upper elementary) *.
Based on the first three programs of the Canadian television series, "Origins," which explores the history of the peoples of Canada up to 1885, the book is divided into three chapters: "A New World," "The First Nations," and "Lost Civilizations." Each chapter includes several units that begin with questions to consider and end with creative research activities and discussion questions. This book clearly explains the differences between evolution and creation, and asserts that these theories do not oppose one another.
Brown, Vinson. Native Americans of the Pacific Coast. Published as Peoples of the Sea by MacMillan (1977 ed.). Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers; 1985. 272 pages. (secondary)
The book describes lifeways (social organization, economy, religion) of selected tribes from the four culture areas along the Pacific Coast (Arctic, Subarctic, Northwest Coast, and California) during the period 1500--1700. Nine of the eighteen descriptions are followed by fictional stories intended to illustrate the spirit and essence of the people. The author runs a risk inherent in fictionalizing past societies---that of attributing thoughts and actions to the characters that may be alien or unlikely for people in that society. In one story, a young Kwakuitl girl questions the violence of one of her tribe's rituals. This pairing of fictional opinion with fact might lead the reader to feel that all aspects of the story are culturally accurate. Unfortunately, this combination of lists of facts with fictional stories fails to coalesce into a comprehensible introduction to the many cultures described. Lengthy appendices list Pacific Coast languages, material culture, and religious and social elements of each group. Includes a useful bibliography.
Jones, Jayne Clark. The American Indian in America. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications Company; 1973; Vol. I. 104 pages. (The In America Series). (secondary).
This is a comprehensive overview of the history and lifeways of the American Indian from pre-Contact to the late 1800s. A detailed introduction explains the term "prehistory" and what is known of paleo-Indians from research and archaeological findings on the North American continent. Subsequent sections describe subsistence areas, including the Arctic, the Northwest Coast, and the Great Plains. The book's final section describes conflicts between Indians and white settlers during the colonial period. Illustrated with black-and-white photographs, drawings, and maps. Includes index and additional information on tribes and language families.
Lund, Annabel; Kelley, Mark, photog. Heartbeat: World Eskimo Indian Olympics. Juneau, AK: Fairweather Press; 1986. 120 pages. (secondary) *
The World Eskimo Indian Olympics (WEIO) are competitions and demonstrations of Alaska Native music, dances, and games that have been held annually for over thirty years. In this unique festival, six Alaska Native groups are represented as they demonstrate and compete in traditional activities such as seal skinning, the blanket toss, the high kick, kayak races, and dances. This book documents the 1985 games---focuses on many individuals involved in organizing and participating in the games---and includes descriptions of each of the sporting events and dances. Much information on contemporary Alaska Indians and Eskimos is included in descriptions of people and places involved. The many black-and-white photographs of participants evoke the atmosphere of the games.
Morgan, Lael ed.; Morgan, Lael, photog. Alaska's Native People. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Geographic Society; 1979. 302 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
This lavishly illustrated book from the Alaska Geographic Society "attempts to explain, in a few words, a few maps, and a lot of pictures, just who and where are the many vastly differing 'Native peoples' of Alaska." Organized into sections on the Inupiat; the Yup'ik; the Aleut; the Koniag, Chugach, and Eyak; the Athabascan; the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian, the book also includes a section on urban Natives. The book gives useful background information and encourages the reader to seek more information on contemporary Alaskan Natives. Beautifully illustrated with many full-page color photographs of the Alaskan land and people, giving a good sense of contemporary life in the Arctic. Includes Important Dates in Native History, a separate wall map on "Alaska's Native Peoples, and an extensive bibliography.
Shemie, Bonnie; Shemie, Bonnie, illus. Houses of Snow, Skin and Bone: Native Dwellings of the Far North. Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books; 1989. 24 pages. (elementary/secondary) *.
This is a well-researched description of arctic dwellings made of snow (igloos), whalebone, skin, and sod, with step-by-step diagrams of their construction. An introductory note on climate and ecology indicates the types of material available. The book explains the ingenuity of these shelters and their biodegradability, with a brief mention of the types of housing in use today and the problems of pollution. Includes a list of sources.
Watson, Jane Werner; Howell, Troy, illus. The First Americans: Tribes of North America. New York, NY: Pantheon Books; 1980. 42 pages. (I Am Reading Book). (lower elementary).
This brief overview describes the lifeways of the people who lived in the Eastern Woodlands, Plains, Arctic, Northwest Coast, and Southwest. In an effort to cover so many different culture areas, the author oversimplifies, and delineations between culture areas are often unclear. Descriptions of male activities predominate. Includes black-and-white illustrations.
Younkin, Paula. Indians of the Arctic and Subarctic. New York: Facts on File; 1991. 96 pages. (The First Americans). (upper elementary).
This book describes Native cultures from the Arctic and Subarctic regions. Illustrated with maps, drawings, and large colorful photographs, it covers such topics as history, ritual and religion, traditional stories, hunting and fishing, family life, travel, the role of women, music and poetry, and art. A section on modern life describes how old and new lifeways coexist, and how Arctic and Subarctic cultures continue to thrive. Includes an index.
Yue, Charlotte; Yue, David. The Igloo. Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin; 1988. 107 pages. (elementary/secondary).
The title of this volume is somewhat misleading since it provides information not only on igloos but also on the arctic environment, traditional Eskimo clothing, food, games, transportation, family, and community life. The final chapter, "Eskimo Today," notes the changes that have contributed to some erosion of traditional Native values and have introduced a lifestyle and products less suited to the rigors of the arctic environment. The information is well-researched and well-presented, with excellent diagrams showing the construction of houses and boats. Material culture is illustrated with black-and-white drawings.
Parsons, Elsie Clews (ed); La Farge, C. Grant, illus. North American Indian Life, Customs and Traditions of 23 Tribes. Reprint of B.W. Huebsch Inc. 1922 ed. New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc.; 1992. 419 pages. (secondary).
Reprinted from the original 1922 edition, this book includes twenty-seven fictional narratives, written by anthropologists, about various North and Central American Indian cultures. The editor attempts to provide a more realistic view of American Indians than was currently available from popular literature; the resulting collection is uneven. Most of the stories present the culture from the inside; two that are drawn directly from American Indian sources are particularly successful. Others may leave the reader more confused than informed. Some of the attitudes and concepts are outmoded. The introduction, by A.L. Kroeber, refers to the cultures described in this collection as representing "a ladder of culture development...in...order of advancement," and speaks of an anthropologist and "his Indians." Notes on the various tribes give 1922 statistics, and accompanying bibliographies have not been updated.
ESKIMO (SEE INUIT)
INUIT (in Alaska the preferred term is Eskimo; in Canada, Inuit)
French, Alice (Inuit). The Restless Nomad. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: Pemmican Publications, Inc.; 1991. 182 pages. (secondary) *.
This autobiography presents the life of Alice French (Masak), whose family lives in the Mackenzie Delta district of arctic Canada. The story begins when Alice's father, a trapper, picks her up from boarding school, where she had been taken after her mother contracted tuberculosis. Alice faces many new challenges returning to her family's traditional life, including learning her Native language (Inupeak) and customs. She describes daily life, her family's seasonal moves, and her two marriages, the last to a native of Ireland, where she and her children eventually go to live. Alice's story reveals the challenges faced by Native people of the arctic, who adapt to a rapidly changing environment.
Green, Paul aided by Abbe Abbott; Ahgupuk, George Eden (Eskimo), illus. I Am Eskimo: Aknik My Name. Juneau, AK: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company; 1959. 85 pages. (secondary).
Paul Green (Aknik) tells of his life growing up in an Eskimo village in Alaska. Accompanying these remembrances are line drawings by Native Eskimo artist George Ahgupuk. The author describes such traditional activities as hunting, whaling, and making igloos, and shares anecdotes on subjects as varied as Eskimo games, kissing, and the Arctic. This informative and entertaining book, written in pidgin English as spoken by the author, may be difficult to read.
McClanahan, A. J. Our Stories, Our Lives. Anchorage, AK: The CIRI Foundation; 1986. 245 pages. (secondary).
This collection of interviews records the personal experiences and traditional stories of 23 Alaska Native elders from the Cook Inlet region. The unifying themes of the collection include: the flu epidemic of 1917 and 1918, the world wars, Alaska statehood, and the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. Their statements and private reflections are "reminders of the extraordinary pace of change for the Native people in Alaska." Includes an historical introduction by a linguist, and black-and-white portraits of each person interviewed. s/Eskimo/Arctic/bio
Senungetuk, Vivian and Tiulana, Paul. A Place for Winter: Paul Tiulana's Story. Lunenburg, VT: Meriden-Stinehour Press; 1987. 125 pages. (elementary/secondary) *.
This biography of Paul Tiulana, an Alaskan Eskimo from King Island in the Bering Sea, is compiled from interviews conducted from 1978 through 1979 by his friend and colleague, Vivian Senungetuk. Detailed captions and black-and-white photographs by Father Bernard R. Hubbard, a Jesuit explorer who lived on King Island in 1938 and 1939, accompany Tiulana's vivid recollections of childhood, family, and community. Includes an introduction and notes on the photographer.
Wilder, Edna; Mayhew, Dorothy, illus. Once Upon An Eskimo Time. Edmonds, WA: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company; 1987. 183 pages. (secondary)
One year in the life of Nedercook, a young Norton Sound Eskimo girl, is recreated here by the author, Nedercook's daughter. The book describes a typical year, circa 1868, in Nedercook's childhood, when she was around ten years old. This interesting and well-written account of a small portion of this remarkable woman's life is filled with information about Alaskan Eskimo life before the coming of whites. Illustrated with black-and-white drawings.
INUIT/ESKIMO TRADITIONAL STORIES
Coehlene, Terri; Reasoner Charles, illus. Ka-ha-si and the Loon, an Eskimo Legend. Mahwah, NJ: Watermill Press; 1990. 46 pages. (lower elementary).
This legend of the hero, Ka-ha-si, who became Earth Bearer, describes his adventures and explains the origin of earthquakes. The original source of the legend is not given. The story is followed by a 10-page section of factual information about Eskimo history and contemporary life, a list of important dates, and a glossary. Illustrated with full-color drawings in the legend section and photographs in the factual section.
DeArmond, Dale. Berry Woman's Children. New York, NY: Greenwillow Press; 1985. 40 pages. (elementary).
In Eskimo mythology, Berry Woman was told by Raven to look after all of the animals and birds on the earth. These brief retellings of Eskimo legends each concern an arctic animal; general information about each animal precedes the short story. Includes a glossary and a pronunciation guide. Sources for the stories are not cited.
DeArmond, Dale; DeArmond, Dale, illus. The Boy Who Found the Light. Boston, MA: Sierra Club (in conjunction with Little Brown); 1990. 61 pages. (lower elementary/upper elementary).
This retelling of three Inuit folktales explain the origins of natural phenomena (e.g. why there are long days and short days) or of cultural beliefs (e.g. why there is a relationship of mutual respect between humans and animals). No sources for the tales are given. The text is written in simple, unassuming prose, which young readers should find easy to understand. A glossary is provided at the beginning of the book. Beautiful black-and-white woodcuts illustrate every other page.
DeArmond, Dale; DeArmond, Dale, illus. The Seal Oil Lamp. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company; 1988. 32 pages. (lower elementary).
In accordance with the Eskimo practice of leaving behind people who cannot provide for themselves, this story describes how blind, seven-year-old Allugua is left behind when his family leaves for their annual fishing camp. He is saved by the kindness of little mouse people, who also give Allugua a magic hunting song with which to pay honor to the animals. No references are cited for this adaptation of an Eskimo folktale. A short glossary is included.
Keithahn, Edward L.; Ahgupuk, George Aden (Inuit), illus. Alaskan Igloo Tales. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Northwest Publishing Co.; 1974: 139. pages. (elementary/secondary).
This 1920s collection of 35 Inuit stories is retold in simple, lively English. Most of the stories involve supernatural or magical events, ranging from amusing to mysterious, from macabre to violent. Each story is illustrated with an attractive, full-page black-and-white drawing. An illustrated glossary identifies objects and animals related to Eskimo life.
Loverseed, Amanda; Loverseed, Amanda, illus. Tikkatoo's Journey: An Eskimo Folk Tale. Blackie & Son (London, England) 1990 ed. New York, NY: Peter Bedrick Books; 1990. 26 pages. (Folk Tales of the World). (lower elementary).
In this retelling of an Eskimo story, Tikatoo travels to the Sun to save his grandfather's life. A source for the story is not cited, and the degree of adaptation is unclear. Full-color illustrations tend toward stylized whimsical fantasy, in contrast to the facial expressions that often seem distorted or unnecessarily grim.
San Souci, Robert D.; San Souci, Daniel, illus. Song of Sedna. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Co., Inc.; 1981. (elementary).
This adaptation of a Native story describes how an Eskimo girl is transformed into Sedna, the goddess of the sea, who helps fisherman and hunters. The source for this exciting, beautifully illustrated story is not cited. e/Eskimo/Arctic/legend.
Alexander, Bryan and Cherry. An Eskimo Family. Reprint of 1979 ed. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications Co.; 1985. 29 pages. (Families Around the World). (lower and upper elementary) *.
A contemporary fifteen-year-old Greenland Eskimo boy describes daily life in his village over the course of a year. This excellent work provides a real sense of Eskimo life as do the many color photographs. Also included are phonetic pronunciation of the proper names, facts on Eskimos, and a map showing their geographic distribution.
Bennett, Allan C.; Flannigan, William E.; Hladun, Marilyn; Van Kampen, Vlasta illus. Inuit Community. First published as Eskimo: Journey Through Time, 1972 ed. Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside; 1981. 64 pages. (elementary).
Naullaq, a young Inuit boy, describes his community of Segluk, located at the northern tip of Quebec. Short sections on family life, hunting, games, missionaries, and contemporary Inuit life are structured to include the segments "Did You Know?," a short list of facts; "Things to Do," suggested activities related to the text; and "Something to Think About," questions for discussion. Questions and activities are thoughtful, interesting, and adaptable to different age levels.
Burch, Ernest S.; Forman, Werner, photog. The Eskimos. Norman, OK: MacDonald and Co.; 1988. 125 pages. (secondary).
This ethnographic overview of Eskimo life, written by an arctic scholar, covers such topics as subsistence, transportation, art, mythology, and beliefs. Focus is on traditional life only. Color photographs (120 in all) illustrate the book. Includes a bibliography.
Ekoomiak, Norman (Inuk); Ekoomiak, Norman, illus. An Arctic Childhood. Oakville, Ontario, Canada: Chimo Publishing; no date. 38 pages. (elementary) *.
The author recalls his early life in Northern Quebec living with his family, including his grandfather. Each page of memories is illustrated by the author as he describes games he played as a child, hunting, building a kayak, and stories his grandfather told him. Translated into Inuktitut syllabics by Mrs. Sadie Hill.
Ekoomiak, Normee (Canadian Eskimo); Ekoomiak, Normee, illus. Arctic Memories. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co.; 1990. 32 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
A bilingual text in English and Inuktuit gives the artist/author's comments on his paintings and applique work depicting boyhood memories. Among the topics covered are games, igloos, Native spirits, and the Inuit version of Christianity. Additional notes describe the Eskimo today and Eskimo language and art. The book includes a brief description of the artist's life.
Hughes, Jill; Wilson, Maurice, illus. Eskimos. Rev. ed. New York, NY: Gloucester Press; 1984. 32 pages. (elementary) ?.
This is an easy-to-read text about Eskimos, in which the author states that "the old hunting life has gone, but they are still the same friendly people today." She then contradicts herself by describing all aspects of traditional life in the present tense: sea life, igloos, travel, whaling, stories and songs, and childhood. The writing is simplistic, causing inevitable generalizations, such as "All Eskimos love drumming and dancing." Includes color illustrations and graphics, a glossary and an index.
Planche, Bernard; Grant, Donald, illus. Living With the Eskimos. Ossining, NY: Young Discovery Library; 1988. 38 pages. (lower elementary).
This short book for young readers describes the homes, food, clothing, and everyday life of a Greenland Eskimo community. Information on traditional lifestyles is often interspersed with references to modern Inuit life, resulting in a confusing presentation. Includes information on animals of the Arctic and other "people of the snows."
Siska, Heather Smith. People of the Ice: How the Inuit Lived. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, Ltd.; 1980. 47 pages. (upper elementary).
An informative guide to the Inuit people of the Arctic, this book includes information on the land and people, family, clothing, housing, food, hunting and fishing, beliefs and customs, and arts and crafts. A section on the effects of white encroachment describes the history of Inuit-white contact from the 17th century to the present, with information on the whaling industry, missionaries, traders, diseases, World War II, and indigenous cooperatives. Illustrated with many detailed black-and-white line drawings.
Smith, J. H. Greg. Eskimos: The Inuit of the Arctic. Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Publications, Inc.; 1987. 48 pages. (Original Peoples). (upper elementary) *.
This clearly written guide "tells the story of the Inuit---their history, their life-style today, and their future in the modern world." The book covers such topics as hunting; social life; the changes brought by missionaries, fur traders, and whalers; and the drastically different modern world of the Inuit. Particularly appealing is the book's emphasis on the recent history of the Inuit and their lives today, including the balance of traditional Inuit customs and lifeways with modern cultural influences and the future of the Inuit. Includes color and black-and-white photographs and illustrations, glossaries, bibliography, and index.
Steltzer, Ulli; Steltzer, Ulli, photog. Building an Igloo. Toronto, Ontario: Camdaen House Publications; 1991. 32 pages. (elementary) *.
This is a photographic description of how an Inuit father and son build a snow house. Today, Inuit live in Western-style houses, but still build igloos as temporary hunting shelters.
Andrews, Jan; Wallace, Ian, illus. Very Last First Time. New York, NY: Atheneum (Margaret K. McElderry); 1986. 28 pages. (lower elementary) *.
A contemporary Inuit girl goes mussel-collecting for the first time alone. This fascinating story describes an aspect of traditional life set against a contemporary background. The text and the beautifully detailed, full-color illustrations give the reader a real sense of life in the Ungava Bay region of northern Canada.
Damjam, Mischa; Wilkon, Jozef, illustrator. Atuk. English translation of 1964 Swiss ed. New York, NY: North-South Books; 1990. 26 pages. (lower elementary).
Five-year-old Atuk's dog is eaten by a wolf. Years later, Atuk avenges himself by killing the wolf but finds that this does not bring him happiness. This book offers no insight into American Indian or Eskimo cultural life. Includes full-color illustrations on every page.
Davis, Deborah; Labrasca, Judy, illus. The Secret of the Seal. New York, NY: Crown Publishers, Inc.; 1989. 57 pages. (elementary).
This is the story of Kyo, a young boy living in a small Eskimo settlement, who hopes to kill his first seal. Kyo finally encounters a seal, but is unable to kill the trusting animal and, instead, befriends it. The seal is at risk when Kyo's uncle visits to capture a seal for a zoo in the city. Includes black-and-white illustrations.
George, Jean C.; Minor, Wendell, illus. Julie. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1994, 226 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
In this sequel to Julie and the Wolves, teenage Julie returns to live with her father and his new white wife. The underlying theme of the novel is the struggle to maintain traditional Eskimo values in today's world. Julie's father domesticates musk ox for their fleece. The wolves (Julie's friends) represent a threat to the herd, and will be shot if they hunt in the area. Julie's efforts to find a way to save the wolf pack from destruction are the main action of the book. A fair amount of cultural information is presented, such as activities at fishing camp, building a storm shelter, basketmaking, and a description of a whale festival, as well as interesting descriptions of wolf behavior. Includes attractive black-and-white illustrations.
George, Jean C. Julie of the Wolves. New York, NY: Harper C Child Books; 1972. 180 pages. (upper elementary/secondary) *.
Thirteen-year-old Mijax (Julie) runs away from her young husband in Barrow, Alaska to join her pen pal in San Francisco. Lost in the Alaskan wilderness, she befriends a pack of wolves remembering her father's story that he had been fed by wolves when he was without food while on a hunt. Through her father's teachings and the wolves' friendship, she survives the harsh arctic conditions and becomes committed to living the traditional Eskimo life.
Houston, James; Houston, James, illus. Frozen Fire: A Tale of Courage. New York, NY: Macmillan Child Group; 1981. 160 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
In this exciting adventure story set in Baffin Island, Canada, Matthew Morgan, a thirteen-year-old white boy, and Kayak, his Eskimo friend, are lost in the tundra. In the course of their many mishaps, the differences between the boys' values become apparent. For instance, Kayak places more value on the flint for fire-making than on the gold they discover. Includes black and white illustrations.
Houston, James. Tikta'Liktak: An Inuit-Eskimo Legend. San Diego: Harcourt Brace, Jovanich; 1990. 64 pages. (upper elementary).
In this retelling of an Inuit-Eskimo story, young Tikta'Liktak is carried off on a drifting ice floe to a deserted island where he struggles to survive. No original source for this exciting, well-told story is cited. Includes black-and-white illustrations.
Houston, James; Houston, James, illus. Akavak: An Inuit-Eskimo Legend. San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanich; 1968. 80 pages. (upper elementary).
This retelling of an Inuit adventure story describes Akavak's and his grandfather's exciting, obstacle-filled journey to visit the grandfather's brother. The story is well told, and its fast-moving action is interspersed with long periods of anxious waiting. Includes black-and-white drawings.
Houston, James; Houston, James, illus. The White Archer: An Inuit Eskimo Legend. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich; 1990. 96 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
In this fast-paced coming-of-age Eskimo story, young Kungo loses his family to avenging Caribou Indians. The main action of the story centers around his years of preparation to avenge his family's death. Under the tutelage of knowledgeable old Ittuk and his wife, he learns to become a hunter and bowman. Kungo eventually realizes the senselessness of revenge and instead befriends the Caribou. No source is cited for the original Eskimo story. Includes black-and-white drawings.
Houston, James; Houston, James, illus. The Falcon Bow: An Arctic Legend. New York, NY: Margaret K. McElderry Books; 1986. 96 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
In this sequel to The White Archer, Kungo brings his sister and her husband back to his island home to visit Ittuk and his wife, Luvi Luvi La. Includes black-and-white illustrations.
Luenn, Nancy; Waldman, Neil, illus. Nessa's Fish. New York, NY: Atheneum; 1990. 27 pages. (lower elementary).
Nessa, a young Eskimo girl, saves her sick grandmother when they are forced to spend the night alone and unsheltered on the tundra. Appealing, full-color illustrations may compensate for what appears to be an unrealistic story. The reader learns little about Eskimo culture.
Munsch, Robert (Eskimo); Kusugak, Michael; Krykorka, Vladyana, illus. A Promise is a Promise. Toronto, Canada: Annick Press; 1988. 28 pages. (lower elementary).
This contemporary story set in the arctic is about a family's outwitting the Quallupillug, undersea monsters, who pull unaccompanied children through the ice. This well-written story is based on an idea from the Eskimo author's childhood. Excellent, full-color illustrations depict many details of modern life.
O'Dell, Scott. Black Star, Bright Dawn. Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin Company; 1988. 134 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).
Bright Dawn, an Alaska Eskimo girl in her late teens, replaces her disabled father as representative of the town of Ikuma in the annual Iditarod dog-sled race. Though the major part of the story concerns the mishaps of the race, limited cultural information is included on such topics as the clash between traditional and Christian beliefs, Eskimo stories, and igloo building.
Rogers, Jean; Munoz, Rie, illus. Runaway Mittens. New York, NY: Greenwillow Books; 1987. 20 pages. (lower elementary).
This is a contemporary, simple story about an Eskimo boy, Pica, and his mittens, which always seem to go astray. Appealing full-color illustrations reveal some details of contemporary and traditional life.
Sage, James; Flather, Lisa. Where the Great Bear Watches. New York, NY: Viking; 1993. 25 pages. (lower elementary).
This simply written story for very young readers is about a young Inuit boy who paddles his kayak and sings joyfully to the birds, fish, and the great bear. While not a good source of information on Inuit culture, the story is beautifully illustrated with bold, colorful paintings of the animals, landscape, and people of the north. e/Arctic/Inuit/fic.
Sis, Peter; Sis, Peter, illus. A Small Tale from the Far Far North. New York, NY: Alfred Knopf; 1993. 30 pages. (elementary).
Jan Welzl, a Czechoslovakian folk hero, supposedly traveled overland across Siberia from Central Europe in the late 1800s. The author has taken a portion of this folk tale and embellished it. The result is this richly illustrated story of the explorer Welzl and of the Eskimos who save his life and become his friends and teachers. The highly stylized drawings and sparse text depict Welzl's adventures in the arctic, but are probably more fictional than factual. Although a charming book, it is not recommended as a source of information on Eskimos.
Steiner, Barbara; Mayo, Gretchen Will, illus. Whale Brother. New York, NY: Walker and Company; 1988. 25 pages. (lower elementary).
This is a touching story about Omu, an Eskimo boy, and what helps him become a successful carver and musician. Described as "stillness," this skill provides the time necessary to capture the spirit of what the artist seeks to express. Includes beautiful full-color illustrations.
Turner, Bonnie. The Haunted Igloo. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; 1991. 152 pages. (upper elementary).
In this coming-of-age story set in Canada's Northwest Territories in the 1930s, Jean Paul, a recently arrived ten-year-old French-Canadian boy, eventually wins acceptance from a group of Eskimo boys. The Eskimo aspects are secondary in this "white frontier family" story. A small amount of cultural information on Eskimo life is included, for instance, a description of the interior of an igloo.
Blackman, Margaret B. Sadie Brower Neakok: An Inupiaq Woman. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press; 1989. 274 pages. (secondary) *.
This life history based on audio-taped interviews with 71-year-old Sadie Brower Neakok gives fascinating glimpses into Native Alaskan life during this century. Sadie straddles two worlds. Her caring, compassionate nature and her bicultural background (Eskimo mother, white father) make her a valuable interpreter of the new ways introduced into her Northern Alaskan community. Her lifetime of service to that community as teacher, public health worker, and, finally, magistrate, give her an insider's perspective on the problems brought by modernity, particularly the application of the U.S. legal system in a traditional society. At the same time, Sadie fulfills the traditional role of wife and mother, making mukluks, parkas, tents and boat covers, processing fish at fish camp, and performing the duties of a whaler's wife. The author adds informative notes, explaining aspects of Alaskan history and life, such as whaling practices. Short excerpts from other writers, including Sadie's father, are included. An interesting description of the process of recording a life history is contained in the appendix. Incudes a bibliography, notes, maps, black-and-white photographs, and index.
Brown, Emily Ivanoff (Inupiaq Eskimo). The Roots of Ticasuk: An Eskimo Woman's Family Story. Revised 1974 ed. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company; 1981. 107 pages. (secondary).
Through the retelling of stories handed down orally from generation to generation, this book traces the history of the people of Unalakleet, an Eskimo community on the Bering Sea Coast. The author, Ticasuk, herself an Inupiaq, recounts the origins of her people and follows this legend with stories from the more recent past. She wrote with the purpose of helping her descendants "know who their people are." The stories contain interesting and valuable information on the feelings of the Inupiaq Eskimos as they experienced contact with Russians, and later Americans; practiced female infanticide; and dealt with other hardships. Unfortunately, time periods are not specified for the stories of the more recent past, and this can be confusing. Includes an Eskimo-English glossary.
Kendall, Russ; Kendall, Russ, photographer. Eskimo Boy: Life in an Inupiaq Eskimo Village. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc.; 1992. 40 pages. (elementary) *.
This photo essay describes life for seven-year-old Norman Kokeok, an Inupiaq Eskimo who lives in the village of Shishmaref on a small island off the northwest coast of Alaska. Illustrated with large color photographs. Includes a short glossary of Inupiaq words and a brief description of modern-day Eskimos and Alaska.
George, Jean C. Water Sky. New York, NY: Harper C Child Books; 1989. 224 pages. (upper elementary/secondary) *.
Lincoln Stonewright, an upperclass teenager from New England, goes to Barrow, Alaska to join an Eskimo whaling crew in the hope of finding his Uncle Jack. Lincoln's powerful experiences in the Arctic force him to confront many complex issues, such as the racism he encounters from being a "tanik" (white), the clash between Eskimo whaling rights and environmentalists' concerns for the endangered whales, and the challenge faced by Alaskan youth in balancing traditional and modern Inupiat culture. A well-written and engaging book with much detailed information on whales, whaling, and the arctic environment. Includes an Inupiat glossary and pronunciation guide.
George, Jean Craighead. Minor, Wendell, illus. Arctic Son. New York: Hyperion Books for Children; 1997. 28 pages. (lower elementary)
Luke, who lives near the Arctic Ocean with his parents, is given an Inupiat Eskimo name, Kupaaq, by Aalak, a family friend. The story describes Kupaaq's early experiences with Aalak, who introduces him to Inupiat activities that take place during the seasons of a year, during the cold, dark winters and the long summer days. Beautifully illustrated with full-page color pictures.
YUPIK TRADITIONAL STORIES
Sloat, Teri, author and illustrator. The Eye of the Needle: Based on a Yupik Tale as told by Betty Huffman. New York: Dutton's Children's Books, 1990. 30 pages. (elementary).
A grandmother tells her young grandson Amik that he is now big enough to hunt for food. He can't resist tasting his catch and returns home with his belly full, his hands empty, and his body too big to fit into the sod hut. This charming story tells how Grandmother helps Amik with a little magic from her ivory needle. Beautifully illustrated with large color pictures.
Fienup-Riordan, Ann. Eskimo Essays: Yup'ik Lives and How We See Them. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press; 1990. 261 pages. (secondary).
This collection of easy-to-read, scholarly essays attempts to dispel popular misunderstandings and stereotypes commonly associated with Eskimos by "detailing Yup'ik exceptions to the Eskimo rule." Topics include diversity among the arctic Eskimos; meaning and symbolism of Yup'ik masks and dance; missionary/Eskimo encounters; the influence of Russian Orthodox religion on Yup'ik culture; warfare; Eskimo law; and continuity and change in Yup'ik culture. Illustrated with black-and-white photographs. Includes a list of references and an index.
Jenness, Aylette; Rivers, Alice (Yup'ik).; Jenness, Aylette, photog. Two Worlds: A Yup'ik Eskimo Family. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; 1989. 84 pages. (elementary/secondary) *.
This contemporary story describes the daily life of a Yup'ik family in a small Alaskan town on the Bering Sea. First-person accounts by representatives of three generations recall the changes of the past fifty years and indicate the importance of maintaining tradition in the family. Includes black-and-white photographs, a bibliography, and a resource list.
Go back to Main Page for North American Indian Bibliography. |
Byzantine Cross Information
Byzantine cross. Three Bar Cross. St. Andrew’s Cross
. Greek cross. Eastern Cross. What do these names mean? What is the difference? With so many names for the Eastern crosses – many of them similar in style – it is easy to get confused about these different crosses. Here is a guide to help you understand the crosses found in the Eastern Christian (both Catholic and Orthodox) tradition:
This cross is defined by Webster’s Dictionary as "a cross, the shaft of which is intersected by two transverse beams, the upper one being the smaller." In this form, the cross is the same shape as a Latin cross, except rather than an attached scroll, the extra beam at the top would be the plaque where the inscription “INRI
" which stands for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews” was placed. The word is sometimes used synonymously with ‘Byzantine Cross’ or ‘Three Bar Cross,’ though these terms are not completely accurate; a true patriarchal cross does not have a third cross bar. The Patriarchal Cross was also used as a political symbol in the 9th
century in the Byzantine Empire, likely leading to the confusion between it and the three bar cross.
Three Bar Cross
This term describes a cross, similar to the Patriarchal Cross but with, as the name suggests, a third bar. It is also sometimes called a ‘Tri-Bar Cross’ or simply ‘Byzantine Cross’ or ‘Eastern Cross.’ The term may accurately describe other Eastern crosses that have other distinguishing features but still use the three bar design. Typically the third bar is lower, where the feet of the crucified would be. Crucifixion had been used as a form of execution prior to the incarnation and continued for some time after the crucifixion of Christ; different methods and styles of crosses had been used in different places. It is believed that the Three Bar Cross may have been the type of cross that Jesus was crucified on. This is largely based on a point in time during the Passion when the soldiers go to break Jesus’s legs and find that He has already died.
Three-bar Crosses have a third small board the crucified would rest their feet on to support their body weight. This served two purposes. First of all, it prolonged the suffering of the person being killed. Execution by crucifixion was intended to be humiliating as well as painful. It also may have served a somewhat practical purpose, from the point of view of the executioners. Since the body weight was supported, the chances of the body pulling free and slipping from the ropes, or nails from tearing through the hands completely were much less likely. Later, when the crucified were near death, the soldiers would break their legs; the positioning of the person being unable to support their body caused a pressure that would result in eventual asphyxiation, and death. The fact that soldiers went back to break the legs of Jesus indicates to many that Jesus would have been crucified on a three bar cross where he initially would have had a foot rest.
Of course, when they reach Jesus, they find that He is already dead. This detail is the foundation for the depiction of the Three Bar Cross with the bottom bar slanted. Tradition holds that at some point the bar slipped from its original positioning, which is what caused Jesus to die before the soldiers came to break His legs. Further, it is believed that the direction the bar slanted in holds significance; the side of the repentant criminal angles upward to indicate his salvation, the side of the bitter thief who mocked Jesus, angles downward and indicates that he was not saved. In art, the Three Bar Cross may be depicted with all three bars straight, as it would have been built, or with the bottom bar angled.
St. Andrew’s Cross and St. Olga’s Cross
The Cross of St. Andrew the Apostle is sometimes used to describe a Three Bar Cross. This stems from his work spreading the teachings of Christ; many believed he would have used a replica of the cross in his ministry. However, the term more accurately refers to the cross upon which he himself was executed. Tradition holds that St. Andrew was not martyred on the Three Bar Cross, but on a crux decussate
, which is an X-shaped cross.
St. Olga, the first Christian queen of Ukraine/Rus is commonly depicted holding a Three Bar Cross. Since it is believed that St. Andrew traveled to Ukraine/Rus in his work spreading the gospel, and Olga later had a habit of carrying a Three Bar Cross as she attempted to convert her people, this connection may be part of the reason St. Andrew is associated with the particular cross. St. Olga’s Cross however is often more ornate; the cross connected to St. Olga is usually the Three Bar Cross affixed to or engraved on a more ornate Latin cross. The Latin cross has the letters IC (the first and last letters of ‘Jesus’) and XC (the first and last letters of ‘Christ’), and the word Nika, which means to conquer or be Victorious.
The Greek cross is shaped like a plus sign, with each bar of the same length. It can be plain or richly decorated, as in the various styles similar to Latin cross. Many Greek crosses are also illuminated or iconographic in style.
Eastern or Byzantine Cross
The term Eastern Cross seems to be less definite. It is used to denote any cross from Eastern Christianity, regardless of further distinctions. The term Byzantine Cross typically refers to the Three Bar Cross but is also used to describe crosses with only one crossbar (resembling a plus sign as in the Greek cross or a Latin cross) that are engraved or painted with specifically Byzantine symbols. |
Significance and Use
This practice is primarily intended to be used for the correction of silver loss in the fire assay process. Silver assays are determined by fire assay for the purpose of metallurgical exchange between seller and buyer.
It is assumed that all who use this practice will be trained analysts capable of performing skillfully and safely. It is expected that work will be performed in a properly equipped laboratory under appropriate quality control practices such as those described in Guide E 882.
1.1 This practice covers the determination of fire assay correction for silver, utilizing proof silver, ores, concentrates, and related metallurgical materials.
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. (See Test Methods E 1335, Practices E 50, Guide E 882, and ISO Guide 35: 1989.)
2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard.
E29 Practice for Using Significant Digits in Test Data to Determine Conformance with Specifications
E50 Practices for Apparatus, Reagents, and Safety Considerations for Chemical Analysis of Metals, Ores, and Related Materials
E135 Terminology Relating to Analytical Chemistry for Metals, Ores, and Related Materials
E882 Guide for Accountability and Quality Control in the Chemical Analysis Laboratory
E1335 Test Methods for Determination of Gold in Bullion by Fire Assay Cupellation Analysis
ISO 10378: 1994 Copper Sulfide Concentrates-Determination of Gold and Silver Contents-Fire Assay Gravimetric and Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Method
cupellation; fire assay; silver; silver correction; Cupellation method; Cupels; Dor´e correction; Fire assay method; Gravimetric determination; Metal-bearing ores; Metallurgical materials/applications; Ores; Proof silver corrections; Silver corrections; Slag ;
ICS Number Code 73.060.01 (Metalliferrous minerals and their concentrates in general)
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Significance and Use
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of partial shadowing of the module(s) during operation. This test method describes a procedure for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate protection against the potential harmful effects of hot spots during normal installation and use.
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from internal defects which could cause loss of electrical insulation or combustion hazards.
4.3 Hot-spot heating occurs in a module when its operating current exceeds the reduced short-circuit current (Isc) of a shadowed or faulty cell or group of cells. When such a condition occurs, the affected cell or group of cells is forced into reverse bias and must dissipate power, which can cause overheating.
—The correct use of bypass diodes can prevent hot spot damage from occurring.
4.4 Fig. 1 illustrates the hot-spot effect in a module of a series string of cells, one of which, cell Y, is partially shadowed. The amount of electrical power dissipated in Y is equal to the product of the module current and the reverse voltage developed across Y. For any irradiance level, when the reverse voltage across Y is equal to the voltage generated by the remaining ( s-1) cells in the module, power dissipation is at a maximum when the module is short-circuited. This is shown in Fig. 1 by the shaded rectangle constructed at the intersection of the reverse I-V characteristic of Y with the image of the forward I-V characteristic of the (s-1) cells.
FIG. 1 Hot Spot Effect
4.5 By-pass diodes, if present, as shown in Fig. 2, begin conducting when a series-connected string in a module is in reverse bias, thereby limiting the power dissipation in the reduced-output cell.
FIG. 2 Bypass Diode Effect
—If the module does not contain bypass diodes, check the manufacturer’s instructions to see if a maximum number of series modules is recommended before installing bypass diodes. If the maximum number of modules recommended is greater than one, the hot spot test should be preformed with that number of modules in series. For convenience, a constant current power supply may be substituted for the additional modules to maintain the specified current.
4.6 The reverse characteristics of solar cells can vary considerably. Cells can have either high shunt resistance where the reverse performance is voltage-limited or have low shunt resistance where the reverse performance is current-limited. Each of these types of cells can suffer hot spot problems, but in different ways.
4.6.1 Low-Shunt Resistance Cells :
126.96.36.199 The worst case shadowing conditions occur when the whole cell (or a large fraction) is shadowed.
188.8.131.52 Often low shunt resistance cells are this way because of localized shunts. In this case hot spot heating occurs because a large amount of current flows in a small area. Because this is a localized phenomenon, there is a great deal of scatter in performance of this type of cell. Cells with the lowest shunt resistance have a high likelihood of operating at excessively high temperatures when reverse biased.
184.108.40.206 Because the heating is localized, hot spot failures of low shunt resistance cells occur quickly.
4.6.2 High Shunt Resistance Cells :
220.127.116.11 The worst case shadowing conditions occur when a small fraction of the cell is shadowed.
18.104.22.168 High shunt resistance cells limit the reverse current flow of the circuit and therefore heat up. The cell with the highest shunt resistance will have the highest power dissipation.
22.214.171.124 Because the heating is uniform over the whole area of the cell, it can take a long time for the cell to heat to the point of causing damage.
126.96.36.199 High shunt resistance cells define the need for bypass diodes in the module’s circuit, and their performance characteristics determine the number of cells that can be protected by each diode.
4.7 The major technical issue is how to identify the highest and lowest shunt resistance cells and then how to determine the worst case shadowing for those cells. If the bypass diodes are removable, cells with localized shunts can be identified by reverse biasing the cell string and using an IR camera to observe hot spots. If the module circuit is accessible the current flow through the shadowed cell can be monitored directly. However, many PV modules do not have removable diodes or accessible electric circuits. Therefore a non-intrusive method is needed that can be utilized on those modules.
4.8 The selected approach is based on taking a set of I-V curves for a module with each cell shadowed in turn. Fig. 3 shows the resultant set of I-V curves for a sample module. The curve with the highest leakage current at the point where the diode turns on was taken when the cell with the lowest shunt resistance was shadowed. The curve with the lowest leakage current at the point where the diode turns on was taken when the cell with the highest shunt resistance was shadowed.
FIG. 3 Module I-V Characteristics with Different Cells Totally Shadowed
4.9 If the module to be tested has parallel strings, each string must be tested separately.
4.10 This test method may be specified as part of a series of qualification tests including performance measurements and demonstration of functional requirements. It is the responsibility of the user of this test method to specify the minimum acceptance criteria for physical or electrical degradation.
1.1 This test method provides a procedure to determine the ability of a photovoltaic (PV) module to endure the long-term effects of periodic “hot spot” heating associated with common fault conditions such as severely cracked or mismatched cells, single-point open circuit failures (for example, interconnect failures), partial (or non-uniform) shadowing or soiling. Such effects typically include solder melting or deterioration of the encapsulation, but in severe cases could progress to combustion of the PV module and surrounding materials.
1.2 There are two ways that cells can cause a hot spot problem; either by having a high resistance so that there is a large resistance in the circuit, or by having a low resistance area (shunt) such that there is a high-current flow in a localized region. This test method selects cells of both types to be stressed.
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard.
E772 Terminology of Solar Energy Conversion
E927 Specification for Solar Simulation for Photovoltaic Testing
E1036 Test Methods for Electrical Performance of Nonconcentrator Terrestrial Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays Using Reference Cells
E1328 Terminology Relating to Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion
E1799 Practice for Visual Inspections of Photovoltaic Modules
E1802 Test Methods for Wet Insulation Integrity Testing of Photovoltaic Modules
solar; energy; photovoltaics; modules; electrical testing; hot spot;
ICS Number Code 27.160 (Solar energy engineering)
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Significance and Use
5.1 This practice determines potentially effective microbicides for use in cooling water systems using cooling water and deposits/biofilm obtained from the field. The addition of deposits/biofilms addresses the need to include the major source of microorganisms in cooling water systems. Even with this addition, laboratory results may not be totally predictive of microbicidal effectiveness in the field. This is because conditions in the field affecting microbicide effectiveness are difficult to mimic in the laboratory. These conditions that affect microbicide efficacy include blow-down rate, addition of makeup water, water hardness, hydrocarbon leaks, pH, sediment loading, dissolved solids, microbes in slime (biofilms), and deposits (salts, iron minerals, organics, and so forth) on surfaces. An additional factor is the difficulty in enumerating all microbes in the water due to the lack of adequate recovery media. Guidelines that address formation of and testing for surface-attached microbes (biofilms) may be found in Guide E1427, while a guideline for unconventional measurement of microbes is found in Guide E1326.
1.1 This practice outlines a procedure for evaluating the efficacy of microbicides (algicides, bactericides, and fungicides) that will be used for controlling microbial growth in cooling water systems. The microbicides will be evaluated using simulated or real cooling tower water against (1) microbes from cooling water, (2) microbes in microbiological deposits (biofilms) from operating cooling systems, or (3) microorganisms known to contaminate cooling water systems, or a combination thereof. This practice should be performed by individuals familiar with microbiological techniques.
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard.
D3731 Practices for Measurement of Chlorophyll Content of Algae in Surface Waters
D4012 Test Method for Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Content of Microorganisms in Water
D4412 Test Methods for Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in Water and Water-Formed Deposits
E1054 Test Methods for Evaluation of Inactivators of Antimicrobial Agents
E1326 Guide for Evaluating Nonconventional Microbiological Tests Used for Enumerating Bacteria
E1427 Guide for Selecting Test Methods to Determine the Effectiveness of Antimicrobial Agents and Other Chemicals for the Prevention, Inactivation and Removal of Biofilm
algae; algicide; bacteria; bactericide; biofilms; cooling towers; cooling tower waters; deposits/slime; efficacy; fungi; fungicide; microbial biofouling; microbicide;
ICS Number Code 65.100.99 (Other pesticides and agrochemicals)
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Citing ASTM Standards
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A tool kit to assist members of the school community in understanding and supporting students with autism.
The purpose of this kit is to provide helpful information about students with autism and tools and strategies to achieve positive interactions and increase learning for all members of the school community.
With help from respected experts in the field of autism and special education, and experienced parents, caregivers and teachers, we’ve included an introduction to autism and specific strategies for supporting students.
The School Community Tool Kit is broken down into sections. Click here to download the full version of the kit, or click the links below to download the individual sections.
About the School Community Tool Kit
Information about the resources included, a section on how to use the tool kit, a note to families and caregivers, an "About Me" profile form, and more.
Information about autism, Asperger Syndrome, social symptoms, physical and medical issues, additional challanges and unique abilities that may accompany autism.
Click here to view the "Autism Basics" brochure from the tool kit.
Click here to view the "Asperger's Syndrome Basics" brochure from the tool kit.
The School Community
Autism and Asperger Syndrome Basics brochures, and information for classmates, teachers, school administrators, paraprofessionals, bus drivers/transportation supervisors, custodial staff, lunch and recess aides, office staff, peers, nurses and security officers.
Educating Students with Autism
Information about about the rights of students with autism, instructional methods in teaching students, assistive technologies, therapies used, and ideas for a team approach.
Supporting Learning in the Student with Autism
Information about supporting communication, organizational and sensory needs, improving social interaction and development, ideas for preventing behavior, and more.
Web, Print and Video Resources
A list of various resources for all members of the school community.
Insights, strategies, assessments, handbooks, and lots more!
This tool kit is not intended to be a curriculum for special education for students on the autism spectrum, but rather a support for the general education and administrative school staff who interact with students with autism in various capacities. However, it is envisioned that this tool kit will provide valuable information and resources that can be employed by special education and administrative staff in their efforts to plan for and support students in general education environments and involvement in the school community as a whole.
Professionals Talk About An Inclusive School Setting
This is an ongoing initative and we will continue to add and enhance the content. We would appreciate your contributions and feedback, including both successes and opportunities for improvement. Please email us at [email protected]. |
The work done on the Tu-72, -73, -74, -78 and -79
projects were all stages in the development of Soviet jet
bombers. Next step was the Tu-81, which would later
enter service with the VMS (Voenno Morskie Sili =
Navy) as the Tu-14.
Sergei Yeger was again programme leader, but the
Tu-81 went back to the twin-engined Tu-72 rather
than stay with the three-engined designs of the Tu-73,
-74, -78 and -79. This came about because of Klimov's
improved Nene/RD-45, the VK-1, which offered an
increase in power from the 2,270kg static
thrust of the Rolls-Royce Nene and the RD-45 to
2,740kg, which, combined with a lower empty
weight, allowed the third engine to be omitted.
Work on the design and construction began in July
1944. Tupolev and Yeger aimed to keep the aircraft as
light as possible, so an uncomplicated result was
achieved. Still showing some considerable resemblances
to the Tu-72, the Tu-81 was a mid-winged
twin-jet bomber still without wing sweep. It was
completed in factory N 156 in 1948, and its first flight
was made on 13 October 1949. State tests were
completed by autumn 1950, and the aircraft was
approved for production under the military designation
Tu-14T for a VMS role as a torpedo carrier.
Test results showed the Tu-14T as having a performance
of 860km/h, a range of 3,000km, and a service ceiling of 11,200m.
Some eighty-seven aircraft were built in Irkutsk
between 1950 and 1952, and the first examples entered
service in 1951. They were armed with two fixed-fire
NK-23 cannons and two machine-guns mounted on a
tail turret. It served in a patrol role, with the ability to
bomb naval targets.
| ENGINE||2 x VK-1, 26.5kN|
| Take-off weight||24000 kg||52911 lb|
| Empty weight||10000 kg||22046 lb|
| Wingspan||21.7 m||71 ft 2 in|
| Length||21.9 m||72 ft 10 in|
| Height||6.0 m||20 ft 8 in|
| Wing area||67.4 m2||725.49 sq ft|
| Max. speed||861 km/h||535 mph|
| Cruise speed||800 km/h||497 mph|
| Ceiling||11200 m||36750 ft|
| Range w/max.fuel||4800 km||2983 miles|
| Range w/max.payload||3000 km||1864 miles|
| ARMAMENT||4 x 23mm cannons, 1000kg of bombs or torpedos|
|A three-view drawing (1000 x 621)|
|bombardier, 2888617=gmail.com, 17.09.2011|
The Tu-14 could carry the same load as the beagle but had greater range.
|Fan, xia_xiaofan=yahoo.co.nz, 20.10.2009|
Some to add on by the end of WWII Soviet Naval Aviation also able to recover two of ex-617 Squadron Avro Lancasters.
The following paragraphs is quoted form "List of Avro Lancaster operators" the line is http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Avro_Lancaster_operators#.C2.A0Soviet_Union
Soviet Naval Aviation
Soviets were able to repair two of six Avro Lancasters which made forced landings near Yagodnik airfield, near Arkhangelsk during attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz. Both ex-617 Squadron Avro Lancasters were operated briefly as transports and long range reconnaissance aircraft before being retired due to lack of spare parts.
I think there were Handley Page Halifax in Soviets Air Force.
|Fan, xia_xiaofan=yahoo.co.nz, 20.10.2009|
By the end of WWII there are 73 B-17s and about 73 B-24s in Soviets Air Force. "The Fortresses and Liberators that were in the best condition were returned to the USAAF".
The following paragraphs is quoted form "Fortresses Over The Reich: B-17F & B-17G-FORTRESS ODDBALLS" the line is http://www.vectorsite.net/avb17_2.html#m4
* One of the most obscure users of the Fortress was the USSR. Late in the war, RAF and USAAF bombers that had been damaged in raids over the Reich would put down in Soviet-controlled territory rather than try to make it back to Western bases, and in April 1945 the Red Air Force issued a directive to its units in the field to report the location of any aircraft of its Western Allies that were in Soviet hands.
The Soviets found about 162 aircraft, including 73 B-17s and an equal number of B-24 Liberators. The Fortresses and Liberators that were in the best condition were returned to the USAAF, but a number were retained as interim heavy bombers until the USSR completed its reverse-engineering of Boeing B-29 Superfortresses that had fallen into their hands, landing in Siberia after suffering battle damage in raids over Japan. The B-29 was to go into production in Soviet state factories as the "Tupolev Tu-4", which would be given the NATO codename "Bull".
The Red Air Force crews had no training in flying the American bombers, and their maintenance crews had neither training nor proper spares. Many of the aircraft had been damaged, which is why they had ended up in Soviet hands to begin with, and their original crews had often trashed vital items such as bombsights, radar, and radios after they landed. However, the Soviets proved ingenious at keeping them flying, and in fact Red Air Force crews were delighted with the B-17's handling, comparing it to a "swallow" and the nimble PO-2 biplane trainer. In contrast, they called the B-24 "Iron", in reference to its sluggish takeoff characteristics and lumbering handling.
One of the oddities of the matter was that Soviet officials, with the humorlessness and peculiar prudery that often seems to afflict ruthless dictatorships, were indignant at the sometimes-lurid nose art on the bombers, and ordered the "filthy pictures" removed or painted out. The big American bombers were in principle used as part of heavy bomber units, but their main purpose was to give the Red Air Force experience in flying such types of aircraft preparatory to flying the Tu-4. The B-17s remained in service until 1948, when the Tu-4 began to arrive at operational squadrons.
|Fernando, vales1431=yahoo.com, 16.05.2009|
Although a lesser known aircraft in aviation history, I find the Tupolev Tu-14 "Bosun" fascinating. For one thing, it resembles a hybrid miniaturized U.S. Boeing B-17 bomber with twin jet engines, glazed cockpit and tricycle landing gear. I am familiar with the internment in Vladiovostok of three B-29s that had emergency-landed after a bombing mission over Japan in late World War II (thus the reverse-engineering of one of them, to later generate into the Tupolev Tu-4 "Bull"), but I wonder: did the Soviets ever get their hands on a "17"? I would really like to know!
|ismail, perambatje=yahoo.com.my, 22.10.2008|
this aircraft was quite effective in its role,but it was overshadowed by the beagle..
3000 kg of bombs...
|Tony Farrell, tony-farrell=hotmail.co.uk, 09.04.2007|
NATO reporting name 'Bosun'.
Do you have any comments about this aircraft ? |
Results Around the Web for Tulip
Back to the Tulip name page
The tulip is a perennial, bulbous plant with showy flowers in the genus Tulipa, of which up to 109 species have been described and which belongs to the family Liliaceae.
Calvinism (also called the Reformed tradition or the Reformed faith) is a major branch of Western Christianity that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians.
The Tulip Revolution or First Kyrgyz Revolution overthrew President Askar Akayev and his government in the Central Asian republic of Kyrgyzstan after the parliamentary elections of February 27 and of March 13, 2005. The revolution sought the end of rule by Akayev and by his family and associates, who in popular opinion had become increasingly corrupt and authoritarian.
Tulip mania or tulipomania (Dutch names include: tulpenmanie, tulpomanie, tulpenwoede, tulpengekte and bollengekte) was a period in the Dutch Golden Age during which contract prices for bulbs of the recently introduced tulip reached extraordinarily high levels and then suddenly collapsed.
Liriodendron (Myaamia: oonseentia) is a genus of two species of characteristically large deciduous trees in the magnolia family (Magnoliaceae). |
Will chowing down a little extra salmon make your baby brainier? It might, at least by the time he reaches the ripe old age of 8.
Eight-year-old kids with moms who ate fish during pregnancy tended to score better on tests of verbal intelligence, complex motor skills, and social skills compared to children with moms whose prenatal meals had been mainly fish-free., according to a study out of Europe.
Studying umbilical cord blood samples from approximately 2,000 women, researchers detected genetic materials from both moms and babies that seemed to "unlock" the omega-3s before they were absorbed and used by babies. While much is still left to learned, scientists think this "double metabolism" of omega-3s is what turns fatty acids from fish into such a readily absorbed brain boosters. By testing kids at age 8, researchers were able to demonstrate the lasting effects of these omega-3s throughout childhood.
Sworn off fish over fears of mercury contamination? You might want to give that salmon steak a second chance. According to current FDA guidelines on safe fish consumption for pregnant women, fish with the highest levels of mercury—and therefore fish not to eat during pregnancy—include shark, swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish. However, it is perfectly fine to eat up to 12 ounces (two average meals) a week of a variety of fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury. Those that make this "green light" list include shrimp, canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish. Since albacore ("white") tuna has more mercury than canned light tuna, it is recommended to limit albacore tuna to 6 ounces per week.
The only question we have now: Will that be blackened, grilled, or baked? |
Societies And Systems
The evolution of society, from the biblical times of Egyptian pharaohs, the ten commandments, Greek gods of statue and the birth of democracy, to our society today has been a war torn trip. Lives have been lost fighting evil in society. Heroes triumphed and fought for our rights. From William Wilberforce to Nelson Mandela, from slavery to freedom, our society is changing. Society is evolving, not us.
Battles have been fought both physically and intellectually, over countless divergent views as to how our society should be run. Only the fairest systems survived. War has been used to shape society, bombs have been dropped to protect it. Legends have been crucified and burnt for it. People have fought for the society we have now, and itís the people who have changed it. Today it is ordered and fair. Our rights are protected and our freedom has been gained.
Today we have four important systems controlling society as we know it, embracing all the institutions that make our world work the way it does. They form the core of our society and represent all aspects of its physical form. They are:
|The core systems of society|
Governmentís responsibility is to lead. Our political system allows us to vote through a ballot system for people who sit in government and represent us and who are responsible for our own nation. They negotiate on our behalf with foreign nations, decide matters of war and peace. They are the ones we turn to in times of disaster and to guide our future. Government is populated by politicians who sit in parliament and their duties are performed by them in terms of rules of behaviour, laws, precedents and constitutional agreements.
The justice system is responsible for upholding our rights. It defends our freedom, but demands our respect. It is there to resolve disputes amongst us and to protect us from manís own evil. It protects society from the systems society has created. It consists of court houses and jails. It is administered by judges, lawyers and policemen. Its powers are supreme and its decisions over-ride all other systems. It operates within a legal system in terms of the laws of the nation and its own precedent.
The economic system is responsible for our maintenance. It provides the food we eat, the place in which we live, everything we need to survive. It is responsible for distributing the resources of the world. It dictates who lives where and who gets what. Its rules are upheld by the justice system. It funds all the other systems either through taxes, or by virtue of the free market. It consists of banks and factories, farms and stock exchanges. It is measured in terms of a resource called money.
The information system is responsible for storing the knowledge man has collected, and for delivering that knowledge to the people in society. The system consists of the media, social networks, books and libraries. It is responsible for observing and reporting the activities of all the other systems. It is the system that prevents corruption. Its independence is paramount in a democratic society. It is run by reporters and researchers and librarians and historians. It constitutes communication.
Political idealisms such as communism are attempts to control all the systems under one super system. Experience has shown that this is not possible, and that the best approach is to have separation of powers. Each system should be independent of the other. To a large degree many countries have done this, but inevitably, the responsibilities merge.
Each system has developed a set of rules, its constitution, to define how those rules should work. Freedom of speech and the rules governing that freedom were shaped through successive political revolutions. Democratic government, and the political systems that were its predecessors, grew from ideas that are probably older than writing. They all evolved as systems many thousands of years old, and will continue to do so in the future.
The focus of this idea is the economic system, and in particular the system that has evolved the mostĖ capitalism. There are essentially two components to capitalism -the free market and the currency system supporting it. I believe the free market is the best possible mechanism for distributing wealth fairly. It is based on mathematical principles, it has an invisible hand.
A currency system complements the free market. It provides the means to trade, to give everything a price. A currency system is an institution just like any other institution. The currency system is the system that is responsible for the currency itself, not how it gets distributed by the free market. It adds the money to the free market. It also has the responsibility of maintaining the value of the currency, of storing wealth.
Throughout history we have had many different forms of currency systems. The term salary comes from salt, and at some point salt was rare in the Roman Empire. Silver has been used as a backing for currency, and in the past the value of the coin itself was sufficient to maintain its value. A gold coin, a Kruger Rand. Today our money has no intrinsic value, its value is relative.
The gold standard was a system that backed up money with gold. The reserve bank had the responsibility of storing the gold that the currency represented. Each note represented a fixed amount of gold. The USA set the price of 1 ounce of gold at $35, and it stayed that price until the gold standard was dropped with what is known as the Nixon shock.
Today our currency system is called the FIAT system, and it is probably the first currency system in the history of man to be based on nothing, it has no intrinsic value. Since the gold standard was dropped the price of gold today has inflated to over 1700$. A FIAT currency system demands growth, and it demands interest. Interest becomes inflation.
Our money is simply printed. The system works because of laws that govern how much and how this money is created and inserted into our economies. If the rules are broken then a country runs the risk of hyper-inflation. Zimbabwe is the best example, and close to home. There have been many others. Usually a reserve bank can manage the flow of money into the economy by adjusting interest rates, however even this mechanism is failing to remedy todayís economic problems.
What I have described is what is called the FIAT currency system, and most countries function on this system today. It is unique in that the currency itself is not backed up with anything. Before it a currency was usually backed up with a rare metal. The banknote itself claimed to be redeemable at the reserve bank for a given weight of metal. The fact that the currency today is not backed up by anything tangible, is the root cause for most of the financial difficulties over the last few decades.
The lack of intrinsic value is why we see the free market failing. Its independence from politics is reducing. The reason why the free market is failing is not due to a problem with the free market, but rather the currency system that supports it. The quality of the currency system will determine the quality of the free market. The free market cannot function stably on an unstable currency. The currency forms the foundation of the free market. The question is what defines a good currency system?
The job of the currency system is to support the free market. A good currency system stimulates the free market to function well. The ideal situation for the free market is that everyone has enough wealth to participate in the free market as consumers. If everyone has strong purchasing power, then the free market will flourish.
If the currency system constitutes the foundation of the free market it follows that a good currency system is an imperative to free market stimulation. The ideal situation for the free market is that everyone has enough wealth to participate in the free market as consumers. If everyone has strong purchasing power, then the free market will flourish. |
The FDA approved the use of the HeartMate II device, a left ventricular assist device (VAD), for "destination therapy" or permanent use, allowing an alternative to heart transplant for end-stage heart-failure patients and helping patients survive long term.
"This is an opportunity to expand the use of mechanical assist devices in patients with advanced heart failure who are deemed not to be good heart transplant candidates," says Greg Ewald, MD, medical director of the artificial heart program at Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine.
"These devices can provide long-term mechanical therapy, and many of these patients can return to a good quality of life with significantly diminished symptoms."
VADs help a failing heart pump oxygen-rich blood through the body. They are surgically implanted in the chest cavity and attached to the heart’s left ventricle. An electric cable runs from the device through the skin to a pack containing a power supply and the pump’s controller.
"These devices give patients their lives back," says Ann Petlin, RN, clinical nurse specialist in cardiac surgery at Barnes-Jewish Hospital. "Now, they’re able to get the circulation they need to survive."
Barnes-Jewish Hospital has offered the HeartMate II to patients since 2005 as a "bridge to transplant," allowing patients to live with the VAD until a donor heart becomes available.
The hospital currently implants more VADs every year than it transplants hearts, and it is the only center in the region to implant them. |
Operation Iceberg diary: Mosquitoes and "mini forests"
A team of scientists and filmmakers has set out on a five-week mission to document the life-cycle of icebergs from their birth to death, hoping to reveal new scientific knowledge in the BBC/Discovery co-production "Operation Iceberg".
Perched on our promontory camp we are drawn to constantly gaze down upon Greenland's Store Glacier.
Our backsides have already worn the crispy black lichen from the boulders, the best seats in the house.
"Beautiful", "magnificent" and "awesome" are words constantly carried on the breeze, which sweeps up the naked cliffs of the giant ice monster and does precious little to dissuade the millions of ravenous mosquitoes who have crashed our party.
What is Operation Iceberg?
- Operation Iceberg is a two-part BBC/Discovery co-production TV series
- It is a genuine scientific first; no expedition has ever been to an Arctic iceberg in open water
- 15,000 icebergs make the journey from polar ice sheets to the oceans each year, pouring out 2,400 gigatons of water before melting to nothing
- The team is looking to understand the forces making icebergs break off their mother glaciers and find out what happens to them once they are afloat on their epic ocean journey
- Operation Iceberg begins 30 October on BBC Two and at a later date in the US.
But as I stand to leave my viewpoint, I'm almost as reluctant to turn my back on this thing as I would be a crouching tiger or stalking bear. For me, the word missing from the vocabulary of amazement is "menace".
Landscapes are only infrequently more elemental than this.
At first glance it appears composed of no more than air, rock, ice and water. But more studied examination reveals that the ambition that life has to explore and conquer has been rewarded with a surprising array of successes.
The air is full of those mosquitoes and there are birds too, petrels and gulls drift like snow flurries across the massive face of the ice, flashing specks playing with the deep blue shadows of its towering cliffs and aggregating around the churning waters of the glacier's melt water plume.
Here tonnes of milky fresh water drain nutrient rich sediments from beneath and within the ice and this instigates a highly productive ecosystem.
Algae exploit those nutrients, invertebrate animals graze the algae and vertebrates come to feast in turn.
The mass of northern fulmars and glaucous gulls enjoy the amphipods and ringed seals no doubt enjoy the capelin and halibut which are common enough to draw human fishermen to these dangerous waters.
On one occasion we spied about 150 ringed seals wrestling on the fluxing mass of ice debris that choked one of the bays in the great glacier's front.
For us, it's one of the most perilous places on the planet. But for a creature that has thick blubber and can slip beneath the ice with ease, a perfect place to sleep safe from marauding polar bears.
The rock too is far from unproductive.
Indeed our camp is spread over one of the most extraordinary forests I have ever seen.
And it is on, rather than in, the forest.
The treetops here are only 15cm tall at their highest point, composed as they are of dwarf forms of birch and at least two species of willow, both in flower with fluffy little pollen freckled catkins.
The diminutive birch leaves have the same top side colour and shine and underside patterning as those growing in the UK but the biggest I could find was only the size of a shirt button.
Mosses fill the damp hollows; and the lichens, those spheric combinations of algae and fungi, provide a rich pallet of greens, browns, pinks and oranges through every sedentary surface of rock and stone.
Life in the freezer
The Arctic seems a hostile and barren land yet wildlife is still able to thrive here. Polar bears, the most iconic of Arctic animals, can detect the scent of a seal carcass from nearly 20 miles away but there are many other fascinating inhabitants:
- Friends of wolverine: Why wolverines and ravens need each other
- Salamander stakeout: Things get serious when male Siberian salamanders, the only salamanders found in the Arctic Circle, get too close during mating season
- Miniature gardens: Discover the miniature gardens of the Arctic summer, including the willow trees Chris and the team are camping on
I photographed at least 15 species of flowering plant which include some very attractive saxifrages and wintergreens.
At least two of the flowers are definitely "designed" to be pollinated by animals with long tongues, as they have deep nectaries. I'm sure that for a few brief days of the summer there must be moths or butterflies active here.
What a thought. Butterflies side by side with glaciers, something so fragile and ephemeral flitting across the face of an entity which radiates unforgiving and belligerent cold.
However there is no doubt at all which animal has made the biggest impact on our expedition team… the dreaded mosquito!
For my part I really admire them and cannot even despise that individual that seizes the advantage of my own calls of nature to bite me in places where mosquitoes should never really reach.
I've killed none deliberately, I brush them off to do what they must - play a vital role in the natural community here.
And after all who can blame them for thinking that all their Christmases have come at once when 40 warm, blood-filled mammals rock up to sit and watch their glacier.
It pops, cracks and snaps, it clangs and rings as if it holds within its frozen heart giant bells. It rolls thunder between its tortured flanks and fires cannons in its deep crevasses, and angry jazz that jars our sleep and snatches our glances towards it's monstrous vanity.
It radiates an irresistible terror, we must look and maybe it is this which finds us trying to appease with all our wonder as we stand entranced by its cruel and icy majesty. |
National Disability Employment Awareness Month
Congress, with the aim of helping disabled veterans, designated the first week of October as National Employ the Physically Handicapped Week in 1945. Seventeen years later, the word "physically" was removed from the phrase in order to recognize the needs and contributions of individuals with all types of disabilities. In the 1970s, a shift in disability public policy led to further emendation. For the first time, it was viewed as discriminatory to exclude or segregate people because of a disability, and activists were fighting strongly for legal revisions. As a result, the U.S. saw changes such as the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990 and the designation, by presidential proclamation, of a full month to increase public awareness of those with disabilities and appreciate the capabilities of the 30 million people in the U.S. of working-age who are disabled. Various programs throughout the month headed by The Office of Disability Employment Policy emphasize specific employment barriers that still need to be addressed and eliminated. |
Late winter and early spring is one of the best wildlife viewing time periods in the Klamath Basin, which is a major staging area for migratory birds starting their northward migration to primary nesting areas.
NEAR BURNS: The Harney Basin, located near the town of Burns, provides good viewing opportunities during March and April for a variety of migrating birds. Thousands of migrating snow, Ross’s, white-fronted and Canada geese as well as ducks, sandhill cranes and tundra swans use the basin during their annual migration north to their breeding grounds. Birds are beginning to arrive in the basin with numbers expected to peak in the next few weeks. Good numbers of bald eagles are currently in the basin but begin migrating north about the end of March. Another attraction is viewing strutting sage grouse which do their annual mating display from mid-March through April. Sage grouse viewing is best during the first hour of daylight on days when the weather is good. The 26th Annual John Scharff Migratory Bird Festival and Art Show will be held in Burns from April 13-15, 2007. The Festival includes events such as birding, cultural and historical tours, workshops and an art show. For more information on the Festival you can contact the Harney County Chamber of Commerce at 541 573-2636 or you can visit their web site at www.migratorybirdfestival.com. The
KLAMATH WILDLIFE AREA and LOWER KLAMATH NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE are excellent locations to view thousands of ducks, geese, and swans. Snow, ross's, and white-fronted geese have just returned from the central valley of California. These geese will spend the next two months here in the Basin before continuing north to Alaska and Canada where they nest. These geese can be found foraging in agricultural fields near Midland. Numerous tundra swans (5000-10000)can be observed at Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge and private lands to the north of the refuge. Upper Klamath Lake is another location to view diving ducks including bufflehead, goldeneye, scaup, ruddy duck, redhead and canvasback. Bald eagles can be found anywhere there are concentrations of waterfowl, their primary food source this time of year.
SUMMER LAKE WILDLIFE AREA Viewing opportunities remain good as northward migrants and local breeding species continue return to the Wildlife Area and stage in good numbers. Favorable weather conditions prevailed during the past week and extensive bird use coupled with new spring arrivals made for excellent viewing conditions. Waterfowl species remain very apparent and are widely scattered across the Area.
Ducks are in their brilliant nuptial plumage now, and courtship activities are intensifying. A waterbird count conducted on March 21, 2007 found over 12,000 ducks, nearly 30,000 geese and about 100 swans present at that time. Arctic nesting greater white-fronted and snow geese continue to stage in impressive numbers, but many snow geese have moved on north and others will soon follow. Tundra swans departed during the past week with just a small number remaining at this time. Greater white-fronted geese are widely scattered throughout the Wildlife Area, while snow geese have been actively feeding and roosting throughout the day in shallow emergent marsh areas found on the north and west sides.
Northern pintails have declined since last week, but large numbers of N. shoveler and Am. green-winged teal have arrived. Cinnamon teal (a common Wildlife Area breeder) are increasing. While most diving ducks (canvasback, lesser scaup, ring-necked ducks and bufflehead) have departed, nearly 2,500 were still present during the count and continue to utilize the deeper ponds and lakes to forage for submergent aquatic plants and invertebrates.
Resident Canada geese are becoming very secretive as they disperse to nesting territories while non-breeding birds remain in small flocks. Sandhill cranes continue to increase in number, have moved to breeding territories and are becoming more apparent and vocal. Nesting is underway at this time for some of the established pairs.
Early migrating shorebirds (Am. avocets, long-billed dowitchers, killdeer and yellowlegs) as well as gulls and other waterbirds continue to arrive and increase in number. Resident and wintering raptors remain scattered throughout the Area as well as on private lands along Highway 31.
Northern harriers are especially numerous over marsh and hay meadow areas and both red-tailed and rough-legged hawks are frequently seen. Rough-legged hawks are beginning to depart, heading towards arctic nesting areas.
Prairie falcons, bald and golden eagles are frequently seen during this time of the year. Bald eagles are increasing in number as they following migrant flocks of waterfowl returning north. Great-horned owls have been very vocal during the night, and nesting for some pairs has begun. Passerine species (primarily sparrows) remain fairly common around the Headquarters Complex,
Summer Lake Rest Area, homestead sites and shelterbreak plantings at the north end of the Area where they are attracted to tree and shrub cover found at those locations.
Tree swallows are becoming very numerous, and arrival of other species continues with spring appearance of Am. crow, bushtits, cedar waxwings and yellow-headed blackbirds over the last week. Viewers can expect to see increased numbers and diversity of some species on a regular basis over the next few weeks especially if favorable weather conditions continue. However, as arctic nesting migrants replenish energy reserves they will depart for other northern staging Areas and numbers will decline.
Be sure to check the list at Headquarters for new arrivals and unusual birds. Wetland habitats have returned to excellent condition due to the favorable weather pattern. Ponds and other still water areas remain open and ice-free. Runoff has created shallow temporary wetlands that are highly favored by many migrants. Habitat management actions of controlled burning, drawdowns and drying of semi-permanent and seasonal wetlands are creating favorable forging sites for many species. Natural food sources of seeds, tubers and plant parts remain very abundant and available in nearly all wetland areas. Emergent bulrushes, cattails and other sedges and rushes are lodged over due to strong winds and snow. Bird access and use has increased in these areas and viewing opportunities of these habitats have improved dramatically as well. Upland sites are in excellent condition due to lush green-up of grasses and forb emergence that is beginning to occur.
The Wildlife Viewing Loop is now open and will remain that way until next fall. Other major dike roads (Bullgate, Windbreak and Work Road) are closed to motor vehicle travel from March 15th through August 15th to reduce disturbance to northward migrants and early nesting waterbirds (primarily Canada geese, mallard and sandhill cranes). Viewers are urged to use care when driving roads since many are soft and muddy especially edges adjacent to ponds and canals. Secondary and minor dikes will remain closed to motor vehicle traffic and cross country travel by motor vehicles or ATV’s is prohibited. Non-motorized access and viewing opportunities are available across the entire Area at this time. Camping is permitted at four sites on the wildlife area.
For additional information on viewing opportunities please contact the Wildlife Area at phone (541) 943-3152, fax (541) 943-3204, or email at [email protected] |
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